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-@ fire to 13 : 00 , and to continue negotiations even if warfare was resumed .
To gain support of the parliament , Krukowiecki asked General Prądzyński to represent him during the joint session of the Sejm and Senate . His political plan was to end the uprising at all costs and return to status quo ante , with himself as the " saviour of the fatherland " who stopped further bloodshed . In his speech Prądzyński seriously inflated the Russian force , and also underestimated the strength of the Polish units . He also warned that the city 's inhabitants would be massacred as in 1794 should fighting continue , and stated that the return to full independence under the sceptre of Nicholas was easily achievable , something he knew for sure was not true . He failed to convince his government and the Sejm that surrender was the only option , and a heated debate extended past the deadline of 13 : 00 . The Russians resumed hostilities , and artillery from both sides started yet another duel .
= = = = Operational situation = = = =
Both sides suffered similar casualties during the previous day . Russian victories gave their artillery a clear line of fire into the suburbs of Czyste and Wola . They also strengthened the morale of Russian soldiers , who were convinced that the battle was over once Fort 54 fell . The battle was far from lost for the Polish side though : although the Russians could now attack the third line of Polish defences in Wola ( Forts 23 and 24 ) or Czyste ( Forts 20 – 22 ) , their attacks could easily be flanked by forts of the second line still in Polish hands . Also , in order to support the advance with artillery , the Russian guns would have to be stationed in open field .
The Polish plans for the battle remained unchanged . Fort 59 was evacuated and Polish positions around Czyste and close to Jerozolimskie Gate were slightly reinforced , yet Polish forces remained almost equally split between the western and southern sectors . Unknown to the Poles , Russian orders for 7 September were not changed either . The II Infantry Corps was to attack the group of forts at Czyste ( 21 and 22 ) , while the I Infantry Corps assaulted further north ( Forts 23 and 24 ) . Muraviev 's forces were to attack the Jerozolimskie Gate , while the remaining forces continued with their diversionary attacks of the previous day .
When artillery fire was restarted around 13 : 30 , the Russian soldiers were not yet ready for the attack . The previous night had been very cold , and most Russian soldiers had no winter garments and spent the night in open field . Many did not receive any food in the morning , and the morale dropped significantly . When the Russians started to sort their ranks , General Umiński correctly assumed that the main attack in his sector would be aimed at the Jerozolimskie Gate . He reinforced the area with his reserves , including almost the entire 4th Infantry Division and 2nd Cavalry Division . He also dispatched the 1st Cavalry Division ( 1300 men ) closer to Czyste . Generals Małachowski and Dembiński intended to attack the flank of the Russians assaulting Wola with a strong force ( 3500 infantry , 800 cavalry and 10 pieces of horse artillery ) under General Paweł Muchowski gathered in Młociny ( near Fort 62a ) . Once it became clear that the Russians would attack further south , the plan was called off and the western sector returned to fixed defences .
= = = = Grand Battery = = = =
Around 13 : 30 , 132 Russian cannons and 4 mortars , including 94 guns of the Grand Battery under Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov , opened fire on Polish positions . The Poles initially responded with 79 field artillery pieces and 10 rocket launchers , but by 14 : 00 General Bem moved another 31 guns to a position right in front of the Russian artillery . To counter the threat , the Russian General von Toll ordered his Grand Battery to advance 100 metres ( 330 ft ) closer to the Poles . This exposed his flank to Polish guns hidden to the south , near the road to Kraków . The Russians suffered casualties , and the Grand Battery had to be split into two separate units . To make matters worse for the Russians , many batteries had to cease fire and withdraw due to insufficient ammunition reserves .
Seeing that the artillery would not break the Polish , General von Toll devised a new plan of attack . He decided to disregard Paskevich 's order not to assault Warsaw . Although dusk was nearing , von Toll ordered an all @-@ out assault on both the western and southern fronts . As there was no time for proper artillery preparation , von Toll wanted to overwhelm the defenders by sheer numerical superiority , even if it meant increased casualties from Polish artillery fire . To distract the Polish artillery at Czyste and prevent it from firing at the Russian columns attacking Forts 21 and 22 , Muraviev 's forces were to lead the attack directly towards the Jerozolimskie Gate . Before 15 : 00 von Toll dispatched General Neidhardt to Paskevich to receive his blessing for the new plan , but Paskevich categorically refused , and ordered his subordinate to continue shelling the Polish forts with artillery at least until 16 : 00 . As the Russian Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief was away , von Toll decided to act despite Paskevich 's orders .
= = = = Muraviev 's assault and retreat = = = =
Around 15 : 00 masses of Russian troops started preparations for the assault on Polish positions near the Jerozolimskie Gate . A strong force under Muraviev and Nostitz occupied positions on both sides of the road towards Cracow , near Rakowiec . The screening force included the Grenadier Brigade ( ca . 1700 infantry , 16 guns ) , Cuirasseur Brigade ( ca . 1300 cavalry , 16 guns ) , Guard Uhlans Regiment ( 392 cavalry ) and three regiments of cavalry ( ca . 1700 cavalry , 16 guns ) . Between the screening forces two columns were formed . The left column commanded by Col. Nikolai Lukash was composed of Lutsk and Samogitian Infantry Regiments ( 1989 men altogether ) , with the Finland Guard Regiment in reserve ( 1374 men ) . The column was to storm the Fort 74 . The right column was commanded by Col. Roth and was composed of a reinforced Nieśwież Infantry Regiment ( 1278 men ) , with the 4th Jäger Regiment ( 900 men ) , Guards Rifle Regiment ( 1353 men ) and the Finland Rifles ( 142 men ) in reserve . This column was to assault Fort 72 . On the southern front the forces of Strandmann were to attack in force towards Królikarnia and elsewhere , to pressure the Poles on more than one front .
The assault started around 16 : 00 . The left column suffered significant casualties , but reached Fort 74 , only to be met by Polish reinforcements dispatched by General Antoni Wroniecki , the commanding officer of this sector . Two thousand Russians clashed with less than 850 Poles inside the fort , but were defeated in a bayonet charge and had to retreat . As the attack failed and the Polish artillery batteries were still active , von Toll decided to use his cavalry reserves . Two regiments of the 3rd Cuirassier Division ( 1200 cavalry ) followed a road linking Szczęśliwice and Czyste , and were ordered to charge the Polish artillery from behind . The Poles had full visibility of the battlefield and had enough time to prepare for the attack , as the Russian advance slowed down due to swampy terrain . When the Russian cavalry switched from columns to battle line , Polish artillery opened canister shot fire on the Russians , dispersing them . The Russian commander reorganised his forces and repeated the charge , but the Russians were again repelled before reaching the Polish artillery emplacements . The Novgorod Cuirassier Regiment alone lost over 200 men out of 450 taking part in the charge .
After half an hour the Russians finally stormed the ramparts of Fort 74 and defeated the Polish battalion defending it . This forced the Polish mobile artillery in Czyste , until then shelling the advancing Russian columns and their Grand Battery , to fall back . Meanwhile , the Russian right column was approaching Fort 72 . Defended by only 200 men , the fort was approached by the Russian spearhead formed by the reinforced Nieśwież Regiment . Seeing this , the Polish commander ordered his cavalry reserve to charge the Russian infantry . Russian grenadiers stormed the ramparts of Fort 72 , but were repelled and forced back behind the moat , where the Polish cavalry charged them . The Russians formed infantry squares , but were defeated and forced to retreat . To counter the threat to Russian infantry , General Nostitz charged his own cavalry reserve under General Georg von Sass , and a cavalry battle ensued .
This saved Roth 's infantry , as the Polish artillery 's line of fire was blocked by both Polish and Russian cavalrymen . Both commanders threw more cavalry into the fight and soon the forces of both sides were similar , with 550 cavalrymen on both sides . Both forces soon lost cohesion and the battle turned into a series of duels between Polish Uhlans and Hussars ( armed with lances and sabres ) and Russian Cuirassiers and Dragoons ( armed with heavier swords ) . The Poles were initially victorious and managed to incapacitate both General Nostitz and General von Sass , but were then attacked by additional Russian reinforcements and had to retreat . This forced some of the Polish artillery crews to retreat to the ramparts of the third line as well . The Russian Guard Hussar Regiment under Georg von Arpshofen , riding dapple grey heavy horses and wearing distinctive bright red uniforms , pursued the fleeing Polish cavalry to the space between forts 71 and 72 . There they were met by Polish cavalry reinforcements : the 3rd Mounted Rifle Regiment was to hold the Hussars in place , while the 4th Uhlans Regiment was to attack the Russians from the flank . Before the plan could be enacted , the Russian veterans broke through this new Polish line of defence . The 3rd Regiment broke and started a retreat , followed by the Russians . General Umiński ordered his infantry and artillery to open fire at the mass of cavalry , both Polish and Russian . Small groups of Russians retreated to rejoin their lines , while others in apparent war fury tried to storm the heavily defended gates of Warsaw and were killed by Polish infantry . A small group succeeded and the last of them was killed as far as the gate of the Ujazdów Palace , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) into the city . The cavalry battle ended with all three regiments engaged in the skirmish almost annihilated .
Although the Poles managed to contain and defeat the Russian cavalry , its charge and initial successes caused a widespread panic in Polish ranks . The garrison of Fort 72 abandoned its positions , leaving its guns behind , and retreated to Fort 73 without a fight . Likewise , the garrison of Fort 73 panicked , and its commanding officer , Col. Przedpełski , ordered his soldiers to block the guns , abandon the main rampart and assume defensive positions facing the back wall of the fort , expecting the Russian cavalry to enter the fortification from behind . This allowed the Russian infantry to capture Fort 72 , a fortified " Red Inn " ( Polish : Karczma Czerwona ) and head towards Fort 73 unopposed . Polish officers managed to contain the panic just in time for their infantrymen to open rank fire on the approaching Russians and force them to withdraw . Fort 72 remained in Russian hands .
The apparent panic in Polish ranks convinced Muraviev to renew his assault with fresh forces , despite the losses his columns had suffered . Col. Lukash 's grenadiers reinforced with two battalions of the Finnish Guards Regiment ( 1300 men , 4 guns ) outflanked Fort 73 from the north and captured a brickyard and yet another fortified inn , the Karczma Żelazna directly to its rear . Its garrison offered only light resistance before retreating in disarray . The situation seemed critical , as the Russians were now in possession of a large part of the second line of Polish defences .
Despite the apparent gravity of the situation , the Polish defenders still had sufficient fresh troops to counter @-@ attack and regain the initiative . The Russians ' recently captured positions were too far ahead of their artillery , and were all under well @-@ aimed fire from Polish fixed artillery positions on the ramparts of the third line of defences , as well as numerous mobile artillery batteries . Forts 72 and 73 , as well as the Karczma Żelazna inn and the brickyard received constant grapeshot fire . Under fire from all sides , the Russians had to hide behind the outer sides of the ramparts , unable to return fire or even observe the field in front of them . Tirailleurs of the Polish 3rd Foot Rifle Regiment approached the Karczma Żelazna inn almost unopposed and retook it . Soon afterwards they retook the brickyard as well . The Russians abandoned the two forts as well and although Russian light infantry tried to retake them , they were unsuccessful . Around 16 : 45 the field artillery batteries of Józef Bem were free to leave the safety of the inner defences , return to the battlefield , and open fire on the Grand Battery . Despite over three hours of intensive fighting in the west , the commander of the relatively peaceful southern sector , General Małachowski , did not reinforce the defenders of the western approaches .
= = = = Russian assault in the west = = = =
Although Muraviev 's attack failed , it forced the Polish artillery to lessen the pressure on the Russian Grand Battery , which was now free to support the main Russian attack on the westernmost Polish defences . By that time the Grand Battery could shell the ramparts of the second line with relative impunity , thus damaging both the defences and the morale of the crews . Polish infantrymen manning the forts were ordered to lie down behind the gabions , which minimised the losses . Soldiers in the field had no such cover , and suffered casualties . The Grand Battery also silenced some of the guns in Forts 21 , 22 and 23 .
General von Toll initially planned to order his infantry to start the assault at 16 : 00 , but Paskevich through his aides ordered him to postpone the attack until 16 : 45 . Eventually around 5 : 00 von Kreutz 's corps advanced towards Forts 21 and 22 in two columns . Russian horse artillery reached a position 200 paces from Fort 22 and started shelling the defenders at close range . Already shaken by the fire of the Grand Battery , the Poles abandoned the fort and retreated before the surprised Russian infantry approached . It was a rare example of artillery capturing a fortified position without the help of other forces . Meanwhile , the fighting for the nearby Fort 22 was heavy . In the end its garrison fell almost to the last man .
Simultaneously , von Pahlen 's Corps attacked forts 23 and 24 , and the Polish position at the Evangelical Cemetery . Heavy fighting followed , and many Russian commanders , including Paskevich , proposed that further fighting be postponed until the following day . General von Toll insisted on reaching the last line of Polish defences before sunset . The surrounding forts changed hands many times , but in the end most of them remained in Russian hands by 22 : 00 , when the Russians broke off . Around midnight General Berg arrived in Warsaw with a new ultimatum signed by Paskevich .
= = = = Polish surrender = = = =
General Prądzyński was once again dispatched to the Russian headquarters , where he was greeted by Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich as Paskevich had been wounded shortly before . Although Michael believed the Poles were playing for time to allow Ramorino 's Corps to return from Podlasie , Prądzyński convinced him to send General Berg to Warsaw with a draft of an act of unconditional surrender . The agreement ( apparently never signed on paper ) stipulated that the Polish Army was free to leave the city , a two @-@ day cease @-@ fire would come into effect and that Warsaw would be spared the horrors it experienced during the 1794 siege . No political clauses were included . Around 17 : 00 Prądzyński and Berg arrived in Warsaw , where Krukowiecki generally agreed with the Russian terms , but considered them too harsh . Berg and Prądzyński then returned to Russian headquarters and Grand Duke Michael agreed to allow the Polish Army free passage to Modlin and Płock , an amnesty to all fighters of the Uprising , and to exchange prisoners . The new terms were more than acceptable to Krukowiecki . Upon Prądzyński 's return the more liberal wing of the government won a temporary majority , and Krukowiecki was ousted from power and replaced with Bonawentura Niemojowski as head of government and General Kazimierz Małachowski as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = 8 September = = =
The ultimatum required that Warsaw be surrendered immediately , along with the bridge and the suburb of Praga , and threatened the complete destruction of the city the following day . Following a heated debate , the new Polish authorities decided to comply by 5 : 00 . Małachowski sent a letter to Paskevich notifying him that the army was withdrawing to Płock " to avoid further bloodshed and to prove its loyalty " . The letter also expressed his hope that the Russians would allow free passage to troops unable to withdraw by the deadline , and that the army would honour the terms negotiated with Grand Duke Michael . The surrender of Warsaw was thus not a formal convention , but rather the effect of lengthy negotiations . The Russians initially respected its terms .
The Polish Army withdrew across the Vistula and continued north towards the Modlin Fortress . The Sejm , Senate and many civilians also left the city " in grim silence " . Many soldiers , including high @-@ ranking officers , decided to stay in the city and lay down their arms . Up to 5000 soldiers stayed in Warsaw , along with 600 officers , among them Generals Krukowiecki , Małachowski , Chrzanowski and Prądzyński . The food stores were opened , and their contents were distributed among the civilians .
The following evening Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich entered the city leading his Imperial Guard . Warsaw capitulated .
= = Aftermath = =
Although no large @-@ scale evacuation of supplies from Warsaw was ordered , the Modlin Fortress was well prepared for a lengthy siege . Its magazines contained over 25 thousand cannon rounds , almost 900 thousand musket and rifle rounds and enough provisions for several months of full siege . The treasury of the Polish government was also still intact and contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million złotys .
The fall of Warsaw was synonymous with the fall of Poland , both to Poles and to foreigners . To commemorate the crushing of the November Uprising , Pushkin wrote " On the Taking of Warsaw " , hailing the capitulation of Poland 's capital as the " final triumph " of Mother Russia . Other writers and poets joined in to celebrate , among them Vasily Zhukovsky , Fyodor Tyutchev and Aleksey Khomyakov . Soon afterwards the tsar practically dismantled the Kingdom of Poland : its constitution was abolished , the government given to Russian officials and its Warsaw University closed .
The news of the fall of Warsaw spread quickly . The French government , until then pressured both by Polish emissaries and by its own opposition to support the Poles , was relieved : French Minister of Foreign Affairs Horace Sébastiani declared to the Chamber of Deputies that " Order now reigns in Warsaw " . The phrase became one of the best @-@ known comments on the fall of Warsaw and was later often ridiculed by the supporters of the Polish cause . The Russian capture of the city in 1831 incited a wave of sympathy towards Poles . Several towns in the United States voted to change their names to Warsaw after the news of the battle reached their residents , among them Warsaw , Virginia and Warsaw , Kentucky .
Shortly after the battle , in December 1831 , the tsarist authorities issued a " For the Taking of Warsaw by Assault in 1831 " Medal awarded to Russian veterans . A monument " To the Captors of Warsaw " was constructed near the former Redoubt 54 . Demolished after Poland regained independence in 1918 , the spot is now occupied by a post @-@ war monument to Juliusz Konstanty Ordon and his soldiers . There are plans to move the monument closer to the site of the redoubt .
The Battle of Warsaw is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier , Warsaw , with the inscription " WARSZAWA 6 @-@ 8 IX 1831 " .
= = Casualties = =
Early official Russian data assert that between eight and ten thousand were killed or wounded on the Russian side , and between six and seven thousand on the Polish side . Later the number of Polish losses mentioned in the Russian Army 's dispatches was given as 139 officers and 7 @,@ 745 NCOs and soldiers . This number includes both killed and wounded . Other sources give the total Polish casualties as 9 @,@ 000 : " probably at least 3 @,@ 000 " or even " over 4000 " on the first day and between 3 @,@ 800 and 6000 on the second day of the battle . Those numbers do not include sick and wounded taken prisoner following the Russian entry into Warsaw . Altogether the Polish Army lost 16 @,@ 000 men by 12 September , but this number includes many deserters in the period immediately following the battle .
The Russian official estimates are 2 @,@ 300 – 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded on the first day , and 7 @,@ 460 on the second day of the battle . Both numbers are considered " ridiculously low " by later historians . Tomasz Strzeżek in his 1998 monograph of the battle notes that the official casualty figure was 10 @,@ 559 Russian soldiers killed in action , including 2 generals , 16 colonels , 47 officers and 1 @,@ 767 NCOs , as well as 1 @,@ 182 soldiers missing and presumed dead . He notes that this might have been understated as some Russian regiments suffered tremendous losses , as known from their official roll papers , but the data is apparently omitted in official papers of the army . After the battle there were 7 @,@ 000 wounded Russian soldiers in Warsaw 's hospitals , and 5000 in field hospitals outside the city . The casualty rate among the wounded Russians was very high due to the low number of medical staff in the Russian army . Strzeżek estimates that between 14 and 16 @,@ 000 Russians were killed in battle or died of wounds , and 4000 were missing , presumed dead .
At the time of the capitulation , the Poles held at least 3 @,@ 000 Russian prisoners of war in Warsaw ; the Russians held 2 @,@ 590 captives .
= Regina Margherita @-@ class battleship =
The Regina Margherita class was a class of two battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1898 and 1905 . The class comprised two ships : Regina Margherita and Benedetto Brin . The ships were designed by the latter 's namesake , Benedetto Brin , who died before the ships were completed . They were armed with a main battery of four 12 in ( 305 mm ) guns and could steam at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Both ships saw extensive service with the Italian fleet for the first decade of their careers . They saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 , where they participated in the seizure of Cyrenaica in North Africa and operations in the eastern Mediterranean Sea . They were reduced to training ships by World War I , and both ships were lost with heavy death tolls during the conflict . Benedetto Brin exploded in Brindisi in September 1915 , and Regina Margherita struck a mine and sank in December 1916 .
= = Design = =
After the negative experience with the preceding Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class , which were too weak to engage foreign battleships , and too slow to catch cruisers , the Italian navy wanted a new battleship that returned to a larger , more effective size . In particular , they wanted to be able to challenge the new Habsburg @-@ class battleships being built in neighboring Austria @-@ Hungary . They returned to the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun that was standard in most other navies of the day , but sacrificed armor protection to achieve high speed . As such , the ships represented a hybrid type that merged the firepower of the slow battleships and the speed of a cruiser . Benedetto Brin initially wanted to arm the ships with only two of the 12 @-@ inch guns and twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns , but after his death , Admiral Ruggero Alfredo Micheli altered the design to double the number of 12 @-@ inch guns , at the expense of eight of the medium @-@ caliber pieces .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The Regina Margherita @-@ class ships were 130 meters ( 430 ft ) long at the waterline and 138 @.@ 65 m ( 454 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 23 @.@ 84 m ( 78 @.@ 2 ft ) ; Regina Margherita had a draft of 8 @.@ 81 m ( 28 @.@ 9 ft ) , while Benedetto Brin drew slightly more , at 9 m ( 30 ft ) . They displaced 13 @,@ 215 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 006 long tons ; 14 @,@ 567 short tons ) at normal loading and at full combat load , Regina Margherita displaced 14 @,@ 093 t ( 13 @,@ 870 long tons ; 15 @,@ 535 short tons ) while Benedetto Brin , slightly heavier , displaced 14 @,@ 737 t ( 14 @,@ 504 long tons ; 16 @,@ 245 short tons ) . Their hulls were equipped with a double bottom . The ships were built with a ram bow and had a raised forecastle deck . They had two masts , both with fighting tops ; the foremast was located directly behind the conning tower and bridge . The ships had a crew of 812 – 900 officers and enlisted men .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube Niclausse boilers in Regina Margherita . Benedetto Brin meanwhile was equipped with the same number of Belleville boilers . The lead ship 's engines were rated at 21 @,@ 790 indicated horsepower ( 16 @,@ 250 kW ) , while Benedetto Brin 's were slightly less efficient , at 20 @,@ 475 ihp ( 15 @,@ 268 kW ) . The two ships had a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . They were also equipped with four 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in casemates in the superstructure , and twelve 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , also in casemates in the side of the hull . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . The ships also carried a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and two 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) Maxim guns . The Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships were also equipped with four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline .
The ships of the Regina Margherita class were protected with Harvey steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick , and the deck was 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick . The conning tower and the casemate guns were also protected by 6 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had stronger armor protection , at 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick . Coal was used extensively in the protection scheme , including a layer intended to protect the ships ' internals from underwater damage .
= = Ships of the class = =
= = Service history = =
Both Regina Margherita and Benedetto Brin served in the active duty squadron for the first few years of their careers , and participated in the peacetime routine of fleet training . Regina Margherita frequently served as the fleet flagship before the completion of the new Regina Elena @-@ class battleships . On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire , starting the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The two ships saw action during the war in the 3rd Division in the 2nd Squadron . Benedetto Brin took part in the attack on Tripoli in October 1911 , and both were involved in the campaign to seize Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean Sea .
Italy initially remained neutral during World War I , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both the Italians and Austro @-@ Hungarians adopted a cautious fleet policy in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea , and so the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships did not see action . Benedetto Brin served as a training ship based in Brindisi until she was destroyed in an internal explosion in the harbor on 27 September 1915 with heavy loss of life ; 454 men of the ship 's crew died in the explosion . Regina Margherita , also serving as a training ship , served for somewhat longer , until she struck a mine laid by the German submarine SM UC @-@ 14 on the night of 11 – 12 December 1916 . Some 675 men were killed in the sinking .
= Tropical Storm Keith ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Storm Keith was the eleventh Atlantic tropical cyclone of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season . It struck the Continental United States later in the calendar year than any since the 1925 Atlantic hurricane season . Keith developed out of a tropical wave in the Caribbean Sea on November 17 . It tracked northwestward , and under generally favorable conditions , it reached a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) shortly before striking the northeastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . It turned northeastward in the Gulf of Mexico , and made landfall near Sarasota , Florida , on November 23 . Keith accelerated its forward motion under the influence of a cold front , and became extratropical near Bermuda on November 24 . The extratropical remnant persisted for two more days .
Early in its duration , Keith produced moderate to heavy rainfall in Honduras , Jamaica , and Cuba . Minimal damage was reported in Mexico , which was still recovering from the effects of Hurricane Gilbert two months prior . Keith , the last of four named tropical cyclones to hit the United States during the season , produced moderate rainfall , rough storm surge , and gusty winds across central Florida . Overall damage was fairly minor but widespread , totaling $ 7 @.@ 3 million ( 1988 USD ; $ 14 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) . Near the coast of Florida , damage occurred mainly from storm surge and beach erosion . Further inland there were floods , downed trees and power lines . No fatalities were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on November 5 . It tracked steadily west across the tropical Atlantic Ocean . Its forward motion slowed after it passed the Lesser Antilles on November 12 . A large well @-@ defined anticyclone persisted across much of the Caribbean Sea , providing a favorable environment for the system . A low @-@ level circulation gradually became evident on satellite imagery within the disturbance . Based on ship observations , the National Hurricane Center estimated that the system organized into a tropical depression on November 17 , about 280 miles ( 450 km ) south of the western tip of Haiti .
Initially , the depression was disorganized as it continued west ; on November 18 the center became exposed from the area of deep convection . However , the upper @-@ level environment gradually became more favorable for further development , and deep convection , or thunderstorm activity , developed closer to the center . An eastward @-@ moving upper @-@ level trough in the Gulf of Mexico turned the depression northwest . The next day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm while a short distance north of Honduras , receiving the name Keith . It quickly intensified , and on November 21 the storm reached its peak strength of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The trough , which turned Keith northwestward , rapidly accelerated northeastward ; as a result , the storm moved slowly northwest until making landfall on the northeast tip of the Yucatán Peninsula at 0800 UTC on November 21 , at an intensity slightly below hurricane status .
After briefly moving over land , Keith turned north under the influence of a trailing frontal trough . The storm became disorganized while recurving northeast because of increased vertical wind shear and the presence of cool dry air from its north . On November 23 , Keith made landfall near Sarasota , Florida , with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , while most of its convection was well to the north of the center . Its landfall was the second latest on record for the Continental United States , only behind a hurricane in the 1925 season . The storm quickly weakened as it crossed Florida , and within hours the winds dropped to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Reaching the Atlantic Ocean eight hours after moving ashore , Keith began to gradually re @-@ intensify , and under the influence of a very large upper @-@ level low pressure area over Newfoundland , the storm accelerated northeast . On November 24 , the storm again reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , shortly before becoming an extratropical cyclone near Bermuda . Keith restrengthened and deepened into a powerful extratropical cyclone , attaining hurricane @-@ force winds and a minimum pressure of 945 mbar ( 27 @.@ 92 inHg ) . The extratropical storm turned westward and was last observed on November 26 northeast of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
On November 20 , shortly before the tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm , the government of Honduras issued a tropical storm warning for the Swan Islands , along with a tropical storm watch for the northwestern Honduran coastline . The advisories were discontinued within 10 hours of Keith 's passage through the region . The government of Belize briefly declared a tropical storm watch for the whole coastline of the country , but when it became clear that Keith posed little threat , the watch was canceled . About 16 hours before the storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for much of the coastline of Quintana Roo . Six hours later , a tropical storm warning replaced the watch , and it was extended west to Progreso , Yucatán ; a hurricane watch was also posted . Cuban officials issued a bulletin on the night of November 20 , advising that tropical storm conditions would spread over the west part of Cuba . A subsequent bulletin indicated the possibility for hurricane conditions , but as the storm continued further to the northwest , the threat diminished .
Two days before the storm struck Florida , emergency management workers began working to prepare for its onslaught . The next day , the water levels in five lakes in Hillsborough County were decreased as a precaution . Residents prepared sandbags to prevent flooding along coastal areas , while boat owners worked to secure their boats . Some tourists near the southwest Florida coast left for areas further inland , though many stayed despite the storm . Red Cross officials opened six emergency shelters . Additionally , police departments in Clearwater , Indian Shores , and Largo expanded their workforce to handle storm @-@ related problems . The storm resulted in the closure of some private schools as well as the Hillsborough Community College . About 21 hours before Keith made its final landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning along the Florida west coast from Cape Sable to Cedar Key . The next day , a tropical storm warning was posted from Jupiter , Florida , north to Savannah , Georgia . A tropical storm warning was briefly issued for Bermuda , as well .
= = Impact = =
Keith dropped around 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rainfall along the northern coast of Honduras , and totals of around 10 inches ( 250 mm ) were reported on offshore islands . As the storm was making landfall on Mexico , a ship just west of Cozumel reported wind gusts of 90 mph ( 149 km / h ) , while a second ship in Puerto Morelos , Quintana Roo , recorded sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Reports from Cozumel indicated torrential rainfall and a large number of lightning strikes during the period of highest winds . Rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 69 inches ( 195 mm ) just south of Cancún . Still recovering from the effects of Hurricane Gilbert two months prior , the Yucatán Peninsula received only minor damage as a result of Keith . The storm triggered flooding in western Cuba that severely damaged tobacco and vegetable crops . Officials forced 2 @,@ 500 residents to evacuate their homes due to the flooding . The storm also dropped nearly 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation in Kingston , Jamaica .
Off the coast of Florida , a freighter and its crew of ten were stranded after the storm flooded its engine room . The cyclone produced a moderately strong storm surge in isolated locations along the southwest coast of Florida , peaking at 5 @.@ 94 feet ( 1 @.@ 81 m ) at Bradenton and Fort Myers Beach . The combination of storm surge and waves severely eroded beaches along Charlotte Harbor and Estero Bay . In Naples , strong waves destroyed the western end of the Naples Pier where several boats were washed ashore . Heavy precipitation fell to the north of the center , peaking at 10 @.@ 27 inches ( 260 mm ) in Saint Leo . Sustained winds peaked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the MacDill Air Force Base , with stronger gusts . Inland from the immediate coastline , damage was mostly limited to isolated fresh @-@ water flooding , downed trees , and power outages ; overall damage was widespread but fairly light , and six structures were destroyed across the state . Before moving ashore , Keith spawned two tornadoes , one of which damaged approximately 30 mobile homes in Clermont . In Lakeland , a washed out track derailed a 34 @-@ car train , which broke a natural gas line and forced 450 people to evacuate . In Lee County , damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1988 USD ; $ 3 million 2016 USD ) , and in Pinellas County the storm caused about $ 5 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1988 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) .
A light storm surge of 1 to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 6 m ) was reported along the northeast Florida coast into southeastern Georgia . The storm 's outer rainbands dropped light rainfall of around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) across coastal Florida , northward to North Carolina . A station on Bermuda reported sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) , with gusts to 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . Only light damage occurred on the island .
= Walter Bedell Smith =
Walter Bedell " Beetle " Smith ( 5 October 1895 – 9 August 1961 ) was a senior officer of the United States Army who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters ( AFHQ ) during the Tunisia Campaign and the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943 during World War II . He was Eisenhower 's chief @-@ of @-@ staff at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) in Western Europe from 1944 through 1945 .
Smith enlisted as a private in the Indiana National Guard in 1911 . In 1917 , during World War I , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant . He was wounded in the Aisne @-@ Marne Offensive in 1918 . After World War I , he was a staff officer and instructor at the U.S. Army Infantry School . In 1941 , he became Secretary of the General Staff , and in 1942 he became the Secretary to the Combined Chiefs of Staff . His duties involved taking part in discussions of war plans at the highest level , and Smith often briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt on strategic matters .
Smith became chief of staff to Eisenhower at AFHQ in September 1942 . He acquired a reputation as Eisenhower 's " hatchet man " for his brusque and demanding manner . However , he was also capable of representing Eisenhower in sensitive missions requiring diplomatic skill . Smith was involved in negotiating the armistice between Italy and the Allies , which he signed on behalf of Eisenhower . In 1944 , he became the Chief of Staff of SHAEF , again under Eisenhower . In this position , Smith also negotiated successfully for food and fuel aid to be sent through German lines for the cold and starving Dutch civilian population , and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation to the First Canadian Army in the Netherlands . In May 1945 , Smith met representatives of the German High Command in Reims , France , to conduct the surrender of the German Armed Forces , and he signed the German Instrument of Surrender on behalf of General Eisenhower .
After World War II , he served as the U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948 . Then in 1950 , Smith became the Director of Central Intelligence , the head of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) and other intelligence agencies in the United States . Smith reorganized the CIA , redefined its structure and its mission , and he gave it a new sense of purpose . He made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for covert operations . He left the CIA in 1953 to become an Under Secretary of State . After retiring from the State Department in 1954 , Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower Administration in various posts for several years , until his retirement and his death in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
Walter Bedell Smith was born in Indianapolis , Indiana , on October 5 , 1895 , the eldest of two sons of William Long Smith , a silk buyer for the Pettis Dry Goods Company , and his wife , Ida Francis née Bedell , who worked for the same company .
Smith was called Bedell from his boyhood . From an early age he was nicknamed " Beetle " , or occasionally " Beedle " or " Boodle " . He was educated at St. Peter and Paul School , public schools # 10 and # 29 , Oliver Perry Morton School , and Emmerich Manual High School , where he studied to be a machinist . While still there , he took a job at the National Motor Vehicle Company , and eventually left high school without graduating . Smith enrolled at Butler University , but his father developed serious health problems , and Smith left university to return to his job and support his family .
In 1911 , at the age of 16 , Smith enlisted as a private in Company D of the 2nd Indiana Infantry of the Indiana National Guard . The Indiana National Guard was called out twice in 1913 , for the Ohio River flood and during the Indianapolis streetcar strike . Smith was promoted to corporal and then sergeant . During the Pancho Villa Expedition he served on the staff of the Indiana National Guard .
= = Personal life = =
In 1913 , Smith met Mary Eleanor ( Nory ) Cline , and they were married in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding ceremony on July 1 , 1917 . Their marriage was of long duration but childless .
= = World War I = =
Smith 's work during the Ohio River flood of 1913 led to his nomination for officer training in 1917 , and he was sent to the Officer Candidate Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison , Indiana . Upon his graduation on November 27 , 1917 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant . He was then assigned to the newly formed Company A , 1st Battalion , 39th Infantry , part of the 4th Infantry Division at Camp Greene , North Carolina . The 4th Infantry Division embarked for Europe , then embroiled in World War I , from Hoboken , New Jersey , on 9 May 1918 , reaching Brest , France , on the 23rd of May . After training with the British and French Armies , the 4th Division entered the front lines in June 1918 , joining the Aisne @-@ Marne Offensive on 18 July 1918 . Smith was wounded by shell fragments during an attack two days later .
Because of his wounds , Smith was returned to the United States for service with the U.S. Department of War 's General Staff , and he was assigned to the Military Intelligence Division . In September 1918 , he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the regular army of the United States .
Smith was next sent to the newly formed 379th Infantry Regiment as its intelligence officer . This regiment was part of the 95th Infantry Division , based at Camp Sherman , Ohio . The 95th Infantry Division was disbanded following the signing of the Armistice with Germany on November 11 , 1918 . In February 1919 Smith was assigned to Camp Dodge , Iowa , where he was involved with the disposal of surplus equipment and supplies . In March 1919 he was transferred to the 2nd Infantry Regiment , a regular unit based at Camp Dodge , remaining there until November 1919 , when it moved to Camp Sherman .
= = Between the wars = =
The staff of the 2nd Infantry moved to Fort Sheridan , Illinois , in 1921 . In 1922 , Smith became aide de camp to Brigadier General George Van Horn Moseley , the commander of the 12th Infantry Brigade at Fort Sheridan . From 1925 to 1929 Smith worked as an assistant in the Bureau of the Budget . He then served a two @-@ year tour of duty overseas on the staff of the 45th Infantry at Fort William McKinley in the Philippines . After nine years as a first lieutenant , he was promoted to captain in September 1929 .
Returning to the United States , Smith reported to the U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia , in March 1931 . Upon graduation in June 1932 , he stayed on as an instructor in the Weapons Section , where he was responsible for demonstrating weapons like the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle . In 1933 he was sent to the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . Afterward , he returned to the Infantry School but was detached
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again to attend the U.S. Army War College , from which he graduated in 1937 . He returned to the Infantry School once more , where he was promoted to major on 1 January 1939 after nine years as a captain . Such slow promotion was common in the Army in the 1920s and 1930s . Officers like Smith who were commissioned between November 1916 and November 1918 made up 55 @.@ 6 percent of the Army 's officer corps in 1926 . Promotions were usually based on seniority , and the modest objective of promoting officers to major after seventeen years of service could not be met because of a shortage of posts for them to fill .
= = World War II = =
= = = Washington = = =
When General George C. Marshall became the Army 's Chief of Staff in September 1939 , he brought Smith to Washington , D.C. , to be the Assistant to the Secretary of the General Staff . The Secretary of the General Staff was primarily concerned with records , paperwork , and the collection of statistics , but he also performed a great deal of analysis , liaison , and administration . One of Smith 's duties was liaison with Major General Edwin " Pa " Watson , the Senior Military Aide to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Smith was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 4 May 1941 , and then to colonel on 30 August 1941 . On 1 September , the Secretary of the General Staff , Colonel Orlando Ward , was given command of the 1st Armored Division , and Smith became Secretary of the General Staff .
The Arcadia Conference , which was held in Washington , D.C. , December 1941 and January 1942 , mandated the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as a counterpart to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee , and Smith was named as its secretary on 23 January 1942 . The same conference also brought about the creation of the Combined Chiefs of Staff , which consisted of the ( American ) Joint Chiefs of Staff and the ( British ) Chiefs of Staff Committee meeting as a single body . Brigadier Vivian Dykes of the British Joint Staff Mission provided the secretarial arrangements for the new organization at first , but General Marshall thought that an American secretariat was required . He appointed Smith as the secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff as well as of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Since Dykes was senior in service time to Smith , and Marshall wanted Smith to be in charge , Smith was promoted to brigadier general on 2 February 1942 . He assumed the new post a week later , with Dykes as his deputy . The two men worked in partnership to create and organize the secretariat , and to build the organization of the Combined Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff into one that could coordinate the war efforts of the two allies , along with the Canadians , Australians , French and others . Smith 's duties involved taking part in discussions of strategy at the highest level , and he often briefed President Roosevelt on strategic matters . However Smith became frustrated as he watched other officers receive operational commands that he desired . He later remarked : " That year I spent working as secretary of the general staff for George Marshall was one of the most rewarding of my entire career , and the unhappiest year of my life . "
= = = North African Theater = = =
When Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed as the commander of the European Theater of Operations in June 1942 , he requested that Smith be sent from Washington as his chief @-@ of @-@ staff . Smith 's record as a staff officer , and his proven ability to work harmoniously with the British , made him a natural choice for the post . Reluctantly , Marshall acceded to this request , and Smith took over as the chief @-@ of @-@ staff at Allied Forces Headquarters ( AFHQ ) on 15 September 1942 . Reporting to him were two deputy chiefs of staff , Brigadier General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier John Whiteley , and also the Chief Administrative Officer ( CAO ) , Major General Humfrey Gale .
AFHQ was a balanced binational organization , in which the chief of each section was paired with a deputy of the other nationality . Its structure was generally American , but with some British aspects . For example , Gale as CAO controlled both personnel and supply functions , which under the American system would have reported directly to Smith . Initially AFHQ was located in London , but it moved to Algiers during November and December 1942 , with Smith arriving on December 11 . Although AFHQ had an authorized strength of only 700 , Smith aggressively expanded it . By January 1943 its American component alone was 1 @,@ 406 and its strength eventually topped 4 @,@ 000 men and women . As the chief @-@ of @-@ staff , Smith zealously guarded access to Eisenhower . He acquired a reputation as a tough and brusque manager , and he was often referred to as Eisenhower 's " hatchet man " .
Pending the organization of the North African Theater of Operations , U.S. Army ( NATOUSA ) , Smith also acted as its chief @-@ of @-@ staff until 15 February , when Brigadier General Everett S. Hughes became the Deputy Theater commander and the commanding general of the Communications Zone . The relationship between Smith and Hughes , an old friend of Eisenhower , was tense . Smith later accused Hughes of " empire building " , and the two clashed over trivial issues . In Algiers , Smith and Eisenhower seldom socialized together . Smith conducted formal dinners at his villa , an estate surrounded by gardens and terraces , with two large drawing rooms decorated with mosaics , oriental rugs , and art treasures . Like Eisenhower , Smith had a female companion , a nurse , Captain Ethel Westerman .
Following the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower sent Smith forward to report on the state of affairs at the American II Corps . Smith recommended the relief of its commander , Major General Lloyd Fredendall , as did General Harold Alexander and Major Generals Omar Bradley and Lucian Truscott . On their advice , Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with Major General George S. Patton , Jr . Eisenhower also relieved his Assistant Chief of Staff Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) , Brigadier Eric Mockler @-@ Ferryman , pinpointing faulty intelligence at AFHQ as a contributing factor in the defeat at Kasserine . Mockler @-@ Ferryman was replaced by Brigadier Kenneth Strong .
The debacle at Kasserine Pass strained relations between the Allies , and another crisis developed when II Corps reported that enemy aviation was operating at will over its sector because of an absence of Allied air cover . This elicited a scathing response from British Air Marshal Arthur Coningham on the competence of American troops . Eisenhower drafted a letter to Marshall suggesting that Coningham should be relieved of his command since he could not control the acrimony between senior Allied commanders , but Smith persuaded him not to send it . Instead , Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder , Major General Carl Spaatz , and Brigadier General Laurence S. Kuter paid Patton a visit at his headquarters . Their meeting was interrupted by a German air raid that convinced the airmen that General Patton had a point . Coningham withdrew his written criticisms and he apologized .
For the Allied invasion of Sicily , the Combined Chiefs of Staff designated Eisenhower as the overall commander but they ordered the three component commanders , Alexander , Tedder , and Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham of the Royal Navy , to " cooperate " . To Eisenhower , this command arrangement meant a reversion to the old British " committee system " . He drafted a cable to the Combined Chiefs of Staff demanding a unified command structure , but Smith persuaded him to tear it up .
Disagreements arose between Allied commanders over the operational plan , which called for a series of dispersed landings , based on the desire of the air , naval , and logistical planners concerning the early capture of ports and airfields . General Bernard Montgomery , the commander of the British Eighth Army , objected to this aspect of the plan , since it exposed the Allied forces to defeat in detail . Montgomery put forward an alternate plan that involved American and British forces landing side by side . He convinced Smith that his alternate plan was sound , and the two men then persuaded most of the other Allied commanders . Montgomery 's plan provided for the early seizure of airfields , which satisfied Tedder and Cunningham . The fears of logisticians like Major General Thomas B. Larkin that supply would not be practical without a port were resolved by the use of amphibious trucks .
In August 1943 , Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon via Gibraltar in civilian clothes , where they met with Generale di Brigata Giuseppe Castellano at the British embassy . While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations against Nazi Germany , Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces , but he was unable to negotiate political matters . On September 3 , Smith and Castellano signed the agreed @-@ upon text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio , respectively , in a simple ceremony beneath an olive tree at Cassibile , Sicily . In October , Smith traveled to Washington for two weeks to represent Eisenhower in a series of meetings , including one with President Roosevelt at Hyde Park , New York , on 10 October .
= = = European theater = = =
In December 1943 , Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy . Eisenhower wished to take Smith and other key members of his AFHQ staff with him to his new assignment , but Prime Minister Winston Churchill wanted to retain Smith at AFHQ as Deputy Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean . Churchill reluctantly gave way at Eisenhower 's insistence . On New Year 's Eve , Smith met with General ( one day later Field Marshal ) Sir Alan Brooke to discuss the transfer of key British staff members from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . Brooke released Gale only after a strong appeal from Smith , but refused to transfer Strong . A heated exchange resulted , and Brooke later complained to Eisenhower about Smith 's behavior . This was the only time that a senior British officer ever complained openly about Smith . Whiteley became Chief of Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) at SHAEF instead of Strong , but Eisenhower and Smith had their way in the long run , and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944 , with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy .
Smith was promoted to lieutenant general and also made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1944 . On 18 January , he set out for London with two and a half tons of personal baggage loaded onto a pair of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The staff of the Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( COSSAC ) was already active , and he had been planning the Overlord operation for some time .
This staff was absorbed into SHAEF , with COSSAC , with Major General Frederick Morgan , becoming Smith 's Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF . Gale also held the title of Deputy Chief of Staff , as well as being Chief Administrative Officer , and there was also a Deputy Chief of Staff ( Air ) , Air Vice Marshal James Robb . The heads of the other staff divisions were Major General Ray W. Barker ( G @-@ 1 ) , Major General Harold R. Bull ( G @-@ 3 ) , Major General Robert W. Crawford ( G @-@ 4 ) and Major General Sir Roger Lumley ( G @-@ 5 ) .
Morgan had located his COSSAC headquarters in Norfolk House at 31 St. James 's Square , London , but Smith moved it to Bushy Park on the outskirts of London . This was according to Eisenhower 's expressed desire not to have his headquarters inside of a major city . A hutted camp was built with 130 @,@ 000 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floor space . By the time Overlord began , accommodations had been provided for 750 officers and 6 @,@ 000 enlisted men and women .
Eisenhower and Smith 's offices were in a subterranean complex . Smith 's office was spartan , dominated by a large portrait of Marshall . An advanced command post codenamed Sharpener was established near Portsmouth , where Montgomery 's 21st Army Group and Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay 's Allied Naval Expeditionary Force headquarters were located .
Ground operations in Normandy were controlled by Montgomery at first , but SHAEF Forward headquarters moved to Jullouville in August , and on 1 September Eisenhower assumed control of Bradley 's 12th Army Group and Montgomery 's 21st Army Group . Smith soon realized that he had made a mistake . The forward headquarters was remote and inaccessible , and it lacked the necessary communications equipment .
On 6 September , Eisenhower ordered both SHAEF Forward and SHAEF Main to move to Versailles as soon as possible . SHAEF Forward began its move on 15 September and it opened in Versailles on 20 September . SHAEF Main followed , moving from Bushy Park by air . This move was completed by October , and SHAEF remained there until 17 February 1945 , when SHAEF Forward moved to Reims . By this time , SHAEF had grown in size to 16 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men , of whom 10 @,@ 000 were American and 6 @,@ 000 British .
By November 1944 , Strong was reporting that there was a possibility of a German counteroffensive in the Ardennes or the Vosges . Smith sent Strong to personally warn Bradley , who was preparing an offensive of his own . The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock , and Smith had to defend Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm . He felt Strong had been given ample warning .
Once battle was joined , Eisenhower acted decisively , committing the two armored divisions in the 12th Army Group 's reserve over Bradley 's objection , along with his own meager reserves , two airborne divisions . Whiteley and Betts visited the U.S. First Army headquarters and they were unimpressed with the way its commanders were handling the situation . Strong , Whiteley , and Betts recommended that command of the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery . Smith 's immediate reaction was to dismiss the suggestion out of hand . He told Strong and Whiteley that they were fired and should pack their bags and return to the United Kingdom . On the next morning , Smith apologized . He had had second thoughts , and he informed them that he would present their recommendation to Eisenhower as his own . He realized the military and political implications of this , and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer . On December 20 , he recommended it to Eisenhower , who telephoned both General Bradley and Montgomery , and Eisenhower ordered it .
This decision was greatly resented by many Americans , particularly in 12th Army Group , who felt that the action discredited the U.S. Army 's command structure . Heavy casualties since the start of Operation Overlord resulted in a critical shortage of infantry replacements even before the crisis situation created by the Ardennes Offensive . Steps were taken to divert men from Communications Zone units . The commander of the Communication Zone , Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee , persuaded Eisenhower to allow soldiers to volunteer for service " without regard to color or race to the units where assistance is most needed , and give you the opportunity of fighting shoulder to shoulder to bring about victory " .
Smith immediately grasped the political implications of this . He put his position to Eisenhower in writing :
Although I am now somewhat out of touch with the War Department 's Negro policy , I did , as you know , handle this during the time I was with General Marshall . Unless there has been a radical change , the sentence which I have marked in the attached circular letter will place the War Department in very grave difficulties . It is inevitable that this statement will get out , and equally inevitable that the result will be that every Negro organization , pressure group and newspaper will take the attitude that , while the War Department segregates colored troops into organizations of their own against the desires and pleas of all the Negro race , the Army is perfectly willing to put them in the front lines mixed in units with white soldiers , and have them do battle when an emergency arises . Two years ago I would have considered the marked statement the most dangerous thing that I had ever seen in regard to Negro relations . I have talked with Lee about it , and he can 't see this at all . He believes that it is right that colored and white soldiers should be mixed in the same company . With this belief I do not argue , but the War Department policy is different . Since I am convinced that this circular letter will have the most serious repercussions in the United States , I believe that it is our duty to draw the War Department 's attention to the fact that this statement has been made , to give them warning as to what may happen and any facts which they may use to counter the pressure which will undoubtedly be placed on them .
The policy was revised , with Negro soldiers serving in provisional platoons . In the 12th Army Group these were attached to regiments , while in the 6th Army Group the platoons were grouped into whole companies attached to the division . The former arrangement were generally better rated by the units they were attached to , because the Negro platoons had no company @-@ level unit training .
On 15 April 1945 , the Nazi governor ( Reichskommissar ) of the Netherlands , Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , offered to open up Amsterdam to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population . Smith and Strong , representing SHAEF , along with Major General Ivan Susloparov representing the Soviet Union , Prince Bernhard of Lippe @-@ Biesterfeld representing the Dutch government , and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand from 21st Army Group , met with Seyss @-@ Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld on 30 April . After threatening Seyss @-@ Inquart with prosecution for war crimes , Smith successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the suffering Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country , and he opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in the Netherlands , to the First Canadian Army , that did follow on the 5th of May .
Smith had to conduct another set of surrender negotiations , that of the German armed forces , in May 1945 . Smith met with the representatives of the German High Command ( the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ) , Colonel General Alfred Jodl and General @-@ Admiral Hans @-@ Georg von Friedeburg . Once again , Strong acted as an interpreter . Smith took a hard line , threatening that unless terms were accepted , the Allies would seal the front , thus forcing the remaining Germans into the hands of the Red Army , but he made some concessions regarding a ceasefire before the surrender came into effect . On May 7 , Smith signed the surrender document , along with the French representative , Major General François Sevez , and the Soviet Susloparov .
= = After the war = =
= = = Ambassador to the Soviet Union = = =
Smith briefly returned to the United States in June 1945 . In August , Eisenhower nominated Smith as his successor as commander of U.S. Forces , European Theater , as ETOUSA was redesignated on July 1 , 1945 . Smith was passed over in favor of General Joseph McNarney . When Eisenhower took over as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army in November 1945 , he summoned Smith to become his Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations and Planning . However , soon after his arrival back in Washington he was asked by President Harry S. Truman and U.S Secretary of State James F. Byrnes to become the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union . In putting Smith 's nomination for the post before the United States Senate , Truman asked for and received special legislation permitting Smith to retain his permanent military rank of major general .
Smith 's service as the American ambassador was not a success . Although no fault of Smith 's , during his tenure the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union deteriorated rapidly as the Cold War set in . Smith 's tenacity of purpose came across as a lack of flexibility , and it did nothing to allay Soviet fears about American intentions . He became thoroughly disillusioned and turned into a hardened cold warrior who saw the Soviet Union as a secretive , totalitarian and antagonistic state . In My Three Years in Moscow ( 1950 ) , Smith 's account of his time as ambassador , he wrote :
... we are forced into a continuing struggle for a free way of life that may extend over a period of many years . We dare not allow ourselves any false sense of security . We must anticipate that the Soviet tactic will be to wear us down , to exasperate us , and to keep probing for weak spots , and we must cultivate firmness and patience to a degree we have never before required .
Smith returned to the United States in March 1949 . Truman offered him the post of Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs but General Smith declined the appointment , preferring to return to military duty . He was appointed as the commander of the First Army at Fort Jay , New York , his first command since 1918 . Throughout the war , Smith had been troubled by a recurring stomach ulcer . The problem became severe in 1949 . He was no longer able eat a normal diet , and he was suffering from malnutrition . Smith was admitted to the Walter Reed Army Hospital , where the surgeons decided to remove most of his stomach . This did cure his ulcer , but Smith remained malnourished and thin .
= = = Director of Central Intelligence = = =
In 1950 , Truman selected Smith as Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) , the head of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . Since the post had been established in 1946 , there had been three directors , none of whom had wanted the job .
The 1949 Intelligence Survey Group had produced the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report , which found that the CIA had failed in its responsibilities in both the coordination and production of intelligence . In response , the U.S. National Security Council accepted the conclusions and recommendations of the report . It remained to implement them . In May 1950 , President Truman decided that Smith was the man he needed for the CIA . Before Smith could assume the post on 7 October , there was a major intelligence failure . The North Korean invasion of South Korea in June 1950 , which started the Korean War , took the administration entirely by surprise , and it raised fears of a third world war .
Since Smith knew little about the Agency , he asked for a deputy who did . Sidney Souers , the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council , recommended William Harding Jackson , one of the authors of the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report , to Smith . Jackson accepted the post of Deputy Director on three conditions , one of which was " no bawlings out " .
Smith and Jackson moved to reorganize the agency in line with the recommendations of the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report . They streamlined procedures for gathering and disseminating intelligence . On 10 October , Smith was asked to prepare estimates for the Wake Island Conference between the President and General Douglas MacArthur . Smith insisted that the estimates be simple , readable , conclusive , and useful rather than mere background . They reflected the best information available , but unfortunately , one estimate concluded that the Chinese would not intervene in Korea , another major intelligence failure .
Four months after the outbreak of the Korean War , the Agency had produced no coordinated estimate of the situation in Korea . Smith created a new Office of National Estimates ( ONE ) under the direction of William L. Langer , the Harvard historian who had led the Research and Analysis branch of the wartime Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) . Langer 's staff created procedures that were followed for the next two decades . Smith stepped up efforts to obtain economic , psychological , and photographic intelligence . By December 1 , Smith had formed a Directorate for Administration . The Agency would ultimately be divided by function into three directorates : Administration , Plans , and Intelligence .
Smith is remembered in the CIA as its first successful Director of Central Intelligence , and one of its most effective , who redefined its structure and mission . The CIA 's expansive covert action program remained the responsibility of Frank Wisner 's quasi @-@ independent Office of Policy Coordination ( OPC ) , but Smith began to bring OPC under the DCI 's control . In early January 1951 he made Allen Dulles the first Deputy Director for Plans ( DDP ) , to supervise both OPC and the CIA 's separate espionage organization , the Office of Special Operations ( OSO ) . Not until January 1952 were all intelligence functions consolidated under a Deputy Director for Intelligence ( DDI ) . Wisner succeeded Dulles as DDP in August 1951 , and it took until August 1952 to merge the OSO and the OPC , each of which had its own culture , methods , and pay scales , into an effective , single directorate .
By consolidating responsibility for covert operations , Smith made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for them . Smith wanted the CIA to become a career service . Before the war , the so @-@ called " Manchu Law " limited the duration of an officer 's temporary assignments , which effectively prevented anyone from making a career as a general staff officer . There were no schools for intelligence training , and the staffs had little to do in peacetime . Career officers therefore tended to avoid such work unless they aspired to be military attachés . Smith consolidated training under a Director of Training and developed a career service program .
When Eisenhower was appointed as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe in 1951 , he asked for Smith to serve as his chief of staff again . Truman turned down the request , stating that the DCI was a more important post . Eisenhower therefore took Lieutenant General Alfred Gruenther with him as his chief of staff . When Eisenhower later recommended Gruenther 's elevation to four @-@ star rank , Truman decided that General Smith should be promoted also . However , Smith 's name was omitted from the promotion list . Truman then announced that no one would be promoted until Smith was , which occurred on 1 August 1951 . Smith retired from the Army upon leaving the CIA on 9 February 1953 .
= = = Under Secretary of State = = =
On 11 January 1953 , Eisenhower , now president @-@ elect , announced that Smith would become an Under Secretary of State . Smith 's appointment was confirmed by the United States Senate on 6 February and he resigned as the DCI three days later . In May 1954 , Smith traveled to Europe in an attempt to convince the British to participate in an intervention to avert French defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu . When this failed , he reached an agreement with the Soviet Foreign Minister , Vyacheslav Molotov , to partition Vietnam into two separate states . In 1953 , the President of Guatemala , Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán , threatened to nationalize land belonging to the United Fruit Company . Smith ordered the American ambassador in Guatemala to put a CIA plan for a Guatemalan coup into effect , which was accomplished by the following year . Smith left the State Department on 1 October 1954 and took up a position with the United Fruit Company . He also served as President and Chairman of the Board of the Associated Missile Products Company and AMF Atomics Incorporated , Vice Chairman of American Machine and Foundry ( AMF ) and a director of RCA and Corning Incorporated .
After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954 , Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts . He was a member of the National Security Training Commission from 1955 to 1957 , the National War College board of consultants from 1956 to 1959 , the Office of Defense Mobilization Special Stockpile Advisory Committee from 1957 to 1958 , the President 's Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program from 1956 to 1957 , and the President 's Committee on Disarmament in 1958 . Smith was a consultant at the Special Projects Office ( Disarmament ) in the Executive Office of the President from 1955 to 1956 . He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Council of the President 's Committee on Fund Raising , and as a member @-@ at @-@ large from 1958 to 1961 . In recognition of his other former boss , he was a member of the George C. Marshall Foundation Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1961 .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1955 , Smith was approached to perform the voice @-@ over and opening scene for the movie To Hell And Back , which was based on the autobiography of Audie Murphy . He accepted , and had small parts in the movie , most notably in the beginning , where he was dressed in his old service uniform . He narrated several parts of the movie , referring constantly to " the foot soldier " . Smith was portrayed on screen by Alexander Knox in The Longest Day ( 1962 ) , Edward Binns in Patton ( 1970 ) and Timothy Bottoms in Ike : Countdown to D @-@ Day ( 2004 ) . On television he has been portrayed by John Guerrasio in Cambridge Spies ( 2003 ) , Charles Napier in War and Remembrance ( 1989 ) , Don Fellows in The Last Days of Patton ( 1986 ) and J.D. Cannon in Ike : The War Years ( 1979 ) .
Smith suffered a heart attack on August 9 , 1961 , at his home in Washington , D.C. , and he died in the ambulance on the way to Walter Reed Army Hospital . Although entitled to a Special Full Honor Funeral , at the request of his widow , a simple joint service funeral was held , patterned after the one given to General Marshall in 1959 . She selected a grave site for her husband in Section 7 of Arlington National Cemetery close to Marshall 's grave . Mrs. Smith was buried next to him after her death in 1963 . Smith 's papers are in the Eisenhower Presidential Center in Abilene , Kansas .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Source : " In Memoriam . General Walter Bedell Smith . 5 October 1895 – 9 August 1961 . " . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved 31 August 2010 .
= Hide ( Doctor Who ) =
" Hide " is the ninth episode of the seventh series of the British science @-@ fiction drama Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 20 April 2013 . It was written by Neil Cross and directed by Jamie Payne .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Clara Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) visit a mansion in the 1970s owned by Professor Alec Palmer ( Dougray Scott ) , which appears to be haunted . Palmer 's assistant , Emma Grayling ( Jessica Raine ) , is an empath who is able to connect to the ghost . The Doctor discovers that the ghost is really a time traveller from the future ( Kemi @-@ Bo Jacobs ) who is trapped in a pocket universe , and he travels there to rescue her . There he discovers a bizarre " Crooked Man " ( Aiden Cook ) , who also seeks to escape the pocket universe and be reunited with its mate in the mansion , who had been the source of much of the mysterious activity in the mansion .
" Hide " was the first contribution to Doctor Who of writer Neil Cross , who was a fan of the show but had never had the time to write an episode . Cross wanted to write a scary episode and was inspired by Nigel Kneale 's works The Quatermass Experiment and The Stone Tape . The storyline of " Hide " was kept to a restricted setting and characters , although it was expanded thematically to flesh out the monster with a love story that paralleled that of Professor Palmer and Emma . The first to be filmed for the second half of the series — predating Coleman 's introduction as full @-@ time companion in the Christmas special — " Hide " began filming in late May 2012 at Margam Country Park , Gethin Forest , and a National Trust property at Tyntesfield . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 61 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
On a dark and stormy night in November 1974 , Professor Alec Palmer ( Dougray Scott ) and his assistant Emma Grayling ( Jessica Raine ) collect photographic evidence of a ghost in Caliburn House . Professor Palmer is using Emma 's strong psychic powers to create a connection that appears to summon the ghost . They are surprised by the arrival of the Doctor and Clara , who claim to be from military intelligence . The Doctor shows interest in the investigation and Clara points out that the ghost appears in the same position within each photograph . Clara speaks with Emma and reassures her that Emma 's feelings for Professor Palmer are reciprocated ; at the same time , Emma warns Clara about the Doctor , sensing " a sliver of ice " in his heart .
The Doctor and Clara find a location in the mansion which is noticeably colder than the rest of the house , and they feel as if they are being watched . Suddenly the house grows cold and Clara feels something holding her hand when there 's nothing there . The two race back to where the Professor and Emma are waiting to see Palmer 's equipment activating of its own accord . A thin black disc materializes in front of them and Emma senses something crying out for help before the disc vanishes and the house returns to normal .
The Doctor takes Clara in the TARDIS to examine their specific location at various points during Earth 's history and repeatedly takes photographs of the same area . Clara is dismayed by the Doctor 's lack of compassion at witnessing the whole of humanity 's history during these trips , complaining that " we 're all ghosts to you " . She also grumbles that she thinks that the TARDIS doesn 't like her . From his pictures the Doctor comes to the conclusion that the " ghost " is actually a pioneer time traveler named Hila Tacorian . Hila was trapped in a pocket dimension where time moves more slowly ; for every second she is trapped in the pocket dimension one hundred thousand years pass in the normal world . The Doctor realizes that he cannot use the TARDIS to rescue her because the entropy of the pocket dimension would drain the TARDIS of its energy within seconds . Instead , the Doctor prepares a device which includes a blue crystal from Metebelis III to stimulate Emma 's psychic abilities to open a gateway to this pocket dimension . Once opened , the Doctor will travel across and rescue Hila with a harness anchored in the normal world .
Emma opens the gateway and the Doctor travels through where he finds himself on a small island of land floating in a void . He finds Hila and they are drawn to a vision of Caliburn House that Emma has generated for them as a beacon . At the same time , a creature follows them and chases them into the house . The Doctor locks the doors to slow the creature down , and Hila uses the harness to return to the normal world . The strain of keeping the gateway open causes Emma to collapse and the gateway closes , trapping the Doctor in the pocket universe . The TARDIS ' cloister bell begins to sound , and Clara races to the TARDIS to find it locked . She pleads with the device via its holographic voice interface to help her save the Doctor , and after initially refusing the TARDIS finally opens up and allows Clara in . As Emma reopens the gateway again with Palmer 's encouragement , the TARDIS briefly flies into the pocket universe and moves close to the ground , allowing the Doctor to jump and hang on before the creature can grab him . The Doctor and the TARDIS safely reappear in the normal world as Emma collapses from the pain and exhaustion .
Before leaving the next morning , the Doctor stops to ask Emma if she could sense anything unusual about Clara , but Emma reveals that Clara seems normal to her . The Doctor offers Hila a lift to any other place in history and concludes that she is a direct descendant of Emma and Palmer . He reasons that their relation resulted in a blood connection that helped them open the gateway to rescue her . While contemplating the bonds that love can create , the Doctor suddenly realises that there is another creature within Caliburn House . Just as Emma and Palmer were not part of a ghost story but a love story , the Doctor considers the same for the creatures — that the one trapped in the pocket universe has been trying to reunite with its mate . The Doctor asks Emma for a favour and they use Emma and the TARDIS to retrieve the other creature from the pocket universe .
= = = Continuity = = =
Metebelis III has featured before when the Third Doctor ( Jon Pertwee ) took a blue crystal from the planet in The Green Death and returned it in Planet of the Spiders , although it was pronounced differently . The Doctor mentions the Eye of Harmony , which was introduced in The Deadly Assassin . The Doctor puts on the orange spacesuit he wore originally in " The Impossible Planet " / " The Satan Pit " and wore on a number of occasions up to " The Waters of Mars " when taking the photos .
= = Production = =
Writer Neil Cross was a Doctor Who fan , but had never had the time to write an episode . Executive producer Caroline Skinner , who was new with the seventh series , knew him and offered to work his schedule around writing an episode ; he was willing to do it . Executive producer and lead writer Steven Moffat was pleased to have Cross join , as he was a showrunner in his own right with Luther . Cross also wrote the seventh episode of the series , " The Rings of Akhaten " , which he was invited to do after the producers enjoyed " Hide " . The script process of " Hide " involved no face @-@ to @-@ face meeting , as Cross lives in New Zealand . However , he flew in with his family to watch the filming .
Cross wanted to write " a really old @-@ fashioned scary episode of Doctor Who " targeted especially at children nine to twelve , which was how he remembered Doctor Who at that age . He stated that " time travel and ghosts are echoes of one another . What is a ghost , if not a fragment caught in time ? " He aimed to show suspense and tension , as he felt it was more terrifying than " full @-@ on shock horror blood and gore " . Cross was inspired by The Quatermass Experiment and its sequels , and originally intended to have the Doctor meet Bernard Quatermass , though this was not possible , for copyright reasons . Cross was also inspired by Quatermass writer Nigel Kneale 's The Stone Tape , which was why he set the story in the 1970s . " Hide " was intended to be a " very small , very restricted ghost story " , but he was asked to make it bigger in the end . The different universe was present , but it was " smoke and mirrors " and the climax originally took place in the house , just in daylight and in the alternate world . The idea of the Crooked Man was something Cross said lurked in his imagination . The love story twist was added in later , because Moffat felt the monster should be more fleshed out , and Cross chose to mirror the love plot between Emma and the Professor .
Cross wanted to tell the story with " a small cast and as few locations as possible " . Jessica Raine was offered the part of Emma Grayling , and later said that she had not realised " what an institution Doctor Who is " until she arrived on set . She said it was produced very differently from her series Call the Midwife . Raine had also worked with Matt Smith before on a play . Cross said that Raine and co @-@ guest star Dougray Scott were good at filling out their characters , as he found it difficult to fully " evoke the history of a quite complex relationship " between their characters with just the script . Subsequent to filming her appearance in this episode , Raine was cast as Doctor Who 's original producer , Verity Lambert , in a docudrama made for the show 's 50th anniversary , An Adventure in Space and Time .
" Hide " was the first episode Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman filmed as Clara . Cross only had Coleman 's five @-@ minute audition for " Asylum of the Daleks " , in which she played a different but mysteriously linked character to work from , and some editing was done to her lines to make her sound less " bitchy " . Otherwise , the scripting process was " smooth " . The read @-@ through for " Hide " took place on 21 May 2012 ; filming began three days later , on the 24th . Scenes for the mansion were filmed at Margam Country Park in June . Tyntesfield , a National Trust property near Bristol was used as the mansion . The scenes in the forest were filmed in the Gethin Forest in Wales , with artificial mist . The Crooked Man 's movements were done in reverse and then played forward , to give it an unnatural movement . Director Jamie Payne had Cross 's children be " monster consultants " during filming and evaluate if it was scary enough .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode also contains several cultural references . Clara introduces herself and the Doctor as " Ghostbusters " , a reference to the film of the same name which would not be made for another nine years from the time at which the episode is set . The Doctor recites in his dialogue the lyrics " Birds do it , bees do it , even educated fleas do it " from " Let 's Do It , Let 's Fall in Love " by Cole Porter as he realises that the Crooked Man is just a lost lover . The Doctor also mentions the Baker Street Irregulars , who assisted Sherlock Holmes in several of Arthur Conan Doyle 's stories . However , the Doctor is in fact alluding to the Special Operations Executive , a British World War II organisation that Professor Palmer was a part of .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Hide " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 20 April 2013 . Overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 million viewers live . When time @-@ shifted viewers were calculated , the figure rose to 6 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the sixth most @-@ watched programme of the week on BBC One . In addition , " Hide " received 1 @.@ 53 million requests on the online BBC iPlayer for April , placing sixth for the month on the service . It also received an Appreciation Index of 85 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews . Neela Debnath of The Independent praised how the episode blended a haunted house story with a science fiction tale , highlighting the twist at the end of " ugly aliens have feelings too " . The Guardian 's online reviewer Dan Martin said that it had " the hallmarks of an episode that will be discussed for years to come " , including the guest stars and atmosphere . He praised the direction , but criticised some of the dialogue .
Daisy Bowie @-@ Sall of The Daily Telegraph gave " Hide " four out of five stars . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern gave " Hide " a positive review , highlighting Smith 's performance and the spookiness . While he praised Raine and Scott , he felt that Hila was " shortchanged " , and also criticised the " love story " ending . The A.V. Club 's Alasdair Wilkins gave the episode an A- , praising the way it changed direction and the subtle hints about the Doctor .
Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy awarded the story four out of five stars , writing that it flowed better than Cross ' last episode ,
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the offense from the post and perimeter , called the defensive sets , and provided scoring when needed . During a game against Australia , he recorded the first triple @-@ double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points , 14 rebounds and 12 assists . Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal , again defeating Spain in the final game . James contributed 19 points in the win , becoming the all @-@ time leading scorer in U.S. men 's basketball history . He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award , NBA championship , NBA Finals MVP , and Olympic gold medal in the same year . Afterwards , Krzyzewski said James " is the best player , he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now . "
= = Player profile = =
Standing at 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) and weighing 250 pounds ( 113 @.@ 4 kg ) , James has started at small forward and power forward , but can also play the other three positions . With career averages of 27 @.@ 5 points , 7 @.@ 2 rebounds , 6 @.@ 9 assists , and 1 @.@ 7 steals per game , he is considered one of the most athletic and versatile players in NBA history , and has been compared to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson , Magic Johnson , and Michael Jordan . Since 2011 , he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated .
Many basketball analysts , coaches , fans , and current and former players consider James to be one of the greatest players of all @-@ time , often ranking him as the best small forward and in the top five overall . He has earned All @-@ NBA honors every season since his sophomore year , All @-@ Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014 , and was named Rookie of the Year in his debut season . With four MVP awards , he is part of a select group of players who have won the award four times , including Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Jordan , Wilt Chamberlain , and Bill Russell ; only he and Russell have won four MVP awards in a five @-@ year span . While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award , he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals .
= = = Offense = = =
James entered the NBA at an early age and made an immediate offensive impact ; he holds numerous " youngest to " distinctions including being the youngest player to score 25 @,@ 000 career points . During his first term with the Cavaliers , he was used as an on @-@ ball point forward , and although his shooting tendencies were perimeter @-@ oriented , he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball , leading the NBA in three point plays in 2006 . Around this time , he was frequently criticized for not having developed a reliable jump shot or post game , areas he improved in Miami , where Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James ' role to a more unconventional one . James began spending more time in the post and shooting fewer three @-@ pointers , attempting a career @-@ low 149 in 2012 . He improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots , finishing second in the league in catch @-@ and @-@ shoot field goal percentage in 2013 . He also learned how to work as an off @-@ ball cutter in the Heat 's " pass @-@ happy " offense . During this period , ESPN 's Tom Haberstroh has called James ' free throw shooting his biggest weakness , describing it as " average " . Upon returning to the Cavaliers , James began to experience subtle age @-@ related declines in productivity , posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016 . His shooting also regressed , and he briefly ranked as the worst high @-@ volume outside shooter from outside the paint in the NBA .
Throughout his career , James ' playmaking ability has been praised ; in one article , Grantland 's Zach Lowe called him " one of the greatest passers ever " . Using his size , vision , and the attention he garners from opposing defenses to his advantage , James is able to create easy points for his teammates with accurate assists , manufacturing a league leading 2 @.@ 6 three @-@ pointers per game by way of his passing alone in 2013 .
Early in James ' career , he was criticized by the media for his play in pressure situations ; specifically , for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games . In a 2011 interview , teammate Chris Bosh stated that he would rather have Dwyane Wade take a last @-@ second shot than James . Later in James ' career , his clutch play was viewed more favorably ; for example , a 2011 article by Henry Abbott revealed that James had a better shooting percentage with the game on the line than such notables as Ray Allen and Kobe Bryant . In 2015 , FiveThirtyEight wrote that he might be " the most clutch playoff shooter of his generation " .
= = = Defense = = =
At the beginning of James ' career , he was considered a poor defensive player , but improved steadily through the years . Near the end of his first tenure in Cleveland , he became proficient at the chase @-@ down block ; coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot . In Miami , he developed into a more versatile defender , and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions . Paired with teammates Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade , Miami used James in an ultra @-@ aggressive defensive scheme , with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position . In 2014 , James was criticized for having a down defensive season , stemming from a lack of effort and a tendency for " coasting " .
= = Off the court = =
James proposed to Savannah Brinson , his high school sweetheart , on December 31 , 2011 at a party celebrating New Year 's Eve and his 27th birthday . The two were married on September 14 , 2013 in San Diego . Together , they have three children : LeBron James Jr . ( born October 6 , 2004 ) , Bryce Maximus James ( born June 14 , 2007 ) , and Zhuri James . During his tenure with the Heat , James resided in Coconut Grove , an affluent Miami neighborhood , where he bought a three @-@ story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay for $ 9 million . In November 2015 , James bought a 9 @,@ 350 square @-@ feet East Coast @-@ style mansion in Brentwood , Los Angeles , for about $ 21 million .
= = = Business interests = = =
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports . His first agent was Aaron Goodwin , whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose . Rose joined Creative Artists Agency ( CAA ) in 2007 , and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas , who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh , to bring James to Miami in 2010 . James left CAA for Paul in 2012 . James , Paul , Maverick Carter , and Randy Mims — all childhood friends — formed agent and sports @-@ marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin . LRMR handles James ' marketing , including the marketing of The Decision , for which it was criticized .
Throughout his career , James has taken a unique approach to his playing contracts , usually opting to sign shorter term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility . In 2006 , he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three @-@ year , $ 60 million contract extension instead of the four year maximum as it allotted James the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season . In 2014 , he rejoined Cleveland on a two @-@ year contract worth $ 42 @.@ 1 million with an option to become a free agent again in 2015 . The next offseason , he opted out of the contract and re @-@ signed with the Cavaliers on another two @-@ year contract with a player option for the second year . Analysts have speculated that James is opting out and re @-@ signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA 's rising salary cap .
James has numerous endorsement contracts ; some of the companies he does business with are Audemars Piguet , Coca @-@ Cola , Dunkin ' Brands , McDonald 's , Nike , State Farm , and Samsung . Coming out of high school , he was the target of a three @-@ way bidding war among Nike , Reebok , and Adidas , eventually signing with Nike for approximately $ 90 million . His signature shoes have performed well for Nike , and in 2013 he led all NBA players in shoe sales . In 2011 , Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights , and as part of the deal , he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool FC , who he has claimed his support for . As a result of James ' endorsement money and NBA salary , he has been listed as one of the world 's highest @-@ paid athletes . In 2013 , he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world with earnings of $ 56 @.@ 5 million . In 2015 he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson , and third highest in 2016 ( after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi ) . In 2014 , James realized a profit of more than $ 30 million as part of Apple 's acquisition of Beats Electronics ; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones .
James , with comedian Jimmy Kimmel , co @-@ hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards . In other comedic pursuits , he hosted the 33rd season premiere of Saturday Night Live . He has also tried his hand at acting , appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage . In 2015 , he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck , receiving positive reviews for his performance . That same year , James ' digital video company , Uninterrupted , raised $ 15 @.@ 8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company 's efforts to bring athlete @-@ created content to fans . It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman .
Along with business partner Maverick Carter , James owns production company SpringHill Entertainment , whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game , released in 2009 and chronicling James ' high school years . Series produced by SpringHill include the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming , Starz sitcom Survivor 's Remorse , and animated web series The LeBrons . In 2016 , CNBC will air an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles , where four up @-@ and @-@ coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland .
= = = Public image = = =
James is considered by many , including his fellow players , to be the " face of the NBA " . His opinions have yielded significant influence on important league decisions ; for example , in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All @-@ Star break , and the request was granted the following season . On February 13 , 2015 , James was elected the first Vice President of the National Basketball Players Association ( NBPA ) .
James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world 's most influential athletes throughout his career . During his first tenure with the Cavaliers , he was adored by local fans , with Sherwin @-@ Williams displaying a giant Nike @-@ produced banner of James on its world headquarters . Despite their affection for James , Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he attended Cleveland Indians games against the New York Yankees dressed in a Yankees hat . Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and , more specifically , The Decision , he was listed as one of the world 's most disliked athletes . By 2013 , his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career . In 2014 , he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll . He has led the league in jersey sales six times .
A philanthropist , James is an active supporter of the Boys & Girls Club of America , Children 's Defense Fund , and ONEXONE . He also has his own charity foundation , the LeBron James Family Foundation , which is based out of Akron . Since 2005 , the foundation has held an annual bike @-@ a @-@ thon in Akron to raise money for various causes . In 2015 , James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2 @,@ 300 children beginning in 2021 .
In March 2008 , James became the first black man — and third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooney — to appear on the cover of Vogue , posing with Gisele Bündchen . Some sports bloggers and columnists considered the cover offensive , describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong , a dark savage capturing his light @-@ skinned love interest .
James has taken stances on controversial issues throughout his career , mentioning on several occasions a feeling of obligation to effect change using his status . Those include the War in Darfur , the Trayvon Martin case , NBA owner Donald Sterling 's racist comments in 2014 , the Michael Brown verdict , and the death of Eric Garner . In June 2008 , James donated $ 20 @,@ 000 to a committee to elect Barack Obama . Later that year , James gathered almost 20 @,@ 000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama 's 30 @-@ minute American Stories , American Solutions television advertisement . It was shown on a large screen above the stage , where Jay @-@ Z later held a free concert .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
NBA
Three @-@ time NBA Champion : 2012 , 2013 , 2016
Three @-@ time NBA Finals MVP : 2012 , 2013 , 2016
Four @-@ time NBA Most Valuable Player : 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , 2013
12 @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star : 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016
Two @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star Game MVP : 2006 , 2008
Ten @-@ time All @-@ NBA First Team : 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016
Two @-@ time All @-@ NBA Second Team : 2005 , 2007
Five @-@ time NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013
NBA All @-@ Defensive Second Team : 2014
2004 NBA Rookie of the Year
2004 NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team
2008 NBA Scoring Champion
Only player since Oscar Robertson to be in the top 20 for all @-@ time points and assists leaders .
National team
Two @-@ time Olympic Gold Medal winner : 2008 , 2012
2004 Olympic Bronze Medal winner
2006 FIBA World Championship Bronze Medal winner
2007 FIBA Americas Championship Gold Medal winner
2012 USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year
Commemorative banner in Miami 's American Airlines Arena ( for his 2012 gold medal won as a member of the Miami Heat )
High school
2003 National Champion
Three @-@ time OHSAA Champion : 2000 , 2001 , 2003
Two @-@ time Gatorade National Player of the Year 2002 , 2003
Two @-@ time USA Today High School Player of the Year 2002 , 2003
Three @-@ time Ohio Mr. Basketball : 2001 , 2002 , 2003
Three @-@ time USA Today All @-@ USA First Team : 2001 , 2002 , 2003
Two @-@ time PARADE High School Player of the Year : 2002 , 2003
2003 Naismith Prep Player of the Year
2003 McDonald 's National Player of the Year
2003 McDonald 's High School All @-@ American
2003 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game 2003
2003 EA Sports Roundball Classic MVP
2003 Jordan Capital Classic MVP
Number 23 retired by St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary
St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary Hall of Fame ( class of 2011 )
St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary home basketball court named The LeBron James Arena
Other
Two @-@ time Cleveland Sports Awards Professional Athlete of the Year : 2009 , 2016
2013 AP Athlete of the Year
2012 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year
2012 Sporting News Athlete of the Year
2006 Sporting News NBA MVP
2004 Sporting News Rookie of the Year
Sports Illustrated NBA All @-@ Decade First Team ( 2000s )
16 @-@ time ESPY Award winner in various categories ( 12 individually , four as part of a team )
South Main Street in downtown Akron renamed King James Way
10 @-@ story commemorative banner in downtown Cleveland
Six @-@ story commemorative banner in downtown Akron
= Wulfhere of Mercia =
Wulfhere or Wulfar ( died 675 ) was King of Mercia from 658 until 675 AD . He was the first Christian king of all of Mercia , though it is not known when or how he converted from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . His accession marked the end of Oswiu of Northumbria 's overlordship of southern England , and Wulfhere extended his influence over much of that region . His campaigns against the West Saxons led to Mercian control of much of the Thames valley . He conquered the Isle of Wight and the Meon valley and gave them to King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons . He also had influence in Surrey , Essex , and Kent . He married Eormenhild , the daughter of King Eorcenberht of Kent .
Wulfhere 's father , Penda , was killed in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed , fighting against Oswiu of Northumbria . Penda 's son Peada became king under Oswiu 's overlordship but was murdered six months later . Wulfhere came to the throne when Mercian nobles organized a revolt against Northumbrian rule in 658 and drove out Oswiu 's governors .
By 670 , when Oswiu died , Wulfhere was the most powerful king in southern Britain . He was effectively the overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s , although not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been . In 674 , he challenged Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith of Northumbria , but was defeated . He died , probably of disease , in 675 . Wulfhere was succeeded as King of Mercia by his brother , Æthelred . Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid describes Wulfhere as " a man of proud mind , and insatiable will " .
= = Mercia in the seventh century = =
England in the early 7th century was ruled almost entirely by the Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples who had come to Britain from northwestern Europe , starting in the early 5th century . The monk Bede , who wrote in the 8th century , considered the Mercians to be descended from the Angles , one of the invading groups ; the Saxons and Jutes settled in the south of Britain , while the Angles settled in the north . Little is known about the origins of the kingdom of Mercia , in what is now the English midlands , but according to genealogies preserved in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection the early kings were descended from Icel ; the dynasty is therefore known as the Iclingas . The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia , Wulfhere 's father .
According to Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , a history of the English church , there were seven early Anglo @-@ Saxon rulers who held imperium , or overlordship , over the other kingdoms . The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria , who was killed at the battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon , a British king of Gwynedd , and Penda . At the time of this victory , Penda was probably not yet king of Mercia . His children included two future kings of Mercia : Wulfhere and Æthelred .
After Edwin 's death , Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two constituent kingdoms . Within a year Oswald killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms , and subsequently re @-@ established Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England . However , on 5 August 642 , Penda killed Oswald at the battle of Maserfield , probably at Oswestry in the northwest midlands . Penda is not recorded as overlord of the other southern Anglo @-@ Saxon kings , but he became the most powerful of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings after he defeated Oswald . On Oswald 's death , Northumbria was divided again : Oswald 's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia , and Osric 's son Oswine to Deira , the southern of the two kingdoms .
The main source for this period is Bede 's History , completed in about 731 . Despite its focus on the history of the church , this work also provides valuable information about the early pagan kingdoms . For other kingdoms than his native Northumbria , such as Wessex and Kent , Bede had an informant within the ecclesiastical establishment who supplied him with additional information . This does not seem to have been the case with Mercia , about which Bede is less informative than about other kingdoms . Further sources for this period include the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex . The Chronicle 's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods .
= = Ancestry = =
Wulfhere was the son of Penda of Mercia . Penda 's queen , Cynewise , is named by Bede , who does not mention her children ; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Wulfhere 's mother . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle gives Penda 's age as fifty in 626 , and credits him with a thirty @-@ year reign , but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death , which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons ( Wulfhere and Æthelred ) are recorded as being young when he was killed . It is thought at least as likely that Penda was 50 years old at his death , rather than at his accession . Wulfhere 's date of birth is unknown , but Bede describes him as a youth at the time of his accession in 658 , so it is likely he was in his middle teens at that time ; Penda would then have been in his thirties at the time Wulfhere was born .
Nothing is known of Wulfhere 's childhood . He had two brothers , Peada and Æthelred , and two sisters , Cyneburh and Cyneswith ; it is also possible that Merewalh , king of the Magonsæte , was Wulfhere 's brother . He married Eormenhild of Kent ; no date is recorded for the marriage and there is no record of any children in the earliest sources , though Coenred , who was king of Mercia from 704 to 709 , is recorded in John of Worcester 's 12th century chronicle as Wulfhere 's son . Another possible child is Berhtwald , a subking who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred , and a third child , Werburh , is recorded in an 11th @-@ century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere . An 11th @-@ century history of St. Peter 's Monastery in Gloucester names two other women , Eadburh and Eafe , as queens of Wulfhere , but neither claim is plausible .
= = Accession and overlordship = =
In 655 Penda besieged Oswiu of Northumbria at Iudeu , the location of which is unknown but which may have been Stirling , in Scotland . Penda took Oswiu 's son , Ecgfrith , as hostage , and Oswiu paid tribute , in the form of treasure , to secure Penda 's departure . On the way back to Mercia , Oswiu overtook Penda and on 15 November 655 Oswiu and Penda fought on the banks of the ( unidentified ) river Winwaed . Penda was killed and beheaded by Oswiu , who divided Mercia into northern and southern halves . The northern portion was kept under direct Northumbrian control ; the southern kingdom was given to Penda 's son Peada , who had married Oswiu 's daughter Ealhflæd ca 653 .
Peada did not remain king long . He was murdered at Easter in 656 , perhaps with the connivance of his wife , Oswiu 's daughter . Oswiu then ruled all Mercia himself . Bede lists Oswiu as the seventh and last king to hold imperium ( or bretwalda in the language of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ) over the other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . Overlordship was a common relationship between kingdoms at this time , often taking the form of a lesser king under the domination of a stronger one . Oswiu went further than this , however , and installed his own governors in Mercia after the deaths of Penda and Peada . This attempt to establish close control of Mercia failed in 658 when three Mercian leaders , Immin , Eafa and Eadbert , rebelled against the Northumbrians . Bede reports that they had kept Wulfhere in hiding , and when the revolt succeeded Wulfhere became king . It has been suggested that the Mercian revolt succeeded because Oswiu may have been occupied with fighting in Pictland , in northern Britain . His nephew the Pictish king Talorgan , son of Eanfrith , had died in 657 .
How much direct control Oswiu exerted over the southern kingdoms during his imperium is unclear . Bede describes Oswiu 's friendship and influence over Sigeberht of the East Saxons , but generally the pattern in the southeast is of more local domination , with Oswiu 's influence unlikely to have been particularly strong . Wulfhere appears to have taken over Oswiu 's position in many instances . Bede does not list him as one of the rulers who exercised imperium , but modern historians consider that the rise to primacy of the kingdom of Mercia began in his reign . He seems to have been the effective overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s , though not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been .
A document called the Tribal Hidage may date from Wulfhere 's reign . Drawn up before many smaller groups of peoples were absorbed into the larger kingdoms , such as Mercia , it records the peoples of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , along with an assessment in hides , a unit of land . The Tribal Hidage is difficult to date precisely ; it may have been written down in Wulfhere 's reign , but other suggested origins include the reign of Offa of Mercia , or Edwin or Oswiu of Northumbria .
= = A convert king = =
Britain had been Christianized under the Romans , but the incoming Anglo @-@ Saxons practiced their indigenous religion ( Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism ) and the church in Great Britain was limited to the surviving British kingdoms in Scotland and Wales , and the kingdom of Dumnonia in the southwest of England . Missionaries from Rome began converting the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity at the end of the 6th century , and this process was well under way in Penda 's reign , though Penda himself remained pagan throughout his life . Records survive of the baptism of other kings at this time — Cynegils of Wessex was baptized in about 640 , for example , and Edwin of Northumbria was converted in the mid 620s . However , later kings , such as Cædwalla of Wessex , who ruled in the 680s , are recorded as pagan at their accession .
Bede writes that after Wulfhere became king : " Free under their own king , they [ the Mercians ] gave willing allegiance to Christ their true king , so that they might win his eternal kingdom in heaven " . While Wulfhere 's father had refused to convert to Christianity , and Peada had apparently converted in order to marry Oswiu 's daughter , the date and the circumstances of Wulfhere 's conversion are unknown . It has been suggested that he adopted Christianity as part of a settlement with Oswiu . Bede records that two years before Penda 's death , his son Peada converted to Christianity , influenced partly by Oswiu 's son Ealhfrith , who had married Peada 's sister Cyneburh . Peada brought a Christian mission into Mercia , and it is possible that this was when Wulfhere became a Christian . Wulfhere 's marriage to Eormenhild of Kent would have brought Mercia into close contact with the Christian kingdoms of Kent and Merovingian Gaul , which were connected by kinship and trade . The political and economic benefits of the marriage may therefore also have been a factor in Wulfhere 's Christianization of his kingdom .
Wulfhere 's relationship with Bishop Wilfrid is recorded in Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid . During the years 667 – 9 , while Wilfrid was at Ripon , Wulfhere frequently invited him to come to Mercia when there was need of the services of a bishop . According to Stephen , Wulfhere rewarded Wilfrid with " many tracts of land " , in which Wilfrid " soon established minsters for servants of God " .
According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Wulfhere endowed a major monastery at Medeshamstede , in modern Peterborough . The monastery had initially been endowed by Peada ; for the dedication of Wulfhere 's gift both Archbishop Deusdedit ( died 664 ) , and Bishop Jaruman ( held office from 663 ) , were present . The endowment was signed by Wulfhere and Oswiu , and by Sigehere and Sæbbi , the Kings of Essex .
= = West Saxons , South Saxons and Hwicce = =
In 661 , Wulfhere is recorded in the Chronicle as harrying Ashdown , in West Saxon territory . The Gewisse , thought to be the original group from which the West Saxons came , appear to have originally settled in the upper Thames valley , and what records survive of the 6th century show them active in that region . The Mercian resurgence under Wulfhere placed them under severe pressure . Also in the early 660s , the West Saxon see of Dorchester , in the same area , was divided , and a new bishopric set up at Winchester . This decision was probably a reaction to the advance of the Mercians into the traditional heartland of the West Saxons , leaving Dorchester dangerously close to the border . Within a few years , the Dorchester see was abandoned ; the exact date is not known , but it was probably in the mid 660s .
In addition to the attack on Ashdown , Wulfhere raided the Isle of Wight in 661 . He subsequently gave both the island and the territory of the Meonware , which lay along the river Meon , on the mainland north of the Isle of Wight , to his godson King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons . It seems likely that the ruling dynasty on the island found these arrangements acceptable to some degree , since the West Saxons , under Cædwalla , exterminated the whole family when they launched their own attack on the island in 686 . After the conquest of the Isle of Wight , Wulfhere ordered the priest Eoppa to provide baptism to the inhabitants . According to the Chronicle , this was the first time Christian baptism had reached the island .
In the early 670s , Cenwealh of Wessex died , and perhaps as a result of the stress caused by Wulfhere 's military activity the West Saxon kingdom fragmented and came to be ruled by underkings , according to Bede . Eventually these underkings were defeated and the kingdom reunited , probably by Cædwalla but possibly by Centwine . A decade after Wulfhere 's death , the West Saxons under Cædwalla began an aggressive expansion to the east , reversing much of the Mercian advance .
In addition to being Wulfhere 's godson , King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons had a connection to the Mercians via marriage . His wife was Queen Eafe , the daughter of Eanfrith of the Hwicce , a tribe whose territory lay to the southwest of Mercia . The Hwicce had their own royal family , but it appears that at this date they were already subordinate to Wulfhere : the marriage between Æthelwealh and Eafe may well have taken place at Wulfhere 's court , since it is known Æthelwealh was converted there . The kingdom of the Hwicce is sometimes regarded as a creation of Penda 's , but it is equally likely that the kingdom existed independently of Mercia , and that Penda and Wulfhere 's increasing influence in the area represented an extension of Mercian power rather than the creation of a separate entity .
= = East Anglia and the East Saxons = =
In 664 , Æthelwald of East Anglia died , and was succeeded by Ealdwulf , who reigned for fifty years . Almost nothing is known of Mercian relations with East Anglia during this time ; East Anglia had previously been dominated by Northumbria , but there is no evidence that this continued after Wulfhere 's accession . Swithhelm of the East Saxons also died in 664 ; he was succeeded by his two sons , Sigehere and Sæbbi , and Bede describes their accession as " rulers ... under Wulfhere , king of the Mercians " . A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity , and according to Bede , Wulfhere sent Jaruman , the bishop of Lichfield , to reconvert the East Saxons . Jaruman was not the first bishop of Lichfield ; Bede mentions a predecessor , Trumhere , but nothing is known about Trumhere 's activities or who appointed him .
It is apparent from these events that Oswiu 's influence in the south had waned by this time , if not before , and that Wulfhere now dominated the area . This becomes even clearer in the next few years , as some time between 665 and 668 Wulfhere sold the see of London to Wine , who had been expelled from his West Saxon bishopric by Cenwealh . London fell within the East Saxons ' territory in that period . From the archaeological evidence , it appears to be about this time that the Middle Saxon settlement in London began to expand significantly ; the centre of Anglo @-@ Saxon London was not at the old Roman centre , but about a mile west of that , near what is now the location of the Strand . Wulfhere may have been in control of the city when this expansion began .
= = Kent , Surrey and Lindsey = =
Eorcenberht was the king of Kent at Wulfhere 's accession , and the two families became connected when Wulfhere married Eorcenberht 's daughter Eormenhild . In 664 Eorcenberht 's son Egbert succeeded to the Kentish throne . The situation in Kent at Egbert 's death in 673 is not clearly recorded . It appears that a year passed before Hlothhere , Egbert 's brother , became king . Wulfhere may have had an interest in the succession , as through his marriage to Eormenhild he was the uncle of Egbert 's two sons , Eadric and Wihtred . It has been speculated that Wulfhere acted as the effective ruler of Kent in the interregnum between Egbert 's death and Hlothhere 's accession . Another Mercian connection to Kent was through Merewalh , the king of the Magonsæte , and hence a subking under Wulfhere . Merewalh , who may have been Wulfhere 's brother , was married to Hlothhere 's sister , Eormenburh .
Surrey is not recorded as ever having been an independent kingdom , but was at least a province that was under the control of different neighbours at different times . It was ruled by Egbert until the early 670s , when a charter shows Wulfhere confirming a grant made to Bishop Eorcenwald by Frithuwold , a sub @-@ king in Surrey , which may have extended north into modern Buckinghamshire . Frithuwold himself was probably married to Wilburh , Wulfhere 's sister . The charter , made from Thame , is dated between 673 and 675 , and it was probably Egbert 's death that triggered Wulfhere 's intervention . A witness named Frithuric is recorded on a charter in the reign of Wulfhere 's successor , Æthelred , making a grant to the monastery of Peterborough , and the alliteration common in Anglo @-@ Saxon dynasties has led to speculation that the two men may have both come from a Middle Anglian dynasty , with Wulfhere perhaps having placed Frithuwold on the throne of Surrey . The charter is witnessed by three other subkings , named Osric , Wigheard , and Æthelwold ; their kingdoms are not identified but the charter mentions Sonning , a province in what is now eastern Berkshire , and it may be that one of these subkings was a ruler of the Sunningas , the people of that province . This would in turn imply Wulfhere 's domination of that province by that time .
Wulfhere 's influence among the Lindesfara , whose territory , Lindsey , lay in what is now Lincolnshire , is known from information about episcopal authority . At least one of the Mercian bishops of Lichfield is known to have exercised authority there : Wynfrith , who became bishop on Chad 's death in 672 . In addition it is known that Wulfhere gave land at Barrow upon Humber , in Lindsey , to Chad , for a monastery . It is possible that Chad also had authority there as bishop , probably no later than 669 . It may be that the political basis for Mercian episcopal control of the Lindesfara was laid early in Wulfhere 's reign , under Trumhere and Jaruman , the two bishops who preceded Chad .
= = Defeat and death = =
When Wulfhere attacked Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith in 674 , he did so from a position of strength . Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid says that Wulfhere " stirred up all the southern nations against [ Northumbria ] " . Bede does not report the fighting , nor is it mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , but according to Stephen , Ecgfrith defeated Wulfhere , forcing him to surrender Lindsey , and to pay tribute .
Wulfhere survived the defeat but evidently lost some degree of control over the south as a result ; in 675 , Æscwine , one of the kings of the West Saxons , fought him at Biedanheafde . It is not known where this battle was , or who was the victor . Henry of Huntingdon , a 12th @-@ century historian who had access to versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle now lost , believed that Mercians had been the victors in a " terrible battle " and remarks upon Wulfhere having inherited " the valour of his father and grandfather " . Kirby , however , presumes Æscwine was sufficiently successful to break Wulfhere 's hold over Wessex .
Wulfhere died later in 675 . The cause of death , according to Henry of Huntingdon , was disease . He would have been in his mid @-@ thirties . His widow , Eormenhild , is thought to have later become the abbess of Ely . Æthelred , Wulfhere 's brother , succeeded to the throne and reigned for nearly thirty years . Æthelred recovered Lindsey from the Northumbrians a few years after his accession , but he was generally unable to maintain the domination of the south achieved by Wulfhere .
= The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne =
The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , or just The Natural History of Selborne is a book by English naturalist and ornithologist Gilbert White . It was first published in 1789 by his brother Benjamin . It has been continuously in print since then , with nearly 300 editions up to 2007 .
The book was published late in White 's life , compiled from a mixture of his letters to other naturalists — Thomas Pennant and Daines Barrington ; a ' Naturalist 's Calendar ' ( in the second edition ) comparing phenology observations made by White and William Markwick of the first appearances in the year of different animals and plants ; and observations of natural history organized more or less systematically by species and group . A second volume , less often reprinted , covered the antiquities of Selborne . Some of the letters were never posted , and were written for the book .
White 's Natural History was at once well received by contemporary critics and the public , and continued to be admired by a diverse range of nineteenth and twentieth century literary figures including Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Thomas Carlyle , Charles Darwin , John Ruskin , Virginia Woolf , and W. H. Auden . His work has been seen as an early contribution to ecology and in particular to phenology . The book has been enjoyed for its charm and apparent simplicity , and the way that it creates a vision of pre @-@ industrial England .
The original manuscript has been preserved and is displayed in the Gilbert White museum at The Wakes , Selborne .
= = Overview = =
The main part of the book , the Natural History , is presented as a compilation of 44 letters nominally to Thomas Pennant , a leading British zoologist of the day , and 66 letters to Daines Barrington , an English barrister and Fellow of the Royal Society . In these letters , White details the natural history of the area around his family home at the vicarage of Selborne in Hampshire .
Many of the ' letters ' were never posted , and were written especially for the book . Patrick Armstrong , in his book The English Parson @-@ Naturalist , notes that in particular , " an obvious example is the first , nominally to Thomas Pennant , but which is clearly contrived , as it introduces the parish , briefly summarizing its position , geography and principal physical features . " White 's biographer , Richard Mabey , estimates that up to 46 out of 66 ' letters to Daines Barrington ' " were probably never sent through the post " ; Mabey explains that it is hard to be more precise , because of White 's extensive editing . Some letters are dated although never sent . Some dates have been altered . Some letters have been cut down , split into shorter ' letters ' , merged , or distributed in small parts into other letters . A section about insect @-@ eating birds in a letter sent to Barrington in 1770 appears in the book as letter 41 to Pennant . Personal remarks have been removed throughout . Thus , while the book is genuinely based on letters to Pennant and Barrington , the structure of the book is a literary device .
As a compilation of letters and other materials , the book as a whole has an uneven structure . The first part is a diary @-@ like sequence of ' letters ' , with the breaks and wanderings that naturally follow . The second is a calendar , organized by phenological event around the year . The third is a collection of observations , organised by animal or plant group and species , with a section on meteorology . The apparently rambling structure of the book is in fact bracketed by opening and closing sections , arranged like the rest as letters , which " give form and scale and even a semblance of narrative structure to what would otherwise have been a shapeless anthology . " The unposted Letter 1 begins
The parish of Selborne lies in the extreme eastern corner of the county of Hampshire , bordering on the county of Sussex , and not far from the county of Surrey ; is about fifty miles south @-@ west of London , in latitude fifty @-@ one , and near mid @-@ way between the towns of Alton and Petersfield . Being very large and extensive , it abuts on twelve parishes , two of which are in Sussex — viz , Trotton and Rogate . ... The soils of this district are almost as various and diversified as the views and aspects . The high part of the south @-@ west consists of a vast hill of chalk , rising three hundred feet above the village , and is divided into a sheep @-@ down , the high wood and a long hanging wood , called The Hanger . The covert of this eminence is altogether beech , the most lovely of all forest trees , whether we consider its smooth rind or bark , its glossy foliage , or graceful pendulous boughs . The down , or sheepwalk , is a pleasing park @-@ like spot , of about one mile by half that space , jutting out on the verge of the hill @-@ country , where it begins to break down into the plains , and commanding a very engaging view , being an assemblage of hill , dale , wood @-@ lands , heath , and water . The prospect is bounded to the south @-@ east and east by the vast range of mountains called the Sussex Downs , by Guild @-@ down near Guildford , and by the Downs round Dorking , and Ryegate in Surrey , to the north @-@ east , which altogether , with the country beyond Alton and Farnham , form a noble and extensive outline .
" No novelist could have opened better " , wrote Virginia Woolf ; " Selborne is set solidly in the foreground . "
= = Illustrations = =
The first edition was illustrated with paintings by the Swiss artist Samuel Hieronymus Grimm , engraved by W. Angus and aquatinted . Grimm had lived in England since 1768 , and was quite a famous artist , costing 2 ½ guineas per week . In the event , he stayed in Selborne for 28 days , and White recorded that he worked very hard on 24 of them . White also described Grimm 's method , which was to sketch the landscape in lead pencil , then to put in the shading , and finally to add a light wash of watercolour . The illustrations were engraved ( signed at lower right ) by a variety of engravers including William Angus and Peter Mazell .
= = Structure = =
= = = The Natural History of Selborne = = =
= = = = Letters to Thomas Pennant = = = =
There are 44 letters to White 's friend Thomas Pennant ( 1726 – 1798 ) , of which the first nine were never posted and are thus undated . Of those that were posted , the first , Letter 10 giving an overview of Selborne , is dated 4 August 1767 ; the last , Letter 44 on wood pigeons , is dated 30 November 1780 . It is not known how the men became friends , or even if they ever met ; White writes repeatedly that he would like to meet " to have a little conversation face to face after we have corresponded so freely for several years " so it is certain they did not meet for long periods , and possible they never met at all . The letters are edited from the form in which they were actually posted ; for example , Letter 10 as posted had a cringing introductory paragraph of thanks to Pennant which White edited out of the published version .
= = = = Letters to the Hon. Daines Barrington = = = =
There are 66 letters to the lawyer Daines Barrington ( 1727 – 1800 ) , occupying half the book . Letter 1 , on summer birds of passage , is dated 30 June 1769 ; Letter 66 , on thunderstorms , is dated 25 June 1787 . The Barrington letters therefore largely overlap the time frame of those to Pennant , but began and ended somewhat later . It was Barrington who suggested to White that he should write a book from his observations ; although Pennant had been corresponding with White for a while , he was relying on White for natural history information for his own books , and , suggests White 's biographer Richard Mabey , must have wanted White as a continuing source of information , not as a rival author . Barrington , on the other hand , liked to theorize about the natural world , but had little interest in making observations himself , and tended to accept claimed facts uncritically .
A character in some of the letters is a tortoise :
The old tortoise , that I have mentioned in a former letter , still continues in this garden , and retired underground about the 20th of November , and came out again for one day on the 30th : it lies now buried in a wet swampy border under a wall facing to the south , and is enveloped at present in mud and mire !
Letter 65 describes the summer of 1783 as " an amazing and portentous one , and full of horrible phenomena ; for , besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunderstorms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom , the peculiar haze , or smoky fog , that prevailed for many weeks in this island , and in every part of Europe , and even beyond its limits , was a most extraordinary appearance , unlike anything known within the memory of man ... The sun , at noon , looked as blank as a clouded moon , and shed a rust @-@ coloured ferruginous light on the ground , and floors of rooms ; but was particularly lurid and blood @-@ coloured at rising and setting . All this time the heat was so intense that butcher 's meat could hardly be eaten on the day after it was killed ... " This was caused by the eruption of the Laki volcano in Iceland between 8 June 1783 and February 1784 , killing up to a quarter of the people of Iceland and spreading a haze as far as Egypt .
= = = The Antiquities of Selborne = = =
This section , often omitted from later editions , consists like the Natural History of 26 " Letters " , none of them posted , and without even the fiction of being addressed to Pennant or Barrington . Letter 1 begins " It is reasonable to suppose that in remote ages this woody and mountainous district was inhabited only by bears and wolves . " Letter 2 discusses Selborne in Saxon times ; Selborne was according to White a royal manor , belonging to Editha , queen to Edward the Confessor . Letter 3 describes the village 's church , which " has no pretensions to antiquity , and is , as I suppose , of no earlier date than the beginning of the reign of Henry VII . " Letter 5 describes the ancient Yew tree in the churchyard . Letter 7 describes the ( ruined ) priory . Letter 11 discusses the properties of the Knights Templar in and near the village .
Letter 14 describes the visit of bishop William of Wykeham in 1373 , to correct the scandalous " particular abuses " in the religious houses in the parish . He orders the canons of Selborne priory ( Item 5th ) " to take care that the doors of their church and priory be so attended to that no suspected and disorderly females , suspectae at aliae inhonestae , pass through their choir and cloiser in the dark " ; ( Item 10th ) to cease " living dissolutely after the flesh , and not after the spirit " as it has been proven that some of the canons " sleep naked in their beds without their breeches and shirts " ; ( Item 11th ) to stop " keeping hounds , and publicly attending hunting @-@ matches " and " noisy tumultuous huntings " ; ( Item 17th ) to properly maintain their houses and the convent itself , since they have allowed " through neglect , notorious dilapidations to take place " ; ( Item 29th ) to stop wearing " foppish ornaments , and the affectation of appearing like beaux with garments edged with costly furs , with fringed gloves , and silken girdles trimmed with gold and silver . " Richard Mabey describes White 's reaction to the " Priory saga " as " grave disapproval of the monks ' sensuality and ... general delinquency " .
A sequence of Letters then relate the history of the priors of Selborne , until Letter 24 which relates the takeover of the priory by Magdalen College , Oxford under bishop William Waynflete in 1459 . White describes this as a disastrous fall : " Thus fell the considerable and well @-@ endowed priory of Selborne after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty @-@ four years ; about seventy @-@ four years after the suppression of priories alien by Henry V. , and about fifty years before the general dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII . " The final letter records that " No sooner did the priory .. become an appendage to the college , but it must at once have tended to swift decay . " White notes that since then , even " the very foundations have been torn up for the repair of the highways " so that nothing is left but a rough pasture " full of hillocks and pits , choaked with nettles , and dwarf @-@ elder , and trampled by the feet of the ox and the heifer " . White had reason to be bitter about the takeover by Magdalen College , as it had made them Lords of the Manor of Selborne , which in turn gave them the right to appoint the parish priest . White 's biographer Richard Mabey casts doubt on the " frequent assumption " that White 's " deepest regret was that he could never be vicar of Selborne " , but it was true that he was ineligible , as only fellows of Magdalen could be granted the living .
= = = A Naturalist 's Calendar = = =
= = = = From the year 1768 to the year 1793 = = = =
This section , compiled posthumously , contains a list of some 500 phenological observations in Selborne from White 's manuscripts , organised by William Markwick ( 1739 – 1812 ) , and supplemented by Markwick 's own observations from Catsfield , near Battle , Sussex . The observations depend on the latitude of these places and on the ( global ) climate , forming a baseline for comparison with modern observations . For example , " Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) heard " is recorded by White for 7 — 26 April , and by Markwick for 15 April and 3 May ( presumably only once at the earlier date ) and " last heard " by Markwick on 28 June . The table begins as follows :
= = = = Observations in Various Branches of Natural History = = = =
Observations on Birds
This is the longest section of the observations , with comments in each instance by Markwick .
Observations on Quadrupeds
These are a few entries on sheep , rabbits , cats and squirrels , horse and hounds .
Observations on Insects and Vermes
The ' Vermes ' cover glow @-@ worms , earthworms , snails and slugs , and a " snake 's slough " , a cast skin .
Observations on Vegetables
The observations relate to trees , seeds , " beans sown by birds " , " cucumbers set by bees " , and a few fungi ( truffles , Tremella nostoc , and fairy rings ) .
Meteorological Observations
These are a few curiosities such as frozen sleet and the " black spring " of 1771 . He also recorded the effects on the weather of the 1783 volcanic eruption of the Icelandic crater Laki .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
White 's lifelong friend John Mulso wrote to him in 1776 , correctly predicting that " Your work , upon the whole , will immortalize your Place of Abode as well as Yourself . "
Thomas White wrote " a long , appreciative , but .. properly restrained review " of his brother 's book in The Gentleman 's Magazine of January 1789 , commenting that " Sagacity of observation runs through the work " .
An anonymous reviewer in The Topographer of April 1789 wrote that " A more delightful , or more original work than Mr. White 's History of Selborne has seldom been published ... Natural History has evidently been the author 's principal study , and , of that , ornithology is evidently the favourite . The book is not a compilation from former publications , but the result of many years ' attentive observations to nature itself , which are told not only with the precision of a philosopher , but with that happy selection of circumstances , which mark the poet . "
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
In 1830 , an anonymous critic , in what critic Tobias Menely called a description of Selborne " as a place that lingers beyond the spatio @-@ temporal horizon of modern life " , wrote having visited the village that
[ T ] he sequestered retreat of the naturalist still remains ... inaccessible to all the improved knowledge and refinement which belong to these enlightened and virtuous times . It has been excluded from the blessings of increasing commerce and population , from factories and filiations , manufactures and Methodism , genius and gin , prosperity and pauperism .
= = = Edwardian era = = =
The 1907 – 1921 Cambridge History of English and American Literature begins its essay on White 's Selborne with the words
Gilbert White 's Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne ( 1789 ) holds a unique position in English literature as the solitary classic of natural history . It is not easy to give , in a few words , a reason for its remarkable success . It is , in fact , not so much a logically arranged and systematic book as an invaluable record of the life work of a simple and refined man who succeeded in picturing himself as well as what he saw . The reader is carried along by his interest in the results of far @-@ sighted observation ; but , more than this , the reader imbibes the spirit of the writer which pervades the whole book and endears it to like @-@ minded naturalists as a valued companion .
= = = Modern = = =
White is sometimes treated as a pioneer of ecology . The British ornithologist James Fisher gives a more balanced view , writing in 1941 :
His world is round and simple and complete ; the British country ; the perfect escape .
The medical historian Richard Barnett writes that
" White has the strange power to make natural historians of his readers , whether gardeners , historians or biologists " , noting that this demands analysis . He observes further that " White is straight out of Jane Austen . If it were not for his fame as a naturalist and writer , nothing in his life would distinguish him from hundreds of country parsons in the 18th and 19th centuries . The Natural History of Selborne is an oddly unassuming masterpiece , its
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haphazard construction revealing the process by which White came to write it . "
Barnett notes , too , that
Part of White 's appeal lies in this ability to summon a powerful , particular vision of pre @-@ industrial England . He offers his readers the key to a walled garden of mellow Queen Anne brick , lying beside Thomas Gray 's country churchyard and an ancient water meadow .
Yale nonfiction tutor Fred Strebeigh , writing in Audubon magazine in 1988 , compared White with Henry Thoreau 's Walden :
Out of the ruts and the ways of its village , Selborne fashioned a new natural history . It spoke simply , with a human voice . But it looked profoundly . It pioneered a way for students of nature who wished , as White did , not to roam the high Arctic or far Pacific but to fathom their own terrain . It offered a wide world to anyone willing to dig deep . Selborne said : watch narrowly , skim close to the ground . It whispered , hushed , what Thoreau would later broadcast : " We are acquainted with a mere pellicle of the globe on which we live . Most have not delved six feet beneath the surface , nor leaped as many above it . We know not where we are . " In those words , as in all Walden , Thoreau may have had in mind the village of Selborne and the Reverend Gilbert White--the town reached only by ruts running well beneath the surface , the man whose book had leapt the ruts to round the globe .
Tobias Menely of Indiana University notes that the book " has garnered praise from Coleridge , Carlyle , Darwin , Ruskin , Woolf , and Auden " and that
Selborne 's reception in the two hundred years since its initial publication offers a vivid instance of the retrospective idealization that transforms history into heritage .
The naturalist Richard Mabey writes in his biography of White that
I must confess that , like many others , I did not come painlessly to the Natural History . For years I was put off by the aura of sanctity and bluffness which seemed to surround it . It was the kind of book presented on prize @-@ giving days , and I saw it as a work , in all senses , of the old school . Even when I eventually came to read it , I cannot say my opinion changed dramatically . I could not cope at first with its rambling disorder , its sudden plunges into thickets of taxonomic Latin , and , for a while , I failed to notice the feeling behind the often dispassionate prose .
= = Manuscript = =
The manuscript for the book stayed in the White family until 1895 , when it was auctioned at Sotheby 's . The purchaser was Stuart M. Samuel , who mounted the letters and bound the book in green Morocco leather . His library was sold in 1907 . The manuscript was bought by the dealer A.S.W. Rosenbach in 1923 , and passed into the collection of Arthur A. Houghton . The Houghton collection was auctioned by Christie 's in 1980 , where the manuscript was purchased by and for Gilbert White 's museum at The Wakes , Selborne , where it is displayed .
= = Legacy = =
Thomas Bewick , in the first volume ( Land Birds ) of his A History of British Birds ( 1797 ) , presents a phenological list of 19 birds which are " chiefly selected from Mr. White 's Natural History of Selborne , and are arranged nearly in the order of their appearing " . The list begins with the wryneck ( " Middle of March " ) , places the cuckoo in the middle of April , and ends with the flycatcher in the middle of May .
White 's Natural History has been continuously in print since its first publication . A paperback edition of The Illustrated Natural History of Selborne was reprinted by Thames & Hudson in 2007 . It was long held ( " apocryphally " , according to White 's biographer , Richard Mabey ) to be the fourth @-@ most published book in the English language after the Bible , the works of Shakespeare , and John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress .
White 's frequent accounts of a tortoise inherited from his aunt in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne form the basis for Verlyn Klinkenborg 's book , Timothy ; or , Notes of an Abject Reptile ( 2006 ) , as well as for Sylvia Townsend Warner 's The Portrait of a Tortoise ( 1946 ) .
= = = Versions of the book = = =
Archive.org : 1841 edition ( Harper and brothers , New York )
Biodiversity Library : 1813 edition
Biodiversity Library : 1877 edition
Archive.org : 1880 edition ( complete with Antiquities )
Project Gutenberg edition
Kindle edition ( free )
= = = = Audio = = = =
The Natural History of Selborne public domain audiobook at LibriVox
= = = About the book = = =
Review in Nature , 1901 ( paywall )
Review of Dadswell 's The Selborne Pioneer by Richard Barnett , 2007
Gilbert White 's Cosmopolitan Parochialism by Tobias Meneley
Letter @-@ Writers . Bartleby 's Cambridge History of Literature , 1907 – 1921
= Jane Cobden =
Emma Jane Catherine Cobden ( 28 April 1851 – 7 July 1947 ) , known as Jane Cobden , was a British Liberal politician who was active in many radical causes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . A daughter of the Victorian reformer and statesman Richard Cobden , she was an early proponent of women 's rights , and in 1889 was one of two women elected to the inaugural London County Council . Her election was controversial ; legal challenges to her eligibility hampered and eventually prevented her from serving as a councillor .
From her youth Jane Cobden , together with her sisters , sought to protect and develop the legacy of her father . She remained committed throughout her life to the " Cobdenite " issues of land reform , peace , and social justice , and was a consistent advocate for Irish independence from Britain . The battle for women 's suffrage on equal terms with men , to which she made her first commitment in 1875 , was her most enduring cause . Although she was sympathetic and supportive of those , including her sister Anne Cobden Sanderson , who chose to campaign using militant , illegal methods , she kept her own activities within the law . She stayed in the Liberal Party , despite her profound disagreement with its stance on the suffrage issue .
After her marriage to the publisher Thomas Fisher Unwin in 1892 , Jane Cobden extended her range of interests into the international field , in particular advancing the rights of the indigenous populations within colonial territories . As a convinced anti @-@ imperialist she opposed the Boer War of 1899 – 1902 , and after the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 she attacked its introduction of segregationist policies . In the years prior to the First World War she opposed Joseph Chamberlain 's tariff reform crusade on the grounds of her father 's free trade principles , and was prominent in the Liberal Party 's revival of the land reform issue . In the 1920s she largely retired from public life , and in 1928 presented the old Cobden family residence , Dunford House , to the Cobden Memorial Association as a conference and education centre dedicated to the issues and causes that had defined Cobdenism .
= = Early years = =
= = = Family background and childhood = = =
Jane Cobden was born on 28 April 1851 in Westbourne Terrace , London . She was the third daughter and fourth child of Richard Cobden , who at the time of her birth was a Radical MP for the West Riding . With John Bright he had co @-@ founded the Anti @-@ Corn Law League which in the 1840s had spearheaded the successful campaign for the abolition of the Corn Laws . Jane 's mother was Catherine Anne , née Williams , the daughter of a timber merchant from Machynlleth in Wales ; the older Cobden children were Richard ( " Dick " ) , born 1841 ; Kate , born 1844 ; and Ellen , born 1848 . Two further daughters followed Jane : Anne , born 1853 , and Lucy , born 1861 .
In the 1830s Richard had handed control of his prosperous calico @-@ printing business to his brothers , so that he could concentrate on public service . By 1849 the business was failing and Richard was close to financial ruin . He was saved from bankruptcy by a public subscription which not only settled his debts but also enabled him to acquire the farmhouse in which he had been born in 1804 , at Dunford , near Heyshott in Sussex . He rebuilt the property as a large villa , Dunford House , which became Jane Cobden 's childhood home from the beginning of 1854 . In April 1856 Dick , who was at school at Weinheim in Germany , died there after a short illness . The news was a devastating shock to the family , and caused Richard 's temporary withdrawal from public life . This hiatus was prolonged when , in 1857 , he lost his parliamentary seat . He returned to the House of Commons in May 1859 , as Liberal MP for Rochdale .
Because of his many absences from home , on parliamentary and other business , Richard Cobden was a somewhat remote figure to his daughters , although his letters indicate that he felt warmly towards them and that he wished to direct their political education . In later years they would all acknowledge his influence over their ideas . Both parents impressed on the girls their responsibilities for the poor in the local community ; Jane Cobden 's 1864 diary records visits to homes and workhouses . She and her younger sister Anne , at the ages of 12 and 10 respectively , taught classes in the local village school . The girls were encouraged by their father to contribute what money they possessed to relieve local poverty : " Do not keep the money ... as you have now made up your minds to give it to poor sufferers , let your own neighbours have it . Your Mama will tell you how to dispose of it , and tell me all about it " .
= = = Sisterhood = = =
Richard Cobden died after a severe bronchial attack on 2 April 1865 , a few weeks before Jane 's 14th birthday . There followed a time of domestic uncertainty and financial worry , eventually resolved by a pension from the government of £ 1 @,@ 500 a year , and the establishment of a " Cobden Tribute Fund " by his friends and followers . After their father 's death Jane and Anne attended Warrington Lodge school in Maida Hill but , following a disagreement the nature of which is unclear , both were removed from the school — " thrown on my hands " , their mother complained . In this difficult time , Catherine did not withdraw into seclusion ; in 1866 she supervised the re @-@ publication of her husband 's Political Writings , and in the same year became one of the 1 @,@ 499 signatories to the " Ladies Petition " , an event that the historian Sophia Van Wingerden marks as the beginning of the organised women 's suffrage movement .
In 1869 Dunford House was let . Catherine and her four younger daughters moved to a house in South Kensington — the eldest , Kate , had married in 1866 . The ménage proved unsatisfactory ; Ellen , Jane and Anne were now displaying considerable independence of spirit , and differences of opinion arose between mother and daughters . Catherine moved out , taking the youngest daughter Lucy , and went to Wales where she lived until her death in 1877 . In South Kensington , Ellen , Jane and Anne , often joined by Kate , established a sisterhood determined both to preserve Richard Cobden 's memory and works and to uphold his principles and radical causes by actions of their own . Together they stopped publication of a memoir of their father , sponsored by his former colleagues and compiled by a family friend , Julie Salis Schwabe . This caused some offence ; Schwabe had given the family financial and emotional support after Richard 's death . However , Jane in particular wanted a more substantial memorial , and secured the services of John Morley , whose biography of Richard Cobden was published in 1881 .
During these years Jane often travelled abroad . In London , she and her sisters extended their range of acquaintances into literary and artistic circles ; among their new friends were the writer George MacDonald and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites William and Jane Morris and Edward Burne @-@ Jones . Ellen later married the painter Walter Sickert . Jane developed an interest in the question of women 's suffrage after attending a conference in London , in 1871 . In 1875 she made a specific commitment to this cause , although she did not became active in the movement for several years . In the meantime , in 1879 , she helped to found the Cobden Club in Heyshott , close to her father 's birthplace .
= = Early campaigns = =
= = = Women 's suffrage = = =
From the late 1870s the Cobden sisters began to follow different pathways . Anne married Thomas Sanderson in 1882 ; inspired by her friendships within the Morris circle , her interests turned towards arts and crafts and eventually to socialism . After her marriage to Sickert failed , Ellen became a novelist . Jane became an active Liberal , on the radical wing of the party . In about 1879 she became a member of the National Society for Women 's Suffrage , which had been founded in 1867 in the wake of the 1866 " Ladies Petition " . Jane joined the National Society 's finance committee , and by 1880 was serving as its treasurer . That year she was a speaker at a " Grand Demonstration " at St James 's Hall , London , and in the following year addressed a similar meeting in Bradford . In 1883 she attended a conference in Leeds , jointly organised by the National Liberal Federation and the National Reform Union , where she supported a motion proposed by Henry William Crosskey and seconded by Walter McLaren ( John Bright 's nephew ) , to extend the vote in parliamentary elections to certain women — those who , " possessing the qualifications that entitle men to vote , have now the right of voting in all matters of local government " .
The National Society 's general stance was cautious ; it avoided close identification with political parties , and for this reason would not accept affiliation from branches of the Women 's Liberal Federation . This , and its policy of excluding married women from any extension of the franchise , led to a split in 1888 , with the formation of a breakaway " Central National Society " ( CNS ) . Jane joined the executive committee of the new body , which encouraged the affiliation of Women 's Liberal Associations and hoped that a future Liberal government would grant women 's enfranchisement . However , the more radical members of the CNS felt that its commitment to votes for married women was too half @-@ hearted . In 1889 this group , which included Jane Cobden and Emmeline Pankhurst , formed the Women 's Franchise League ( WFL ) with a specific policy of seeking votes for women on the same basis as for men , and the eligibility of women for all offices .
= = = Ireland = = =
In 1848 Richard Cobden had written : " Almost every crime and outrage in Ireland is connected with the occupation or ownership of land ... if I had the power , I would always make the proprietors of the soil resident , by breaking up the large properties . In other words , I would give Ireland to the Irish " . Nevertheless , his views were held in the context of Unionism ; he had condemned the 1848 " Young Ireland " rebellion as an act of insanity . Jane adopted her father 's standpoint on Irish land reform , yet embraced the cause of Irish home rule — on which she lectured regularly — and was a strong supporter of the Land League . After visiting Ireland with the Women 's Mission to Ireland in 1887 , she subsequently used the pages of the English press to expose the mistreatment of evicted tenants . In a letter to The Times , Jane and her associates cited one particular case — that of the Ryan family of Cloughbready in County Tipperary — to illustrate the British government 's harshness towards even the most vulnerable of individuals . Jane sent money and food to alleviate the Ryan family 's distress .
Jane was in contact with Irish Land League leaders , including John Dillon and William O 'Brien , and lobbied for the release of the latter after his imprisonment under the Coercion Act of 1881 . She and her sisters supported the Irish Plan of Campaign , a scheme whereby tenants acted collectively to secure fair rents from their landlords . This plan was eventually denounced by the Roman Catholic Church as contrary to natural justice and Christian charity , although some priests supported it . The attachment of Jane and her sisters to the rebellious factions in Ireland strained relations between the sisters and many of their father 's former Liberal Unionist colleagues , but won approval from Thomas Bayley Potter , who had succeeded Richard Cobden as MP for Rochdale . In October 1887 he wrote to Jane : " You are true to the living and just instincts of your father ... You know your father 's heart better than John Bright does " .
= = London County Council election 1889 = =
Under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882 some women were qualified to vote in municipal elections , but were excluded from serving as councillors . However , the Local Government Act of 1888 , which created county councils , was interpreted by some as allowing women 's election to these new bodies . On 17 November 1888 a group of Liberal women decided to test the legal position . They formed the Society for Promoting the Return of Women as County Councillors ( SPRWCC ) , established an election fund of £ 400 and selected two women — Jane Cobden and Margaret Sandhurst — as Liberal candidates for the newly created London County Council . Cobden was adopted by the party 's Bow and Bromley division , and Sandhurst by Brixton . Despite objections from the Conservatives , the women 's nominations were accepted by the local returning officers . Cobden 's campaign in Bow and Bromley was organised with considerable enthusiasm and efficiency by the 29 @-@ year @-@ old George Lansbury , then a Radical Liberal , later a socialist and eventually leader of the Labour Party . Both Cobden and Sandhurst were victorious in the elections on 19 January 1889 ; they were joined by Emma Cons , whom the Progressive majority on the council selected to serve as an alderman .
The women took their places on the inaugural council , and each accepted a range of committee assignments . Almost immediately , however , Sandhurst 's defeated Conservative opponent , Beresford Hope , lodged a legal challenge against her election . When this was heard on 18 March , the judges ruled Sandhurst disqualified under the provisions of the 1882 Act . Her appeal was dismissed , and Beresford Hope was installed in her place . Cobden faced no such challenge , since her runner @-@ up was a fellow @-@ Liberal who had promised to support her . Even so , her position on the council remained precarious , particularly after an attempt in parliament to legalise women 's rights to serve as county councillors gained little support . A provision of the prevailing election law provided that anyone elected , even improperly , could not be challenged after twelve months , so on legal advice Cobden refrained from attending council or committee meetings until February 1890 . When the statutory twelve months elapsed without challenge , she resumed her full range of duties .
Although Cobden was now protected from challenge , the Conservative member for Westminster , Sir Walter De Souza , instituted fresh court proceedings against both Cobden and Cons . He argued that since they had been elected or selected unlawfully , their votes in the council had likewise been unlawful , making them liable to heavy financial penalties . In court the judge ruled against both women , though on appeal in April 1891 the penalties were reduced from an original £ 250 to a nominal £ 5 . Cobden was urged by Lansbury and others not to pay even this token , but to go to prison ; she declined this course of action . After a further parliamentary attempt to resolve the situation failed , she sat out the remaining months of her term as a councillor in silence , neither speaking nor voting , and did not seek re @-@ election in the 1892 county elections . Women did not receive the right to sit on county councils until 1907 , with the passage of the Qualification of Women Act .
In his account of the 1888 – 89 election , the historian Jonathan Schneer marks the campaign as a step in what he terms " working @-@ class disenchantment with official Liberalism " , citing in particular Lansbury 's departure from the Liberal Party in 1892 . Schneer also remarks that this " pioneering political venture of British feminism ... provides at once an anticipation of , and a direct contrast to , the militant suffragism of the Edwardian era " .
= = Marriage , wider interests = =
In 1892 , at the age of 41 , Cobden married Thomas Fisher Unwin , an avant @-@ garde publisher whose list included works by Henrik Ibsen , Friedrich Nietzsche , H.G. Wells and the young Somerset Maugham . Unwin 's involvement in a range of world and humanitarian causes led Cobden — who adopted the surname " Cobden Unwin " — to extend her interests to international peace and justice , reform in the Congo , and more generally the rights of aboriginal peoples . She and Unwin opposed the Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) ; both were founder @-@ members of the pro @-@ Boer South African Conciliation Committee , Cobden acting as the committee 's secretary . The couple settled in South Kensington , from where Cobden continued to pursue her own causes . In 1893 , with Laura Ormiston Chant , she represented the WFL in Chicago at the World Congress of Representative Women . At home , she assisted women candidates in the 1894 Kensington " vestry " elections . In 1900 she accepted the presidency of the Brighton Women 's Liberal Association , and in the same year wrote an extended tract , The Recent Development of Violence in our Midst , published by the Stop @-@ the @-@ War Committee .
= = Edwardian campaigner = =
= = = Votes for women , 1903 – 14 = = =
Although Cobden 's views were more progressive than those of the Liberal Party 's mainstream , she stayed a member of the party , believing that it remained the best political vehicle whereby her causes could be advanced . Other suffragists , including Anne Cobden Sanderson , took a different view , and aligned themselves with socialist movements . When the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) began its militant campaign in 1905 , Cobden refrained from participation in illegal actions , although she spoke out for her sister when Anne became one of the first suffragists to be sent to prison , after a demonstration outside Parliament in October 1906 . On Anne 's release a month later , Cobden and her husband attended a celebration banquet at the Savoy Hotel , together with other WSPU prisoners . Cobden moved closer to the militant wing in 1907 when she endorsed the WSPU 's new magazine , Votes for Women . That year she hosted an " At Home " meeting at which the WSPU leader Christabel Pankhurst was the principal speaker . The WSPU was split when members who objected to the Pankhurst family 's authoritarian leadership formed themselves into the Women 's Freedom League ; Cobden did not join Anne in the breakaway movement , although she supported its associated body , the Women 's Tax Resistance League .
In 1911 Cobden was responsible for the Indian women 's delegation in the Women 's Coronation Procession , a London demonstration organised by suffrage associations from Britain and the Empire . The procession marched on 17 June 1911 , a few days before King George V 's coronation . During 1910 – 12 several Conciliation Bills extending the parliamentary vote to a limited number of propertied women , were debated in the House of Commons . When the third of these was under discussion , Cobden sought the help of the Irish Parliamentary Party by reminding them of the support women had given to Ireland during the Land League agitation : " In the name of those 40 @,@ 000 Englishwomen we urge you to support at every division this Bill by your presence and your vote " . The bill was finally abandoned when the Liberal prime minister , H. H. Asquith , replaced it with a bill extending the male suffrage . In protest against the Liberal government 's suffrage policies and its harsh treatment of militants , Cobden resigned her honorary presidency of the Women 's Liberal Association in Rochdale , her father 's last constituency .
= = = Social , political and humanitarian activities = = =
Although the cause of women 's suffrage remained her principal concern , at least until the First World War , Cobden was active in other campaigns . In 1903 she defended the principles of free trade , as expressed by her father , against Joseph Chamberlain 's tariff reform crusade . Chamberlain had called for a policy of Imperial Preference , and the imposition of tariffs against countries opposed to Britain 's imperial interests . To a meeting in Manchester , Cobden expressed confidence that " Manchester ... will tell Mr Chamberlain that it is still loyal to our old flag : free trade , peace and goodwill among nations " . In 1904 , Richard Cobden 's centenary year , she published The Hungry Forties , described by Anthony Howe in a biographical article as " an evocative and brilliantly successful tract " . It was one of several free trade books and pamphlets issued by the Fisher Unwin press which , together with celebratory centenary events , helped to define free trade as a major progressive cause of the Edwardian era .
The Cobdenite cause of land reform was revived in the 1900s as a major Liberal policy , helped in 1913 by the publication of Jane Cobden 's book The Land Hunger : Life under Monopoly . The dedication read : " To the memory of Richard Cobden who loved his native land , these pages are dedicated by his daughter , in the hope that his desire — ' Free Trade in Land ' — may be fulfilled " . Cobden did not confine her interests to domestic affairs . From 1906 , along with Helen Bright Clark , she was an active member of the Aborigines ' Protection Society , an organisation concerned with the rights of indigenous peoples under colonial rule ; the society merged with the Anti @-@ Slavery Society in 1909 . In 1907 she lobbied the prime minister , Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman , on behalf of the Friends of Russian Freedom , seeking his support for amendments to the Hague Convention , then in session in Geneva Her efforts for the poorest in society encompassed appeals on behalf of the families of striking workers in London and Dublin during the labour unrest of 1913 – 14 , and of starving women and children in Tripoli . She also found time to act as secretary to the memorial fund for Emma Cons , after the latter 's death in 1912 .
= = Late campaigns = =
During the war years 1914 – 18 , with the issue of women 's suffrage quiescent , Cobden became increasingly involved in South African affairs . She supported Solomon Plaatje 's campaign against the segregationist Natives ' Land Act of 1913 , a stance that led , in 1917 , to her removal from the committee of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society . The Society 's line was to support the Botha government 's land reform policy ; Cobden denounced Sir John Harris , the Society 's parliamentary representative , for being a false friend to the native people by secretly working against them . Cobden maintained her commitment to the cause of Irish freedom , and offered personal help to victims of the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence , 1919 – 21 .
In 1920 Cobden gave Dunford House to the London School of Economics ( LSE ) , of which she had become a governor . According to Beatrice Webb , co @-@ founder of the School , she soon regretted the gift ; Webb wrote in her diary on 2 May 1923 : " The poor lady ... makes fretful complaints if a single bush is cut down or a stone shifted , whilst she vehemently resents the high spirits of the students ... not to mention the opinions of some of the lecturers " . Later in 1923 LSE returned the house to Cobden ; in 1928 she donated it to the Cobden Memorial Association . With the help of the writer and journalist Francis Wrigley Hirst and others , the house became a conference and education centre for pursuing the traditional Cobdenite causes of free trade , peace and goodwill .
= = Final years , death and legacy = =
After 1928 , Jane Cobden 's chief occupation was the organisation of her father 's papers , some of which she placed in the British Museum . Others were eventually collected , with other Cobden family documents , by the West Sussex County Council Record Office at Chichester . In old age she lived quietly at Oatscroft , her home near Dunford House , and following her husband 's death in 1935 made few interventions in public life . During the 1930s , under Hirst 's direction , Dunford House continued to preach what Howe describes as " the pure milk of the Cobdenian faith " : the conviction that in Britain and in continental Europe , peace and prosperity would develop from individual ownership of the soil . Jane Cobden died , aged 96 , on 7 July 1947 , at Whitehanger Nursing Home in Fernhurst , Surrey . In the years following her death her papers were collected and deposited as part of the family archive in Chichester . In 1952 Dunford House was transferred to the YMCA , although its general educational functions and mission remained unchanged . The house contains numerous memorabilia of the Cobden family .
Howe depicts Jane Cobden as a formidable personality , known by her husband 's publishing colleagues as " The Jane " , who took a keen and even intrusive interest in the work of the publishing house . She was , Howe says , " a woman of sentiment and enthusiasm who took up ( and sometimes speedily dropped ) causes with a fire which brooked no opposition " . In an essay on the Cobden sisterhood , the feminist historian Sarah Richardson remarks on the different paths chosen by the sisters by which to take their father 's legacy forward : " Jane 's activities showed that it was still possible to follow a radical agenda within the aegis of Liberalism " . Richardson indicates that the main collective achievement of Jane and her sisters was to ensure that the Cobden name , with its radical and progressive associations , survived well into the 20th century . " In doing so " , Richardson concludes , " they proved themselves worthy successors to their father , guaranteeing that his contribution was not only sustained , but remodelled for a new age " .
= United States v. Wong Kim Ark =
United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 169 U.S. 649 ( 1898 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a child born in the United States of Chinese citizens , who had at the time a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and who were carrying on business there other than for the Chinese government , automatically became a U.S. citizen . This decision established an important precedent in its interpretation of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution .
Wong Kim Ark , who was born in San Francisco around 1871 , to Chinese parents legally domiciled and resident there at the time , had been denied re @-@ entry to the United States after a trip abroad , under a law restricting Chinese immigration and prohibiting immigrants from China from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens . He challenged the government 's refusal to recognize his citizenship , and the Supreme Court ruled in his favor , holding that the citizenship language in the Fourteenth Amendment encompassed the specific circumstances of his birth , which included that he was the child of foreigners permanently domiciled and resident in the U.S. at the time of birth .
The case highlighted disagreements over the precise meaning of one phrase in the Citizenship Clause — namely , the provision that a person born in the United States who is subject to the jurisdiction thereof acquires automatic citizenship . The Supreme Court 's majority concluded that this phrase referred to being required to obey U.S. law ; on this basis , they interpreted the language of the Fourteenth Amendment in a way that granted U.S. citizenship to at least some children born of foreigners because they were born on American soil ( a concept known as jus soli ) . The court 's dissenters argued that being subject to the jurisdiction of the United States meant not being subject to any foreign power — that is , not being claimed as a citizen by another country via jus sanguinis ( inheriting citizenship from a parent ) — an interpretation which , in the minority 's view , would have excluded " the children of foreigners , happening to be born to them while passing through the country " . In the words of a 2007 legal analysis of events following the Wong Kim Ark decision , " The parameters of the jus soli principle , as stated by the court in Wong Kim Ark , have never been seriously questioned by the Supreme Court , and have been accepted as dogma by lower courts . "
A 2010 review of the history of the Citizenship Clause notes that the Wong Kim Ark decision held that the guarantee of birthright citizenship " applies to children of foreigners present on American soil " and states that the Supreme Court " has not re @-@ examined this issue since the concept of ' illegal alien ' entered the language " . Since the 1990s , however , controversy has arisen over the longstanding practice of granting automatic citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants , and legal scholars disagree over whether the Wong Kim Ark precedent applies when alien parents are in the country illegally . Attempts have been made from time to time in Congress to restrict birthright citizenship , either via statutory redefinition of the term jurisdiction , or by overriding both the Wong Kim Ark ruling and the Citizenship Clause itself through an amendment to the Constitution , but no such proposal has been enacted .
= = Background = =
= = = Early history of United States citizenship law = = =
United States citizenship law is founded on two traditional principles — jus soli ( " right of the soil " ; a " common law " doctrine ) , and jus sanguinis ( " right of the blood " ; a " civil law " doctrine ) . Under jus soli , a child 's citizenship would be acquired by birth within a country 's territory , without reference to the political status or condition of the child 's parents . Under jus sanguinis , the citizenship of a child would not depend on his or her place of birth , but instead follow the status of a parent ( specifically , the father — or , in the case of an illegitimate birth , the mother ) .
Throughout the history of the United States , the dominant legal principle governing citizenship has been jus soli — the principle that birth within the territorial limits of the United States confers automatic citizenship , excluding slaves before the American Civil War . Although there was no actual definition of citizenship in United States law until after the Civil War , it was generally accepted that anyone born in the United States was automatically a citizen . This applicability of jus soli , via the common law inherited in the United States from England , was upheld in an 1844 New York state case , Lynch v. Clarke , in which it was held that a woman born in New York City , of alien parents temporarily sojourning there , was a U.S. citizen .
United States citizenship could also be acquired at birth via jus sanguinis ( birth outside the country to a citizen parent ) , a right confirmed by Congress in the Naturalization Act of 1790 . Additionally , alien immigrants to the United States could acquire citizenship via a process of naturalization — though access to naturalization was originally limited to " free white person [ s ] " .
African slaves were originally excluded from United States citizenship . In 1857 , the United States Supreme Court held in Dred Scott v. Sandford that slaves , former slaves , and their descendants were not eligible under the Constitution to be citizens . Additionally , American Indians were not originally recognized as citizens , since Indian tribes were considered to be outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. government .
= = = Citizenship clause of the Fourteenth Amendment = = =
After the Civil War and the subsequent abolition of slavery , Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866 . One provision of this law declared as citizens , not only the freed slaves , but " all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power , excluding Indians not taxed " .
Concerns were raised that the citizenship guarantee in the Civil Rights Act might be repealed by a later Congress or struck down as unconstitutional by the courts . Soon after the passage of the Act , Congress drafted the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution and sent it to the states for ratification ( a process which was completed in 1868 ) . Among the Fourteenth Amendment 's many provisions was the Citizenship Clause , which entrenched a guarantee of citizenship in the Constitution by stating , " All persons born or naturalized in the United States , and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside . "
The Citizenship Clause was proposed by Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan on May 30 , 1866 , as an amendment to the joint resolution from the House of Representatives which had framed the initial draft of the proposed Fourteenth Amendment . The heated debate on the proposed new language in the Senate focused on whether Howard 's proposed language would apply more broadly than the wording of the 1866 Civil Rights Act .
Howard said that the clause " is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already , that every person born within the limits of the United States , and subject to their jurisdiction , is by virtue of natural law and national law a citizen of the United States . " He added that citizenship " will not , of course , include persons born in the United States who are foreigners , aliens , who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers accredited to the Government of the United States , but will include every other class of persons " — a comment which would later raise questions as to whether Congress had originally intended that U.S.-born children of foreign parents were to be included as citizens . Responding to concerns expressed by Edgar Cowan of Pennsylvania that liberalizing the right to citizenship might result in certain states being taken over by large populations of undesirable foreign immigrants , John Conness of California predicted that the Chinese population in California would likely remain very small , in large part because Chinese immigrants almost always eventually returned to China , and also because very few Chinese women left their homeland to come to the United States .
James R. Doolittle of Wisconsin objected that the citizenship provision would not be sufficiently narrow to exclude American Indians from citizenship , and in an attempt to address this issue , he proposed to add a phrase taken from the Civil Rights Act — " excluding Indians not taxed " . Although most Senators agreed that birthright citizenship should not be extended to the Indians , a majority saw no need to clarify the issue , and Doolittle 's proposal was voted down . Upon its return to the House of Representatives , the proposed Fourteenth Amendment received little debate ; no one spoke in opposition to the Senate 's addition of the Citizenship Clause , and the complete proposed amendment was approved by the House on June 13 , 1866 , and declared to have been ratified on July 28 , 1868 .
In 2006 , Goodwin Liu , then an assistant professor at the Boalt Hall law school of the University of California , Berkeley , and later an Associate Justice of the California Supreme Court , wrote that although the legislative history of the Citizenship Clause is " somewhat thin " , the clause 's central role is evident in the historical context of the post @-@ Civil War period . Elizabeth Wydra , chief counsel of the Constitutional Accountability Center ( a progressive think tank ) , argues that both supporters and opponents of the Citizenship Clause in 1866 shared the understanding that it would automatically grant citizenship to all persons born in the United States ( except children of foreign ministers and invading armies ) — an interpretation shared by Texas Solicitor General James C. Ho . Richard Aynes , dean of the University of Akron School of Law , takes a different view , proposing that the Citizenship Clause had " consequences which were unintended by the framers " .
= = = Citizenship of Chinese persons in the United States = = =
Like many other immigrants , Chinese were drawn to the United States — initially to participate in the California Gold Rush of 1849 , then moving on to railroad construction , farming , and work in cities . An 1868 treaty ( named the Burlingame Treaty after one of the American negotiators ) expanded trade and migration between the United States and China . The treaty did not address the citizenship of children born in the United States to Chinese parents , or vice versa . Regarding naturalization ( acquisition of citizenship other than at birth ) , the treaty contained a provision stating that " nothing herein contained shall be held to confer naturalization ... upon the subjects of China in the United States . "
Chinese immigrants to the United States were met with considerable distrust , resentment , and discrimination almost from the time of their first arrival . Many politicians argued that the Chinese were so different in so many ways that they not only would ( or even could ) never assimilate into American culture , but that they represented a threat to the country 's principles and institutions . In this climate of popular anti @-@ Chinese sentiment , Congress in 1882 enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act , which placed limits on Chinese immigration to the United States . ( The original Chinese Exclusion Act was amended several times — such as by the 1888 Scott Act and the 1892 Geary Act — and as a result it is sometimes referred to in the plural as the " Chinese Exclusion Acts " . ) Chinese already in the U.S. were allowed to stay , but they were ineligible for naturalization and , if they left the U.S. and later wished to return , they needed to apply anew and obtain approval again . Chinese laborers and miners were specifically barred from coming ( or returning ) to the United States under the terms of the law .
= = = Citizenship Clause in court prior to this case = = =
After the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment , and prior to the Wong Kim Ark case , the question of jus soli citizenship for children of aliens arose only with reference to American Indians and Chinese . The Supreme Court ruled in an 1884 case ( Elk v. Wilkins ) that an Indian born on a reservation did not acquire United States citizenship at birth ( because he was not subject to U.S. jurisdiction ) and could not claim citizenship later on merely by moving to non @-@ reservation U.S. territory and renouncing his former tribal allegiance . ( Indians were subsequently granted citizenship by an act of Congress in 1924 . )
The question of whether the Citizenship Clause applied to persons born in the United States to Chinese immigrants first came before the courts in an 1884 case , In re Look Tin Sing . Look Tin Sing was born in Mendocino , California in 1870 , but after returning from a trip to China in 1884 , he was barred from reentering the United States by officials who objected to his not having met the documentation requirements imposed at the time on Chinese immigrants . Look 's case was
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Partenope was transferred to the new unit , along with her sister Minerva . The 1st Squadron included six battleships , four other cruisers , and nine destroyers . Between 1906 and 1908 , the ship was modernized and converted into a minelayer . She received new oil @-@ fired boilers and had her armament reduced to two 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , four 57 mm guns and two 37 mm guns . Partenope 's speed was reduced to 17 @.@ 05 knots ( 31 @.@ 58 km / h ; 19 @.@ 62 mph ) on 2 @,@ 481 ihp ( 1 @,@ 850 kW ) . The ship was now equipped to carry sixty naval mines , with a bank of thirty mines on a platform on each side of the ship .
At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Partenope was attached to the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Italian fleet . By this time , she was being used as a minelayer . On 9 November , she , the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , the protected cruiser Liguria , and the torpedo boat Cigno provided critical gunfire support that broke a series of Ottoman attacks on the city of Tripoli . A month later , Partenope , Liguria , and the torpedo boats Dardo and Euro conducted a series of bombardments on the ports of Zuwarah , Misrata , and Argub . Partenope then returned to Tripoli , where she continued providing gunfire support to the defending Italian garrison there . She and the ironclads Sardegna and Re Umberto bombarded the oasis at Taguira , though no Turkish forces were present . The Italians then sent a garrison to protect the oasis .
Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Partenope was initially used to lay a series of defensive minefields , along with her sister Minerva and the cruiser Goito , in support of this strategy . On 24 March 1918 , the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 67 torpedoed and sank Partenope north of Bizerte , Tunisia , at coordinates 37 ° 53 ′ N 10 ° 10 ′ E.
= HMS Tabard ( P342 ) =
HMS Tabard was a British submarine of the third group of the T class . She was built by Scotts , Greenock , and launched on 21 November 1945 . So far she has been the only boat of the Royal Navy to bear the name Tabard , after the item of clothing . Having been launched after the war , she was selected , along with a number of boats of her class , to try out new streamlining techniques based on the German Type XXIII submarine . In May 1963 , she was involved in a collision with HMAS Queenborough , and on 10 February 1964 she underwent exercises with HMAS Melbourne and HMAS Voyager in the hours before their collision . When she returned to the UK , she became the static training submarine at the shore establishment HMS Dolphin , until 1974 when she was sold and broken up .
= = Design and description = =
Tabard had been originally ordered from Vickers Armstrong , Barrow , but the orders were switched to Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Greenock . Ordered as P. 342 , she was named Tabard in May 1943 after the Tabard , the official dress of a herald , and she is the only boat of the Royal Navy to bear the name . She was laid down on 6 September 1944 , and launched on 21 November 1945 before being completed on 25 June 1946 . It was one of fourteen boats ordered under the 1942 Programme , and was one of the five which were completed . Unlike some of the earlier boats of its class , it was not equipped with a 4 inch gun with a full shield , rather than a standard open gun mounting . Further aft , she had an Oerlikon 20 mm cannon mounting which was modified for boats by having holes cut in the pedestal for drainage . Being from the third group , she has an all – welded hull , which increased her diving depth to 350 feet ( 110 m ) .
Following post war tests by the British Navy on German Type XXIII submarines , it was decided by the Admiralty to modify eight T @-@ class submarines to enlarge the batteries , increase the power of the motors and streamline the hulls . In 1950 , Tarbard 's pressure hull was cut at the after end of the engine room and the submarine was lengthened by 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . This gave enough room to add an additional battery compartment and a second pair of electric motors . The propulsion system was changed from direct to diesel – electric transmission . Along with HMS Trump , Tabard was one of two boats which were further modified by incorporating their bridge into a streamlined fin . Other streamlining adjustments were made to the hull with all external fittings removed , including the external torpedo tubes and gun . The periscopes , radar masts , snort mast and wireless mast were all incorporated into the new bridge fin .
= = Service = =
Tabard was commissioned after the end of the Second World War , initially being sent for Mediterranean duties . In March 1949 , she was one of a number of ships to take part in Operation Two Step , a training exercise which combined the bulk of the Home Fleet with the Mediterranean Fleet to make up the biggest concentration of British ships since Operation Torch in November 1942 . On 17 January 1950 , along with HMS Chequers carrying Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , she escorted HMS Surprise carrying Admiral Sir Arthur Power to meet with Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia for talks at Jeddah . While being refitted in Malta during June 1950 , she was damaged by electrical cables being installed by a disgruntled workman . Reports in the British media arose a little over a month later , mistakenly attributing the damage to HMS Teredo . On 18 December 1950 , she rescued Roi Wilson , later captain of the Old Royal Naval College , after he and his observer James Hawker had downed their Fairey Firefly .
In 1960 , Tabard along with Taciturn and Trump , joined the 4th Submarine Squadron in Sydney , Australia . She underwent a refit at Cockatoo Island in Sydney between 9 January 1961 and 26 March 1962 , becoming the submarine to be refitted there . There , they operated with units of the Far East Fleet , the Royal Australian Navy , and the Royal New Zealand Navy . In April 1963 she collided with a wharf when docking in Brisbane , damaging her ASDIC sonar equipment . On 8 May , Tabard was involved in a further minor collision with Royal Australian Navy frigate HMAS Queenborough , following a week of anti @-@ submarine training exercises . Tabard was at periscope depth when Queenborough passed above her , bending the submarine 's fin and the frigate 's keel and port propeller . Both vessels were able to safely return to Sydney , where they docked at naval base HMAS Kuttabul for repairs .
On 10 February 1964 , she participated in anti – submarine exercises with the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne and the destroyer HMAS Voyager , finishing at 1800 hours that day . Less than three hours later , Voyager sailed under Melbourne 's bow and was cut in two and sunk , killing 82 of her crew in what was to become known as the Voyager Incident . Later that year in June , she participated in the NEWS EX anti – submarine exercise in the Hauraki Gulf off the coast of New Zealand .
She underwent a second refit at Cockatoo Island between 9 October 1964 and 10 December 1965 , due to the extensive repairs required to her fin , casings and salt water systems . Following the establishment of the 1st Australian Submarine Squadron in 1967 , the 4th Submarine Squadron returned to the UK , however Tabard along with Trump remained behind on loan to the Royal Australian Navy . Tabard returned to the United Kingdom in March 1968 . She was permanently moored as a static training submarine at the HMS Dolphin shore @-@ establishment from 1969 until 1974 , when she was replaced by HMS Alliance .
Tabard was the last T @-@ class boat in service with Royal Navy , albeit non @-@ operationally . She was finally sold for scrap on 2 January 1974 , arriving at the breakers on 14 March 1974 . During her service , she spent two years in the Mediterranean and eight years in Australia , covering 253 @,@ 349 miles .
= Towel Power =
Towel Power is a term used by the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) to describe the waving of rally towels by their fans . The tradition started in the 1982 Campbell Conference Finals when Vancouver played the Chicago Blackhawks . During game two of the series , head coach Roger Neilson waved a white towel on the end of a hockey stick in a mock surrender after being upset with the officiating . Neilson was ejected and the Canucks lost 4 – 1 . When Vancouver returned home from Chicago for the following game fans supported both Neilson and the Canucks by waving towels first at the airport when the team arrived and then during the next game . The Canucks won the next three games and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals where they were defeated by the New York Islanders . As part of the tradition , the Canucks hand out towels prior to playoff games for fans to help support the team .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Late in the 1981 – 82 season the Vancouver Canucks played a game against the Quebec Nordiques in Quebec City . During the game Canucks ' enforcer , Tiger Williams was punched by a fan . In response Canucks ' head coach Harry Neale went into the crowd to " get the fan " and a few players followed suit . For his actions NHL President John Ziegler suspended Neale for eight games . Neale 's suspension began with four games remaining in the season and assistant coach Roger Neilson took over the head coaching duties for Neale . Vancouver finished the year with a 30 – 33 – 17 record , second in the Smythe Division and qualified them for the playoffs . Neale 's suspension then carried over for the first four games . Despite the losing record the Canucks finished the year with an eight @-@ game unbeaten streak , which continued into their first round match @-@ up with the Calgary Flames . Vancouver swept the Flames in three straight games advancing to the second round where they faced the Los Angeles Kings . With Canucks ' General Manager Jake Milford retiring and Neale set to replace him , Neale told Milford to keep Neilson as head coach for the remainder of the playoffs , believing the team had bonded under his guidance . With Neilson remaining as head coach , the Canucks eliminated the Kings in five games and advanced to the Campbell Conference Finals against the Chicago Blackhawks .
= = = Incident = = =
Vancouver won the first game of the series in Chicago 2 – 1 in double overtime , but fell behind in game two 3 – 1 . During the game the Canucks felt that referee Bob Myers was making questionable calls against them . A series of events in the third period ignited tempers . First , Vancouver had a goal disallowed . Soon after , there was a perceived non @-@ call against Chicago , followed by a fourth consecutive penalty called against the Canucks . Denis Savard scored on the power play to put the Black Hawks up 4 – 1 . This enraged the Canucks ' bench . Assistant coach Ron Smith yelled out " We give up , we surrender , we give up . " Williams suggested to Neilson that he throw sticks onto the ice in protest . Neilson noted that he had done that before , and he had a better idea . He proceeded to take a white towel and place it on the end of a hockey stick holding it up in a mock surrender . Some of the Canucks ' players followed suit . Neilson was ejected from the game along with two players . Vancouver goaltender , Richard Brodeur later noted that although they lost the game the atmosphere in the dressing room was so positive it was as if they had won .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Neilson was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 and the franchise was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 as a result of the incident . Myers later called Nielson 's action " bush league " . While NHL executive vice @-@ president Brian O 'Neill stated that the mock surrender " disgraced the championship series , " Canucks ' captain , Stan Smyl , noted that several players were " surprised " by Nielson 's action because the coach had always been " respectful " , and it was an " extreme way for him to react " .
When the Canucks returned home , they were greeted by fans at the airport waving towels in support of the team . During game three , fans waved towels to show support for the Canucks . Former professional football player , wrestler , and five time world belly flop champion Butts Giraud got permission from the team to start selling towels with the phrase " Canucks Take no Survivors " . He initially had 5 @,@ 000 of them made at $ 1 apiece and sold 1 @,@ 000 of them right away , proceeds going to charity . Giraud would sell 30 @,@ 000 towels personally , the proceeds for charity amounted to $ 23 @,@ 000 . Vancouver won game three 4 – 3 to take the lead in the series . For game four there were more fans waving towels as the Canucks won again 5 – 3 . Vancouver won game five in Chicago and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals , where they were swept by the New York Islanders .
To continue the tradition , the organization produces 20 @,@ 500 white towels with the Canucks logo for each playoff game . Following his first playoff game in 2007 Vancouver forward Alex Burrows stated " It looks like the fans are really into the game and the atmosphere out there is something else , people are really passionate instead of just sitting and no one moving or anything like some places . It just creates movement and it seems like there is more enthusiasm and intensity in the building . " As part of their 40th season celebration the Canucks organization commissioned a permanent statue of Nielson . Standing over 11 feet tall and weighing over 800 pounds the bronze statue depicts Nielson 's mock surrender which started towel power .
The first use of rally towels in professional sports was the Pittsburgh Steelers football team 's Terrible Towel , in 1975 . Minnesota Twins first used Homer Hanky towels in 1987 . In recent years , other NHL hockey teams have used rally towels at home games , including Anaheim Ducks Fowl Towels .
= The Boat Race 1976 =
The 122nd Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 20 March 1976 and was won by Oxford by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in 16 minutes 58 seconds , the fastest time in the history of the race . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rower Farn Carpmael . It was the first race in the event for which an official weigh @-@ in was held , and featured the heaviest rower ever in Steve Plunkett .
Oxford 's Isis won the 12th running of the reserve race against Cambridge 's Goldie , in a record time of 17 minutes 37 seconds . In the 31st Women 's Boat Race , Oxford defeated Cambridge .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a " hotly contested point of honour " between the two universities . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1975 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and led overall with 68 victories to Oxford 's 52 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The umpire for the race was Farn Carpmael , who had rowed for Cambridge in 1930 and 1931 races .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
By invitation from the Oxford boat club president Graham Innes , Oxford were coached by former Blue Dan Topolski while Cambridge were led by Czechoslovakian former international rower Bohumil Janoušek ( more commonly known as Bob Janousek ) . Preparations during the week before the race were underwhelming for both crews . Oxford 's performance against a University of London crew was described by Jim Railton of The Times as " abysmal " while Cambridge " disgraced themselves " in a subsequent two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ length defeat by their own reserve crew , Goldie . Both crews had faced the " Lubrication Laboratory " crew from Imperial College London , a " hotbed of rowing " , in the lead @-@ up to the official race , but changes in personnel and differences in conditions and race lengths did not demonstrate a clear favourite .
The day before the race , British bookmaking company Ladbrokes announced that they would sponsor the race from the following year . From 1977 , each boat club would be awarded £ 10 @,@ 000 and would compete for The Ladbroke Cup .
= = Crews = =
For the first time in the history of the event , an official weigh @-@ in was held , organised by The Sunday Times and weighing machine manufacturers W & T Avery Ltd . Oxford 's crew was the heaviest of all time , at an average of just under 14 st 1 lb ( 89 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower , 4 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 0 kg ) more than their opposition , and the first time in the race history , a crew weighed more than an average of 14 st ( 88 @.@ 7 kg ) . The Dark Blue crew also included Steve Plunkett who , at 16 st 5 lb ( 103 @.@ 6 kg ) was the heaviest rower in the history of the race . The Cambridge crew were inexperienced , their only Blue being the Cambridge University Boat Club president Henry Clay who had rowed in the 1975 race . In contrast , Oxford welcomed back five of their 1975 crew including cox Ashton Calvert , and also included two from the victorious 1975 Isis crew . Two non @-@ British rowers participated , Americans Dick Cashin ( of Harvard ) for Cambridge and Ken Brown ( of Cornell ) for Oxford .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Leading from the outset , and in calm river conditions , Oxford were a length ahead within a minute . Four lengths up by the Mile Post , which they reached in a record 3 minutes 35 seconds , the Dark Blues reduced their rating . Further milestone records were broken at Hammersmith Bridge , Chiswick Steps and Barnes Bridge . Oxford reduced their rating but still extended their lead to six lengths by the finishing post , in a record @-@ breaking time of 16 minutes 58 seconds , 37 seconds quicker than their 1974 colleagues who had previously held the record . Although Cambridge also beat the existing record , they finished a distant 22 seconds and six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths behind .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford coach Topolski said of his successful crew : " they got three [ lengths ] up , then they really sat on it and cruised . The enjoyed the row . It 's a natural thing when the other crew is so far behind . " He was critical of the Cambridge crew : " They didn 't really have a lot of talent . "
The official winning distance caused controversy . A discrepancy between the official margin ( six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ) and those reported in various British newspapers , including The Sunday Times , The Daily Telegraph and The Times resulted in a delay in bookmakers paying out on winning bets .
= News ( band ) =
NEWS ( ニュース , Nyūsu ) , is a four @-@ member Japanese boy band consisting of Keiichiro Koyama , Takahisa Masuda , Shigeaki Kato and Yuya Tegoshi . The group 's name is an acronym based on the cardinal directions ( North , East , West , South ) and the members locations . Formed in 2003 by Johnny Kitagawa as a nine @-@ member group under the label Johnny 's Entertainment , NEWS released a promotional single " NEWS Nippon " ( NEWS ニッポン , NEWS Japan ) , which was used for the World Cup of Volleyball Championships . In 2004 , Takahiro Moriuchi left the group and the remaining eight members released their debut single , " Kibō : Yell " ( 希望 ~ Yell ~ , Hope ~ Yell ~ ) , which debuted atop the Oricon charts .
In 2006 , the group released their fifth consecutive number @-@ one single , " Sayaendō / Hadashi no Cinderella Boy " ( サヤエンドウ / 裸足のシンデレラボーイ , Peas / Barefoot Cinderella Boy ) , as a six @-@ member group due to the controversy surrounding then @-@ members Hiroki Uchi and Hironori Kusano . After a brief hiatus , they released their seventh number @-@ one single , " Hoshi o Mezashite " ( 星をめざして , lit . Aim for the Stars ) . In 2008 , they performed at the Tokyo Dome for the first time , and released their tenth single , " Happy Birthday , " which made NEWS the second Japanese group after label @-@ mates KinKi Kids to have ten consecutive number @-@ one singles since their debut . NEWS became a quartet following the departures of Ryo Nishikido and Tomohisa Yamashita from the group in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = 2003 – 2006 : Debut and departure of members = = =
Formed in September 2003 , NEWS released a promotional single , " NEWS Nippon " ( NEWS ニッポン , NEWS Japan ) , which was used as the theme song for the World Cup of Volleyball Championships . Before holding their first concert , NEWSnow Concert : NEWS ' Concert ( NEWSnowCONCERT 〜 ニュースのコンサート 〜 ) , Takahiro Moriuchi left the group . NEWS later released their debut single , " Kibō : Yell " , which topped the Oricon chart . Their next two singles , " Akaku Moyuru Taiyō " ( 紅く燃ゆる太陽 , Burning Red Sun ) ( 2004 ) and Cherish ( チェリッシュ , Cherisshu ) ( 2005 ) , both debuted atop the charts , as did NEWS ' first album , Touch , which sold 164 @,@ 016 copies in its first week .
In July 2005 , Uchi Hiroki was scrutinized for athena was the underage drinker and was suspended indefinitely from both NEWS and Kanjani8 , another group he was a part of . Despite having lost a member , NEWS released their fourth single , " Teppen " ( てっぺん , Top ) , which like its predecessors debut at number @-@ one . In January 2006 , NEWS was reduced to six members when Hironori Kusano was suspended indefinitely for the same charge as Uchi . NEWS released their fifth single , " Sayaendō / Hadashi no Cinderella Boy " ( サヤエンドウ / 裸足のシンデレラボーイ , Peas / Barefoot Cinderella Boy ) ( March 2006 ) , which was their fifth consecutive number @-@ one single . On May 1 , 2006 , after NEWS finished their " NEWS Spring Tour " , the group went on hiatus .
= = = 2007 – 2010 : NEWS ' 6 @-@ Member Comeback = = =
On December 30 , 2006 , it was announced that NEWS would make their return at Johnny 's Concert Countdown 2006 @-@ 2007 as a six @-@ member group , since Hiroki Uchi and Hironori Kusano had been demoted to trainees . To mark their return , NEWS embarked on a tour and released their sixth single " Hoshi wo Mezashite " ( 星をめざして , Aim For the Stars ) . " Hoshi wo Mezashite " became their sixth number @-@ one single , which went on to be used as the theme song for the Japanese version of Happy Feet .
On November 7 , NEWS simultaneously released their seventh single , " Weeeek " and their second album , Pacific . Both releases debut atop of their respective charts with " Weeeek " selling 263 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and Pacific selling 196 @,@ 000 copies in their first week . This marked the tenth in Oricon history that an artist had both their single and album debut atop the charts simultaneously . To further support their album , NEWS went on a nationwide tour , NEWS Concert Tour Pacific 2007 @-@ 2008 , from December 15 , 2007 to January 27 , 2008 . Because tickets were in such high demand , two more dates were added to the concert , which resulted in NEWS performing at the Tokyo Dome for the first time .
In February 2008 NEWS released their eighth number @-@ one single , " Taiyō no Namida " ( 太陽のナミダ , Tears of the Sun ) , which was used as the theme song for the movie Kurosagi , starring Tomohisa Yamashita . NEWS released two more number @-@ one singles , " Summer Time " ( May 2008 ) and " Happy Birthday " ( October 2008 ) , before releasing their third studio album Color ( November 2008 ) . The release of " Happy Birthday " made NEWS the second group , after the KinKi Kids , to have ten consecutive number @-@ one singles since their debut . Color debuted at the number @-@ one position on the charts , giving NEWS their third consecutive album . NEWS released their new single , " Koi no ABO " ( 恋のABO , Love 's ABO ) on April 29 , 2009 . It became their 11th number @-@ one single . Their 12th number @-@ one single titled " Sakura Girl " was released on March 31 , 2010 . At the “ LIVE ! LIVE ! LIVE ! NEWS DOME PARTY 2010 “ concert at Tokyo Dome , it was announced that NEWS would be releasing their 13th single , “ Fighting Man , ” on November 3 , which they did .
NEWS has not had any group activities since the Music Station Super Live in December 2010 .
= = = 2011 : Becoming a quartet = = =
On October 7 , 2011 , it was announced that both Ryo Nishikido and Tomohisa Yamashita left the group . The official press release from Johnnys & Associates explained that Nishikido was leaving because scheduling conflicts made it difficult for him to be active in both NEWS and Kanjani8 , while Yamashita was leaving to concentrate on solo projects . Nishikido will continue his activities with Kanjani8 but not NEWS . NEWS will continue as a four @-@ member group with Keiichiro Koyama , Takahisa Masuda , Shigeaki Kato and Yuya Tegoshi .
= = = 2012 : NEWS ' 4 @-@ Member Comeback = = =
On April 15 , 2012 , a countdown appeared on the JE site , revealing the four current member 's outlines , suggesting a comeback . NEWS were officially back . On Apr 16th , Johnny 's special site for NEWS restarted its countdown , which hit " 0 : 00 : 00 " on Apr 18th ( 12mn , JST ) . The time coincide with NEWS ' member Keiichiro Koyama radio program " K @-@ chan NEWS " to start its broadcast . Koyama 's special guest were co @-@ members Tegoshi Yuya , Takahisa Masuda , and Kato Shigeaki . The four members kept the fans in suspense by talking nonsensical stuff before finally making an official announcement . As reported earlier , Keiichiro Koyama said something about a new single and Best of Album . Now , aside from the NEWS ' new single and Best of Album , the Johnny 's talents also had a concert tour .
Moreover , in order to show their love for the fans who have waited for them for more than a year , fans could participate in their Best of Album . Fans voted for their " Top Four Favorite NEWS songs " on Johnny 's Entertainment site starting Apr 18th at 12nn , JST .
On May 7 , JE side has announced the new album titled " NEWS BEST " and will be released on June 13 . The album came in a regular edition and a limited edition version .
Both version included a CD containing all 15 of the group 's A @-@ side singles . The regular edition included an extra CD with the group 's top 15 non @-@ single songs as voted by netizens . The limited edition will included an extra CD with previously unreleased solo songs .
On July 18 , NEWS released " Chankapana " , their first single as a quartet . The single is available in 5 different version and a limited box set collection of all versions . The musicvideo for " Chankapana " premiered on TV on July 9 . The single sold 121 @,@ 097 on its first day and went on to become number one on Oricon Weekly Singles Chart .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilations = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = DVD Singles = = =
= = = DVDs = = =
= Port of Skagen =
The Port of Skagen , also Skagen Harbour , ( Danish : Skagen Havn ) is located in Skagen , northern Denmark . The country 's leading fishing port consists of an industrial harbour that supports the area 's fishing industry as well as facilities for cruise ships . It also has a shipyard and fish @-@ processing facilities . The harbour 's marina is open to visitors during the summer months .
The fishing harbour was built between 1904 and 1907 , with inner and outer sections established under the supervision of hydraulic engineer Palle Bruun . The official inauguration was on 20 November 1907 . The distinctive warehouses next to the harbour were designed by Thorvald Bindesbøll , and opened in May 1908 . In 1932 , on the occasion of the harbour 's 25th anniversary , Anne Marie Carl @-@ Nielsen 's statue of the fisherman and lifeboatman was unveiled . The harbour was expanded to the east between 1935 and 1938 , and in the 1950s an 11 million krone ( kr ) expansion took place to the west , increasing the off @-@ shore area by 70 @,@ 000 square metres ( 750 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and the on @-@ shore area by 90 @,@ 000 square metres ( 970 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Between 1964 and 1979 the harbour was further expanded towards the east in a 35 million kr project to facilitate growth at the port , doubling the size of the harbour and providing new facilities for auctioning the catches from the 400 fishing boats registered in Skagen .
The Skagen Port Authority is responsible for the harbour 's administration . FF Skagen , one of three companies supporting the Danish fish meal industry , has its processing plant on Skagen wharf . The harbour is being adapted to accommodate large international cruise ships . A new 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) berth to be completed by 2015 will also provide facilities for oil bunkering and enhanced facilities for the fishing industry .
= = Description = =
The Port of Skagen is situated in Ålbæk Bugt ( Ålbæk Bay ) . The harbour covers a total area of 1 @,@ 015 @,@ 000 m2 ( 10 @,@ 930 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , consisting of 645 @,@ 000 m2 ( 6 @,@ 940 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land and 370 @,@ 000 m2 ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of water . The quays and moorings have a total length of 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) , of which 970 m ( 3 @,@ 180 ft ) have a depth of 9 m ( 30 ft ) . The harbour consists of three main basins ( docks with water levels controlled by flood gates ) : Ydre Forhavnsbassin , Vesthavn and Østhavn . The Vesthavn consists of Indre Forhavnsbassin , Bundgarnsbassin , Auktionsbassin , Mellembassin and Vestre Bassin , while the Østhavn consists of Østbassin I and Østbassin II . Skagen Lystbådehavn ( Skagen 's pleasure boat harbour ) administers the area between Gamle Pier and Pier 2 in the Mellembassin .
The harbour can accommodate ships up to 130 metres ( 430 ft ) long and 20 metres ( 66 ft ) wide with a draft of 7 metres ( 23 ft ) . Ships less than 90 metres ( 300 ft ) long can moor at Quay 4 with a draft of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) . The largest vessel to have visited Skagen Harbour is the cruise ship Silver Cloud with a length of 156 metres ( 512 ft ) , which moored on Quay 4 in 2010 and 2011 . The Lystbådehavn ( marina ) between Piers 1 and 2 is open to visiting pleasure boats from 1 April to 30 September . While the Port of Skagen supervises the marina during the summer months , the facilities are used for berthing fishing boats in the off @-@ season . Frederikshavn Municipality is the official administrator . Facilities on Pier 1 include a diesel fuelling station at the end the pier and a barbecue . There is also a service building with toilets , showers , washing machines and dryers . Wifi internet access is available throughout the marina .
= = History = =
= = = Early history and background = = =
After years of discussion between Skagen 's fishermen and the authorities , a commission was finally established in the 1880s , leading to an early proposal for a harbour by Customs Inspector Holm that was not accepted . Under pressure from the fishermen , the Minister of the Interior called on an engineer by the name of Berg to prepare a new proposal in 1888 . This finally led to parliamentary approval on 23 April 1903 , followed by a call for tenders on 26 January 1904 . On the basis of a bid from Gunnarson & Søn og Elzelingen , work was initiated in February 1904 on Skagen 's Sønderstand ( south shore ) just outside the town . The work was supervised by the hydraulic engineer Palle Bruun who had reported on harbours in the Faroe Islands .
The design consisted of two breakwaters some 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) apart that stretched out to sea . With their outer extensions providing an entrance some 60 m ( 200 ft ) wide , the harbour covered an area of almost 160 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The basin was divided by two cross piers , creating an outer harbour and an inner harbour with an entrance 40 m ( 130 ft ) wide . A harbour @-@ master 's house , fish warehouse and a customs office were built in parallel . On 19 November 1907 , King Frederik VIII ceremonially opened the port in the presence of the Skagen Painters , who had decorated the facilities with flags . Carl Locher had designed an impressive gateway of honour .
In May 1908 , four fish warehouses on the quayside designed by Thorvald Bindesbøll were opened . In 1932 , on the occasion of the harbour 's 25th anniversary , Anne Marie Carl @-@ Nielsen 's statue of the fisherman and lifeboatman was unveiled . In 1935 , Johannes Friis @-@ Skotte , Minister for Transport , announced that the government were funding a 900 @,@ 000 kr project to expand the harbour towards the east , involving a 100 metres ( 330 ft ) by 200 metres ( 660 ft ) basin with a depth of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , designed to facilitate fisherman during the process of unloading . As a result , between 1935 and 1938 the harbour was expanded towards the east , and a new auction room was added in 1938 , 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in length and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) wide , with skylights and seven phone booths .
= = = Post @-@ war developments = = =
In 1943 , the Rigsdag approved 7 million kr proposals to further expand the harbour towards the west . However , due to the German occupation during the war the project was postponed and it wasn 't until 1952 that construction began , rising to a budget of 11 million kr . The off @-@ shore area of the port was expanded by 70 @,@ 000 square metres ( 750 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and the on @-@ shore area was enlarged by 90 @,@ 000 square metres ( 970 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with some 12 metres ( 39 ft ) of quay . Between 1964 and 1979 the harbour was further expanded towards the east in a 35 million kr project to facilitate growth at the port , doubling the size of the harbour and providing new facilities for auctioning the catches from the 400 fishing boats registered in Skagen . The off @-@ shore area was enlarged by 14 hectares and the on @-@ shore area with 120 hectares . A new auction room was erected between the fisheries inspection building and the auction office . In 1985 , the Auktionsbassin ( the Auction Basin ) of the port was deepened by some 7 metres ( 23 ft ) , as was the Vesthavnen ( West Harbour ) in the early 1990s .
In 2001 , the Port of Skagen acquired autonomously governed harbour status , after the government sold off several of the national harbours . Under ownership of the municipality , a 12 @.@ 5 million kr investment was put into deepening the Østbassin 2 ( East Basin 2 ) and building a new 300 metres ( 980 ft ) quay to a depth of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) in its outer part . In 2007 , a new dry dock measuring 135 m ( 443 ft ) by 25 m ( 82 ft ) was built for Karstensen 's wharf . Additional facilities for fish processing , including a refrigeration plant , were completed in 2008 .
= = Fishing = =
The Port of Skagen is Denmark 's largest fishing port and the first in Europe for landings of pelagic fish , primarily herring . Founded in 1960 , FF Skagen is one of three companies supporting the Danish fish @-@ meal industry ; its processing plant is located on Skagen wharf . As of 2011 , statistics from the Danish Fisheries Directorate list Skagen Harbour as the leading fishing port in Denmark in terms of both the quantity of catches and their value . Statistics for 2013 from NaturErhvervstyrelsen showed a year @-@ on @-@ year increase in fishing takings of 10 percent for a total value of DKK 3 @.@ 4 billion ( c . US $ 621 million ) . Harbour director Willy Bent Hansen reported that the Port of Skagen now represented over 25 percent of all fish landed in Denmark .
In late April 2014 , the 86 @-@ meter @-@ long supertrawler " Gitte Henning " landed a record 3 @,@ 281 tons of whiting in Skagen after returning from its maiden voyage , apparently the largest catch ever in Denmark .
= = Recent developments = =
The harbour is currently being adapted to accommodate large international cruise ships . A new 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) berth will be completed by 2015 , while the existing 170 m ( 560 ft ) berth will be extended to 200 m ( 660 ft ) . On the shipbuilding front , Karstensens Skibsværft continues to prosper with orders for trawlers from Norway . There are also plans for establishing oil @-@ bunkering facilities for large vessels on the outer section of the new port .
In July 2014 , Berlingske reported that from 2015 the enlarged harbour was expected to attract up to 40 large cruise ships per year compared to only a dozen smaller ships at present . The larger vessels will carry up to 3 @,@ 500 passengers . Port of Skagen was covering the cost of the work which amounted to DKK 226 million ( US $ 41 million ) . The new harbour would provide new jobs increasing the workforce from some 2 @,@ 000 today to 2 @,@ 600 on completion . Karstens Skibsværft , Danish Yacht , and the herring processing firm , Skagerrak Pelgic , were reported to be the most successful companies in Skagen but the town was also home to FF Skagen , the world 's top producer of fish meal and fish oil .
= Hôtel Ritz Paris =
The Hôtel Ritz is a grand palatial hotel in the heart of Paris , in the 1st arrondissement . It overlooks the octagonal border of the Place Vendôme at number 15 . The hotel is ranked highly among the most prestigious and luxurious hotels in the world and is a member of " The Leading Hotels of the World " . The Ritz reopened on 6 June 2016 after a major four @-@ year , multimillion @-@ dollar renovation .
The hotel , which today has 159 rooms , was founded by the Swiss hotelier , César Ritz , in collaboration with the chef Auguste Escoffier in 1898 . The new hotel was constructed behind the façade of an 18th @-@ century town house , overlooking one of Paris 's central squares . It was reportedly the first hotel in Europe to provide a bathroom en suite , a telephone and electricity for each room . It quickly established a reputation for luxury , with clients including royalty , politicians , writers , film stars and singers . Several of its suites are named in honour of famous guests of the hotel , including Coco Chanel and Ernest Hemingway who lived at the hotel for years . One of the bars of the hotel , Bar Hemingway , is devoted to Hemingway and the L 'Espadon is a world @-@ renowned restaurant , attracting aspiring chefs from all over the world who come to learn at the adjacent Ritz @-@ Escoffier School . The grandest suite of the hotel , called the Imperial , has been listed by the French government as a national monument in its own right .
During the Second World War , the hotel was taken over by the occupying Germans as the local headquarters of the Luftwaffe . After the death of Ritz 's son Charles , in 1976 , the last members of the Ritz family to own the hotel sold it in 1979 to the Egyptian businessman Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed . In August 1997 , Diana , Princess of Wales and Al @-@ Fayed 's son , Dodi , dined in the hotel 's Imperial Suite before their fatal car crash .
The hotel is being entirely renovated in order to receive the ' Palace distinction ' which is a title bestowed by the French ministry of economy , industry and employment . It has been closed since 1 August 2012 and is now after four years finally accepting reservations beginning June 2016 . Because of its status as a symbol of high society and luxury , the hotel has featured in many notable works of fiction including novels ( F. Scott Fitzgerald 's Tender Is The Night and Hemingway 's The Sun Also Rises ) , a play ( Noël Coward 's play Semi @-@ Monde ) , and films ( Billy Wilder 's 1957 comedy Love in the Afternoon and William Wyler 's 1966 comedy How to Steal a Million ) .
= = Background and history = =
The site was purchased in 1705 by Antoine @-@ François Bitaut de Vaillé , and a private residence was constructed , which was occupied by several noble families and later became the Hôtel de Gramont . The façade was designed by the royal architect Jules Hardouin Mansart . In 1854 it was acquired by the Péreire brothers , who made it the head office of their Crédit Mobilier financial institution . In 1888 , the Swiss hotelier César Ritz and the French chef Auguste Escoffier opened a restaurant in Baden @-@ Baden , and the two were then invited to London by Richard D 'Oyly Carte to become the first manager and chef of the Savoy Hotel , positions they held from 1889 until 1897 . The Savoy under Ritz was an immediate success , attracting a distinguished and moneyed clientele , headed by the Prince of Wales . In 1897 , Ritz and Escoffier were both dismissed from the Savoy , when Ritz was implicated in the disappearance of over £ 3400 worth of wine and spirits . Before their dismissal , customers at the Savoy had reportedly urged them to open a hotel in Paris . Aided by Alexandre Marnier @-@ Lapostolle , Ritz purchased the palace and transformed the former Hôtel de Lazun building into a 210 @-@ room hotel . He stated that his purpose for the hotel was to provide his rich clientele with " all the refinement that a prince could desire in his own home . " He engaged the architect Charles Mewès to update the original 1705 structure . Ritz 's innovative standards of hygiene demanded a bathroom for every suite , the maximum possible amount of sunlight , and the minimum of curtains and other hangings . At the same time he furnished the hotel with all the old @-@ fashioned appeal of an English or French gentleman 's house , in order to make clients feel at home .
The hotel opened its doors on 1 June 1898 to a " glittering reception " . Together with the culinary talents of his junior partner Escoffier , Ritz made the hotel synonymous with opulence , service , and fine dining , as embodied in the term " ritzy . " It immediately became fashionable with Parisian socialites , hosting many prestigious personalities over the years , such as Marcel Proust , F. Scott Fitzgerald , Ernest Hemingway , King Edward VII , and the couturier Coco Chanel , who made the Ritz her home for more than thirty years . Many of the suites in the hotel are named after their famous patrons . Hemingway once said , " When in Paris the only reason not to stay at the Ritz is if you can 't afford it " . Hemingway , who stayed at the hotel many times after World War II , was there when he learned his wife wanted a divorce . He reacted to the news by throwing her photo into a Ritz toilet and then shooting the photo and the toilet with his pistol .
In 1904 and 1908 , the Ritz garden café was painted by the Swiss artist , Pierre @-@ Georges Jeanniot . Proust wrote parts of Remembrance of Things Past here from around 1909 . The building was extended in 1910 , and César Ritz died in 1918 , succeeded by his son , Charles Ritz . Queen Marie of Romania stayed at the Ritz Hotel with her two eldest daughters , Elisabeth ( of Greece ) and Maria ( of Yugoslavia ) in 1919 while campaigning for Greater Romania at the Paris Peace Conference . Many other prominent royal figures and heads of state slept and dined at the hotel over the years . Edward VII reportedly once got stuck in a too @-@ narrow bathtub with his lover at the hotel . August Escoffier died in 1935 . In summer 1940 , the Luftwaffe , the air forces of Nazi Germany during the Second World War , set up their headquarters at the Ritz , with their chief Hermann Göring .
After the death of Charles Ritz in 1976 , the hotel went into a period of slow decline . As it lost its luster , its clientele diminished , and for the first time in its existence it began to lose money . It was rescued , however , in 1979 by an Egyptian businessman , Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed , who purchased the hotel for $ 20 million and installed a new managing director , Frank Klein . Klein in turn put Guy Legay , the former chef of the three @-@ star Ledoyen , in charge of the kitchen . Al @-@ Fayed renovated it completely over several years without stopping its operation ; this was achieved by annexing two town houses , joined by an arcade with many of Paris 's leading boutiques . The renovation of the hotel was headed by the architect Bernard Gaucherel from 1980 to 1987 . The entire ten @-@ year renovation cost a total of $ 250 million . The restaurants were given a new look , and a swimming pool , health club , and spas were created in the basement . The Little Bar was renamed the Hemingway Bar . In 1988 the Ritz @-@ Escoffier School of French Gastronomy was established in honour of Auguste Escoffier .
On 31 August 1997 , Diana , Princess of Wales and Al @-@ Fayed 's son Dodi Al @-@ Fayed , and their chauffeur Henri Paul , dined in the Imperial Suite of the hotel before leaving the hotel with bodyguard Trevor Rees @-@ Jones , only to have a fatal car accident in the Pont de l 'Alma underpass .
In the 21st century , the Ritz remains possibly the most prestigious and luxurious hotel in the world and the finest and most expensive in Paris . It is referred to by some as the best hotel in Europe and one of the world 's most famous hotels . It is one of " The Leading Hotels of the World " .
On August 1 , 2012 , the Ritz closed its doors for the first time in its history for an extensive restoration . It was scheduled to reopen in late 2015 , but this date was later changed to March 2016 . At 07 : 00 local time on 19 January 2016 , a major fire broke out in the roof of the building . Fifteen fire engines and 60 firefighters attended . The Ritz reopened on 6 June 2016 after a major four @-@ year , multimillion @-@ dollar renovation .
= = Architecture = =
The palace and the square are masterpieces of classical architecture from the end of the reign of Louis XIV . The façade was designed by the royal architect Mansart in the late 17th century before the plot was bought and construction began in 1705 . The Hôtel Ritz comprises the Vendôme and the Cambon buildings with rooms overlooking the Place Vendôme , and , on the opposite side , the hotel 's garden .
The Ritz was reportedly the first hotel in Europe to provide a bathroom en suite , a telephone and electricity for each room . The Hôtel Ritz Paris is 4 floors high , including the mansard roof , and as of 2011 offers 159 rooms , a two @-@ Michelin @-@ starred restaurant , two bars and a casual dining restaurant .
= = = Rooms and suites = = =
In the 1970s a travel publication Holiday wrote , " practically every royal head of state has snoozed under down quilts on the finest linen sheets , beneath fifteen @-@ foot @-@ high ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) ceilings in rooms looking out , through huge double windows , on the elegant Place Vendôme . " Frommer 's , which calls the Ritz " Europe 's greatest hotel " , describes the furnishings as follows , " the public salons are furnished with museum @-@ calibre antiques . Each guest room is uniquely decorated , most with Louis XIV or Louis XV reproductions ; all have fine rugs , marble fireplaces , tapestries , brass beds , and more . Ever since Edward VII got stuck in a too @-@ narrow bathtub with his lover , the tubs at the Ritz have been deep and big . " The bathrooms contain unique golden swan taps , and peach @-@ coloured towels and robes , believed to be more flattering than white to a woman 's complexion .
The Ritz is reputedly the most expensive hotel in Paris , employing a staff of over 600 , the rooms as of May 2011 started at € 850 a night . Suites start at € 3 @,@ 600 and up to € 13 @,@ 900 a night for the most lavish ones ( Suite Impériale being the most expensive ) . These finest suites are known as the " Prestige suites " , ten in total , which according to the Ritz are " a world for aesthetes where 18th century panelling echoes allegorical ceilings , old masters and priceless antique furniture . Each suite is unique and each seems to still breathe the spirit of the illustrious guests who once stayed there . " The Vendôme Suite is one of the most spacious of the hotel , containing Louis XIV furnishings , with a red and ivory theme and grand windows overlooking the square . The César Ritz Suite overlooks the square and contains Louis XV furniture and a portrait of Ritz himself . The room is decorated in shades of green and light yellow with a canopied bed in one room and silk floral pattern in the second . The doors of the sitting room of the suite are
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model , followed by the inline @-@ six @-@ engined Toyota Crown premium sedan . The Century was conservatively styled for the Japanese market , and along with the Crown not slated for export , after a complete restyle in 1982 . The F1 designers targeted their new sedan at international markets and began development on a new V8 engine .
Japanese manufacturers exported more expensive models in the 1980s due to voluntary export restraints , negotiated by the Japanese government and U.S. trade representatives , that restricting mainstream car sales . In 1986 , Honda launched its Acura marque in the U.S. , influencing Toyota 's plans for a luxury division ; the initial Acura model was an export version of the Honda Legend , itself launched in Japan in 1985 as a rival to the Toyota Crown , Nissan Cedric / Gloria , and Mazda Luce . In 1987 , Nissan unveiled its plans for a premium brand , Infiniti , and revised its Nissan President sedan in standard wheelbase form for export as the Infiniti Q45 , which it launched in 1990 . In 1988 , Mazda began selling the Luce as the Mazda 929 in North America , and later began plans to develop an upscale marque , to be called Amati , but its plans did not come to fruition .
Toyota researchers visited the U.S. in May 1985 to conduct focus groups and market research on luxury consumers . During that time , several F1 designers rented a home in Laguna Beach , California to observe the lifestyles and tastes of American upper class consumers . Meanwhile , F1 engineering teams conducted prototype testing on locations ranging from the German autobahn to U.S. roads . Toyota ’ s market research concluded that a separate brand and sales channel were needed to present its new sedan , and plans were made to develop a new network of dealerships in the U.S. market .
= = = = Brand development = = = =
In 1986 , Toyota ’ s longtime advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi formed a specialized unit , Team One , to handle marketing for the new brand . Image consulting firm Lippincott & Margulies was hired to develop a list of 219 prospective names ; Vectre , Verone , Chaparel , Calibre and Alexis were chosen as top candidates . While Alexis quickly became the front runner , concerns were raised that the name applied to people more than cars ( being associated with the Alexis Carrington character on the popular 1980s primetime drama Dynasty ) , and as a result the first letter was removed and the " i " replaced with a " u " to morph the name to Lexus .
The etymology of the Lexus name has been attributed to the combination of the words " luxury " and " elegance , " and another theory claims it is an acronym for " luxury exports to the U.S. " According to Team One interviews , the brand name has no specific meaning and simply denotes a luxurious and technological image . Just prior to the release of the first vehicles , database service LexisNexis obtained a temporary injunction forbidding the name Lexus from being used as they stated it might cause confusion . The injunction threatened to delay the division 's launch and marketing efforts . The U.S. appeals court lifted the injunction , deciding that there was little likelihood of confusion between the two products .
The original Lexus slogan , developed after Team One representatives visited Lexus designers in Japan and noted an obsessive attention to detail , became " The Relentless Pursuit of Perfection . " The Lexus logo was developed by Molly Designs and Hunter Communications . The final design for the Lexus logo featured a stylized “ L ” within an oval , and according to Toyota , was rendered using a mathematical formula . The first teaser ads featuring the Lexus name and logo , designed by Team One , appeared at the Chicago , Los Angeles , and New York auto shows in 1988 .
= = = = Launch = = = =
The F1 project was completed in 1989 , involving 60 designers , 24 engineering teams , 1 @,@ 400 engineers , 2 @,@ 300 technicians , 220 support workers , approximately 450 prototypes , and over US $ 1 billion in costs . The resulting car , the Lexus LS 400 , had a design that shared no major elements with previous Toyota vehicles , with a new 4 @.@ 0 L V8 gasoline engine and rear @-@ wheel drive . The car debuted in January 1989 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit , and went on sale the following September at a network of 81 new Lexus dealerships in the U.S. The LS 400 was sold along with the smaller ES 250 , a rebadged Toyota Camry . The launch of Lexus was accompanied by a multimillion @-@ dollar advertising campaign .
The LS 400 was praised for its quietness , well @-@ appointed and ergonomic interior , engine performance , build quality , aerodynamics , fuel economy , and value , although it was criticized by some automobile columnists for derivative styling and a suspension regarded as too compromising of handling for ride comfort . In some markets , it was priced against mid @-@ size six @-@ cylinder Mercedes @-@ Benz and BMW models , and was rated by Car and Driver magazine as better than the higher priced Mercedes @-@ Benz 420 SEL and BMW 735i in terms of ride , handling , and performance . The LS 400 also won motoring awards from automotive publications including Automobile Magazine and Wheels Magazine . Lexus quickly established customer loyalty and its debut was generally regarded as a shock to existing luxury marques . BMW 's and Mercedes @-@ Benz 's U.S. sales figures dropped 29 % and 19 % , respectively , with BMW executives accusing Lexus of dumping in that market , while 35 % of Lexus buyers traded in a Lincoln or Cadillac .
In December 1989 , Lexus initiated a voluntary recall of all 8 @,@ 000 LS 400s that were sold based upon two customer complaints over defective wiring and an overheated brake light . A 20 @-@ day operation to replace the parts on affected vehicles included technicians to pick up , repair , and return cars to customers free of charge , and also flying in personnel and renting garage space for owners in remote locations . This response was covered in media publications and helped establish the marque 's early reputation for customer service .
By the end of 1989 , a total of 16 @,@ 392 LS 400 and ES 250 sedans were sold in the four months following the U.S. launch . Although sales had begun at a slower pace than expected , the final tally matched the division 's target of 16 @,@ 000 units for that year . Following initial models , plans called for the addition of a sports coupe along with a redesigned ES sedan .
= = = 1990s : Growth and expansion = = =
In 1990 , during its first full year of sales , Lexus sold 63 @,@ 594 LS 400 and ES 250 sedans in the U.S. , the vast majority being the LS model . That year , Lexus also began limited exports to the United Kingdom , Switzerland , Canada , and Australia . In 1991 , Lexus launched its first sports coupe , the SC 400 , which shared the LS 400 ’ s V8 engine and rear @-@ wheel drive design . This was followed by the second generation ES 300 sedan , which succeeded the ES 250 and became Lexus ' top seller . At the conclusion of 1991 , Lexus had become the top @-@ selling premium car import in the U.S. , with sales reaching a total of 71 @,@ 206 vehicles . That year , Lexus ranked highest in J.D. Power and Associates ' studies on initial vehicle quality , customer satisfaction , and sales satisfaction for the first time . The marque also began increasing U.S. model prices past those of comparable American premium makes , but still below high @-@ end European models ; by 1992 , the LS 400 's base price had risen 18 % .
In 1993 , Lexus launched the mid @-@ size GS 300 sports sedan , based on the Toyota Aristo using the Toyota " S " platform from the Toyota Crown , which had sold for two years prior in Japan . The GS 300 was priced below the LS 400 in the marque 's lineup . That same year , Lexus also became one of the first marques to debut a certified pre @-@ owned program , with the aim of improving trade @-@ in model values . In 1994 , the marque introduced the second generation LS 400 . In May 1995 , sales were threatened by the U.S. government 's proposal of 100 % tariffs on upscale Japanese cars in response to the widening U.S.-Japan trade deficit . SUVs were exempt from the proposed sanctions . Normal sales operations resumed by late 1995 when the Japanese auto manufacturers collectively agreed to greater American investments , and the tariffs were not enacted .
In 1996 , Lexus debuted its first sport utility vehicle , the LX 450 , followed by the third generation ES 300 sedan . The marque 's plans for developing an SUV model had accelerated during the U.S.-Japan tariff discussions of 1995 . In 1998 , Lexus added the first luxury @-@ branded crossover SUV , the RX 300 , and the second generation GS 300 and GS 400 sedans . The RX crossover targeted suburban buyers who desired an upmarket SUV but did not need the LX 's off @-@ road capability ; it was particularly successful , becoming the marque 's top @-@ selling model ahead of the ES 300 . The same year , Lexus made its debut in South America 's most populous country when it launched sales in Brazil . In 1999 , Lexus recorded its one @-@ millionth vehicle sold in the U.S. market , and was ranked as the top @-@ selling premium car maker in the U.S. overall .
= = = 2000s : Global reorganization = = =
In 2000 , Lexus introduced the IS line , a series of entry @-@ level sport sedans . In 2001 , the first convertible was introduced , as well as the SC 430 , a redesigned ES 300 , and the third generation LS 430 . The GX 470 mid @-@ size SUV debuted in 2002 , followed by the second generation RX 330 in 2003 . The following year , Lexus recorded its two @-@ millionth U.S. vehicle sale , and the first luxury @-@ branded production hybrid SUV , the RX 400h . This vehicle used Toyota 's Hybrid Synergy Drive system that combined gasoline and electric motors .
In 2005 , Lexus completed an organizational separation from parent company Toyota , with dedicated design , engineering , training , and manufacturing centers working exclusively for the division . This effort coincided with Lexus ' launch in its home market of Japan and an expanded global launch of the brand in markets such as China . Executives aimed to increase Lexus sales outside of its largest market in the U.S. To accompany this expansion , next generation Lexus vehicles were redesigned as " global models " for international release . In the European market , where Lexus had long faced struggling sales owing to low brand recognition , few dedicated dealerships , and 1990s import quotas , the marque announced plans to introduce hybrid and diesel powertrains , increase the number of Lexus dealerships , and expand operations in emerging markets such as Russia .
Lexus ' arrival in the Japanese market in July 2005 marked the first introduction of a Japanese premium car marque in the domestic market . New generation LS , IS , ES , GS , and RX models subsequently became available in Japan along with the SC 430 , ending domestic sales of Toyota @-@ branded models under the Celsior , Altezza , Windom , Aristo , Harrier , and Soarer nameplates , respectively . The Altezza and Aristo were previously exclusive to Japanese Toyota retail sales channels called Toyota Vista Store , the Windom was exclusive to Toyota Corolla Store , the Celsior and Harrier were exclusive to Toyopet Store , and the Soarer was previously available at both Toyota Store and Toyopet Store locations . Lexus models sold in Japan featured higher specifications and a price premium compared with their discontinued Toyota counterparts . Sales for the first half @-@ year were slower than expected , affected by the contraction of the domestic auto market and price increases , but improved in subsequent months with an expanded lineup .
Through the mid @-@ 2000s , Lexus experienced sales successes in South Korea and Taiwan , becoming the top @-@ selling import make in both markets in 2005 ; the marque also sold well in the Middle East , where it ranked first or second among rivals in multiple countries , and in Australia , where Lexus reached third in luxury car sales in 2006 . Division executives in 2006 announced an expansion goal from 68 countries to 76 worldwide by 2010 . By the end of the decade , this expansion resulted in official launches in Malaysia and South Africa in 2006 , Indonesia in 2007 , Chile in 2008 , and the Philippines in 2009 .
= = = = Hybrids and F models = = = =
In 2006 , Lexus began sales of the GS 450h , a V6 hybrid performance sedan , and launched the fourth generation LS line , comprising both standard- and long @-@ wheelbase V8 ( LS 460 and LS 460 L ) and hybrid ( LS 600h and LS 600h L ) versions . The fifth generation ES 350 also debuted in the same year . The LS 600h L subsequently went on sale as the most expensive sedan ever produced in Japan . By the end of 2006 , Lexus ' annual sales had reached 475 @,@ 000 vehicles worldwide . In January 2007 , Lexus announced a new F marque performance division , which would produce racing @-@ inspired versions of its performance models . The IS F , made its debut at the 2007 North American International Auto Show , accompanied by a concept car , the LF @-@ A.
In October 2007 , Lexus entered the Specialty Equipment Market Association show in the U.S. for the first time with the IS F , and announced its F @-@ Sport performance trim level and factory @-@ sanctioned accessory line . Increased emphasis on sporty models was an effort to target rivals from Mercedes @-@ Benz 's AMG and BMW 's M divisions . Models such as the SC 400 and GS 400 had received favorable reactions from sport luxury buyers , most Lexus models had been characterized as favoring comfort over sporty road feel and handling , compared with European rivals . By the end of 2007 , Lexus annual worldwide sales had surpassed 500 @,@ 000 vehicles , and the marque ranked as the top @-@ selling premium import in China for the first time . The largest sales markets in order of size for 2007 were the U.S. , Japan , the UK , China , Canada , and Russia .
In 2008 , amidst the late @-@ 2000s recession and a weakened world car market , global sales fell 16 % to 435 @,@ 000 , with declines in markets such as the U.S. and Europe where deliveries fell by 21 % and 27 @.@ 5 % , respectively . In 2009 , the marque launched the HS 250h , a dedicated hybrid sedan for North America and Japan , the RX 450h , the second generation hybrid SUV replacing the earlier RX 400h , and later that year debuted the US $ 375 @,@ 000 production LFA exotic coupe . In late 2009 , citing higher sales of hybrid models over their petrol counterparts , Lexus announced plans to become a hybrid @-@ only marque in Europe . By the end of the decade , Lexus ranked as the fourth @-@ largest premium car make in the world by volume , and was the number @-@ one @-@ selling premium car marque in the U.S. for ten consecutive years .
= = = 2010s : Recent developments = = =
In 2010 , Lexus underwent a gradual sales recovery in North America and Asia as the marque focused on adding hybrids and new model derivatives . Sales in the U.S. held steady despite the 2009 – 2010 Toyota vehicle recalls , several of which included Lexus models . The ES 350 and certain IS models were affected by a recall for potentially jamming floor mats , while parent company Toyota bore the brunt of negative publicity amid investigations over its series of product recalls and problem rates per @-@ vehicle . The redesigned GX 460 was also voluntarily recalled in April 2010 for a software update , one week after Consumer Reports issued a recommendation not to buy the SUV , citing a possible rollover risk following the slow stability control response to a high @-@ speed emergency turn . Although the publication knew of no reported incidents , the GX 460 received updated stability control software .
In late 2010 and early 2011 , Lexus began sales of the CT 200h , a compact four @-@ door hybrid hatchback designed for Europe , in multiple markets . Sales of lower @-@ displacement regional models were also expanded , beginning with the ES 240 in China followed by the RX 270 ; Japan , Russia , and Taiwan were among markets which received model variants intended for reduced emissions or import taxes . In March 2011 , the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused severe disruption to Lexus ' Japan @-@ based production lines , hindering the marque 's near @-@ term sales prospects . Lexus ' U.S. executives stated that due to vehicle shortages amidst close competition from BMW , Mercedes @-@ Benz , and Audi , the marque would not remain the country 's top @-@ selling premium car brand .
Cumulative sales results for 2011 indicated a 14 % sales drop in the U.S. market , along with sales increases of 40 % and 27 % in Europe and Japan respectively , for a global sales total of 410 @,@ 000 units . Lexus ' streak of eleven consecutive years as the best @-@ selling luxury marque in the U.S. ended that year , with the title going to BMW followed by Mercedes @-@ Benz . For 2011 while 45 percent of Lexus sales in the United States relied upon the RX luxury crossover SUV , rival Mercedes @-@ Benz 's best @-@ selling offering was the E @-@ Class mid @-@ luxury sedan which commands considerably higher prices . Subsequently , Toyota chairman Akio Toyoda vowed to restore passion to the marque and further increase its organizational independence , admitting that " ... back then we did not regard Lexus as a brand , but as a distribution channel " . As a result of Toyoda 's organizational changes , Lexus senior managers report directly to the chairman for the first time in the marque 's history .
In January 2012 , the marque began sales of the fourth generation GS line , including GS 350 and GS 450h variants , as well as a lower @-@ displacement GS 250 model for select markets . In April 2012 , the sixth generation ES line , include ES 350 and ES 300h variants , debuted at the New York International Auto Show .
In April 2014 , Lexus unveiled the five @-@ seater NX crossover . The vehicle features a very first for a Lexus vehicle : a turbocharger . Its nomenclature is denoted as the 200t . In August 2014 , Toyota announced it would be cutting its Lexus spare parts prices in China by up to 35 % . The company admitted the move was in response to a probe foreshadowed earlier in the month by China 's National Development and Reform Commission of Lexus spare parts policies , as part of an industry @-@ wide investigation into what the Chinese regulator considers exorbitantly high prices being charged by automakers for spare parts and after @-@ sales servicing .
In March 2016 , Lexus announced that it will be producing a new flagship vehicle : the two @-@ door LC 500 . The vehicle will be produced for late 2017 in a V8 version putting out 467 horsepower . The LC 500h , a V6 hybrid variant , could potentially become available in late 2017 or early 2018 .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Management = = =
Lexus International , headed by managing officer Tokuo Fukuichi , coordinates the worldwide operations of Toyota 's luxury division . Other executives at Lexus ' global headquarters , located in Nagoya , Aichi , include Mark Templin , executive vice president of Lexus International , and managers of the marque 's Japan Sales & Marketing and global Product & Marketing Planning divisions . While organizationally separate from its parent company , Lexus International reports directly to Toyota chief executive officer Akio Toyoda .
In the U.S. , Lexus operations are headed by Jeffrey Bracken , group vice president and general manager of the U.S. Lexus division , located in Southern California . In Europe , Lexus operations are headed by Alain Uyttenhoven , vice president of Lexus Europe , located in Brussels . Companion design facilities are located in Southern California and central Japan , with the head design studio devoted entirely to Lexus models in Toyota City , Aichi .
= = = Regional operations = = =
Lexus sales operations vary in structure by region . In many markets , such as the U.S. , the dealership network is a distinct organization from corporate headquarters , with separately owned and operated Lexus showrooms . By contrast , in Japan all 143 dealerships in the country are owned and operated by Lexus . Several markets have a designated , third party regional distributor ; for example , in the United Arab Emirates , sales operations are managed by Al @-@ Futtaim Motors LLC , and in Costa Rica , Lexus vehicles are sold via regional distributor Purdy Motors S.A. Other officially sanctioned regional distributors have sold Lexus models prior to the launch of , or in absence of , a dedicated dealership network .
= = = Sales = = =
Global sales of Lexus vehicles reached an all @-@ time high in 2007 , with a total of 518 @,@ 000 . Sales decreased in subsequent years due to the effects of the 2008 recession and the Japanese tsunami of 2011 . Following this , sales recovered and reached a new high of 523 @,@ 000 in 2013 .
In 2014 , the Lexus brand set a new global sales record after selling 582 @,@ 000 vehicles . This made Lexus the fourth best selling luxury brand in the world , trailing only BMW , Audi and Mercedes @-@ Benz .
Global sales of Lexus vehicles increased by 12 % in 2015 to reach another annual sales record with 652 @,@ 00 units sold world @-@ wide .
Global cumulative sales of Lexus brand hybrid electric cars reached the 500 thousand mark in November 2012 . The 1 million sales milestone was achieved in March 2016 . The Lexus RX 400h / RX 450h ranks as the top selling Lexus hybrid with 335 @,@ 000 units delivered worldwide as of March 2016 , followed by the Lexus CT 200h with 267 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Financial performance = = =
Financial data of Lexus operations are not disclosed publicly . However , automotive analysts estimate that the Lexus division contributes a disproportionate share of Toyota 's profits , relative to its limited production and sales volume . Interviews with retired division officials indicate that depending on sales volume , vehicle product development cycles , and exchange rates , Lexus sales have accounted for as much as half of Toyota 's annual U.S. profit in certain years . Division executives have employed pricing strategies aimed at sustaining profit margins rather than sales volume , with historically fewer price incentives than rival brands . In 2006 , Lexus entered Interbrand 's list of the Top 100 Global Brands for the first time , with an estimated brand value of approximately US $ 3 billion annually . In 2009 , Interbrand ranked Lexus as Japan 's seventh largest brand , between Panasonic and Nissan , based on revenue , earnings , and market value .
= = Automobiles = =
= = = Vehicle lineup = = =
The global Lexus lineup features sedans of different size classes , including the compact IS and HS models , mid @-@ size ES and GS models , and the full @-@ size LS . Convertibles include the IS C models . Sport @-@ utility vehicles range in size from the compact NX and RX crossover , to the mid @-@ size GX and the full @-@ size LX . Hybrid models include the CT hatchback , HS sedan , and variants of the GS , LS , and RX . The F marque line produces a variant of the IS sedan and the LFA coupe .
= = = F marque = = =
Lexus produces its highest @-@ performance models under its F marque division . The name refers to Flagship and Fuji Speedway in Japan , whose first corner , 27R , inspired the shape of the " F " emblem . F marque models are developed by the Lexus Vehicle Performance Development Division . The first F marque model , the IS F , went on sale in 2007 , followed by the LFA in 2009 . A related F @-@ Sport performance trim level and factory @-@ sanctioned accessory line is available for standard Lexus models such as the IS 250 and IS 350 . F @-@ Sport succeeded an earlier in @-@ house tuning effort , the TRD @-@ based L @-@ Tuned , which had offered performance packages on the IS and GS sedans in the early 2000s ( decade ) .
The latest editions to the performance F marque include the Lexus RC F and Lexus GS F.
= = = Model nomenclature = = =
Lexus production models are named alphanumerically using two @-@ letter designations followed by three digits . The first letter indicates relative status in the Lexus model range ( ranking ) , and the second letter refers to car body style or type ( e.g. LS for ' luxury sedan ' ) . The three digits indicate engine displacement in liters multiplied by a factor of one hundred ( e.g. 350 for a 3 @.@ 5 L engine ) . A space is used between the letters and numbers . The same letter may be used differently depending on the model ; ' S ' can refer to ' sedan ' or ' sport ' ( e.g. in LS and SC ) , while ' X ' refers to ' luxury utility vehicle ' or SUV . On hybrids , the three digits refer to the combined gasoline @-@ electric output . For certain models , a lower case letter placed after the alphanumeric designation indicates powerplant type ( ' h ' for hybrid , ' d ' for diesel , ' t ' for turbocharged ) , while capital letter ( s ) placed at the end indicates a class subtype ( e.g. ' L ' for long @-@ wheelbase , ' C ' for coupe , ' AWD ' for all @-@ wheel drive ) . On F marque models , the two @-@ letter designation and the letter ' F ' are used with no numbers or hyphens ( e.g. IS F ) .
= = Design and technology = =
Lexus design has traditionally placed an emphasis on targeting specific vehicle development standards . Since the marque 's inception , design targets have ranged from aerodynamics and ride quality to interior ergonomics . The backronym " IDEAL " ( " Impressive , Dynamic , Elegant , Advanced , and Lasting " ) is used in the development process . Each vehicle is designed according to approximately 500 specific product standards , known as " Lexus Musts , " on criteria such as leather seat stitching . Design elements from the marque 's concept vehicle line , the LF series ( including the 2003 LF @-@ S and 2004 LF @-@ C ) , have been incorporated in production models .
Vehicle cabins have incorporated electroluminescent Optitron gauges , SmartAccess , a smart key entry and startup system , and multimedia features . Beginning with the 2010 RX and HS models , the Remote Touch system , featuring a computer mouse @-@ like controller with haptic feedback , was introduced ; other models have featured touchscreen controls ( through the 2009 model year ) as a navigation screen interface . 2014 saw the introduction of the next version of Lexus ’ remote @-@ touch innovations — the Remote Touch Interface Touchpad in the new RC Coupe .
In 1989 , Lexus became among the first premium car marques to equip models with premium audio systems , in partnership with stereo firm Nakamichi . Since 2001 , optional surround sound systems are offered via high @-@ end audio purveyor Mark Levinson . For reduced cabin noise , the first LS 400 introduced sandwich steel plating , and later models added acoustic glass . In 2006 , the LS 460 debuted the first ceiling air diffusers and infrared body temperature sensors in a car . Telematics services include G @-@ Book with G @-@ Link in Asia and Lexus Enform in North America .
In 2006 , Lexus incorporated the first production eight @-@ speed automatic transmission in an automobile with the LS 460 , and the gearbox was later adapted for the GS 460 and IS F models . Continuously variable transmissions , regenerative brakes , and electric motors have been used on all Lexus hybrid models . In 2007 , Lexus executives signaled intentions to equip further models with hybrid powertrains , catering to demands for a decrease in both carbon pollution and oil reliance . Hybrid models have been differentiated by separate badging and lighting technology ; in 2008 , the LS 600h L became the first production vehicle to use LED headlamps .
Safety features on Lexus models range from stability and handling programs ( Vehicle Stability Control and Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management ) to backup cameras , swivel headlights , and sonar warning systems . The Lexus Pre @-@ Collision System ( PCS ) integrates multiple safety systems . In 2007 , Lexus introduced the first car safety systems with infrared and pedestrian detection capabilities , lane keep assist , a Driver Monitoring System with facial recognition monitoring of driver attentiveness , and rear pre @-@ collision whiplash protection , as part of the LS 460 PCS . As a safety precaution , Lexus GPS navigation systems in many regions feature a motion lockout when the vehicle reaches a set speed ; to prevent distraction , navigation inputs are limited , while voice input and certain buttons are still accessible . This safety feature has attracted criticism because passengers cannot use certain functions when the vehicle is in motion . Pre @-@ 2007 models came with a hidden manufacturer override option , and updated European models allow operation in motion .
Production models in development have included convertibles , crossovers , and dedicated hybrids . Under the F marque , Lexus plans to produce high @-@ performance vehicles with its first expressions being the IS F and the LFA . Lexus officials have also discussed standard production model usage of varying platforms . The LS uses a dedicated platform , while the entry @-@ level Lexus ES had been criticized for being too similar to the Toyota Camry , with which it shared platforms until its sixth generation , in both styling and powertrain design . The Nürburgring test track in Germany has also seen Lexus prototype testing .
= = = L @-@ finesse = = =
Lexus introduced a new design language known as " L @-@ finesse " in the mid @-@ 2000s with its LF series concepts and the 2006 Lexus GS . L @-@ finesse is represented by three Japanese kanji characters which translate as " Intriguing Elegance , Incisive Simplicity , and Seamless Anticipation " . Design characteristics , including a fastback profile , lower @-@ set grille , and the use of both convex and concave surfaces , are derived from Japanese cultural motifs ( e.g. the phrase kirikaeshi in arrowhead shapes ) . While earlier Lexus models were criticized for reserved and derivative styling , and often mistaken for understated domestic market cars , automotive design analyses described L @-@ finesse as adding a distinctive nature and embrace of Japanese design identity . Opinions varied for L @-@ finesse 's debut on the GS ; Sports Car International 's analysis praised the vehicle 's in @-@ person appearance ; Automobile Magazine criticized the daring of its forward styling , and compared subsequent rival models for design similarities . In 2012 , the arrival of the redesigned fourth generation Lexus GS featured the introduction of a spindle @-@ shaped grille design , intended to be used on all forthcoming Lexus models . L @-@ finesse exhibitions were presented at Milan 's Salone del Mobile from 2005 through 2009 .
= = Production = =
= = = Assembly plants = = =
The first Lexus vehicles were manufactured in Toyota 's Tahara plant , a highly sophisticated , computerized manufacturing plant in Japan . Lexus production techniques include methods and standards of quality control that differ from Toyota models . At the Tahara plant , separate assembly lines were developed for Lexus vehicles , along with new molds and specialized manufacturing equipment . Welding processes , body panel fit tolerances , and paint quality requirements are more stringent . Lexus plant workers , typically veteran technicians , are identified via repeated performance evaluations and ranked according to skill grade , with limited applicants accepted . The highest level takumi ( Japanese for " artisan " ) engineers are responsible for maintaining production standards at key points in the assembly process , such as testing engine performance . Production vehicles are given visual inspections for flaws , individually test @-@ driven at high speeds , and subjected to vibration tests .
Through the 2000s ( decade ) , most Lexus sedan and SUV production has occurred in Japan at the Tahara plant in Aichi and Miyata plant in Fukuoka . In addition to the Tahara factory , Lexus vehicles have been produced at the Miyata plant ( Toyota Motor Kyushu , Inc . ) in Miyawaka , Fukuoka , Higashi Fuji plant ( Kanto Auto Works , Ltd . ) in Susono , Shizuoka , and Sanage plant ( Toyota Boshoku Corp. ; Araco ) in Toyota City , Aichi . Front @-@ wheel drive cars , such as the ES and HS , are produced in the Fukuoka Prefecture . The Kokura plant in Kitakyushu , Fukuoka , which opened in 2008 , is a dedicated hybrid production site for Lexus models such as the gasoline @-@ electric RX . The North American – market RX 350 ( since the 2004 model year ) is produced at the Cambridge plant ( Toyota Canada , Inc . ) in the city of Cambridge , in Ontario , Canada , which is the first Lexus production site located outside Japan . In late 2015 , Lexus started to assemble North American @-@ spec ES 350 sedans at the Georgetown plant ( TMMK , Inc . ) .
= = = Quality rankings = = =
In the 2000s ( decade ) , Consumer Reports named Lexus among the top five most reliable brands in its Annual Car Reliability Surveys of over one million vehicles across the U.S.
= = Service = =
Lexus has become known for efforts to project an upscale image , particularly with service provided after the sale . The waiting areas in service departments are replete with amenities , ranging from refreshment bars to indoor putting greens . Dealerships typically offer complimentary loaner cars or " courtesy cars " and free car washes , and some have added on @-@ site cafes and designer boutiques . Service bays are lined with large picture windows for owners to watch the servicing of their vehicle . In 2005 , Lexus also began reserving parking lots at major sporting arenas , entertainment events , and shopping malls , with the only requirement for free entry being the ownership of a Lexus vehicle . An online owner publication , Lexus Magazine , features automotive and lifestyle articles and is published online monthly and on a mobile site .
Since 2002 , Lexus has scored consecutive top ratings in the Auto Express and 76 @,@ 000 @-@ respondent Top Gear customer satisfaction surveys in the UK . Lexus has also repeatedly topped the 79 @,@ 000 @-@ respondent J.D. Power Customer Service Index and Luxury Institute , New York surveys in the U.S. As a result of service satisfaction levels , the marque has one of the highest customer loyalty rates in the industry . To improve customer service , employees are instructed to follow the " Lexus Covenant , " the marque 's founding promise ( which states that " Lexus will treat each customer as we would a guest in our home " ) , and some dealerships have incorporated training at upscale establishments such as Nordstrom department stores and Ritz @-@ Carlton hotels .
= = Motorsport = =
Lexus first entered the motorsport arena in 1999 when its racing unit , Team Lexus , fielded two GS 400 race vehicles in the Motorola Cup North American Street Stock Championship touring car series . In its 1999 inaugural season , Team Lexus achieved its first victory with its sixth race at Road Atlanta . Led by Sports Car Club of America and International Motor Sports Association driver Chuck Goldsborough , based in Baltimore , Maryland , Team Lexus capitalized on the debut of the first generation Lexus IS by entering three IS 300s in the third race of the 2001 Grand @-@ Am Cup season at Phoenix , Arizona . Team Lexus won its first IS 300 victory that year at the Virginia International Raceway . In 2002 , Team Lexus ' competitive efforts in the Grand @-@ Am Cup ST1 ( Street Tuner ) class achieved victories in the Drivers ' and Team Championships , as well as a sweep of the top three finishes at Circuit Mont @-@ Tremblant in Quebec , Canada .
After the release of the Lexus brand in the Japanese domestic market in 2005 , Lexus sanctioned the entry of four SC 430 coupes in the Super GT series of the All Japan Grand Touring Car Championship in the GT500 class . In the first race of the 2006 series , an SC 430 took the chequered flag , and drivers André Lotterer and Juichi Wakisaka raced the SC 430 to capture the GT500 championship for that year . In 2007 , another SC 430 won the GT500 opening round race . In 2006 , Lexus raced a hybrid vehicle for the first time , entering a GS 450h performance hybrid sedan in partnership with Sigma Advanced Racing Development at the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in Hokkaido , Japan . Lexus Canada also entered the GS 450h in 2007 's Targa Newfoundland event . In 2009 , Lexus Super GT Team SC 430 and IS 350 racers won the GT500 and GT300 championships , respectively .
Lexus ' participation in endurance racing further includes the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona , sanctioned by the Grand American Road Racing Association . After entering the Rolex Sports Car Series in 2004 , Lexus has won over 15 Rolex Series event races . In 2005 , Lexus was runner @-@ up , and in 2006 , it won the championship . Although Toyota has won this race in the past , it was the first time that its luxury arm emerged as the winner . In 2007 , six Lexus @-@ powered Daytona prototypes were entered in the Rolex
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ombers and 160 Heinkel He 111 medium bombers and Dornier Do 17 light bombers between 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 000 m ) . They were escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters at 11 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 700 m ) and 100 Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . The whole of the Yugoslav 6th Fighter Brigade , consisting of the 51st Fighter Group at Zemun and the 32nd Fighter Group at Prnjavor , totalling 29 Messerschmitt Bf 109Es and 5 Rogožarski IK @-@ 3s , were scrambled to intercept the Germans . The Yugoslavs were quickly engaged by escorting Messerschmitt Bf 109Es from Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) . Just as the first wave was departing , Hawker Hurricane Mk1s of the 52nd Group of the 2nd Fighter Brigade based at Knić arrived over Belgrade and engaged some divebombers , claiming one Stuka shot down . During the first attack , the Yugoslavs claimed fifteen German aircraft shot down , lost five of their own , with more than six badly damaged . The pilots of JG 77 claimed ten Yugoslav machines shot down and another six destroyed on the ground . On his return to base , the commander of the 51st Fighter Group was relieved of his command for failure to take action .
The second wave arrived over Belgrade about 10 : 00 , consisting of 57 Junkers Ju 87 divebombers and 30 Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters . They were met by 15 of the remaining fighters from the 6th Fighter Brigade . This time the Yugoslavs claimed two divebombers forced down , and one Bf 109E shot down . A patrol of Bf 109Es from the Yugoslav 31st Fighter Group based at Kragujevac , acting without orders of their group commander , followed the Germans as they returned to their bases and claimed two divebombers shot down for the loss of both Yugoslav aircraft .
Two further attacks were made on Belgrade by the Germans on the first day of the invasion . The third wave struck at 14 : 00 , consisting of 94 twin @-@ engined bombers flying from airfields near Vienna , escorted by 60 fighters . This attack was confronted by eighteen fighters of the 6th Fighter Regiment , who claimed four German aircraft shot down . The fourth attack of the day approached Belgrade at 16 : 00 , comprising 97 divebombers and 60 fighters .
The German groups attacking Belgrade claimed a total of nineteen Yugoslav Bf 109E fighters and four unidentified aircraft destroyed on 6 April . Actual Yugoslav aircraft losses on the first day were ten shot down and fifteen damaged . The Yugoslavs claimed they had shot down twenty @-@ two German aircraft and forced two more to land . The Germans lost significantly less aircraft than claimed by the Yugoslavs , a total of twelve aircraft ; two Do 17Z light bombers , five Bf 110 heavy fighters , four Ju 87 divebombers , and one Bf 109E fighter . One Luftwaffe pilot who claimed his first victory over Belgrade on 6 April was Oberleutnant Gerhard Koall of JG 54 , who went on to be credited with 37 victories and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross in 1944 .
= = = 7 April = = =
In total , bombers and dive @-@ bombers dropped 215 – 360 long tons ( 241 – 403 short tons ) of bombs and incendiaries on the capital .
The weak Royal Yugoslav Air Force and inadequate anti @-@ aircraft defences of Belgrade briefly attempted to meet the overwhelming Luftwaffe assault , but were eliminated as threats during the first wave of the attack . Sources vary regarding the success achieved by the defenders . A US Army study first published in 1953 states that the Luftwaffe lost two fighter aircraft , and shot down 20 Yugoslav aircraft and destroyed 44 on the ground , whereas other sources state that the Yugoslavs shot down 40 German aircraft over the two @-@ day air battle . Dive @-@ bombers in subsequent waves were able to operate at rooftop altitude .
According to historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch , the bombing of Belgrade lasted for three days . Other sources state the air battle over Belgrade lasted just two days owing to poor flying weather on 8 April . The most important cultural institution that was destroyed was the National Library of Serbia , which was hit by bombs and gutted by fire . Hundreds of thousands of volumes , rare books , maps , and medieval manuscripts were destroyed . Also hit was the Belgrade Zoo , which housed a number of animals . " Out of the nightmare of smoke and fire , " wrote Winston Churchill , " came the maddened animals released from their shattered cages . "
= = British retaliation = =
No. 37 Squadron of the Royal Air Force conducted two bombing raids on Sofia , the capital of Bulgaria , in retaliation for the bombing of Belgrade . Operating Vickers Wellington bombers flying from an airfield in Greece , the squadron conducted raids on 6 – 7 April and 12 – 13 April , dropping a total of 30 long tons ( 34 short tons ) of high @-@ explosive bombs on railway targets and nearby residential areas . These raids were carried out despite the fact that Britain was not at war with Bulgaria until 12 December 1941 .
= = Aftermath = =
The bombing of Belgrade paralysed communications between the Yugoslav military and its headquarters , and contributed decisively to the rapid collapse of Yugoslav resistance .
Civilian casualties were significant , but sources vary widely from 1 @,@ 500 to 17 @,@ 000 killed . According to the journalist William Stevenson , around 24 @,@ 000 corpses were recovered from the ruins , and many were never found . The official casualty figure released soon after the bombing was 2 @,@ 271 killed . Other sources mention 5 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 fatalities , with later Yugoslav estimates ranging even higher . In contrast , Professor Jozo Tomasevich writes that the higher estimates were downgraded following " careful postwar investigations " , and indicates that a figure between 3 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 is more realistic .
Following the Yugoslav capitulation , Luftwaffe engineers conducted a bomb damage assessment in Belgrade . The report stated that 218 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 215 @.@ 0 long tons ; 240 @.@ 9 short tons ) of bombs were dropped , with 10 – 14 percent being incendiaries . It listed all the targets of the bombing , which included : the royal palace , the war ministry , military headquarters , the central post office , the telegraph office , passenger and goods railway stations , power stations and barracks . It also mentioned that seven aerial mines were dropped , and that areas in the centre and northwest of the city had been destroyed , comprising 20 – 25 percent of its total area . Some aspects of the bombing remain unexplained , particularly the use of the aerial mines . In contrast , Pavlowitch states that almost 50 percent of housing in Belgrade was destroyed . After the invasion , the Germans forced 3 @,@ 500 – 4 @,@ 000 Jews to collect rubble that was caused by the bombing .
Löhr was captured by the Yugoslav Partisans on 9 May 1945 , escaped , and was recaptured on 13 May . He was intensively interrogated , after which he was tried before a Yugoslav military court on a number of war crimes charges , one of which related to his command of Luftflotte IV during Operation Retribution . He was convicted , sentenced to death and executed .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Papers = = =
= 2011 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2011 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 117th overall and 78th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 20th within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his fifth year , and played their home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of twelve wins and one loss ( 12 – 1 overall , 7 – 1 in the SEC ) and as consensus national champions .
After the completion of the 2010 season , the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2011 and completed spring practice the following April . With seventeen returning starters from the previous season , Alabama entered their 2011 campaign ranked as the number two team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division and compete for the SEC championship . However , Alabama lost to the LSU Tigers in their regular season matchup , and as a result did not qualify for the 2011 SEC Championship Game . Despite not winning their conference championship , when the final Bowl Championship Series rankings were released , Alabama had the number two ranking to qualify for the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the rematch against LSU , the Crimson Tide defeated the Tigers 21 – 0 to capture their second BCS Championship in three years .
At the conclusion of the season , the Alabama defense led the nation in every major statistical category , and was the first to do so since the 1986 season . Additionally , several players were recognized for the individual accomplishments on the field . Barrett Jones won both the Wuerffel Trophy and the Outland Trophy ; and Trent Richardson won the Doak Walker Award , was a finalist for the Heisman Trophy and was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Year . Also , seven players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with Dont 'a Hightower being a consensus selection and Mark Barron , Jones and Richardson each being unanimous selections . In April 2012 , eight members of the 2011 squad were selected in the NFL Draft , with an additional six signed as undrafted free agents to various teams .
= = Before the season = =
After winning the BCS National Championship in 2009 , Alabama fell short of preseason expectations in 2010 and finished with a record of nine wins and three losses at the conclusion of the regular season . However , they finished with a 49 – 7 victory in the 2011 Capital One Bowl against Michigan State , and secured Alabama 's third straight ten @-@ win season and their third bowl win in four seasons .
In February 2011 , Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 7 recruiting class according to Scout . Spring practice began on March 21 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 16 . Televised live by ESPNU , the Crimson team of offensive starters defeated the White team of defensive starters by a final score of 14 – 10 before 92 @,@ 310 fans in Bryant – Denny Stadium . For their performances , Barrett Jones earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award and Trent Richardson earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award .
In the weeks after the conclusion of spring practice , a pair of tragedies occurred that directly impacted the team . On April 27 , 2011 , an EF4 rated tornado devastated Tuscaloosa . As a result of the storm , long snapper Carson Tinker suffered a broken wrist with his girlfriend being one of the 43 fatalities attributed to the storm in Tuscaloosa . On May 12 , 2011 , offensive lineman Aaron Douglas was found dead in Fernandina Beach , Florida . The cause of death was subsequently ruled accidental as a result of multiple drug toxicity . After transferring to Alabama from Arizona Western College , Douglas struggled with off @-@ field issues including a DUI charge following a December 2010 arrest . He started his career as a freshman All @-@ America at Tennessee , before the Volunteers ' new head coach Derek Dooley granted him a release from the program in Spring 2010 .
By August , Alabama had a combined 31 players on 12 different preseason award watch lists . These included Mark Barron , Dont ’ a Hightower , Dre Kirkpatrick , Robert Lester and Courtney Upshaw for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Duron Carter , Darius Hanks and Marquis Maze for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Hightower , Nico Johnson and Upshaw for the Butkus Award ; Lester and Trent Richardson for the Walter Camp Award ; Hightower , Barrett Jones , Upshaw and William Vlachos for the Lombardi Award ; Michael Williams for the John Mackey Award ; Richardson for the Maxwell Award ; Barron , Hightower , Kirkpatrick , Lester and Upshaw for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; Jones and Vlachos for the Outland Trophy ; Vlachos for the Rimington Trophy ; Barron , Kirkpatrick and Lester for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Richardson for the Doak Walker Award .
Between the conclusion of the 2010 season and the beginning of summer practice in August 2011 , seven players transferred from the Crimson Tide . Those who transferred included Robby Green ( California University of Pennsylvania ) , B.J. Scott ( South Alabama ) , Demetrius Goode ( North Alabama ) , Petey Smith ( Holmes Community College ) , Brandon Moore ( East Mississippi Community College ) , Corey Grant ( Auburn ) and Keiwone Malone ( Memphis ) .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Alabama head coach Nick Saban entered his fifth year as the Crimson Tide 's head coach for the 2011 season . During his previous four years with Alabama , he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 38 wins , 11 losses ( 38 – 11 ) and the 2009 national championship . In the weeks after the Capitol One Bowl victory , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . Defensive line coach Bo Davis resigned his position to serve as the defensive tackles coach for Texas , and the next day Chris Rumph was hired from Clemson , to replace him as the defensive line coach . On January 12 , assistant head coach and offensive line coach Joe Pendry announced his retirement , and the following day former Miami interim head coach Jeff Stoutland was hired to replace him as offensive line coach . On January 21 , wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator Curt Cignetti resigned his position to accept the head coaching job at Indiana University of Pennsylvania , and on February 7 , Mike Groh was hired a his replacement as wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator .
= = = Returning starters = = =
Alabama had 17 returning starters from the previous season , including ten on defense and seven on offense . The most notable departures from the previous year were defensive end Marcell Dareus , left tackle James Carpenter , tight end Preston Dial , quarterback Greg McElroy , wide receiver Julio Jones and running back Mark Ingram , Jr .
= = = Depth chart = = =
Starters and backups .
= = = Recruiting class = = =
Alabama 's recruiting class included eleven players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 3 Cyrus Kouandjio ( OT ) ; No. 19 Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix ( S ) ; No. 22 Xzavier Dickson ( DE ) ; No. 38 Trey DePriest ( OLB ) ; No. 41 Bradley Sylve ( WR ) ; No. 53 Jeoffrey Pagan ( DE ) ; No. 75 Marvin Shinn ( WR ) ; No. 79 Demetrius Hart ( RB ) ; No. 82 Malcolm Faciane ( TE ) ; No. 137 Danny Woodson , Jr . ( WR ) ; and No. 140 Brent Calloway ( ATH ) . Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 7 recruiting class according to Scout . The football program received 14 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 2 , 2011 . Prior to National Signing Day , three high school players and three junior college transfers of the 2011 recruiting class enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice . These early enrollments included : nose guard Quinton Dial , offensive lineman Aaron Douglas and nose tackle Jesse Williams from junior college and linebacker Trey DePriest , quarterback Phillip Ely safety Vinnie Sunseri from high school .
= = Schedule = =
The 2011 schedule was officially released on October 19 , 2010 . In accordance with conference rules , Alabama faced all five Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , and Ole Miss . They also faced three Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee , Florida , and Vanderbilt . Alabama did not play SEC opponents Georgia , Kentucky or South Carolina . The contest against Vanderbilt served as the 2010 homecoming game .
Alabama played four non @-@ conference games . The game against Penn State was originally scheduled to be played as part of the 2004 season , however the series was moved back to this season at the request of Alabama due to fallout from NCAA sanctions being levied on the program . The non @-@ conference schedule also included games against Kent State of the Mid @-@ American Conference , North Texas of the Sun Belt Conference and Georgia Southern of the Southern Conference . Alabama had one bye week after the Tennessee game and prior to the first LSU game . On December 4 , 2011 , the final Bowl Championship Series standings were unveiled with a rematch between No. 1 LSU and No. 2 Alabama in the BCS National Championship Game . The Sagarin computer ratings calculated Alabama 's 2011 strength of schedule to be the fifteenth most difficult out of the 246 Division I teams . The Cosgrove Computer Rankings calculated it as the twenty @-@ ninth most difficult out of the 120 Division I FBS teams in its rankings .
In addition to the weekly television coverage , radio coverage for all games was broadcast statewide on The Crimson Tide Sports Network ( CTSN ) . The radio announcers for the 2011 season were Eli Gold with play @-@ by @-@ play , Phil Savage with color commentary , and Chris Stewart with sideline reports .
Source : Rolltide.com : 2011 Alabama football schedule
= = Game notes = =
= = = Kent State = = =
The Crimson Tide opened the 2011 season at home against Nick Saban 's alma mater , the Kent State Golden Flashes of the Mid @-@ American Conference . In the meeting that was the first all @-@ time against the Golden Flashes , the Crimson Tide won 48 – 7 . After holding the Golden Flashes to a three @-@ and @-@ out on the opening possession , Trent Richardson scored the Crimson Tide 's first touchdown on a one @-@ yard run to give Alabama a 7 – 0 lead . After holding Kent State again to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Alabama responded with a four @-@ play , 74 @-@ yard touchdown drive that featured a 48 @-@ yard Eddie Lacy reception and a 24 @-@ yard Marquis Maze touchdown reception from AJ McCarron to take a 14 – 0 lead . The Tide scored their final points of the first quarter on a one @-@ yard Richardson run to take a 21 – 0 lead into the second quarter . After only scoring on a 36 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal in the second quarter , Alabama led 24 – 0 at the half .
On the second Crimson Tide possession of the third quarter , Phillip Sims threw an interception to Norman Wolfe that was returned to the Alabama three @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Kent State scored their only points of the game when Spencer Keith connected with Justin Thompson for a three @-@ yard touchdown reception to cut the lead to 24 – 7 . The Crimson Tide responded with touchdowns on the next two consecutive drives . Richardson and Lacy both scored on one @-@ yard runs to extend Alabama 's lead to 38 – 7 entering the fourth quarter . In the fourth , the Tide scored their final touchdown of the afternoon on a 49 @-@ yard Jalston Fowler run and their final points on a 32 @-@ yard Shelley field goal to make the final score 48 – 7 . For the game , Alabama 's defense was dominant in allowing − 9 yards rushing and 90 yards of total offense against Kent State in the contest . On offense , the Crimson Tide had 482 total yards with three different running backs scoring touchdowns and Maze totaling 118 yards receiving on eight catches with one touchdown .
= = = Penn State = = =
In what was the second consecutive meeting between the Crimson Tide and the Penn State Nittany Lions , and first at Happy Valley since 1989 , Alabama won 27 – 11 . Penn State took the opening possession down the field and recorded a 43 @-@ yard field goal by Evan Lewis to take an early 3 – 0 lead by using all 3 of their timeouts . Alabama took a 7 – 3 lead later in the first quarter after AJ McCarron connected with Michael Williams for a five @-@ yard touchdown reception to cap an 11 @-@ play , 69 @-@ yard drive . A 22 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley kick extended the Crimson Tide lead to 10 – 3 early in the second quarter . Then after trading punts , Dre Kirkpatrick forced Andrew Szczerba to fumble the ball that was recovered by Alabama 's DeQuan Menzie . Ten plays later , the Crimson Tide led 17 – 3 after a three @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown run .
In the third quarter Shelley connected on an 18 @-@ yard field goal and Richardson scored his second rushing touchdown of the game midway through the fourth on a 13 @-@ yard run to give Alabama a 27 – 3 lead . The final points of the game came late in the fourth when Silas Redd scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown for the Nittany Lions , and Rob Bolden converted the two @-@ point conversion to bring the final score to 27 – 11 .
Trent Richardson ran for 111 yards and two touchdowns while Eddie Lacy ran for 85 . AJ McCarron threw for 163 yards and a touchdown . For his seven tackles , interception and fumble recovery , Mark Barron was named SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The 107 @,@ 846 fans in attendance were the most to ever see an Alabama squad compete on the gridiron , and the victory improved their all @-@ time record against the Nittany Lions to 10 – 5 . The outcome was also noted as the final career loss for Joe Paterno as the Nittany Lions ' head coach .
= = = North Texas = = =
In their meeting against the North Texas Mean Green , Alabama outgained their opponent 586 to 169 yards of total offense in Alabama 's 41 – 0 victory . After a 26 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal gave the Crimson Tide a 3 – 0 lead , Trent Richardson scored their first touchdown of the evening on Alabama 's second offensive possession to give them a 10 – 0 lead at the end of the first period . The Crimson Tide extended their lead to 20 – 0 by halftime after a 43 @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run and a 37 @-@ yard Shelley field goal in the second quarter .
North Texas opened the second half with a nine @-@ play , 54 @-@ yard drive to set up a 42 @-@ yard Zach Olen field goal attempt . However , the kick was blocked by Robert Lester to preserve the shutout . Alabama extended their lead to 27 – 0 by the fourth quarter after Richardson scored his second touchdown of the evening on a 58 @-@ yard run . After Shelley missed a 42 @-@ yard field goal on the first play of the fourth quarter , Richardson scored again with a 71 @-@ yard touchdown run on Alabama 's next offensive possession to extend their lead to 34 – 0 . Lacy scored the final points of the game midway through the fourth with his second touchdown of the evening on a 67 @-@ yard run to give Alabama the 41 – 0 victory .
Trent Richardson ran for a career @-@ high 167 yards and three touchdowns and Eddie Lacy ran for 161 yards and two touchdowns and became the first pair of running backs to each run for 150 yards in a game . The shutout was the Crimson Tide 's first since they defeated Chattanooga 45 – 0 in 2009 and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mean Green to 4 – 0 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
After three consecutive victories to start the season , the Crimson Tide opened conference play against the Arkansas Razorbacks , and defeated them 38 – 14 at Bryant – Denny Stadium . Alabama scored first with a trick play on their opening possession . After driving to the Arkansas 37 @-@ yard line , Cade Foster lined up for a 54 @-@ yard field goal attempt . Alabama quarterback AJ McCarron received the snap as the holder , and proceeded to throw a 37 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Michael Williams to give the Crimson Tide a 7 – 0 lead . The Razorbacks tied the game at 7 – 7 late in the first quarter when Tyler Wilson threw a ten @-@ yard touchdown pass to Dennis Johnson . After an Arkansas goal line stand , Jeremy Shelley connected on a 20 @-@ yard field goal to give Alabama a 10 – 7 lead . On the ensuing Arkansas possession , the Crimson Tide scored when DeQuan Menzie intercepted a Wilson pass and returned it 25 @-@ yards for a touchdown to give Alabama a 17 – 7 lead at the half .
After holding Arkansas scoreless on their first possession of the third quarter , Alabama 's Marquis Maze returned a Dylan Breeding punt 83 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a 24 – 7 Crimson Tide lead . On Alabama 's next possession , Trent Richardson caught a screen pass from McCarron and ran it 61 @-@ yards for a touchdown and extended the Alabama lead to 31 – 7 . The Razorbacks scored on the following possession when Wilson threw his second touchdown pass of the afternoon after he connected on a 19 @-@ yard pass to Cobi Hamilton . Eddie Lacy then scored the final points of the game late in the third on a four @-@ yard touchdown run to give the Crimson Tide the 38 – 14 victory . The Alabama defense only allowed 17 rushing and 226 of total offense to the Razorbacks in the victory . For his 235 all @-@ purpose yards and touchdown reception , Trent Richardson was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 12 – 8 ( 15 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Florida = = =
In what was the first meeting as opposing head coaches between Nick Saban and his former assistant coach from both LSU and the Miami Dolphins , Will Muschamp , the Crimson Tide defeated the Florida Gators , 38 – 10 at The Swamp . After receiving the opening kickoff , Florida scored their only touchdown of the game on their first offensive play from scrimmage . The Gators took an early 7 – 0 lead when John Brantley threw a 65 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Andre Debose . Alabama responded on the following drive with Jeremy Shelley connecting on a 32 @-@ yard field goal to cut the Florida lead to 7 – 3 . The Gators responded with what turned out to be their final points of the game when Caleb Sturgis connected on a 21 @-@ yard field goal . Alabama 's Marquis Maze then returned the ensuing kickoff 70 @-@ yards to the Florida 29 @-@ yard line and the Crimson Tide tied the game at 10 – 10 seven plays later on a five @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown run .
Alabama extended their lead to 24 – 10 at halftime with a pair of second @-@ quarter touchdowns . Courtney Upshaw scored a defensive touchdown early in the quarter after he intercepted a Brantley pass and returned it 45 @-@ yards for the score . AJ McCarron scored later in the quarter on a one @-@ yard quarterback sneak to cap a ten @-@ play , 61 @-@ yard drive . Late in the quarter , the Gators did have a scoring opportunity by driving to the Alabama 13 @-@ yard line . However , the Alabama defense sacked Brantley on consecutive snaps for a loss of 22 @-@ yards and knocked Brantley out of the game with an injury . Sturgis then missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal attempt and Alabama led 24 – 10 at the half .
After a scoreless third quarter , a pair of fourth @-@ quarter touchdowns gave Alabama the 38 – 10 victory . Richardson scored his second touchdown of the game with 12 : 25 remaining on a 36 @-@ yard run and Eddie Lacy scored the final points of the game on a 20 @-@ yard run . For the game , Alabama 's defense was dominant in only allowing 222 total yards of offense , with the 15 rushing yards being the fewest ever allowed against Florida in their all @-@ time series . Trent Richardson established a new career high for rushing yards in game with his 181 yards on 29 attempts . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gators to 22 – 14 ( 23 – 14 without the NCAA vacation of the 2005 victory ) .
= = = Vanderbilt = = =
For the 91st homecoming football game in Alabama history , the Crimson Tide defeated the Vanderbilt Commodores 34 – 0 who made their first visit to Bryant – Denny Stadium since the 2006 season . After a three @-@ and @-@ out on their opening drive , Alabama scored their first touchdown of the evening on a six @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Brad Smelley to complete a ten @-@ play , 77 @-@ yard drive . On the following drive Vanderbilt had an opportunity to cut into the lead , but Carey Spear missed a 47 @-@ yard field goal to keep the Alabama lead at 7 – 0 . Spear missed a second field goal later in the second quarter from 38 @-@ yards , and the Crimson Tide responded with their second touchdown drive of the game . McCarron threw his second touchdown pass of the game to DeAndrew White on a five @-@ yard reception to give Alabama a 14 – 0 halftime lead .
In the third quarter , Trent Richardson scored first on a one @-@ yard touchdown run followed by a 39 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to White on consecutive possessions . Following an unsuccessful extra point by Jeremy Shelley , Alabama led 27 – 0 entering the fourth quarter . Early in the fourth , DeMarcus Milliner intercepted a Jordan Rodgers pass and returned it 37 @-@ yards to the Commodores ' 20 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , McCarron threw a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass , his fourth of the day , to Darius Hanks to make the final score 34 – 0 .
For the game , Trent Richardson ran for 107 yards to extend his streak of consecutive games rushing for at least 100 yards to five games . The defense was dominant in completing their second shutout of the season and only allowing Vanderbilt 190 yards of total offense . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time homecoming record to 77 – 13 – 1 and their record against the Commodores to 59 – 19 – 4 ( 61 – 18 – 4 without the NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
After Ole Miss took an early 7 – 0 lead , the Crimson Tide scored 52 unanswered points in their 52 – 7 victory over the Rebels at Vaught – Hemingway Stadium . The Rebels scored their only points of the game on their first possession . Jeff Scott scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run to cap a 5 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive to give Ole Miss their only lead of the game at 7 – 0 . Alabama responded on the following drive with the first of four Trent Richardson touchdowns of the evening on an eight @-@ yard run to tie the game at 7 – 7 . The Crimson Tide added ten points in the second quarter to take a 17 – 7 halftime lead . Richardson scored on a seven @-@ yard touchdown and after Cade Foster missed a 53 @-@ yard field goal attempt , Jeremy Shelley connected for 24 @-@ yard field goal .
In the third quarter , Alabama put the game away with four touchdowns . After five consecutive AJ McCarron passes gained 65 @-@ yards , Richardson gained the final eight en rout to his third touchdown of the evening . On the next Alabama possession , Richardson gained 16 @-@ yards and then scored a touchdown on a 76 @-@ yard run , the longest of his career , for a 31 – 7 lead . On the first play ensuing Rebels possession , Courtney Upshaw forced a Randall Mackey fumble that was recovered by Ed Stinson at the Ole Miss 15 @-@ yard line . Two plays later , the Crimson Tide led 38 – 7 after Jalston Fowler scored on an eight @-@ yard touchdown run . The final points of the quarter came on a ten @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Brandon Gibson , and the final points of the game came in the fourth quarter on a 69 @-@ yard Fowler touchdown run to make the final score 52 – 7 .
Alabama 's defense again had a strong performance in only allowing the Rebels 141 total yards of offense ( 28 rushing , 113 passing ) . Richardson set a new career high with his 183 rushing yards and four rushing touchdowns . For his performance , Richardson was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week . The 52 total points were the most Alabama had scored in a SEC game since defeating Vanderbilt 59 – 28 in 1990 . The victory was their eighth straight over Ole Miss and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels 45 – 9 – 2 ( 49 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Tennessee = = =
In the 2011 edition of the Third Saturday in October , Alabama entered the game as a 30 @-@ point favorite over the rival Tennessee Volunteers . At Bryant – Denny , the Volunteers were looking for the upset after tying the game 6 – 6 at halftime ; however 31 unanswered points resulted in a 37 – 6 Crimson Tide victory to extend their overall record to 8 – 0 . The first half was dominated by both defenses with each only allowing a pair of field goals . Mike Palardy connected from 40 and 52 @-@ yards for Tennessee and Jeremy Shelley connected from 26 and 29 @-@ yards for Alabama .
After holding the Volunteers to a three @-@ and @-@ out to open the second half , the Alabama offensive responded with their first of three third @-@ quarter touchdowns with a two @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown run . On the following Tennessee drive , the Alabama defense stopped quarterback Matt Simms on a fourth @-@ and @-@ one to give the Crimson Tide offense the ball on the Volunteers ' 39 @-@ yard line . On the next play , McCarron threw a 39 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kenny Bell to extend the Alabama lead to 20 – 6 . Trent Richardson then scored his first touchdown of the game on the following Alabama possession on a 12 @-@ yard run to cap a six @-@ play , 63 @-@ yard drive . Cade Foster scored early in the fourth quarter with his 45 @-@ yard field goal , and after a Dont 'a Hightower interception , Richardson scored his second touchdown of the day on a one @-@ yard run to make the final score 37 – 6 .
In the game , Marquis Maze had 106 yards receiving on five catches and McCarron set a new career high with 284 yards passing . For his defensive performance , Hightower was named both the Lott IMPACT Player of the Week and the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory was Alabama 's fifth consecutive over Tennessee and improved their all @-@ time
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was named a finalist to win the Heisman Trophy , along with Wisconsin 's Montee Ball , Baylor 's Robert Griffin III , Stanford 's Andrew Luck and LSU 's Tyrann Mathieu . He finished third in the Heisman voting with 978 points , behind Griffin ( 1 @,@ 687 points ) and Luck ( 1 @,@ 407 points ) . Richardson won the Doak Walker Award and was also named a finalist for the Maxwell Award ; Dont 'a Hightower was named a finalist for the Chuck Bednarik Award , the Butkus Award , the Lott Trophy and the Lombardi Award ; Courtney Upshaw was named a finalist for the Butkus Award and the Lombardi Award ; Barrett Jones won the Outland Trophy , the Wuerffel Trophy and the ARA Sportsmanship Award ; Mark Barron was named a finalist for the Jim Thorpe Award and the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; and William Vlachos was named a finalist for the Rimington Trophy . Assistant head and linebackers coach Sal Sunseri was also named a finalist for the Frank Broyles Award . The team as a whole was honored with the Disney 's Wide World of Sports Spirit Award as a result of their collective efforts to assist in the rebuilding of Tuscaloosa following the April 27 , 2011 tornado .
In addition to the individual awards , several players were also named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Barron , Hightower , Jones , DeQuan Menzie and Richardson were named to the American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) All @-@ America Team . Barron , Hightower , Jones and Richardson were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America Team . Upshaw and Vlachos were both named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America Second Team . Barron , Dre Kirkpatrick , Jones , Richardson and Upshaw were named to the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) All @-@ America Team . Barron , Hightower , Jones and Richardson were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American First Team ; Upshaw and Kirkpatrick were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Second Team . Barron , Jones , Richardson and Upshaw were named to the Sporting News ( TSN ) All @-@ America Team . Of the seven Alabama players selected , Barron , Jones and Richardson were each recognized as unanimous All @-@ American selections , and Hightower was recognized as a consensus All @-@ American selection .
= = = = All @-@ star games = = = =
Several Alabama players were selected by postseason all @-@ star games . Mark Barron , Josh Chapman , Marquis Maze , DeQuan Menzie , Courtney Upshaw and William Vlachos were selected to play in the Merrill Lynch Senior Bowl . On January 17 , Brad Smelley became the seventh member of Alabama 's team to receive an invitation to the Senior Bowl . Darius Hanks was selected to play in the East – West Shrine Game . Alabama did not have players participate in the Casino del Sol College All @-@ Star Game or the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
In the weeks following the conclusion of the season , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . On December 13 offensive coordinator Jim McElwain was introduced as the head coach with the Colorado State Rams . He stayed with Alabama through the BCS National Championship Game and began his transition as the Rams ' head coach from Tuscaloosa . On January 13 , assistant head and linebackers coach Sal Sunseri was named as the defensive coordinator with the Tennessee Volunteers . On January 18 , 2012 , Alabama officials announced the hires of both Doug Nussmeier from the Washington Huskies as offensive coordinator and of Lance Thompson from Tennessee as outside linebackers coach .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , Dont 'a Hightower , Dre Kirkpatrick and Trent Richardson declared their eligibility for the 2012 NFL Draft on January 12 . At the time of their announcement , each was projected as a first round pick . In February 2012 , nine Alabama players , six seniors and three juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were safety Mark Barron , defensive tackle Josh Chapman , wide receivers Darius Hanks and Marquis Maze , linebackers Dont 'a Hightower and Courtney Upshaw , cornerbacks Dre Kirkpatrick and DeQuan Menzie , and running back Trent Richardson . Mark Barron , Dont 'a Hightower , Dre Kirkpatrick , Trent Richardson and Courtney Upshaw were each invited to attend the Draft at Radio City Music Hall . In the draft , Alabama tied a school record with four players selected in the first round . The first round selections were Richardson ( 3rd Cleveland Browns ) , Barron ( 7th Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) , Kirkpatrick ( 17th Cincinnati Bengals ) and Hightower ( 25th New England Patriots ) . Upshaw was the third player selected in the second round ( 35th Baltimore Ravens ) . Chapman was the first player selected in the fifth round ( 136th Indianapolis Colts ) and Menzie was the eleventh player selected in the fifth round ( 146th Kansas City Chiefs ) . Brad Smelley was the eighth and final Alabama player selected in the 2012 Draft in the seventh round ( 247th Cleveland Browns ) . In the days after the draft , six players from the 2011 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents . These players included Alfred McCullough ( Baltimore Ravens ) , Marquis Maze ( Pittsburgh Steelers ) , Alex Watkins ( Tennessee Titans ) , Jerrell Harris ( Atlanta Falcons ) , William Vlachos ( Tennessee Titans ) and Darius Hanks ( Washington Redskins ) .
= Drunk in Love =
" Drunk in Love " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé featuring her husband , rapper Jay Z. The duo along with Detail , Andre Eric Proctor , Rasool Ricardo Diaz , Brian Soko , Timbaland , Jerome Harmon , and Boots composed the song for Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled fifth studio album ( 2013 ) . Columbia Records released " Drunk in Love " as one of the two lead singles from Beyoncé on December 17 , 2013 . The song is dominated by trap beats in chunks and bass . Its lyrics , which depict female sexuality , are sung by Beyoncé in a sensual and confident way .
Many music critics called the song a follow @-@ up to Beyoncé 's and Jay @-@ Z 's song " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) . They also commended its appeal to urban radio and the pair 's vocals . " Drunk in Love " peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number one on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It also reached the top ten in France , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . At the 57th Grammy Awards , " Drunk in Love " won Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance .
The song 's music video was directed by Hype Williams and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white in Golden Beach , Florida at a beach front manse . The visual , which features scenes of the pair singing the song together , received praise by critics for its sexual nature and simplicity . " Drunk in Love " was performed by Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . It was later added to the set lists of the second European leg of Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in 2013 and the pair 's joint On the Run Tour in 2014 . Numerous remixes and cover versions of the song were made , most notably the official rework by rapper Kanye West . The music video won Best Collaboration and was nominated for Video of The Year at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Conception and release = =
" Drunk in Love " was written by Beyoncé , Detail and Jay @-@ Z , who appears as the featured artist on the track . Production of the song was handled by Boots and Beyoncé as well as Detail . " Drunk in Love " was recorded at Jungle City Studios and at Oven Studios in New York City . Detail approached Beyoncé with a beat he had created called " Drunk " inspired by different situations from being affected by alcohol . Beyoncé further helped in the production of the song , adding elements that Detail had missed . She and Jay @-@ Z later free @-@ styled their verses for the song and Timbaland contributed keyboards . J @-@ Roc , Dre Moon , Brian Soko and Rasool Ricardo Diaz contributed to the production of the song . Elaborating on the conception of the song , Beyoncé said : " We just kinda had a party . It was so great , because it wasn 't about any ego , we weren 't trying to make a hit record [ ... ] we were just having fun ... and I think you can hear that in the record . "
In 2014 , rapper Future claimed that he had previously recorded a demo version of the song . He worked together with Detail who persuaded him to record vocals for the track as it would convince Beyoncé more easily to record it . Several days later , Detail informed Future that Beyoncé was in the studio recording " Drunk in Love " . However , when the rapper was working on his second studio album Honest , he used the same melody of the demo version on a song called " Good Morning " as Beyoncé hadn 't released her version seven months since he was told that she worked on it . When Beyoncé released her album , the track was scrapped from the track listing of Honest and Future was not mentioned in its credits .
" Drunk in Love " was subsequently included on Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled fifth studio album Beyoncé ( 2013 ) which was released on iTunes Store with no promotion having taken place beforehand . Following the album 's release , Billboard reported that " Drunk in Love " would be sent to urban contemporary radio in the US exclusively . " XO " impacted CHR , hot adult contemporary and rhythmic contemporary radio in the US on December 16 , 2013 as the first single from the album . " Drunk in Love " impacted urban contemporary radio stations on December 17 , 2013 , serving as one of the two lead singles from Beyoncé . On March 24 , 2014 , " Drunk in Love " was added to British radio station BBC Radio 1 's C @-@ List .
= = Composition = =
Musically , the song consists of bass , skittering drums , vague synthesizers , scintillating strings , finger snaps and a substantial amount of trap beats . Elements of hip hop music are also present in " Drunk in Love " . Written in the key of A ♭ major , the track contains a moderately slow tempo of 70 beats per minute , while also following a chord progression of Fm — B ♭ m — E ♭ — A ♭ . Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's vocals range from F3 to E ♭ 5 . Many contemporary critics viewed " Drunk in Love " as a sequel or an extension to Beyoncé 's own 2003 collaboration with Jay @-@ Z , " Crazy in Love " . Jody Rosen from Vulture found trademark Timbaland synths in the song and further went on to describe its production as " skittering , blaring " .
Keeping in with the most prominent theme of Beyoncé , " Drunk in Love " explores female sexuality . Its lyrics express " unbridled lust " and love @-@ making with a wholly committed lover . As she sings about how much she likes sex with her partner , Beyoncé uses several double entendres , including the line , " grainin ' on that wood " , where she is supposedly referencing a surfboard . The singer displays much attitude through her vocal inflections that were described as " sassy " by critics . Her vocal performance in the song was described as conversational , half @-@ sung half @-@ rapped , " talk @-@ over @-@ the @-@ beat " styled further conveying spontaneity and truth @-@ telling . Her singing is further ornamented by Arabic @-@ scale vocal arpeggios . Beyoncé 's vocal performance in the song has been noted for containing a flow similar to rappers Drake and 2 Chainz . The Verge 's Trent Wolbe felt that the song featured Animal Collective @-@ esque vocal filtering .
On the bridge , Beyoncé sings about having drunken sex in the kitchen : " We woke up in the kitchen saying / How the hell did this shit happen / Oh baby , drunk in love , we be all night / Last thing I remember is our beautiful bodies grinding off in that club " . The second verse of the song is half @-@ rapped by her . Jay @-@ Z later appears to provide his rapped verse as he compares his relationship with Beyoncé to that of Ike and Tina Turner . He forgoes subtlety as he raps , " Foreplay in a foyer , fucked up my Warhol / Slid the panties right to the side / Ain ’ t got the time to take drawers off on sight ... your breasteses is my breakfast " . Similarly to Beyoncé , Jay @-@ Z sings about the places they have had sex in their house . During his lines , he raps about " reppin ' that Third " , a reference to the Third Ward area located in Houston .
In 2014 , Roma folk singer Mónika Juhász Miczura alleged Beyoncé , Jay Z and Timbaland had used samples of her singing " Bajba , Bajba Pelem " without compensating her . Mitsou was seeking unspecified damages and an end to distribution of the song . The lawsuit was dismissed in 2015 , in a ruling that said that the song was a " constitutionally protected work of art " and the New York Civil Rights Law did not apply to it .
= = Critical reception = =
Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Beyoncé " trades terrifically raunchy come @-@ ons with Jay Z [ on ' Drunk in Love ' ] ; it 's like an NC @-@ 17 sequel to their 2003 smash ' Crazy in Love ' " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone chose the " sex song " as the album 's best one , commenting that it is a " superb duet " . Jon Dolan from the same publication also chose it as the album 's best further comparing it with " Crazy in Love " with " 100 percent more drunkenness " . Andrew Hampp of Billboard called the track a " potential smash " as he praised its appeal to R & B radio stations and its " infectious , wailing of ' loooove ' on the chorus " . He also commended Beyoncé 's and Jay @-@ Z 's rapped verses . Andrew Barker from Variety wrote in his review of Beyoncé , " a radio @-@ ready pop single [ is ] buried somewhere within the Jay Z feature ' Drunk In Love , ' yet Beyonce and Boots embellish it with enough strange grace notes and recitatives to create a much stranger monster than one might expect " . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle stated that Beyoncé was in " a fluid swagger " in " Drunk in Love " .
Jody Rosen writing for Vulture described the song as an " appealing " record and one of the best collaborations between the duo throughout their careers . He concluded that " Jay 's rap is goofy but not embarrassing . " Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly termed Beyoncé 's rap as " truculent " and noted that " Drunk in Love " is one of the few songs of the album that displays scale @-@ busting . Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that " Drunk in Love " finds Beyoncé " rapping lasciviously and making eyes at her husband . It 's about 100 times better than that description allows for . " Julia Leconte from Now praised the singer 's " perfect " growling vocals . Chris Kelly of FACT magazine dubbed the song as the " requisite duet with Jay Z ( whose Ike Turner @-@ referencing verse caps off a year of cringeworthy efforts ) " . Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan felt that the lines in which Beyoncé ad @-@ libbed " surfboard " were " some of the most infectious snippets of pop music in 2013 " , elaborating " the single word serving as both shorthand for woman @-@ on @-@ top and a neat summation of an entire era of trends in rap cadence " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune described the track as a " frisky reverie " . Likewise , Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club wrote :
The D 'Angelo @-@ indebted grind session ' Rocket ' and frisky ' Drunk In Love ' are similarly sexy , but they ’ re not sexy like a glamour shot or a steamy video . They ’ re sexy like an overeager , pre @-@ shower quickie , or a hushed morning make @-@ out session before the baby wakes up . These are the most unapologetically raunchy songs she 's ever sung , and in many ways also the most romantic .
Philip Matusavage of musicOMH noted that though " Drunk in Love " does not have a chorus , it absolutely manages to be " thrilling " , further writing that it is " packed with ideas and touches " which listeners would understand after repeated listens . Anupa Mistry of Spin considered the song to be one of Beyoncé 's " elbows @-@ up boom @-@ trap anthems ... ready to soundtrack both dive @-@ bar antics and bottle @-@ service quasi @-@ sophistication . " Philip Cosores of Paste highlighted that the track was highly evocative but found its lyrics to be " half @-@ baked at best " . Ryan Dennehy of AbsolutePunk wrote that " unconditional love has to be reciprocated to explain Jay Z 's odious verse on ' Drunk in Love ' " . Stereogum 's Tom Breihan criticized Jay @-@ Z 's " pretty bad " verse in the song . Philadelphia Media Network writer Dan DeLuca panned " Drunk in Love " as Beyoncé 's biggest " misstep " due to Jay @-@ Z 's contribution .
Although being praised by media outlets , " Drunk in Love " sparked controversy for its lyrics referencing domestic violence . On the song , Jay @-@ Z rapped the lyrics " I 'm Ike , Turner , turn up / Baby no I don 't play / Now eat the cake , Anna Mae / I said eat the cake , Anna Mae " which alludes to Tina Turner 's abusive relationship with her former husband , Ike Turner . The lyric specifically refers to a scene from Tina Turner 's biopic in which Ike Turner forced Tina to eat cake by pushing her face into the cake ; the film is based on Tina Turner 's real @-@ life experience with a jealous and violent husband . Rolling Stone 's Rob Sheffield described the reference as " tasteless " in his review of the song and The Guardian writer Tshepo Mokoena called the song 's lyrics " disturbing " and " distasteful " . British radio station Bang Radio aired an edited version of the song excluding the lyrics .
= = = Recognition and awards = = =
In the annual Pazz and Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music in 2013 , " Drunk in Love " was ranked at number 162 . The following year , " Drunk in Love " was ranked at number 21 on the same critics ' poll . In 2014 , the writers of Pitchfork Media placed the song at number 44 on their list of the 200 best songs of the decade so far , with editor Carrie Battan writing , " Someday , it will be heard as a brilliant ruse , a masterpiece of pop theater , or as simply a masterpiece , period . " Rolling Stone ranked " Drunk in Love " at number one on its year @-@ end list of the best songs in 2014 . The magazine 's writers described it as a " future @-@ pop fantasy " and " the sexiest thing on the radio " , further praising the singers for making " marriage sound ridiculously hot " .
The song was nominated for Top R & B Song at the 2014 Billboard Music Awards . At the 2014 BET Awards , it won Best Collaboration and was nominated for Viewer 's Choice , losing to " I Luv This Shit " by August Alsina and Trinidad James . At the 2014 Soul Train Music Awards , " Drunk in Love " was nominated in the category for Song of the Year . The track won two Grammy awards , in the categories for Best R & B Performance and Best R & B Song at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in 2015 .
= = Chart performance = =
In the US , " Drunk in Love " debuted at number 48 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart dated December 28 , 2013 . It was also the greatest gainer , with a 3 @.@ 4 million audience impression across 46 reporters . For the week ending January 4 , 2014 , the song soared to number 9 on the airplay chart and went on to debut at number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , the singer 's highest debut on that chart with 61 @,@ 000 downloads and 23 @.@ 3 million audience impression . Being attributed the greatest airplay gainer for the third consecutive week , the single moved to number 6 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart . " Drunk in Love " topped the chart for the week ending February 1 , 2014 , becoming Beyoncé 's sixth number @-@ one song on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart . It spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart . " Drunk in Love " also became Beyoncé 's seventh number @-@ one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and eighth number @-@ one on the Rhythmic Songs chart .
On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Drunk in Love " debuted at number 12 for the week ending January 4 , 2014 and equalled the performance of Beyoncé 's 2006 single , " Ring the Alarm " , for her highest debut position on the chart . Following the couple 's performance of the single at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , it climbed to a new peak of number two ( behind the Katy Perry single " Dark Horse " ) , becoming Beyoncé 's first top 10 single since " Telephone " ( 2010 ) and her highest charting song since " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) . " Drunk in Love " became her fifteenth top @-@ ten Hot 100 single as a solo artist . The song spent eight consecutive weeks in the top ten and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in April . In March 2015 , " Drunk In Love " was certified three @-@ times platinum by the RIAA denoting sales and streams of three million copies in the US , digital sales and streams included . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the single peaked at number 22 and was certified Platinum by Music Canada for sales of 80 @,@ 000 copies in that country .
The song debuted at number 57 on the UK Singles Chart and number six on the UK R & B Singles Chart for the issue dated December 28 , 2013 . It eventually peaked at numbers nine and three respectively in February 2014 ; it marked Beyoncé 's seventeenth top 10 single on the UK Singles Chart as a solo artist . " Drunk in Love " was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on January 22 , 2016 for sales of 600 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . On the Irish Singles Chart , the song reached number 10 on February 6 , 2014 . It debuted at number 35 on the French Singles Chart on December 28 , 2013 and peaked at number 9 on March 1 , 2014 . The single marks Beyoncé 's longest charting song in that country , spending a total of 58 weeks since its debut .
On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Drunk in Love " debuted at number 40 on January 13 , 2014 , and peaked at number seven on February 10 , 2014 , becoming Beyoncé 's sixteenth top @-@ ten single in New Zealand . It was certified Gold by Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) in 2014 for selling 7 @,@ 500 digital copies . On the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia , the song peaked at number 22 , receiving a Platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) in 2015 for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies . For the week ending December 21 , 2013 , " Drunk in Love " debuted at its peak position of number 25 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart with digital sales of 5 @,@ 608 copies . The single managed to top the airplay singles chart in South Africa on the Entertainment Monitoring Africa Airplay Chart on February 18 , 2014 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The video was filmed on August 15 , 2013 in Golden Beach , Florida at a beach front manse that Beyoncé rented out for the shoot . It was directed by Hype Williams and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white ; the clip depicts Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z " madly in love " . The black @-@ and @-@ white shoot was meant to reference the work of fashion photographer Herb Ritts . Talking about the video in an iTunes Radio session , Beyoncé said , " The shoot was extremely effortless and spontaneous and we completely captured the energy of the song . " She also went on to say that it was the most organic shoot she had ever done and further added : " I wanted to carry this idea of being in the moment and embracing mistakes and effortlessness into the video . I wish every video was like ' Drunk [ in Love ] ' . " The clip was first released on the iTunes Store on the visual album itself on December 13 , 2013 , which contained a previously filmed music video for every song and was later uploaded to Beyoncé 's Vevo channel three days later , on December 16 , 2013 .
The visual is almost six and a half minutes long . As the video begins , waves are seen crashing on a night time beach . Nearly a minute later , Beyoncé appears ; she is strolling on a beach at night and she seemingly carries a massive trophy while an eerie music is playing in the background . Sporting a sheer negligee that reveals her bra and panties beneath , she twists her body in the sand . The singer also dances seductively against a backdrop of smoke and mouths the song 's lyrics , staring at the camera . Beyoncé is later joined by husband Jay @-@ Z , who is wearing a T @-@ shirt and a backwards baseball cap . He raps with his eyes down holding a glass with alcohol in his hand while Beyoncé mouths the words behind him , smiling . The last seconds of the video show Beyoncé dancing and it concludes with close @-@ up shots of the singer 's face .
= = = Reception = = =
On a review of the clip , Kory Glow of Rolling Stone wrote , " The video , as metaphorical as it is , perfectly captures the feeling of the track . " A writer for DJ Booth described the video as an " equally steamy cinematic accompaniment " to the song . Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media commented that the video " brings the # surfboard line into clear focus " . Vanity Fair writer Michelle Collins described the scene where the singer sings the line " surfboard " as hilarious . An editor writing for Rap @-@ Up commended the " intoxicating visuals " . USA Today 's Elysa Gardner felt that the clip was " sultry " showing the pair " romp and caress on a beach , recalling a night of connubial bliss that lasted into morning " as the song 's lyrics . Gerrick D. Kennedy from the Los Angeles Times interpreted the scenes showing the trophy as representing the singer as a " trophy wife " . Joe Lynch of Fuse compared Beyoncé 's dancing in the sand with Madonna 's visual for " Cherish " ( 1989 ) . Brent DiCrescenzo of the magazine Time Out also felt that the video for " Cherish " strongly influenced the video for " Drunk in Love " .
Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone described the video as the second most NSFW from the whole album . An editor from the website Consequence of Sound described Beyoncé 's dancing as an R @-@ rated version of Bo Derek 's role in the film 10 ( 1978 ) . In her review , Toronto Star 's Malene Arpe called the video " porny " . HitFix reviewer Whitney Phaneuf felt that Beyoncé was looking in the camera with pure lust concluding that when Jay @-@ Z appears later , " it 's clear that her gaze has been fixed on him " . Claire Lobenfeld from Complex felt that the pair " get wet and wild " in the video further elaborating , " For an album that is rooted in love , marriage , and sex , unleashing a video featuring her and her husband frolicking euphorically on the beach is the best first taste . " Slate 's Forrest Wickman called the clip one of the simplest on the album and noted , " It 's not the album 's peak , musically or visually , but unconstrained by heavy choreography ... it legitimately looks like they 're having fun . " Maura Johnston of Spin placed the video at number 5 on the magazine 's list of the best music videos in 2013 saying that it was a " worthy addition " to the collaborations between Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z.
The video was nominated in the categories for Best Female Video and Best R & B Video at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards Japan . It was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2014 BET Awards . At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards the video was nominated in the categories for Video of the Year and Best Collaboration , eventually winning the latter . At the 2014 Soul Train Music Awards the clip was nominated in the category for Video of the Year .
= = Live performances = =
On January 26 , 2014 the couple opened the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles , performing the song live together for the first time . The performance opened with Beyoncé sporting wet @-@ look hair in a leotard and a leather basque , sitting on a chair with her back to the audience . She conctinued seductively dancing cabaret @-@ style , singing and gyrating on the dark stage surrounded by smoke . Jay @-@ Z appeared to rap his verses dressed in a suit and bow tie . The sexually @-@ charged performance ended with a kiss and the two walked off with their arms around each other . Beyoncé 's chair dance received comparisons with scenes from the movie Flashdance , the song 's music video and the video for " Partition " ; VH1 's Emily Exton felt that it was one of the best chair dances of all time . The duet was described as " scorching " and " chill inducing " with many critics considering the performance to be a show highlight ; Lily Harrison of E ! added that the pair " set the bar impossibly high " . A Rolling Stone editor felt it was " near flawless " . Nadeska Alexis writing for MTV News noted that when the singer started singing the first verses of the song , " you could almost taste the aroma of sex appeal in the air " . A negative review came from Beverly Beckham of The Boston Globe who felt that the pair failed to showcase love in the lyrics and performance .
The performance sparked criticisms from some parents on social media who believed the performance was " provocative " and " inappropriate " due to its risqué nature ; Melissa Henson , a representative of the Parents Television Council said in a statement that the performance was " suggestive " before adding , " We have seen pretty consistently enough inappropriate material [ on awards shows lately ] , that a lot of parents have written these off . " Contrastingly , writing for ThinkProgress , Alyssa Rosenberg said of the controversy : " This may not be the vision of marriage conservatives intended to try to promote [ but ] if marriage is a product that conservatives desperately want to sell , the smartest thing they could do right now is to hire Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z as a product spokescouple ... they made marriage look fun , and sexy , and a source of mutual professional fulfillment . " On public reaction to the sexual performance , Lavanya Ramanathan of The Washington Post wrote : " The Internet exploded , and it 's not surprising . This is a couple who sat separately at awards ceremonies when they were dating several years ago . " On February 1 , 2014 , the couple performed the song again during Jay Z 's performance at the DirecTv pre @-@ Super Bowl party . Christopher R. Weingarten of Rolling Stone referred to the pair 's chemistry as the highlight of the event and said the performance was " smiles and hugs and laughs , with one of the most famous rappers in the world gladly playing hypeman " in contrast to the Grammy performance . Nekesa Mumbi Moody writing for the Associated Press felt that it was the set 's highlight . At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25 , 2014 , Beyoncé performed " Drunk in Love " live during a medley consisting of songs from her self @-@ titled album . The performance featured the singer dressed in a bejeweled bodysuit and a singalong from the audience . She started the performance on a set of steps , with numerous dancers in headstands around her and went to the stage afterwards . Nadeska Alexis from MTV News commented that when the song opened , " the crowd really started to lose their composure " . Writers of The Hollywood Reporter described the song 's performance as " booty @-@ popping " .
The song was added to the set list and performed live during the second European leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in February and March 2014 . For the performance , Beyoncé danced on a chair in a catsuit as kaleidoscope of lights illuminated her . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey felt that the track became a stadium sing @-@ along like the other hits performed by the singer . Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that the singer 's ad libs made listeners feel like she " got tipsy and had the hots for her husband " . Jay @-@ Z joined her on stage to perform the song together at all six London shows of the leg , as well as at the final tour stop in Lisbon . A professionally recorded live performance of the song with Jay @-@ Z from the tour aired on August 4 , 2014 on Beyonce : X10 , an HBO series documenting renditions of the song performed during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Erin Strecker from Billboard felt that the choreography from the performance was " instantly iconic " . Anna Silman of Variety praised the singer 's differenet sparkling costumes and noted that overally , the rendition was " as sultry and showstopping as you 'd imagine " . " Drunk in Love " was part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) . For the performance of the song , Beyoncé performed a chair dance and was accompanied by Jay @-@ Z for his part which contained a short snippet of Kanye West 's " On Sight " . While reviewing the opening concert of the tour , Rebecca Thomas writing for MTV News described the performance of the song as " intoxicating " .
= = Remixes = =
The popularity of the song has led to several remixes . In December 2013 , American singer Rico Love and American rapper Plies released a remix of " Drunk in Love " in which they sang about their sex experiences . On January 16 , 2014 , English musician James Blake debuted a remix of the song on BBC Radio 1 using his alter ego Harmonimix considerably altering Beyoncé 's voice . Future utilized Auto @-@ Tune on his version of the song , which he released in late January 2014 . At BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge , American rapper Angel Haze performed " Drunk in Love " , substituting Jay Z 's verses with new lines that discuss empowerment and braggadocio . She later released a studio version in April leaving some vocals by Beyoncé from the original ; this version was noted for containing more aggression than her live rendition .
On February 13 , 2014 , Detail released a seven @-@ minute version of the song on which he worked for three weeks . It was titled " Drunken Love " and it included unreleased audio elements from the recording of the original song from which several variables of it existed . Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan described his version as " chopped @-@ up , stretched out , cathedral @-@ ready " . On February 14 , 2014 , American rapper Kanye West , frequent collaborator of Jay @-@ Z , released the official remix of " Drunk in Love " , featuring an explicit verse by himself and a slightly modified instrumental produced by Mike Dean . In his lines , West rapped about his wife Kim Kardashian and referenced the video for his own song , " Bound 2 " ( 2013 ) . A day after the release of the remix , Beyoncé uploaded a 30 @-@ second clip in which she played a cowgirl corralling horses as West 's vocals played in the background . Miriam Coleman of Rolling Stone felt that West 's rework was an " even raunchier spin on the already @-@ adult @-@ themed song " . The remix version was later included on the track listing of the platinum edition of Beyoncé , released on November 24 , 2014 . Diplo produced an EDM @-@ influenced remix of the song , which he released on February 15 , 2014 . Canadian singer The Weeknd and American rapper T.I. both released their respective remixes on the same date ; the former 's version featured lyrics about drug use and corruption . On February 18 , 2014 , American rapper Cassidy released a song titled " Surfboard " , with the tag " Drunk in Love G @-@ Mix " , which heavily samples " Drunk in Love " . On December 18 , 2014 , Tiësto released a remix of the song after playing it in DJ sets a few months ago .
= = Cover versions = =
English singer Katy B performed a medley of " Drunk in Love " and Tinashe 's " Vulnerable " during Rinse FM sessions at London 's Metropolis Studios in late February 2014 . Sevyn Streeter covered the song live during a concert in March . Ed Sheeran also performed an acoustic cover version on the Elvis Duran and the Morning Show broadcast on April 11 and on 4Music on May 9 , 2014 . He had sung the beginning of the song for several seconds the month before during On Air with Ryan Seacrest and decided to fully cover it following fan demands . Alternative rock band Grouplove performed a rock @-@ infused cover of the song at the 2014 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival . The writers of Billboard magazine described it as " earnest and uneven " . Rita Ora covered " Drunk in Love " on May 25 , 2014 during Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Glasgow and on the French television show Le Before du Grand Journal the following day . In July 2014 , Sia performed a cover of the song along with Ed Sheeran and Grouplove on the second episode of VH1 's SoundClash . During her performance at the G @-@ A @-@ Y club in London in April 2014 , British singer Lily Allen appeared wearing a black bikini and a blond wig emulating Beyoncé 's look from the song 's video , lip @-@ syncing the lyrics for a drag performance . She appeared on the stage with a trophy in her hand , getting spilled with water from a bucket and danced in a similar way to the singer . Several media outlets and fans on social media alike called it a " mocking " of Beyoncé which Allen further denied on Twitter .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Beyoncé 's website .
Song credits
Video credits
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Release history = =
= Cape Verde at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
Cape Verde competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics which were held in London , United Kingdom from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . The country 's participation at London marked its fifth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut in 1996 . The delegation included Ruben Sança , a long @-@ distance runner ; Lidiane Lopes , a sprinter ; and Adysângela Moniz , a judoka . Moniz and Sança were also selected as the flag bearers for the opening and closing ceremonies respectively . Of the three Cape Verdean athletes , only Moniz progressed further than the first round .
= = Background = =
Cape Verde participated in five Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , US and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . The highest number of Cape Verdean athletes participating in a summer games is three in the 1996 games in Atlanta , US , the 2004 games in Athens , Greece and in the 2012 games in London . No Cape Verdean athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympics . Three athletes from Cape Verde were selected to compete in the London games ; Ruben Sança in the track and field 5000 m , Lidiane Lopes in the track and field 100 m and Adysângela Moniz in the judo + 78kg .
= = Athletics = =
Cape Verde was represented by one male athlete at the 2012 Olympics in athletics – Ruben Sança , a 5000 metres runner . Making his Olympic debut at these Games , Sança was given a university place after previously competing in the marathon at the 2011 World Championships and the 1500 meters at the 2009 Lusophony Games . He competed on 8 August in the 5000 metres event , finishing last out of 21 athletes in heat two in a time of 14 minutes and 35 @.@ 19 seconds . He was 1 minute and 20 @.@ 04 seconds behind the winner of his heat , Dejen Gebremeskel . Overall he finished 40th out of 43 athletes , and he was 1 minute and 13 @.@ 98 seconds slower than the slowest athlete that progressed to the final round and , therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Competing at her first Olympics , Lidiane Lopes was the youngest ever competitor for Cape Verde at the Olympics , aged 17 . She competed in the 100 meters on 3 August . Lopes was drawn into heat four and ran a time of 12 @.@ 72 seconds and finished fourth in her preliminary heat , 1 @.@ 12 seconds behind the winner , Toea Wisil . She finished 17th out of 33 athletes overall and was 0 @.@ 48 seconds behind the slowest athlete who progressed to the heats . Therefore , Lopes did not progress to the heats .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Judo = =
Cape Verde had one judoka competing in the 2012 Olympics . This woman was Adysângela Moniz , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old athlete , competing at her first Olympic Games . She competed in the + 78kg event . Moniz received a bye in the first round and fought in match four against Idalys Ortíz from Cuba in the second round . Moniz lost and therefore did not progress to the quarter @-@ finals .
= St. Michael 's Cathedral , Qingdao =
St. Michael 's Cathedral ( Chinese : 圣弥爱尔大教堂 ; pinyin : Shèng Mí 'ài 'ěr Dàjiàotáng ; German : Kathedrale St. Michael ) , also called the Zhejiang Road Catholic Church ( 浙江路天主教堂 ) , which is abbreviated by locals to simply the " Catholic Church " ( 天主教堂 ) is a Catholic church in Qingdao ( also known as Tsingtao ) , Shandong Province , China and is the seat of the Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao . It is located in the oldest part of Qingdao , at 15 Zhejiang Road , on the east side of Zhongshan Road in Shinan District . Built by German missionaries , the cathedral stands at the top of a hill in the center of the old German @-@ built part of the city . It is the largest example of Romanesque Revival architecture in the province , resembling a German cathedral of the 12th century .
St. Michael 's Cathedral is the product of a strong German presence in Shandong Province in the 19th and early 20th centuries . In the mid @-@ 19th century the European powers forcibly opened China to foreign trade . The Divine Word Missionaries built a church in the Jiaozhou Bay concession in Shandong in 1902 , and in 1934 erected the cathedral , which remained nominally under their administration until 1964 . In 1942 it came under the control of the Japanese Army , returning to Chinese control when the Japanese left Qingdao in 1945 . In the early 1950s , all foreign missionaries , including the Bishop of Qingdao , were either imprisoned or expelled from China , and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 1976 ) the cathedral was defaced and abandoned . In 1981 , it was repaired by the government and reopened for services , and in 1992 it was listed as a Provincial Historic Building by the government of Shandong Province .
= = History = =
After China 's defeat in the First Opium War , the country was forcibly opened to foreign trade by a number of treaties collectively referred to as the Unequal Treaties . Following the Treaty of Nanjing ( 1842 ) , the British established the first treaty ports . Following China 's concession to the British Empire , other foreign powers including France , the United States , Portugal , Germany , Japan , and Russia won concessions as well . Foreigners , who were centered in foreign sections of the cities , enjoyed legal extraterritoriality as stipulated in the Unequal Treaties . Foreign clubs , racecourses , and churches were established in major treaty ports . Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers , such as the concessions in China , effectively removing them from the control of local governments .
= = = German presence in Qingdao = = =
In the early 1890s , the German Empire had been considering occupying Jiaozhou Bay ( " Jiaozhou " is romanized as Kiaochow , Kiauchau or Kiao @-@ Chau in English and Kiautschou in German ) for building its first naval base in East Asia in order to expand into the interior of Shandong . In 1891 the Qing government decided to make Qingdao ( commonly spelled " Tsingtao " ) defensible against naval attack and began to improve the existing fortifications of the town . German naval officials observed and reported on this Chinese activity during a formal survey of Jiaozhou Bay in May 1897 . In November 1897 , the German Navy seized Jiaozhou Bay under the pretext of ensuring that reparations were paid for the murder of two German Catholic missionaries in the province . In the spring of 1898 , the German government signed a treaty that allowed the Germans to lease an area of 540 square kilometres ( 130 @,@ 000 acres ; 210 sq mi ) for 99 years ( or until 1997 , as the British did in Hong Kong 's New Territories ) , to construct a railway to Jinan , the capital of Shandong province , and to exploit coalfields along the railroad .
The Kiautschou Bay concession , as it became known , existed from 1898 to 1914 . With an area of 552 square kilometres ( 136 @,@ 000 acres ; 213 sq mi ) , it was located in the imperial province of Shandong ( alternatively romanized as Shantung or Shan @-@ tung in English and Schantung in German ) on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula ( Schantung @-@ Halbinsel ) in northern China . Tsingtao ( Qingdao ) was its administrative center . After the farmers and fishermen of the Chinese village sold their buildings and land and resettled in the rural communities further east , the Germans began to develop the area . Wide streets , solid housing areas , government buildings , electrification throughout , a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply were improvements that transformed the impoverished fishing village of Tsingtao into a modern German town . In a short time the area had the highest density of schools and per capita student enrollment in all of China ; primary , secondary and vocational schools were funded by the Imperial German treasury and Protestant and Roman Catholic missions .
The cathedral was built by the Divine Word Missionaries ( abbreviated " SVD , " from their Latin name : Societas Verbi Divini ) , the first German Catholic missionary society . The order was founded in 1875 " for the propagation of the Catholic religion among pagan nations , " at Steyl ( today in the Limburg Province of the Netherlands ) , by German Catholic priests fleeing the Kulturkampf . The society 's first mission was established in 1882 in southern Shantung , a district of more than 10 million people , which contained 158 Catholics . At the time , the area was part of the Apostolic Vicariate of Shantung , managed by Italian Franciscans , who were tasked with rebuilding the earlier Catholic mission work . However , the mission work proceeded slowly , due to insufficient personnel and resources . The southern half of the province , in particular , had been all but neglected . Consequently , it was transferred to the SVD on December 2 , 1885 , and became the Vicariate Apostolic of Southern Shan @-@ tung . The new Vicariate Apostolic was headquartered in Yanzhou , Shandong and headed by Bishop Johann Baptist von Anzer , SVD , who led it until November 24 , 1903 . By 1907 , the mission numbered 35 @,@ 378 Catholics and 36 @,@ 367 catechumens , and by 1924 , 106 @,@ 000 Catholics and 44 @,@ 000 catechumens . The SVD 's presence in Qingdao was first recorded when the mission purchased land there in 1899 and began building a mission hall .
= = = Design and construction = = =
In autumn 1898 Bishop von Anzer had Father Franz Bartels appointed as pastor in Qingdao . Bishop von Anzer also commissioned Bartels with planning and constructing the Catholic mission . Bartels initially stayed in a house that was part of a Taoist temple . Adjacent to his house he had a provisional chapel built which served as a place of worship / service for the European inhabitants of Qingdao until 1902 when a mission hall with a chapel was built . Major Kopka von Lossow , commander of the Third Sea Battalion which was stationed in Qingdao , ordered about a hundred of his men to attend services every Sunday .
On a hill chosen by Bishop von Anzer , Father Bartels purchased some land on Qufu Road , having a printing house and the SVD mission hall erected in 1902 . The mission hall was converted to a school in 1922 , and was operating as of May 2010 .
The Holy Ghost Convent was also built on the same hill , occupied by Franciscan sisters who worked as nurses and teachers .
The cathedral 's original architect ( commissioned by Bishop Augustin Henninghaus ) designed a three @-@ aisled Gothic church , but the World War I conquest of Qingdao by the Japanese on November 16 , 1914 , put an end to the cathedral plans . The city reverted to Chinese rule in December 1922 , under control of the Republic of China . The Vicariate Apostolic of Southern Shan @-@ tung was renamed the Vicariate Apostolic of Yanzhoufu on December 13 , 1924 , and on February 22 , 1925 , the Apostolic Prefecture of Qingdao was established from its territory , with Bishop Georg Weig , SVD , appointed prefect on March 18 of that same year . On June 14 , 1928 , it was elevated to a Vicariate Apostolic . When construction resumed , the original Gothic plan no longer seemed appropriate for the modern townscape of Qingdao . Father Alfred Fräbel designed the present neo @-@ Romanesque structure , built during the tenure of Bishop Weig , who is entombed in the cathedral .
Construction began on May 5 , 1931 , under Brother Theophorus Kleemann , SVD , who became ill and died on September 12 , 1931 ; Arthur Bialucha , a German architect living in Qingdao who had already completed several projects for the SVD , took over as construction superintendent . Construction was frustrated in 1933 , when Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany and prohibited the transfer of money overseas . The diocese independently shouldered the cost of finishing the cathedral . This required a number of design changes to reduce costs . The changes are evident in drawings published before completion of construction , which show the roofs of the towers as bell @-@ shaped . However , the roofs of the completed structure were changed to spires . Construction was finished in 1934 , and the cathedral was consecrated on October 28 that year .
Some sources state that St. Michael 's Cathedral was originally named " St. Emil 's Church " . A Latin inscription over the tomb of Bishop Weig states that the cathedral was consecrated to St. Michael the Archangel in 1934 . In addition , a photo taken in 1935 , currently in the German Federal Archives is labeled " St. Michaels Kirche " ( St. Michael 's Church ) , and authoritative secondary print sources make no mention of " St. Emil 's Church " .
= = = 1938 – 1949 : occupation , liberation , and civil war = = =
The Japanese reoccupied Qingdao in January 1938 . Bishop Thomas Tien Ken @-@ sin , SVD was appointed Vicariate Apostolic of Qingdao , in November 1942 , as Bishop Georg Weig had died the year before . That year , the Japanese placed a large sign over the main door of the cathedral that read " Under Management of the Japanese Army " . On August 15 , 1945 , Japan surrendered to Allied forces , officially ending World War II , and in September 1945 , Qingdao was liberated by forces of the Kuomintang , restoring the government of the Republic of China . The following year , on February 18 , 1946 , Bishop Tien was elevated to Cardinal , becoming the first Chinese Cardinal and to date the only SVD Cardinal . He traveled to Vatican City to accept the honor . His Vicariate Apostolic was elevated to the Diocese of Qingdao on April 11 . Upon his return on May 27 , he was greeted by representatives of the government of Shandong Province , who had arranged a welcome in his honor , with the United States Marine Band playing outside the main entrance of the cathedral . The Marine Band was attached to Naval Forces Western Pacific , headquartered in Qingdao at the time . During the Civil War period ( 1946 – 1949 ) , missionaries in Shandong Province experienced growing tensions with the Communists , spurring one of them , Father Augustin Olbert , SVD to write :
The Reds do not slacken and will in the end remain victorious . Almost the entire province is in their hands . For the time being they still give face , but when they are firmly established , they will no doubt show us their teeth , as they are already doing in some areas . We are facing the future with much anxiety . Most missionaries are convinced that , once the Reds are in power , they will expel us all .
Father Olbert was appointed Bishop of Qingdao two years later .
On June 2 , 1949 , the People 's Liberation Army entered Qingdao and both the city and Shandong Province have since been under Communist control . Bishop Tien fled to Taiwan with the Kuomintang government .
= = = 1949 – 1976 : Under Mao = = =
Soon after the Communists assumed control , a combination of assertive nationalism and socialist ideology led to the eradication of the Western presence in China , including Western culture and products . " The denunciation of anything Western as ' capitalist , ' ' bourgeois ' and representative of the ' imperialist world ' reached a peak during the ideological extremism of the Korean War ( 1950 – 1953 ) when the final vestiges of the Western economic and cultural presence were eradicated . " Missionary and Communist ambitions simply were irreconcilable and the wide ideological gap could not be bridged . The stage had been set for the Communists ' catastrophic assault on the missionary enterprise during the Civil War period ( 1946 – 1949 ) and the expulsion of virtually all foreigners in the early 1950s . Foreign missionaries who were suspected of being spies were arrested . Missionary institutes funded by foreign money were closed down and all foreign missionaries expelled from China . The SVD mission was not spared this fate . In 1951 , the Diocese of Qingdao 's Bishop Augustin Olbert , SVD was arrested , served 22 months in prison , and was then deported to Germany in 1953 . Although the cathedral was closed by the government , Bishop Olbert remained Bishop of Qingdao until his death in 1964 . Native Chinese clergy were not spared the government 's Marxian contempt for religion during this period . Future Bishop of Qingdao Li Mingshu was sent to prison the same year Bishop Olbert was deported , and not released from labor camps until 1968 . Sweeping arrests of Chinese bishops , priests , sisters and laity did not begin , however , until 1955 . Afterwards , the Catholic resistance movement , encountering mass arrests and sentences to forced labor , was forced underground . Professor Jean @-@ Paul Wiest , Research Associate at the Centre for the Study of Religion and Chinese Society wrote : " The witness of Bishop Gong Pinmei of Shanghai and many others who chose jail , labor camps , and even death for the sake of their faith and their loyalty to the pope would sustain countless people in the years ahead . "
By late 1957 , due to the prior expulsion of foreign clergy and the subsequent imprisonment of Chinese clergy , 120 out of 145 dioceses and prefectures apostolic were without ordinaries . The Diocese of Qingdao went without an ordinary until the state @-@ run Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association consecrated and appointed Bishop Paul Han Xirang , OFM without papal sanction in 1988 .
The cathedral was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution which lasted from 1966 to 1971 . During this time St. Michael 's Cathedral was defaced by the Red Guards . The crosses topping the twin steeples were removed by the Red Guards , with two men falling to their deaths during the removal . An account of the cathedral 's defacement is translated as follows :
One day , scaffolding was tied to the church steeples . People said that the crosses would be removed . The news spread throughout the city . Numerous people watched from windows , from the streets , from the beaches , and from the mountaintops as several small , ghostlike figures climbed up to the crosses . Against the blue sky they opened a saw . It was said that by evening , two people had fallen from the tower and died on the spot . People also say that this church held one of the greatest pipe organs in China . They say that when it played , the whole city could hear its music . But this rare treasure was also destroyed by the Red Guards .
The next morning , seeing the towers of the church , the steeple had been denuded , and the towers were bald , like the shaved heads of criminals . The onlookers felt extremely uncomfortable , as if the whole area had been corrupted ; made evil . Not long after that , I occasionally passed by the church and was astonished to see the topped crosses : what originally appeared to be two thin needles [ when viewed from the towers
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, to be ready in time for the 2008 Olympics . The pipe organ sits upon the choir loft over the west front entrance .
The north transept contains three large murals featuring Jesus Christ : Jesus washing St. Peter 's feet , the Sacred Heart , and the Pietà . The north transept also contains the tombs of two bishops . One is of the first Vicar Apostolic of the Vicariate Apostolic of Qingdao , Bishop Georg Weig , SVD who supervised the construction of the cathedral . Bishop Weig 's tombstone shows obvious signs of defacement , being chipped around the edges , and with broken stonework at its base . The other tomb contains part of the ashes of Bishop of Qingdao Paul Han Xirang , OFM , the rest having been buried in his hometown , Han Village , Yucheng County , Shandong Province .
The south transept also contains three large murals : the Holy child praying , St. Thérèse of Lisieux ( patroness of missions ) , and the Nativity . The north and south arms of the transept each contain two altars .
= = Services = =
The church is active and as of 2008 more than 10 @,@ 000 Catholics in Qingdao attend services there . According to December 2009 and January 2010 church bulletins , mass is celebrated daily by Bishop Li Mingshu at 6 am , with additional masses on Sunday and festivals on Easter and Christmas . Services are held in Korean and Chinese , with one Korean and several Chinese priests on site .
= = Ordinaries = =
Below is a list of bishops who have reigned from St. Michael 's Cathedral , since its consecration in 1934 .
Georg Weig , SVD † ( Appointed 18 March 1925 – Died 3 October 1941 )
Thomas Tien Ken @-@ sin ( Tienchensing ) , SVD † ( Appointed 10 November 1942 – 11 April 1946 Appointed Archbishop of Peking )
Faustino M. Tissot , SX † ( Appointed 1946 – Resigned 1947 )
Augustin Olbert , SVD † ( Appointed 8 July 1948 – Arrested 1951 , Imprisoned Until 1953 , then deported to Germany . Died 18 Nov 1964 )
Paul Han Xirang , OFM † ( Appointed 24 April 1988 – Died 6 March 1992 ) Note : Consecrated as bishop and appointed without papal mandate .
Joseph Li Mingshu ( Appointed 2000 )
= George Schaller =
George Beals Schaller ( born 1933 ) is an American mammalogist , biologist , conservationist and author . Schaller is recognized by many as the world 's preeminent field biologist , studying wildlife throughout Africa , Asia and South America . Born in Berlin , Schaller grew up in Germany , but moved to Missouri as a teen . He is vice president of Panthera Corporation and serves as chairman of their Cat Advisory Council along with renowned conservationist and Panthera CEO Alan Rabinowitz . Schaller is also a senior conservationist at the Bronx Zoo @-@ based Wildlife Conservation Society .
= = Early life = =
Schaller received his Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Alaska in 1955 , and went on to the University of Wisconsin – Madison to obtain his PhD in 1962 . From 1962 to 1963 , he was a fellow at the Behavioral Sciences department of Stanford University . From 1963 to 1966 , Schaller served as research associate for the Johns Hopkins University Pathobiology department , and from 1966 to 1972 , served as the Rockefeller University 's and New York Zoological Society 's research associate in research and animal behavior as part of the Institute for Research in Animal Behavior . From 1972 to 1979 , he served as Coordinator of the Center for Field Biology and Conservation , which replaced the IRAB . He then served as Director of the New York Zoological Society 's International Conservation Program from 1979 to 1988 .
= = Mountain gorilla research = =
In 1959 , when Schaller was only 26 , he traveled to Central Africa to study and live with the mountain gorillas ( Gorilla beringei beringei ) of the Virunga Volcanoes . Little was known about the life of gorillas in the wild until the publication of The Mountain Gorilla : Ecology and Behavior in 1963 , that first conveyed to the general public just how profoundly intelligent and gentle gorillas really are , contrary to then @-@ common beliefs . Schaller also , in 1964 , recounted this epic two @-@ year study in The Year of the Gorilla , which also provides a broader historical perspective on the efforts to save one of humankind 's nearest relatives from the brink of extinction .
The American zoologist Dian Fossey , with assistance from the National Geographic society and Louis Leakey , followed Schaller 's ground @-@ breaking field research on mountain gorillas in the Virungas . Schaller and Fossey were instrumental in dispelling the public perception of gorillas as brutes , by demonstrably establishing the deep compassion and social intelligence evident among gorillas , and how very closely their behavior parallels that of humans .
" No one who looks into a gorilla 's eyes – intelligent , gentle , vulnerable – can remain unchanged , for the gap between ape and human vanishes ; we know that the gorilla still lives within us . Do gorillas also recognize this ancient connection ? "
= = Conservation career = =
In 1966 , Schaller and his wife traveled to Tanzania to live in the Serengeti , and Schaller conducted one of the first studies of social behavior and movement of Africa 's big cats .
In his 1972 work The Tree Where Man Was Born , author Peter Matthiessen described Schaller as " single @-@ minded , not easy to know " . Matthiessen went on to say Schaller was " a stern pragmatist " who " takes a hard @-@ eyed look at almost everything " , " lean and intent " , and in 1978 's The Snow Leopard Matthiessen wrote that by that time , some considered Schaller the world 's finest field biologist .
In the fall of 1973 , Schaller went to the remote Himalayan region , 250 miles ( 400 km ) inside Dolpo , an area of Nepal occupied by people of the Tibetan culture and ethnicity . Schaller was there to study the Himalayan Bharal , ( blue sheep ) , and possibly glimpse the elusive snow leopard , an animal rarely spotted in the wild . Schaller is one of only two Westerners known to have seen a snow leopard in Nepal between 1950 and 1978 . Accompanying him on the trip was Matthiessen , and as a result of the trip , Matthiessen wrote The Snow Leopard , ( 1978 ) detailing the accounts of their travels and research , which won two U.S. National Book Awards . Schaller is referred to throughout the book as " GS " .
In the late 1970s , Schaller spent time in Brazil studying the jaguar , capybara , " alligator " ( caiman ) , and other animals of the region .
In 1988 , Schaller and his wife traveled to China 's Chang Tang ( Qian Tang ) region to study the giant panda , and became the first westerners permitted to enter the remote region . Schaller sought to refute the notion that the panda population was declining due to natural bamboo die @-@ offs . Instead , Schaller found the panda 's popularity was leading to its frequent capture , and was the biggest threat to the population . Schaller also found evidence that pandas were originally carnivores , but underwent an evolutionary change to accommodate a diet of bamboo , which is difficult to digest , reducing competition with other animals for food . Since Schaller 's research , the panda population has increased in the wild by 45 percent . During his time in China , Schaller would hand out cards to wildlife hunters that read : " All beings tremble at punishment , to all , life is dear . Comparing others to oneself , one should neither kill nor cause to kill . " Schaller has spent more time in China than he has spent at his home in Connecticut .
In 1994 , Schaller and Dr. Alan Rabinowitz were the first scientists to uncover the rare saola , a forest @-@ dwelling bovine in Laos . Later that year , Schaller rediscovered the Vietnamese warty pig , once thought extinct . In 1996 , he located a herd of Tibetan red deer , also thought extinct .
In 2003 , Schaller returned to Chang Tang , and found the wildlife in the area had rebounded since his first trip to the region . Most significantly , the wild yak population , which was estimated at only 13 individuals , had grown to over 187 . " The Tibet Forestry Department has obviously made a dedicated and successful effort in protecting the wildlife . " Schaller wrote in a letter to the World Wildlife Fund 's Dawa Cering . While in Tibet , Schaller worked on researching the rare Tibetan antelope , or chiru , whose population declined due to trophy hunting for their exotic wool . Working with Tibetan authorities , and the Liz Claiborne and Art Ortenberg Foundation , Schaller helped protect the breeding and calving grounds of the chiru in the Kunlun mountains of Xinjiang Province .
In 2007 , Schaller worked with Pakistan , Afghanistan , Tajikistan , and China to develop a new " Peace Park " , that would protect 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) of habitat for the largest wild sheep species , the Marco Polo sheep . In danger due to their impressive spiral horns , which can measure up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in length , the sheep is sought out as a trophy by international hunters . Schaller 's research in the Pamir Mountains will play an important role in the park 's creation .
= = Conservation results = =
Schaller 's work in conservation has resulted in the protection of large stretches of area in the Amazon , Brazil , the Hindu Kush in Pakistan , and forests in Southeast Asia . Due in part to Schaller 's work , over 20 parks or preserves worldwide have been established , including Alaska 's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR ) , the Shey @-@ Phoksundo National Park in Nepal , and the Changtang Nature Reserve , one of the world 's most significant wildlife refuges . At over 200 @,@ 000 miles ( 320 @,@ 000 km ) , the Chang Tang Nature Reserve is triple the size of America 's largest wildlife refuge , and was called " One of the most ambitious attempts to arrest the shrinkage of natural ecosystems , " by The New York Times .
= = Bigfoot research = =
Schaller is one of a few prominent scientists who argue that Bigfoot reports are worthy of serious study . A 2003 Los Angeles Times story described Schaller as a " Bigfoot skeptic " , but he also expressed disapproval for other scientists who do not examine evidence , yet " write [ Bigfoot ] off as a hoax or myth . I don 't think that 's fair . " In a 2003 Denver Post article Schaller said that he is troubled that no Bigfoot remains have ever been uncovered , and no feces samples have been found to allow DNA testing . Schaller notes : " There have been so many sightings over the years , even if you throw out 95 percent of them , there ought to be some explanation for the rest . I think a hard @-@ eyed look is absolutely essential " .
= = Publications = =
Schaller has written more than fifteen books on African and Asian mammals , including Serengeti Lion : A Study of Predator – Prey Relations , The Last Panda , and Tibet 's Hidden Wilderness , based on his own studies , and supported by long @-@ term observations of species in their natural habitats . Schaller has also written hundreds of magazine articles , and dozens of books and scientific articles about tigers , jaguars , cheetahs and leopards , as well as wild sheep and goats , rhinoceroses , and flamingos . Over more than five decades , Schaller 's field research has helped shape wildlife protection efforts around the world .
= = Awards = =
Schaller 's conservation honors include National Geographic 's Lifetime Achievement Award , a Guggenheim Fellowship , and the World Wildlife Fund 's Gold Medal for : " Contributions to the understanding and conservation of endangered species " . Schaller has also been awarded the International Cosmos Prize , the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement , and he was the first recipient of the Wildlife Conservation Society 's Beebe Fellowship . Schaller 's literary honors include the U.S. National Book Award in Science ( for The Serengeti Lion in 1973 ) . In September 2008 , he received the Indianapolis Prize for his work in animal conservation .
= Will Venable =
William Dion Venable ( born October 29 , 1982 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder in the Los Angeles Dodgers organization . He has also played in MLB for the San Diego Padres and Texas Rangers . Venable is the son of former Major League outfielder Max Venable as well as the older brother of Canadian Football League safety Winston Venable .
Venable played basketball for Princeton University , as well as San Rafael High School . He was the second athlete to earn first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy League honors in both baseball and basketball . In the 2005 MLB Draft , the Padres selected Venable in the seventh round . He made his major league debut on August 29 , 2008 , against the Colorado Rockies , collecting his first hit . Although he broke into the Major Leagues as a center fielder , he has played mostly right field since his second season . Venable has frequently batted lead off and has on several occasions come within one hit of the cycle . As of November 2013 , he has finished among the top ten in the National League in triples four times and in stolen bases twice . He has the most Major League Baseball career hits and home runs of any Princeton alumnus .
= = Amateur career = =
= = = High school = = =
Venable was born in 1982 in Marin County , California , at a time when his father Max Venable was a Major League Baseball player for the nearby San Francisco Giants . He grew up travelling around the country with his father and also lived in Japan and the Dominican Republic . In high school , he envisioned himself as more likely to be a professional basketball player than baseball player . Prior to his freshman year , his mother , Molly , objected to him quitting baseball to focus on basketball . As both a high school sophomore and a high school junior , Venable was second @-@ team San Francisco Bay Area All @-@ Metro basketball player for San Rafael High School . He was the Marin County Athletic League ( MCAL ) most valuable player in basketball as a freshman , sophomore and junior . As a sophomore , he led his team to the MCAL League Championship . As a senior , he gave up the responsibility of being point forward .
= = = College carer = = =
Venable chose to attend Princeton University , not for its academics , but for its tradition of basketball excellence . He respected their tradition of qualifying to participate in the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament . During his time at the University he was a part of two teams that qualified for post season play : 2004 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament and 2002 National Invitation Tournament ) . Princeton recruited him as a basketball player . He did not play baseball as a freshman , but his father had directed him to Scott Bradley , Princeton 's baseball coach , during his recruiting visit .
Venable , who was a member of the class of 2005 at Princeton University , was the second athlete in Ivy League history ( after his Padres teammate Chris Young ) to be first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy in both basketball and baseball and he played on Ivy League Champion National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Championship tournament participants in both sports . He played in two NCAA Championship tournaments in both sports and earned a B.A. in anthropology .
In basketball , he averaged over 10 points and over 30 minutes per game in his 2002 – 03 sophomore season through his 2004 – 05 senior season .
Bradley had left the door open for Venable to come take batting practice if he ever had the urge . As a sophomore , at the suggestion of his mother , Venable resumed baseball . He posted modest numbers in his first season , but in 2004 , he hit for a .344 batting average , earned All @-@ Ivy honorable mention , and was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles in the fifteenth round of the draft ( 439th overall ) . Bradley felt that Major League Baseball scouts undervalued Venable because he did not participate in the Cape Cod League for college baseball players . Thus , instead of signing and giving up his amateur status , Venable returned for his senior season and posted a league leading 9 home runs and runner @-@ up .385 batting average while earning All @-@ League honors . Subsequently , the Padres drafted him in the seventh round ( 215th overall ) ; he was signed by the Padres ' Northeast Scouting Director , Jim Bretz .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor League Baseball = = =
After graduating from Princeton , Venable made his professional debut in minor league baseball with the Arizona League Padres of the Arizona League in 2005 . He hit for a .322 batting average in 15 games and was soon promoted to the Eugene Emeralds of the Single @-@ A Northwest League .
In 2006 , Venable was the Padres Minor League Player of the Year . With his father as a team hitting coach , Venable posted a .314 batting average , .389 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , and .477 slugging percentage for the Fort Wayne Wizards of the single @-@ A Midwest League ( MWL ) , which earned him both mid @-@ season and post @-@ season MWL All @-@ star honors . That season he tied for the MWL lead in runs scored and was among the top four Padre farmhands in RBIs , batting average , and stolen bases . Among his highlights for the Wizards were his team @-@ high two grand slams and a five @-@ hit performance .
Subsequently , for the 2006 West Oahu CaneFires of the Hawaii Winter Baseball , Venable posted a .330 batting average , .390 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , and .473 slugging percentage . He won the batting title that season and was named league most valuable player . He also led the league in doubles and was second to John Otness in OBP . In the outfield , Venable made no errors . Before the 2007 season , Venable was listed as the fifth best prospect in the Padres organization by Baseball America , and they named him the # 11 prospect in the league . They also named him as a Baseball America Low @-@ A All @-@ Star .
In 2007 , Venable batted .278 with a .337 OBP in 134 games for the San Antonio Missions of the Texas League . This again earned him both mid @-@ season and post @-@ season league All @-@ Star honors . A highlight occurred on May 30 , 2007 , when he hit for the cycle . After the season ended , he was invited to play for the San Diego affiliate in the Arizona Fall League , but he was afflicted with tendinitis in his shoulder and only hit .228 .
During 2008 spring training , he had two home runs and eight runs batted in his first twelve at @-@ bats . He then posted a .292 batting average , .361 on @-@ base percentage and .464 slugging percentage in 120 games for the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League in 2008 .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
= = = = 2008 – 2011 = = = =
Venable had been expected to be a September 2008 call @-@ up , but when Scott Hairston was forced onto the disabled list , Venable was called up ahead of schedule . On August 29 , 2008 , in his debut , he tripled in his first at @-@ bat and came around to score a run . He is the twenty @-@ fifth Princeton alumnus to play in the Major Leagues , but he is the first African @-@ American alumnus . He posted his first Major League home run in his sixth game on September 4 , 2008 , during a 5 – 2 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers at Miller Park . His only other home run for the 2008 San Diego Padres was also in a victory on the road on September 19 , 2008 in an 11 – 6 victory over the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park . During this game , Venable posted his first three @-@ hit performance and first three @-@ RBI performance . When Venable batted leadoff for the Padres on September 28 , 2008 against Pittsburgh , he became the first Princeton batter to oppose a Princeton pitcher ( Ross Ohlendorf ) . In 2008 , Venable accumulated only 110 Major League at @-@ bats , and rookie year is considered to be the season in which one accumulates his 130th at @-@ bat . He only played centerfield in 2008 . Following the season he played winter baseball in the Dominican Professional Baseball League , where he struggled .
Although in 2008 Baseball America projected Venable as an every day starter for the Padres in 2010 , some experts questioned whether he would be a long @-@ term solution in center field for the team . Venable started the 2009 season with the Padres ' Triple @-@ A affiliate , Portland Beavers , but he was recalled by the Padres on June 3 . His father , Max , served as the Beavers ' hitting coach in 2009 . Following the July 5 trade of Scott Hairston to the Oakland Athletics , Venable shared right field with Kyle Blanks . On July 12 against the San Francisco Giants , he had his first home run of the season in his first career four @-@ hit game . Between July 30 and August 5 , he homered in five of seven games . In an August 23 game against the St. Louis Cardinals , he was involved in a bench @-@ clearing incident when Albert Pujols thought he threw an elbow while being tagged out . In 2009 , he posted 12 home runs and tallied 38 runs batted in ( RBI ) , while defensively 493 @.@ 2 of his 643 innings were spent in right field and only 117 in center field .
In 2010 , he finished 8th in the National League in triples ( 7 ) , and 9th stolen bases ( 29 ) . He executed some delayed steals by taking off with the toss back to the mound " when neither infielder is covering second and the catcher is nonchalant with the ball after receiving the pitch " . On April 11 against the Atlanta Braves , he had his first career 5 @-@ RBI game , falling a double shy of the first cycle in Padres history . On May 19 , Venable moved into the lead off position in the lineup and he fell a home run shy of the franchise 's first cycle against the Los Angeles Dodgers , going 4 @-@ for @-@ 5 at the plate after getting a triple in the 1st inning and a double in the third . In June 23 , June 25 and 27 , Venable hit tie @-@ breaking home runs in Padre victories against the Florida Marlins and Tampa Bay Rays . On July 3 , he went on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to back problems . On September 29 against the Chicago Cubs , he stole two potential home runs ( from Alfonso Soriano and Aramis Ramirez ) on deep fly balls . In the game he achieved his career @-@ high 10 @-@ game hitting streak . He also led National League outfielders with 5 errors . He set new career @-@ highs with 13 home runs and 51 RBI . Again , the majority of his innings were in right field ( 600 @.@ 1 of 936 @.@ 1 innings ) . He split his remaining time between left field ( 171 @.@ 2 ) and center field ( 164 @.@ 1 ) .
In 2011 , Venable started slowly , hitting only .205 in April and was eventually optioned to the Tucson Padres on May 23 before being recalled on June 9 . At the time of his demotion , he had no home runs and a .224 batting average in 134 at @-@ bats . He was recalled after going 16 @-@ for @-@ 58 with 3 doubles , 3 triples , 3 home runs and 3 stolen bases in 14 games . In one minor league game on May 27 he homered twice against the Salt Lake Bees . On July 20 , Venable scored 3 times in the first two innings as the Padres jumped out to a 13 – 0 lead against the Florida Marlins . In late July , he missed a few games due to back spasms . On August 10 against the New York Mets , Venable had four hits again missing the cycle by a home run when he posted a second double in a ninth inning at bat . On August 21 , Veneble delivered a lead off home run and the game @-@ winning bases @-@ loaded walk @-@ off hit on Trevor Hoffman Day . On September 28 , he got his first grand slam home run against the Chicago Cubs off of Ryan Dempster . For the season , his totals dropped to 9 home runs and 44 RBI with the Padres , and he again totaled 7 triples , this time finishing 10th . He played 662 @.@ 2 of his 793 @.@ 2 innings in right field .
= = = = 2012 – 2015 = = = =
In 2012 , Venable and Chris Denorfia formed a platoon in right field , with Venable getting most of the starts against right @-@ handed pitchers and batting .270 against them . Venable made 80 starts in right , but appeared in a then @-@ career @-@ high 148 games for the year . When not starting in right , he made occasional starts in center and left field and made 26 pinch @-@ hitting appearances . On May 15 , 2012 , Venable had a single , double and triple by the fourth inning against the Washington Nationals , but his 4 @-@ hit effort again fell short of the franchise 's cycle . On May 23 , Venable had his sixth career lead off home run and added a single in the second inning and a double in the fourth against the St. Louis Cardinals . He ended up one hit shy of the cycle for the fifth time , this time a triple . On June 3 , Venable suffered a strained oblique muscle and left the game , missing four more games with the injury . Venable finished the year batting .264 with 9 home runs and 45 RBI . He collected 8 triples , finishing 9th in the league , and also committed 7 errors , tied for first among NL outfielders .
Coming into 2013 , Venable was again expected to platoon with Denorfia in right , but injuries to center fielder Cameron Maybin and left fielder Carlos Quentin expanded his playing time . He made 68 starts in right and 52 in center and played in a career @-@ high 151 games . Venable entered the season with 401 hits , which was 48 shy of the record for an alumnus of Princeton Tigers Baseball held by Moe Berg . His 46 home runs were already a school best . For the week of August 12 through August 18 , 2013 , Venable won the National League Player of the Week Award . During the week Venable tied his single @-@ game career high with 4 hits , joined the Padres ' 100 @-@ steal club , hit a walk @-@ off home run , made a home run stealing catch and surpassed his previous career best hitting streak by 5 to 15 . It marked his first Player of the Week Award as he hit .406 ( 13 @-@ for @-@ 32 ) with two home runs , two doubles , a triple and seven runs scored . On September 13 , David Hale ( Princeton class of 2011 ) made his major league debut for the Atlanta Braves , and it became the second Princeton vs. Princeton batter @-@ pitcher matchup in major league history . Hale struck out Venable and eight other Padres in his debut for the Braves , setting a franchise debut record . Venable was voted the Padres ' Most Valuable Player for the 2013 season by local baseball writers and other members of the media as he became the 8th player in Padres history to record at least 20 home runs and 20 steals in a season . For the year , Venable hit .268 with 22 home runs and a .796 on @-@ base plus slugging , all new career highs . He also stole 22 bases and finished tied for 5th in the league with 8 triples .
On September 2 , 2013 , Venable signed a two @-@ year contract extension with the Padres to keep him in San Diego through the 2015 season . Venable batted .224 with eight home runs in the 2014 season . His batting average , .288 on @-@ base percentage , .325 slugging percentage , and 38 RBIs were all career lows for a full season . During the 2014 – 15 offseason , the Padres acquired outfielders Matt Kemp , Justin Upton , and Wil Myers , shifting Venable into a reserve role . For the Padres in 2015 , Venable hit .258 with six home runs , 10 doubles , and 11 stolen bases through mid @-@ August .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On August 18 , 2015 , the Padres traded Venable to the Texas Rangers for catcher Marcus Greene and a player to be named later ( PTBNL ) . The Rangers needed another outfielder to supplement players like Josh Hamilton , who have dealt with injuries in the past . The PTBNL was announced as Jon Edwards on August 21 , after Edwards cleared waivers and could be traded .
= = = Philadelphia Philles = = =
On February 28 , 2016 , Venable signed a minor league deal with the Cleveland Indians . On March 27 , he was released by the Indians . The next day , Venable signed a minor league contract with the Philadelphia Phillies . On June 11 2016 , Venable opted out of his minor league deal with the Philles and became a free agent .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
On June 14 , 2016 , the Los Angeles Dodgers signed Venable and added him to their major league roster . He appeared in six games for the Dodgers and had one hit ( a double ) in 10 at @-@ bats before he was designated for assignment on June 24 . He cleared waivers and accepted an outright assignment to AAA Oklahoma City . On July 1 , the Dodgers brought him back to the active roster when Joc Pederson went on the disabled list . The following week he was again designated for assignment and he again accepted an outright assignment to Oklahoma City .
= Italian War of 1521 – 26 =
The Italian War of 1521 – 26 , sometimes known as the Four Years ' War , was a part of the Italian Wars . The war pitted Francis I of France and the Republic of Venice against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , Henry VIII of England , and the Papal States . The conflict arose from animosity over the election of Charles as Emperor in 1519 – 20 and from Pope Leo X 's need to ally with Charles against Martin Luther .
The war broke out across Western Europe late in 1521 , when a French – Navarrese expedition attempted to reconquer Navarre while a French army invaded the Low Countries . A Spanish army drove the Navarrese forces back into the Pyrenees , and other Imperial forces attacked northern France , where they were stopped in turn .
The Pope , the Emperor , and Henry VIII then signed a formal alliance against France , and hostilities resumed on the Italian Peninsula ; but , with the attention of both Francis and Charles focused on the battleground in northeast France , the conflict in Italy became something of a sideshow . At the Battle of Bicocca on 27 April 1522 , Imperial and Papal forces defeated the French , driving them from Lombardy . Following the battle , fighting again spilled onto French soil , while Venice made a separate peace . The English invaded France in 1523 , while Charles de Bourbon , alienated by Francis 's attempts to seize his inheritance , betrayed Francis and allied himself with the Emperor . A French attempt to regain Lombardy in 1524 failed and provided Bourbon with an opportunity to invade Provence at the head of a Spanish army .
Francis himself led a second attack on Milan in 1525 ; his disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pavia , where he was captured and many of his chief nobles were killed , led to the end of the war . With Francis imprisoned in Spain , a series of diplomatic maneuvers centered on his release ensued , including a special French mission sent by Francis ' mother Louise of Savoy to the court of Suleiman the Magnificent that would result in an Ottoman ultimatum to Charles — an unprecedented alignment between Christian and Muslim monarchs that would cause a scandal in the Christian world and lay the foundation for the Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance . Suleiman used the opportunity to invade Hungary in the summer of 1526 , defeating Charles ' allies at the Battle of Mohács ; but , despite these efforts , Francis would sign the Treaty of Madrid , surrendering his claims to Italy , Flanders , and Burgundy . Only a few weeks after his release , however , he repudiated the terms of the treaty , starting the War of the League of Cognac . Although the Italian Wars would continue for another three decades , they would end with France having failed to regain any substantial territories in Italy .
= = Prelude = =
By 1518 , the peace that had prevailed in Europe after the Battle of Marignano was beginning to crumble . The major powers ( France , England , Spain , and the Holy Roman Empire ) were outwardly friendly , pledging by the Treaty of London to come to the aid of any of the signatories that was attacked and to combine against any nation that broke the peace . They were divided , however , on the question of the Imperial succession . The Holy Roman Emperor , Maximilian I , intending for a Habsburg to succeed him , began to campaign on behalf of Charles of Spain , while Francis put himself forward as an alternate candidate . At the same time , the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire were forced to deal with the rising influence of Martin Luther , who found support among some Imperial nobles , while Francis was faced with Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , who interposed himself into the quarrels of the continent in an attempt to increase both England 's influence and his own .
Maximilian 's death in 1519 brought the Imperial election to the forefront of European politics . Pope Leo X , threatened by the presence of Spanish troops a mere forty miles from the Vatican , supported the French candidacy . The prince @-@ electors themselves , with the exception of Frederick of Saxony , who refused to countenance the campaigning , promised their support to both candidates at once . Before his death , Maximilian had already promised sums of 500 @,@ 000 florins to the Electors in exchange for their votes , but Francis offered up to three million , and Charles retaliated by borrowing vast sums from the Fuggers . The final outcome , however , was not determined by the exorbitant bribes , which included Leo promising to make the Archbishop of Mainz his permanent legate . The general outrage of the populace at the idea of a French Emperor gave the Electors pause , and when Charles put an army in the field near Frankfurt , where they were meeting , the Electors obligingly voted for him . He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 23 October 1520 , by which point he already controlled both the Spanish crown and the hereditary Burgundian lands in the Low Countries .
Cardinal Wolsey , hoping to increase Henry VIII 's influence on the continent , offered the services of England as a mediator for the various disputes between Francis and Charles . Henry and Francis staged an extravagant meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold . Immediately afterwards , Wolsey entertained Charles in Calais . Following the meetings , Wolsey , concerned mainly with improving his own stature in preparation for the next papal conclave , proceeded to stage a hollow arbitration conference at Calais , which lasted until April 1522 to no practical effect .
In December , the French began to plan for war . Francis did not wish to openly attack Charles because Henry had announced his intention to intervene against the first party to break the tenuous peace . Instead , he turned to more covert support for incursions into German and Spanish territory . One attack would be made on the Meuse River , under the leadership of Robert de la Marck . Simultaneously , a French @-@ Navarrese army would advance through Navarre after reconquering St @-@ Jean @-@ Pied @-@ de @-@ Port . The expedition was nominally led by the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Navarrese king Henry d 'Albret , whose kingdom had been invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1512 , but the army was effectively commanded by André de Foix and funded and equipped by the French . The French designs quickly proved flawed as the intervention of Henry of Nassau drove back the Meuse offensive ; and although de Foix was initially successful in seizing Pamplona , he was driven from Navarre after being defeated at the Battle of Esquiroz on 30 June 1521 .
Charles was meanwhile preoccupied with the issue of Martin Luther , whom he confronted at the Diet of Worms in March 1521 . The Emperor viewed Catholicism as a natural way of binding the diverse principalities of the Holy Roman Empire to him . Since Pope Leo X , for his part , was unwilling to tolerate such open defiance of his own authority , he and the Emperor were forced to support one another against Luther , who was now backed by Frederick of Saxony and Franz von Sickingen . On 25 May 1521 , Charles and Cardinal Girolamo Aleandro , the Papal nuncio , proclaimed the Edict of Worms against Luther . Simultaneously , the Emperor promised the Pope the restoration of Parma and Piacenza to the Medici and of Milan to the Sforza . Leo , needing the Imperial mandate for his campaign against what he viewed as a dangerous heresy , promised to assist in expelling the French from Lombardy , leaving Francis with only the Republic of Venice for an ally .
= = Initial moves = =
In June , Imperial armies under Henry of Nassau invaded the north of France , razing the cities of Ardres and Mouzon and besieging Tournai . They were delayed by the dogged resistance of the French , led by Pierre Terrail , Seigneur de Bayard and Anne de Montmorency , during the Siege of Mezieres , which gave Francis time to gather an army to confront the attack . On 22 October 1521 , Francis encountered the main Imperial army , which was commanded by Charles V himself , near Valenciennes . Despite the urging of Charles de Bourbon , Francis hesitated to attack , which allowed Charles time to retreat . When the French were finally ready to advance , the start of heavy rains prevented an effective pursuit and the Imperial forces were able to escape without a battle . Shortly afterwards , French @-@ Navarrese troops under Bonnivet and Claude of Lorraine seized the key city of Fuenterrabia , at the mouth of the Bidasoa River on the Franco @-@ Spanish border , following a protracted series of maneuvers , providing the French with an advantageous foothold in northern Spain that would remain in their hands for the next two years .
By November , the French situation had deteriorated considerably . Charles , Henry VIII , and the Pope signed an alliance against Francis on 28 November . Odet de Foix , Vicomte de Lautrec , the French governor of Milan , was tasked with resisting the Imperial and Papal forces ; he was outmatched by Prospero Colonna , however , and by late November had been forced out of Milan and had retreated to a ring of towns around the Adda River . There , Lautrec was reinforced by the arrival of fresh Swiss mercenaries ; but , having no money available to pay them , he gave in to their demands to engage the Imperial forces immediately . On 27 April 1522 , he attacked Colonna 's combined Imperial and Papal army near Milan at the Battle of Bicocca . Lautrec had planned to use his superiority in artillery to his advantage , but the Swiss , impatient to engage the enemy , masked his guns and charged against the entrenched Spanish arquebusiers . In the resulting melee , the Swiss were badly mauled by the Spanish under Fernando d 'Avalos , Marquess of Pescara , and by a force of landsknechts commanded by Georg Frundsberg . Their morale broken , the Swiss returned to their cantons ; Lautrec , left with too few troops to continue the campaign , abandoned Lombardy entirely . Colonna and d 'Avalos , left unopposed , proceeded to besiege Genoa , capturing the city on 30 May .
= = France at bay = =
Lautrec 's defeat brought England openly into the conflict . In late May 1522 , the English ambassador presented Francis with an ultimatum enumerating accusations against France , notably that of supporting the Duke of Albany in Scotland , all of which were denied by the king . Henry VIII and Charles signed the Treaty of Windsor on 16 June 1522 . The treaty outlined a joint English @-@ Imperial attack against France , with each party providing at least 40 @,@ 000 men . Charles agreed to compensate England for the pensions that would be lost because of conflict with France and to pay the past debts that would be forfeit ; to seal the alliance , he also agreed to marry Henry 's only daughter , Mary . In July , the English attacked Brittany and Picardy from Calais . Francis was unable to raise funds to sustain significant resistance , and the English army burned and looted the countryside .
Francis tried a variety of methods to raise money , but concentrated on a lawsuit against Charles III , Duke of Bourbon . The Duke of Bourbon had received the majority of his holdings through his marriage to Suzanne , Duchess of Bourbon , who had died shortly before the start of the war . Louise of Savoy , Suzanne 's sister and the king 's mother , insisted that the territories in question should pass to her because of her closer kinship to the deceased . Francis was confident that seizing the disputed lands would improve his own financial position sufficiently to continue the war and began to confiscate portions of them in Louise 's name . Bourbon , angered by this treatment and increasingly isolated at court , began to make overtures to Charles V to betray the French king .
By 1523 , the French situation had entirely collapsed . The death of Doge Antonio Grimani brought Andrea Gritti , a veteran of the War of the League of Cambrai , to power in Venice . He quickly began negotiations with the Emperor and on 29 July concluded the Treaty of Worms , which removed the Republic from the war . Bourbon continued his scheming with Charles , offering to begin a rebellion against Francis in exchange for money and German troops . When Francis , who was aware of the plot , summoned him to Lyon in October , he feigned illness and fled to the Imperial city of Besançon . Enraged , Francis ordered the execution of as many of Bourbon 's associates as he could capture , but the Duke himself , having rejected a final offer of reconciliation , openly entered the Emperor 's service .
Charles then invaded southern France over the Pyrenees . Lautrec successfully defended Bayonne against the Spanish , but Charles was able to recapture Fuenterrabia in February 1524 . On 18 September 1523 , meanwhile , a massive English army under the Duke of Suffolk advanced into French territory from Calais in conjunction with a Flemish @-@ Imperial force . The French , stretched thin by the Imperial attack , were unable to resist , and Suffolk soon advanced past the Somme , devastating the countryside in his wake and stopping only fifty miles from Paris . When Charles failed to support the English offensive , however , Suffolk — unwilling to risk an attack on the French capital — turned away from Paris on 30 October , returning to Calais by mid @-@ December .
Francis now turned his attention to Lombardy . In October 1523 , a French army of 18 @,@ 000 under Bonnivet advanced through the Piedmont to Novara , where it was joined by a similarly sized force of Swiss mercenaries . Prospero Colonna , who had only 9 @,@ 000 men to oppose the French advance , retreated to Milan . Bonnivet , however , overestimated the size of the Imperial army and moved into winter quarters rather than attacking the city ; and the Imperial commanders were able to summon 15 @,@ 000 landsknechts and a large force under Bourbon 's command by 28 December , when Charles de Lannoy replaced the dying Colonna . Many of the Swiss now abandoned the French army , and Bonnivet began his withdrawal . The French defeat at the Battle of the Sesia , where Bayard was killed while commanding the French rearguard , again demonstrated the power of massed arquebusiers against more traditional troops ; the French army then retreated over the Alps in disarray .
D 'Avalos and Bourbon crossed the Alps with nearly 11 @,@ 000 men and invaded Provence in early July 1524 . Sweeping through most of the smaller towns unopposed , Bourbon entered the provincial capital of Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence on 9 August 1524 , taking the title of Count of Provence and pledging his allegiance to Henry VIII in return for the latter 's support against Francis . By mid @-@ August , Bourbon and d 'Avalos had besieged Marseille , the only stronghold in Provence that remained in French hands . Their assaults on the city failed , however , and when the French army commanded by Francis himself arrived at Avignon at the end of September 1524 , they were forced to retreat back to Italy .
= = Pavia = =
In mid @-@ October 1524 , Francis himself crossed the Alps and advanced on Milan at the head of an army numbering more than 40 @,@ 000 . Bourbon and d 'Avalos , their troops not yet recovered from the campaign in Provence , were in no position to offer serious resistance . The French army moved in several columns , brushing aside Imperial attempts to hold its advance , but failed to bring the main body of Imperial troops to battle . Nevertheless , Charles de Lannoy , who had concentrated some 16 @,@ 000 men to resist the 33 @,@ 000 French troops closing on Milan , decided that the city could not be defended and withdrew to Lodi on 26 October . Having entered Milan and installed Louis II de la Trémoille as the governor , Francis ( at the urging of Bonnivet and against the advice of his other senior commanders , who favored a more vigorous pursuit of the retreating Lannoy ) advanced on Pavia , where Antonio de Leyva remained with a sizable Imperial garrison .
The main mass of French troops arrived at Pavia in the last days of October 1524 . By 2 November , Montmorency had crossed the Ticino River and invested the city from the south , completing its encirclement . Inside were about 9 @,@ 000 men , mainly mercenaries whom Antonio de Leyva was able to pay only by melting the church plate . A period of skirmishing and artillery bombardments followed , and several breaches had been made in the walls by mid @-@ November . On 21 November , Francis attempted an assault on the city through two of the breaches , but was beaten back with heavy casualties ; hampered by rainy weather and a lack of gunpowder , the French decided to wait for the defenders to starve .
In early December , a Spanish force commanded by Hugo of Moncada landed near Genoa , intending to interfere in a conflict between pro @-@ Valois and pro @-@ Habsburg factions in the city . Francis dispatched a larger force under Michele Antonio I of Saluzzo to intercept them . Confronted by the more numerous French and left without naval support by the arrival of a pro @-@ Valois fleet commanded by Andrea Doria , the Spanish troops surrendered . Francis then signed a secret agreement with Pope Clement VII , who pledged not to assist Charles in exchange for Francis 's assistance with the conquest of Naples . Against the advice of his senior commanders , Francis detached a portion of his forces under the Duke of Albany and sent them south to aid the Pope . Lannoy attempted to intercept the expedition near Fiorenzuola , but suffered heavy casualties and was forced to return to Lodi by the intervention of the infamous Black Bands of Giovanni de ' Medici , which had just entered French service . Medici then returned to Pavia with a supply train of gunpowder and shot gathered by the Duke of Ferrara ; but the French position was simultaneously weakened by the departure of nearly 5 @,@ 000 Grisons Swiss mercenaries , who returned to their cantons in order to defend them against marauding landsknechts .
In January 1525 , Lannoy was reinforced by the arrival of Georg Frundsberg with 15 @,@ 000 fresh landsknechts and renewed the offensive . D 'Avalos captured the French outpost at San Angelo , cutting the lines of communication between Pavia and Milan , while a separate column of landsknechts advanced on Belgiojoso and , despite being briefly pushed back by a raid led by Medici and Bonnivet , occupied the town . By 2 February , Lannoy was only a few miles from Pavia . Francis had encamped the majority of his forces in the great walled park of Mirabello outside the city walls , placing them between Leyva 's garrison and the approaching relief army . Skirmishing and sallies by the garrison continued through the month of February . Medici was seriously wounded and withdrew to Piacenza to recuperate , forcing Francis to recall much of the Milan garrison to offset the departure of the Black Band ; but the fighting had little overall effect . On 21 February , the Imperial commanders , running low on supplies and mistakenly believing that the French forces were more numerous than their own , decided to launch an attack on Mirabello Castle in order to save face and demoralize the French sufficiently to ensure a safe withdrawal .
In the early morning of 24 February 1525 , Imperial engineers opened breaches in the walls of Mirabello , allowing Lannoy 's forces to enter the park . At the same time , Leyva sortied from Pavia with what remained of the garrison . In the ensuing four @-@ hour battle , the French heavy cavalry , which had proven so effective against the Swiss at Marignano ten years prior , masked its own artillery by a rapid advance and was surrounded and cut apart by landsknechts and d 'Avalos 's massed Spanish arquebusiers . Meanwhile , a series of protracted infantry engagements resulted in the rout of the Swiss and French infantry . The French suffered massive casualties , losing the majority of their army . Bonnivet , Jacques de la Palice , La Trémoille , and Richard de la Pole were killed , while Anne de Montmorency , Robert de la Marck , and Francis himself were taken prisoner along with a host of lesser nobles . The night following the battle , Francis gave Lannoy a letter to be delivered to his mother in Paris , in which he related what had befallen him : " To inform you of how the rest of my ill @-@ fortune is proceeding , all is lost to me save honour and life , which is safe . " Soon afterwards , he finally learned that the Duke of Albany had lost the larger part of his army to attrition and desertion , and had returned to France without ever having reached Naples . The broken remnants of the French forces , aside from a small garrison left to hold the Castel Sforzesco in Milan , retreated across the Alps under the nominal command of Charles IV of Alençon , reaching Lyon by March 1525 .
= = Madrid = =
After Pavia , the fate of the French king , and of France herself , became the subject of furious diplomatic manoeuvring . Charles V , lacking funds to pay for the war , decided to forgo the marriage into the House of Tudor which he had promised Henry VIII and sought instead to marry Isabella of Portugal , who would bring with her a more substantial dowry . Bourbon , meanwhile , plotted with Henry to invade and partition France , and at the same time encouraged d 'Avalos to seize Naples and declare himself King of Italy .
Louise of Savoy , who had remained as regent in France during her son 's absence , attempted to gather troops and funds to defend against an expected invasion of Artois by English troops . She also sent a first French mission to Suleiman the Magnificent requesting assistance , but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia . In December 1525 a second mission was sent , led by John Frangipani , which managed to reach Constantinople , the Ottoman capital , with secret letters asking for the deliverance of king Francis I and an attack on the Habsburg . Frangipani returned with an answer from Suleiman , on 6 February 1526 , initiating the first steps of a Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance . Suleiman eventually wrote an ultimatum to Charles , asking for the immediate release of Francis — and demanding a yearly tax from the Holy Roman Empire ; when this was not forthcoming , the Ottomans launched an invasion of Hungary in the summer of 1526 , aiming to reach Vienna .
Francis , convinced that he would regain his freedom if he could obtain a personal audience with Charles , pressed d 'Avalos and Lannoy , who had intended to transport the king to the Castel Nuovo in Naples , to send him to Spain instead . Concerned by Bourbon 's scheming , they agreed and Francis arrived in Barcelona on 12 June .
Francis was initially held in a villa in Benisanó , near Valencia , but Charles , urged to negotiate a settlement by Montmorency and Lannoy , who suggested that the Italians would soon prove unfaithful to their Imperial alliance , ordered the king brought to Madrid and imprisoned in the citadel there . However , Charles adamantly refused to receive Francis personally until the latter had accepted an agreement . Meanwhile , Henry II of Navarre , who had fought alongside Francis at Pavia and who had been imprisoned in Madrid as well , escaped . The struggle for Navarre continued , with Charles occupying the southern fringes of Lower Navarre and Henry remaining at large .
Charles demanded not only the surrender of Lombardy , but also of Burgundy and Provence , forcing Francis to argue that French law prevented him from surrendering any lands possessed by the crown without the approval of Parlement , which would not be forthcoming .
In September , Francis fell gravely ill , and his sister , Marguerite de Navarre , rode from Paris to join him in Spain . The Imperial doctors examining the king believed that his illness was caused by his sorrow at not being received by the Emperor , and urged Charles to visit him . Charles , against the advice of his Grand Chancellor , Mercurino Gattinara , who argued that seeing Francis on his deathbed was an action motivated by mercenary concerns rather than by compassion , and was thus unworthy of the Emperor , consented ; and Francis soon made a complete recovery . An attempt to escape , however , proved fruitless , and succeeded only in getting Marguerite sent back to France .
By the beginning of 1526 , Charles was faced with demands from Venice and the Pope to restore Francesco II Sforza to the throne of the Duchy of Milan , and had become anxious to achieve a settlement with the French before another war began . Francis , having argued to retain Burgundy without result , was prepared to surrender it to achieve his own release . On 14 January 1526 , Charles and Francis agreed to the Treaty of Madrid , by which the French king renounced all his claims in Italy , Flanders , and Artois , surrendered Burgundy to Charles , agreed to send two of his sons to be hostages at the Spanish court , and promised to marry Charles ' sister Eleanor and to restore to Bourbon the territories that had been seized from him . Francis , who held the title of " Most Christian King " , also agreed to persuade Henry to relinquish the throne of Navarre in favor of Charles " in order to uproot the errors of the Lutheran sect and the rest of condemned sects " .
Francis was released on 6 March and , escorted by Lannoy , journeyed north to Fuenterrabia . On 18 March , he crossed the Bidasoa north into France , while at the same time the Dauphin and his brother , who had been brought to Bayonne by Louise and Lautrec , crossed into Spain and into captivity . By this time , Francis had attained peace with England by the Treaty of Hampton Court ; drafted by Thomas Wolsey and the French ambassador at the Hampton Court Palace , the treaty was signed in 1526 , and was ratified by a French delegation in April 1527 at Greenwich .
Francis , however , had no intentions of complying with the remaining provisions of the Treaty of Madrid . On 22 March , with the Pope 's blessing , he proclaimed that he would not be bound by the Treaty of Madrid because it had been signed under duress . Clement VII , who had meanwhile become convinced that the Emperor 's growing power was a threat to his own position in Italy , sent envoys to Francis and Henry VIII suggesting an alliance against Charles . Henry , having received nothing from the Treaty of Madrid , was receptive to the offers . In May , Francis and the Pope launched the War of the League of Cognac in an attempt to reclaim the territory the French had lost ; Henry , rebuffed in his attempt to have the alliance signed in England , would not join until 1527 . The war would prove unsuccessful ; but Francis and his successor , Henry II , would continue to assert their claims to Milan through the remainder of the Italian Wars , only relinquishing them after the Peace of Cateau @-@ Cambrésis in 1559 .
= Hurricane Gordon ( 2000 ) =
Hurricane Gordon caused minor damage in the Eastern United States . The seventh named storm and fourth hurricane of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season , Gordon developed in the extreme western Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave on September 14 . Shortly thereafter , the depression moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula and later emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on September 15 . The depression began to quickly organize , and by early on September 16 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gordon . After becoming a tropical storm , Gordon continued to intensify and was reclassified as a hurricane about 24 hours later ; eventually , the storm peaked as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane . However , southwesterly upper @-@ level winds caused Gordon to weaken as it approached land , and it was downgraded to a tropical storm by late on September 17 . At 0300 UTC on September 18 , Gordon made landfall near Cedar Key , Florida as a strong tropical storm . After moving inland , Gordon rapidly weakened and had deteriorated to tropical depression status by nine hours later . Later that day , Gordon merged with a frontal boundary while centered over Georgia .
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the precursor tropical wave caused severe flooding in Guatemala , killing 23 people . While crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , with a few areas experiencing more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation . Similarly , portions of western Cuba reported rainfall totals reaching 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . Gordon brought moderate storm surge to the west coast of Florida ; one person drowned due to rough seas . Numerous trees and power lines sustained damage , which left 120 @,@ 000 people without electricity . In the Tampa Bay area and Cedar Key , minor roof damage to houses and street flooding occurred . In addition , two tornadoes caused some damage in Cape Coral and Ponce Inlet . Elsewhere , affects were minimal , though two indirect fatalities occurred in North Carolina , and minor flooding was reported in South Carolina , Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Delaware , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , and New York . Overall , Gordon caused $ 10 @.@ 8 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage and 26 fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 4 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean without strengthening . On September 9 and 10 , the tropical wave moved though the Lesser Antilles bringing local heavy rainfall and wind gusts reaching 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The wave then moved west @-@ northwest and developed a well @-@ defined center on September 12 in the central Caribbean Sea . Satellite photos on September 13 indicated that the convective pattern in the system was disorganized . However , later that day , a broad low pressure area had developed along axis of the wave , based on surface observations about 118 mi ( 190 km ) southeast of Cozumel , Mexico . Early on September 14 , it was estimated from satellite imagery that the low pressure system was near tropical depression strength , even though the convection was still disorganized .
The system was classified as Tropical Depression Eleven at 1200 UTC on September 14 , based on reports from reconnaissance aircraft . Later that day , the developing depression moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula . The depression moved slowly to the northwest without emerging over water , therefore , the depression did not gain intensity . At this time , the predicted track for the system was highly uncertain due to different computer models forecasting different tracks . The official forecast predicted a northwestward movement into the western Gulf of Mexico , but some models predicted the low to move towards northwestern Florida , while another model predicted the low to move southwards into the Bay of Campeche . Late on September 15 , the depression moved off the north coast of the Yucatán Peninsula and into the Gulf of Mexico , where it showed signs of better organization . The future track was still very uncertain , though a few computer models forecasted for the depression to move northeastwards towards Florida , resulting in an eastward shift on official forecast . Early on September 16 , data from Hurricane Hunter aircraft indicated that the storm had strengthened to about 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) at the surface , and the barometric pressure had fallen to 1 @,@ 003 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Therefore , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gordon at 0000 UTC .
Upon being a tropical storm on September 16 , Gordon was moving northeastward towards the Big Bend of Florida , continuing to slowly intensify . The official forecast track was shifted further east , forecasting Gordon to track to the northeast . Early on September 17 , a ship reported winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , indicating that Gordon had attained hurricane strength . Gordon reached a peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , six hours later while located about 190 mi ( 310 km ) southwest of Tampa , Florida . Later that day , Gordon began to weaken due to entrainment from the south and increasing vertical wind shear . Gordon was downgraded to a tropical storm as it neared the Florida coast . The storm made landfall just northwest of Cedar Key , Florida , at 0300 UTC on September 18 with winds of 60 mph ( 95 mph ) . After moving inland , interaction with the land and cool , dry air further weakened the storm . Gordon weakened to a tropical depression nine hours after landfall , and six hours later , it had merged with a frontal system over southeastern Georgia . The storm also transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , as it moved to the northeast . On September 21 , the system merged with a large extratropical system over eastern Canada .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Florida = = =
Residents in Florida loaded up supplies on September 16 when the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch along Florida 's west coast from Bonita Beach to the Suwanee River . The hurricane watch extended northward and westward later in the day to Apalachicola . Hurricane warnings were initiated on September 17 for areas along the Florida coast from Anna Maria Island to Ochlockonee River . Tropical storm warnings were issued south of Anna Maria Island to Bonita Beach and west of Ochlockonee River to Indian Pass . Tropical storm warnings were also issued along the east coast of the United States from Titusville in Florida to Little River Inlet in South Carolina . The Florida Division of Emergency Management in Tallahassee issued a mandatory evacuation in Hernando County , while voluntary evacuations were called for some of the coastal areas along Florida 's west coast . Anticipating that Gordon will make landfall and move inland , two tornado watches were in effect from Sarasota to Naples , and tornado warnings were issued from Orlando to Vero Beach . Flash flood warnings were also in effect in parts of Florida .
On September 17 , Governor of Florida Jeb Bush activated emergency response teams . In various areas of Florida , spokesmen for the Emergency Operations Center advised residents to prepare for the storm and monitor the track of the approaching hurricane . At Cape Canaveral , National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) also took precautions against the hurricane , as the storm could force NASA to move Space Shuttle Discovery off its launch pad at the seaside and into the hangar . Many evacuations took place once Gordon crossed the Florida coast . The Emergency Operations Center in Florida said authorities had arranged mandatory evacuations for coastal regions in the Citrus , Franklin , Hernando , Levy and Taylor counties , while also recommending voluntary evacuations for numerous other counties . The Red Cross reported that the storm forced 500 people to seek refuge in shelters . Also , many flights were canceled at the Tampa International Airport . About 200 National Guardsmen were called to help clean up the damage in flooded areas . Officials forced schools in six counties – Gilchrist , Columbia , Citrus , Taylor , Lafayette and Suwannee to close down for one day .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
Chevron Corporation and Shell Oil Company evacuated offshore crews from the Gulf of Mexico on September 16 in preparation for a possible hurricane threat from Hurricane Gordon , even though there was little effect on oil and gas production before that day . The Chevron Corporation expected the number of people working in the Gulf to reduce from 1 @,@ 700 on September 16 to 450 the next day . Gordon also forced the cruise liner Carnival Sensation , consisting of 2 @,@ 200 passengers and 900 crew members , to remain at sea for one day . Residents in Alabama , Mississippi and Louisiana were also advised by radio to keep track of the approaching hurricane .
= = Impact = =
= = = Latin America = = =
As a tropical wave , Gordon killed 23 people in Guatemala mainly due to flooding and landslides in mountainous regions . While drifting over the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico , Gordon dropped heavy rainfall peaking at 9 inches ( 230 mm ) in Cancún . The storm also dumped heavy rainfall in western Cuba with totals reaching 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . However , no flooding was reported in either the Yucatán Peninsula or Cuba .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Florida = = = =
Before Gordon made landfall in Florida , one death occurred when a surfer drowned in the raging seas offshore Pensacola . Other than that , minimal effects occurred to the west of the storm 's path . Light rainfall was reported , with 0 @.@ 71 inches ( 18 mm ) in Tallahassee and 4 @.@ 83 inches ( 123 mm ) in Cross City recorded . Lying near in the path of the storm , rainfall from the Gordon in the United States peaked at 9 @.@ 48 inches ( 241 mm ) in Mayo . Winds in the region were also light , with a sustained wind speed of 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) and gusts to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) reported in Cross City . In Perry , sustained winds reached 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) occurred . At the C @-@ MAN Station in nearby Keaton Beach , a wind gust of 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) was reported .
Although the storm made landfall near Cedar Key , no wind observations were taken there , though the offshore Coastal @-@ Marine Automated Network ( C @-@ MAN ) Station reported winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) and gusts to 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) . Tides were also light , reaching 3 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in Cedar Key . Similarly , precipitation was also light , with 4 @.@ 8 inches ( 120 mm ) of rain reported at Cedar Key . Minor roof and tree damage occurred in Levy County , totaling to about $ 100 @,@ 000 . In Citrus County , winds downed a few trees , powerlines , and tree branches between Sulpher Springs and Ozello , though damage was less than $ 25 @,@ 000 . Ten homes were flooded and a few trees and powerlines were downed , resulting in about $ 100 @,@ 000 in losses . Roofs were damaged at 15 villas in Pasco County , while falling trees struck vehicles parked at a subdivision in New Port Richey ; damage in that county totaled to $ 250 @,@ 000 . Winds and minor floods damaged 51 single @-@ family homes , 32 mobile homes , 27 multi @-@ family homes , and 24 businesses in Pinellas County , resulting in nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 in losses . In addition , nearly 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water inundated coastal roads between St. Pete Beach and Clearwater . Two locations reported sustained tropical storm force winds in St. Petersburg .
Due to high tides , a large portion of the west coast of Florida from Pinellas County southward experienced coastal flooding . On September 17 , 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water covered Bayshore Boulevard near downtown Tampa . The Courtney Campbell Causeway , which connects Clearwater and Tampa , was closed for almost four hours due to storm surge flooding . 40 houses in low @-@ lying areas between Ruskin and Riverview were damaged by flooding from the storm surge . Several other houses in Hillsborough County were damaged by toppled trees and large falling branches . Winds throughout the state of Florida left 120 @,@ 000 people without electricity , mostly in the Tampa metropolitan area . Overall , damage in Hillsborough County totaled to nearly $ 500 @,@ 000 . Further south in Manatee County , storm surge and high tides flooded 25 homes and businesses in Bradenton Beach . 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) wind gusts in Coquina Beach toppled lifeguard towers and destroyed an anemometer . Several homes in Anna Maria suffered light to moderate roof damage due to winds . Losses in Manatee County reached almost $ 500 @,@ 000 .
In Sarasota County , 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) waves ripped a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) section and three 50 feet ( 15 m ) concrete pilings off the Venice Municipal Fishing Pier , resulting in nearly $ 600 @,@ 000 in damage . Between 1 and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 and 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water covered coastal roads on Siesta and Casey Keys . Minor beach erosion occurred in Charlotte County and a sustained wind speed of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) was reported in Punta Gorda . Despite effects in adjacent counties , there was minimal damage in Charlotte County . In Lee County , tropical storm force winds damaged roofs , awnings , and lanais at nine homes ; winds also toppled several large trees and branches , and downed power lines across Cape Coral
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Ground was still rising when it hit the upper deck of the grandstand . Miller was famous for varying his bowling to bemuse batsmen : he made sparing use of slower deliveries and would often adjust his run @-@ up , surprisingly bowling his fastest deliveries from a short run . He was also a fine fielder and an especially acrobatic catcher in the slips .
Away from cricket , Miller was also a successful Australian rules footballer . He played for St Kilda and was selected to represent the Victorian state team . He played 50 games for St Kilda , for whom he kicked eight goals in one game against North Melbourne , during 1941 .
Miller 's personality — love of the contest , rather than victory , and his larger @-@ than @-@ life rebelliousness and carousing — helped both shape and limit his cricketing career , as he espoused the opposite of the more puritanical values of Donald Bradman , his captain and later national selector . Neville Cardus referred to Miller as " the Australian in excelsis " ; Daily Mail sportswriter Ian Wooldridge 's response was " By God he was right " . This status was reflected when Miller was made one of the ten inaugural members of the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame .
= = Early years = =
Born in the western Melbourne suburb of Sunshine , Miller was the youngest of Leslie and Edith Miller 's four children . He was named after the Australian pioneer aviator brothers Keith and Ross Smith , who were half @-@ way through their historic flight from England to Australia at the time Miller was born . The three Miller boys played Australian rules football in winter and cricket in summer . Their father had been a successful local cricketer and taught the boys to play with an orthodox and classical technique , relying on a solid defence and concentration in the mould of Bill Ponsford . At the age of seven , Miller 's family moved to Elsternwick , in Melbourne 's south east . As a child , Miller was small for his age , which forced him to develop his technique rather than rely on power , something that held him in good stead for the future .
At the age of 12 , he was selected for an under @-@ 15 Victorian schoolboys cricket team . At the time , he stood only 150 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) tall and wielded a sawn @-@ off bat . He lacked power , but impressed with his footwork and style . However , Miller reasoned that , as he appeared destined to be short , a career as a jockey was more likely than one as a cricketer or footballer .
Miller attended the selective Melbourne High School , where Australian test captain Bill Woodfull was his mathematics teacher . Miller was a mediocre student , which disappointed Woodfull ; however , Woodfull quickly noticed Miller 's cricket skills . Aged 14 , Miller was selected for the school 's first XI , scoring 44 . His control and solidity prompted the spectators to call him The Unbowlable — Woodfull 's own nickname . In 1934 , Miller failed all of his subjects , scoring zero in his final exam for Woodfull 's geometry class , and was forced to repeat the year .
Keith Truscott , Miller 's school cricket captain took him to a trial with local club side St Kilda at the start of the 1934 – 35 season , but Miller could not find a place in any of its five teams . Joining the local sub @-@ district cricket club Elsternwick instead , he did not get to bat or bowl in his first match , and was dropped to the second XI for his poor fielding . Nevertheless , his team @-@ mate , former Victoria state player Hughie Carroll , spotted Miller 's talent and lured him to the rival South Melbourne club . Miller began playing for South Melbourne the following season . It was at South Melbourne that Miller met Ian Johnson and Lindsay Hassett , his future Australia captains . Miller scored 12 not out on debut , but observers felt he would succeed with a stronger physique ; Woodfull wrote in the 1936 school magazine , " Miller has Test possibilities " .
In March 1936 , Miller played for South Melbourne against Carlton , captained by Woodfull . Miller came to the crease at 6 / 32 . He guided his team to 141 , putting on a stand of 65 with the last man and finishing with 61 . The crowd gave Miller a standing ovation , and newspapers him compared him to Ponsford and Alan Kippax . The Carlton team presented him with a silver eggcup , " for sterling performance " , which Woodfull presented to Miller during an algebra class .
= = Debuts in Sheffield Shield and Victorian Football League = =
During 1936 , Miller underwent a sudden growth spurt , of 28 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) in the year , reaching 185 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) in height . This thwarted his career as a jockey . With his increased height and weight , he began to play football with more physical aggression . At the end of 1936 , he completed year 10 and quit high school , taking a position as a clerk .
For the 1937 – 38 cricket season , Miller transferred to the VCA Colts , where he won the team 's batting trophy for having the best average . At this stage , his method of playing was slow and steady accumulation of runs . Late in the summer , he made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria and hit 181 against Tasmania at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . In 1938 – 39 , he rejoined South Melbourne and also played four further matches for Victoria , scoring 125 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 00 . However , he was yet to play in the Sheffield Shield competition , having appeared only in one @-@ off matches .
During this period , Miller achieved more success as a footballer , following his brothers in joining the Brighton Football Club in the Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) in 1937 . A defender , Miller initially played on the half @-@ back flank before moving to full back during his third season , in 1939 . At this stage , he lacked the strength to hip and shoulder his opponents and relied on his running ability and accurate kicking .
Miller finally made his breakthrough in cricket in 1939 – 40 , when he was selected to make his Sheffield Shield debut , against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . He managed just four and seven , batting at number five in the order . When Victoria fielded , Miller ran out his future Invincibles captain Don Bradman . One of Miller 's teammates was Percy Beames , who was also his manager at Vacuum Oil . Miller scored 41 and 47 not out in his second match to hold his place . However , against New South Wales , Miller made a pair of 14s , having difficulties against leg spin . In the return match against South Australia , Miller took the initiative against leg @-@ spinner Clarrie Grimmett , aggressively advancing down the pitch and driving . Miller reached 108 , his first century in Shield competition . Apart from the century , Miller had a moderate season , ending with 298 runs at 29 @.@ 80 .
In the Australian winter of 1940 , Miller started his fourth season in the VFA . In a match against Coburg , he was assigned to nullify the greatest forward of the era , Bob Pratt . Miller restricted Pratt to just one goal for the match and was named best on ground . Scouts from top @-@ tier Victorian Football League ( VFL ) club St Kilda signed Miller on the spot . In a match for St Kilda against Carlton , Miller was king hit by his opponent Ron Cooper at the start of the match . When the teams next met , Miller shoulder bumped Cooper in the first minute , forcing him to leave the field . St Kilda finished second @-@ last that season .
= = War service = =
Miller 's sporting career was interrupted by World War II . On 20 August 1940 , he joined the Militia ( army reserve ) , and was assigned to the 4th Reserve Motor Transport Company . In late September , Miller began his training . A non @-@ conformist , he had the first of many clashes with authority in November , when he was fined for " using insulting language to a superior officer " . Miller soon lived up to the traditional nickname of Dusty , for anyone called Miller , with his tendency to be involved in fist fights and his rambunctious persona .
During the summer of 1940 – 41 , Miller was granted leave so that he could play interstate cricket . In a war @-@ shortened season , Miller scored 140 runs at 28 @.@ 00 and took his maiden first @-@ class wicket . The 1941 VFL season also went ahead . Miller played in defence and attack , depending on match conditions . In 16 games , he kicked 28 goals , including eight in one match . He again showed his disrespect for authority and reputation , striking his boss Beames — who played for Melbourne — with a raised elbow at the start of a match . Miller came second in St Kilda 's best and fairest for the season .
Miller 's season ended early when he was recalled to duty . However , he had continued disciplinary problems , and left the Militia on 8 November 1941 . Miller and a friend then attempted to join the Royal Australian Navy . When the navy rejected his friend , Miller tore up his own paperwork , left the recruiting office , and walked around the corner to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) recruiting office , where he enlisted .
Less than two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , Miller was called to active service . He trained at No. 4 Initial Training School , Victor Harbor in South Australia , and gained his wings in late 1942 . He played only one match during the 1942 football season , while posted in South Australia . In December , he was promoted to the rank of flight sergeant and , a month later , he sailed to Europe . The journey included a stopover at a training camp in Boston in the United States , where Miller met his future wife Peg Wagner . In March , he was deployed to Bournemouth , in England , where he continued his training .
Miller was invited to join a RAAF team in London . The team was officially formed in preparation for the 1943 season and Miller 's selection let to the first of many brushes with death : in April , while away with the team , some of his comrades were killed in a German air strike . Miller played his first match at Lord 's against Warner 's XI , a team that featured past , current and future England players , including Bob Wyatt , Gubby Allen , Trevor Bailey and Alec Bedser . Miller top @-@ scored in the first innings with 45 and added 21 not out , with two sixes , in the second innings . The RAAF played eight matches that season and Miller 's top score was 141 against Public School Wanderers . He went on to play for Dominions against Warner 's XI in August , scoring 32 and two . The match marked the first meeting between Miller and his good friend , England batsman Denis Compton and his bowling began to attract media attention . In the final match of the season at Lord 's between the RAAF and the Royal Air Force , Miller took 3 / 23 and scored 91 . The success of RAAF and Dominions that season , especially the attractive batting by Miller and Keith Carmody , prompted Warner to begin planning for a " Test " series between the respective armed services of England and Australia .
By late 1943 , Miller was based in Gloucestershire . One night , he threatened to punch his commanding officer , resulting in his being sentenced for insubordination to a three @-@ week disciplinary course with hard labour . In mid @-@ November , he was posted to Ouston near Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne where he trained in the used of radar . During his stay there , Miller sustained a back injury during a wrestling match : the injury was to cause him recurring and enduring problems , particularly diminishing his ability to bowl .
In 1944 , Miller was again selected for the RAAF team . In a match against the British Civil Defence Services at Lord 's in July , Miller reached his century just as a V @-@ 1 flying bomb landed nearby . In a match against an England XI , Miller scored 85 in 100 minutes . He then took match figures of 6 / 28 against the West of England at Bristol .
After ten months of training , Miller was offered a commission as a pilot officer , and was posted to 12 Advanced Flying Unit in Grantham , Lincolnshire on 15 August 1944 , then moving on to Cranfield , Bedfordshire . On a trip back to Ouston to visit former comrades , a night of drunken revelry saw Miller charged with eight offences and facing possible dishonourable discharge . Luckily for Miller , his new Commanding Officer ( CO ) was his old CO from Ouston ; Miller escaped with a fine .
While training , Miller flew Beauforts , Beaufighters and Mosquitos . He had another near death experience : mechanical problems forced him to make an emergency landing of his Beaufighter . The plane was repaired for use by others , but , on its next flight , the pilot was killed when the problem recurred . On another occasion , Miller avoided colliding with a hangar by centimetres . He then escaped death by skipping a social appointment ; a V1 bomb hit the venue and killed many of the patrons . In October , he went AWL to watch a concert and was summarily discharged , but the CO revoked his decision after Miller agreed to play for his cricket team . At the end of his officer training , Miller was sent aboard a Royal Navy destroyer as part of an exchange program between the forces . During a mission to Belgium , the vessel fought a German U @-@ boat , which was sunk . Upon his return to England , Miller was promoted to flying officer on 4 November 1944 .
In March 1945 , Miller was deployed to the RAF station at Great Massingham in Norfolk , East Anglia . He was assigned to 169 Squadron , flying Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers . Miller 's squadron took part in missions against targets on mainland Europe in April and May 1945 . They attacked V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 production and test launch sites on the island of Peenemünde in the North Sea . On 19 April , Miller took part in an attack on a German installation at Flensburg in Denmark . In May , his squadron was deployed in Operation Fire Bash , to attack Westerland Airfield on the island of Sylt . One of Miller 's bombs failed to release and the load dangled from a wing . Miller was obliged to land the plane with the bomb still attached ; fortunately for him , it failed to detonate . Miller 's next mission was delayed by poor weather , by which time Germany had surrendered . His commanding officer ordered him to fly air force personnel over Germany to view the results of Allied bombing . On one flight , Miller broke away from the flying formation and returned to base late because he wanted to fly over Bonn , the birthplace of Beethoven .
Miller 's wartime exploits were to give him a greater sense of perspective when he returned to the sports field . When asked many years later by Michael Parkinson , about pressure in cricket , Miller responded with the famous quote : " pressure is a Messerschmitt up your arse , playing cricket is not " .
= = = Victory Tests = = =
The end of the war prompted the belated start of the 1945 cricket season . Miller returned to Lord 's and scored 50 for the RAAF against a British Empire XI . Warner had organised a celebratory series of matches between England and Australian servicemen , known as the Victory Tests . However , Australian cricket administrators would not accredit the three @-@ day matches as Tests . England was close to full strength , so the Second Australian Imperial Force and the RAAF teams merged to form the Australian Services cricket team under the leadership of Warrant Officer Hassett . The First Victory Test was at Lord 's and was expected to usher in a new post @-@ war era , which cricket watchers hoped would be more attractive to watch . England batted first and Miller bowled his Great Massingham colleague Bill Edrich to end with 1 / 11 and precipitate an English collapse . Miller came to the crease at and helped Australia take the lead , before cutting loose , eventually finishing with 105 in 210 minutes . The Times opined that his innings was " as good a century as has been seen at Lord 's in many a long day " . Australia went on to win by six wickets .
Miller warmed up for the Second Victory Test by top @-@ scoring for the RAAF against Lancashire and the RAF . In the Test , played at Bramall Lane , Miller went wicketless and scored 17 in the first innings . In the second innings , Miller bowled a fierce spell , hitting Test world record holder Len Hutton and Cyril Washbrook on the arm and head respectively , provoking an angry crowd reaction . At the time , Miller had a leisurely attitude towards bowling , so his success led to calls for him to start taking it seriously , instead of simply jogging in and releasing the ball . Despite this , Australia lost the match .
In the meantime , Miller earned the further ire of his CO by flying unauthorised leisure flights . Not wanting to fly tour flights over Germany , Miller lodged bogus reports saying that the Mosquitoes were malfunctioning , causing unnecessary maintenance work . Thus , the CO ordered Miller to take his plane instead , which caught fire . With one functional engine , Miller came back to the air base and bellylanded . The plane broke apart and caught fire , but Miller escaped physical injury and was playing sport an hour later .
The next day , Miller headed to Lord 's to play for the RAAF against the South of England . Chasing 208 , Miller scored an unbeaten 78 in 95 minutes , but rain washed out the match . In the first innings of Third Victory Test at Lord 's , when finally called upon to bowl , Miller measured out a run @-@ up and removed John Dewes , Donald Carr and Hutton , all bowled . He ended with 3 / 44 . Miller was rewarded with the new ball in the second innings . He removed Dewes , Edrich and Dick Pollard to end with 3 / 42 . This left Australia a target of 225 . Miller saw Australia to the target , unbeaten on 71 . In the Fourth Test , again at Lord 's , Miller scored 118 in the first innings , before an unbeaten 25 in the second innings ensured a draw . The tremendous public reception of the Victory Tests resulted in a fifth match being added to the schedule .
In the meantime Japan had surrendered , and No. 169 Squadron was disbanded . Miller had spent around 550 hours in the air with the RAF , to which his RAAF unit had been seconded . He was awarded the 1939 – 45 Star , France and Germany Star , Defence Medal , War Medal 1939 – 1945 and Australia Service Medal 1939 – 45 .
In the Fifth Victory Test , under overcast conditions against a swinging and seaming ball , Miller struck 14 from his first over and finished 77 not out , in a display that featured strong cutting and driving . Australia could manage only 173 , and England were on top . Miller took one wicket with the ball but managed only four in the second innings as England won , to square the series 2 – 2 . Hassett wrote at the end of the series that " This is cricket as it should be ... let 's have no more talk of " war " in cricket " . Miller topped the batting averages for the series , with 443 runs at 63 @.@ 28 . His aggregate exceeded those of Hammond and Hutton , and he also took 10 wickets at 27 @.@ 70 . Of Miller 's batting , Hassett said that " as a strokeplayer he is second to none " , and his performance earned comparisons to Jack Gregory , who had a similar breakthrough after World War I.
The last big match of the season was a one @-@ off match at Lord 's between England and " Dominions " , a scratch team of players from the British Commonwealth . Miller managed 26 in the Dominions ' first innings of 307 , before cutting loose in the second innings . After settling in , he hit Eric Hollies for two sixes , including one that hit the top of the roof . The next day , he registered his century in 115 minutes , clouting another five balls over the boundary in the morning session . In one 35 @-@ minute passage of play , he and Learie Constantine added 91 runs , before Miller departed for 185 , made in just 165 minutes . The Dominions went on to win by 45 runs in a match described by Wisden as " one of the finest ever seen " . Commenting on Miller ' innings , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " From the moment he takes guard he plays each ball just that much below its supposed merits that scratches a bowler 's pride " . Miller had enjoyed his visit to the home of cricket . In eight innings at Lord 's for the season , he had scored 568 runs at 94 @.@ 68 , with three centuries .
The season ended with a few more matches against English counties . Miller struck aggressive half @-@ centuries in wins against Nottinghamshire and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . In first @-@ class matches , Miller had scored 725 runs at 72 @.@ 50 for the season , finishing second in both averages and aggregates . The success of the Australian Services prompted a fundraising tour of India and Ceylon on their return to Australia .
= = = Services tour of India = = =
Miller , the vice @-@ captain , almost missed the trip to India after turning up late for the voyage . On arrival in India , Miller scored 46 in a draw against North Zone . Miller then captained the Australians in a match against West Zone in Bombay , top @-@ scoring with 106 in a high @-@ scoring draw . In a match against India , Miller took two wickets . At this point , with most of the team suffering from dysentery and the leadership not permitting the team to travel by air , some of the RAAF personnel felt that Hassett should be removed from the captaincy , with Miller as one of the candidates to replace him . This would have increased his prospects of leading Australia . Miller refused to plot against Hassett and the dispute ended when a RAAF plane was acquired to transport the team .
The team played East Zone in Calcutta as the city was in the grip of deadly pro @-@ independence riots . Miller 's friend Denis Compton was batting for East Zone when rioters invaded the pitch . Their leader ran up to Compton and said : " Mr Compton , you very good player , but you must stop " . In later years , whenever Miller opposed Compton , he would quote this remark when Compton came to the crease . In 2005 , the ECB and Cricket Australia decided that the player adjudged the Player of the Series in the Ashes would be awarded the Compton – Miller Medal , recognising their friendship and rivalry .
In the second match against India , Services were 2 / 250 in response to India 's 386 when Miller came in and scored 82 , including four sixes in five balls . The match ended in a draw and Miller aggravating an injury . Miller took 3 / 19 against South Zone in Madras , the Australians ' only win in India . He failed with the bat in the third and final match against India , scoring two and seven , but he took 2 / 60 in the first innings as India took the series 1 – 0 . Overall , Miller had a disappointing series in the international matches , with 107 runs at 26 @.@ 25 and four wickets at 40 @.@ 50 . Australia 's final match was in Colombo against an All Ceylon team . Miller scored 132 as Australia won by an innings .
= = = Services in Australia = = =
Upon returning to Australia , Hassett 's men were assigned to play a further six first @-@ class matches against the state teams . The fixtures were meant to revive cricket and were also used as a lead @-@ up to the international tour to New Zealand in March 1946 . Miller started his campaign with 80 against Western Australia . He finally returned to Melbourne in January , before taking on Victoria . Miller top @-@ scored in both innings with 37 and 59 in an innings defeat .
Miller had another difficult time against New South Wales , as the state side made 7 / 551 and Miller went wicketless . When the servicemen batted , they faced an attack featuring leading leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly and paceman Ray Lindwall , the fastest in Australia . Miller was on 74 as Services limped to 9 / 171 . With only one partner left , Miller attacked , scoring 31 of the last 33 runs to end unbeaten on 105 , and earning plaudits among cricket pundits on Australian soil . Former leading Test batsman Alan Kippax opined that " Australia has unearthed a new champion " , while O 'Reilly said that Miller 's century was " one of the best hundreds ever got against me " . Miller compiled 46 in the second innings as the Servicemen fell to another innings defeat . Miller finished the season with 4 / 49 against Queensland and a pair of fifties against Tasmania .
= = Test career = =
= = = Test debut = = =
At the end of the season , Miller was selected for the New Zealand tour , under the captaincy of Queensland 's Bill Brown . Miller started the tour well , top @-@ scoring with 139 against Auckland . Along with seven other debutants , Miller made his test debut in the match against New Zealand at the Basin Reserve in Wellington , a match that was retrospectively accorded Test status in 1948 . On a sticky wicket , New Zealand won the toss and batted . Miller was not required to bowl in the first innings as O 'Reilly and Ernie Toshack skittled the home side for just 42 . Australia made 8 / 199 with Miller scoring 30 . He was allowed to take the new ball in the second innings , taking 2 / 6 in six overs before a flare @-@ up of his back injury forced him to be removed from the attack . Australia bowled their hosts out for 54 , securing an innings victory .
Despite the scare over his back complaint , Miller returned from New Zealand to play in the 1946 season , which turned out to be his last season in the VFL ; St Kilda 's finished second @-@ last . Miller played with more aggression than during his pre @-@ war years and his high leaping marks were a noted feature of a season that saw him chosen to represent Victoria against South Australia . Miller thus became one of the few players to play at the highest levels of both cricket and Australian rules football .
Miller was discharged from the RAAF on 26 June 1946 , and returned to his job at Vacuum Oil . Miller resented the fact that many of his colleagues had avoided the hazards of war and moved steadily up the ladder and regarded his job as demeaning . Under such circumstances , Miller contemplated quitting Australian cricket and accepting a professional contract with Rawtenstall in the Lancashire League , valued at £ 1 @,@ 000 per year , for three seasons . With advertising and commercial commitments likely to triple this figure , playing in England would have been approximately ten times more lucrative than continuing in Australia . However , Miller was worried that his impulsive style would be curtailed by the pressures of professionalism . At that time , the Board of Control 's policy stipulated that any player that signed with a professional league in England could not represent Australia . Miller 's contract would see him in England until he was 30 , effectively ending his career for Australia . Furthermore , it would have prevented him from playing Australian football during the winter . Miller weighed it up and opted to sign the contract that tied him to Rawtenstall , with his duties to start with the onset of the English season in April 1947 .
In the meantime , Miller had the upcoming Test series against England in 1946 – 47 to look forward to . He therefore approached his employers for two months leave so that he could travel to the United States to marry Wagner , which would allow him time to return in preparation for the international series . Vacuum Oil refused , so , with the comfort of job security in England , Miller resigned .
Miller left Australia at the end of the football season in late August , amid press speculation that he might not return . He was reunited in Boston with Wagner after more than three years of separation and they married on 21 September 1946 . Miller and his new bride returned to Australia in November . In the meantime , his contract with Rawtenstall became public knowledge and he was threatened with his Test career being terminated if he began playing for the English team .
= = = First Ashes series = = =
Miller 's season started amid ongoing speculation about whether he would fulfil his contract with Rawtenstall . Miller remained silent . In a Shield match in front of Bradman at the Adelaide Oval , Miller struck form with 188 and 2 / 32 with the ball . Wisden said Miller 's innings was " one of the finest batting displays ever seen at Adelaide " . Bradman saw Miller as a top @-@ order batsman and as the new ball partner for Lindwall . Although Miller was a reluctant bowler , Bradman felt that he was crucial to his strategy of attacking England 's strong batting line @-@ up with express pace .
Miller made his Ashes debut in the First Test in Brisbane . Bradman opted for six front @-@ line bowlers , with Miller as high as number five in the batting order . Australia batted first , with Miller coming in at 3 / 322 . He played aggressively to reach his fifty in just 80 minutes , striking a six onto the roof of the members ' stand at long on , the biggest hit at the ground at the time , before being trapped leg before wicket by Doug Wright for 79 as Australia made 645 . Miller was given the new ball along with Lindwall and he took his first Ashes wicket , bowling Hutton as England closed at 1 / 21 . The following day , the pitch had turned into a sticky wicket following a heavy tropical storm . Miller bowled off breaks at medium pace and mixed in a large amount of bouncers . On the unpredictable surface , Edrich was struck around 40 times on the body . Miller cut through the English top order , removing Edrich , Washbrook , Compton and Jack Ikin on the fourth morning , finishing with 7 / 60 as England made 141 and were forced to follow on . Miller took two wickets , including the dismissal of Hutton with first ball of the second innings as England fell to defeat by an innings and 334 runs and Miller had match figures of 9 / 77 .
During that first Test , an incident occurred , coloured by Miller 's wartime service , that soured his relationship with Bradman and his feelings towards Test cricket . Michael Parkinson described it as follows :
Keith Miller was deeply affected by the Second World War . It changed him ... In the first post @-@ war Ashes Test ... England were caught on a sticky ... [ and ] Bill Edrich came in . He 'd had a serious war and he survived and Miller thought , ' He 's my old Services mate . The last thing he wants after five years ' war is to be flattened by a cricket ball , so I eased up . Bradman came up to me and said , ' Don 't slow down , Keith . Bowl quicker . ' That remark put me off Test cricket . Never felt the same way about it after that.'
In the Second Test in Sydney . Miller had a quiet match , scoring 40 and taking one wicket on a spin @-@ friendly pitch as Australia secured another innings victory , but showed he was in prime batting form when he returned to the Sheffield Shield . Playing against New South Wales , he hammered three sixes in one over and made 153 of a 271 @-@ run partnership with Merv Harvey in just over three hours , setting up an innings victory . Bill Ponsford said that it was the hardest hitting he had ever seen . The Third Test was Miller 's first in his home town . He had a mediocre game in a drawn match , scoring 33 and 34 , and taking two wickets .
Off the pitch , Miller privately decided that he would not honour his Rawtenstall contract . He secretly accepted an offer to relocate to Sydney to work as a liquor salesman and play cricket . Back in a good frame of mind for the Fourth Test in Adelaide , Miller took one wicket in each innings , but he shone with the bat . After England had made 460 , Miller came in at 3 / 207 , and was 23 not out by the close of the second day . He hit the first ball of the next day for six , and accumulated 67 runs in the opening 71 minutes , to reach his maiden Test century . The Englishmen utilised leg theory to prevent easy scoring , but as the tail began to be dismissed , Miller accelerated , launching drives into the crowd , despite the presence of four men on the fence . Miller ended unbeaten on 141 but the match petered out into a high @-@ scoring draw . Before the last Test , Miller played for Victoria against England , taking 4 / 65 .
The Fifth Test. saw Miller take a wicket in each innings . Australia were left a target of 214 runs on a wearing wicket . Wright beat Miller with three consecutive leg breaks , but Miller survived and struck consecutive boundaries on the way to reaching the target . Australia had taken the series 3 – 0 ; Miller scored 384 runs at 76 @.@ 80 and took 16 wickets at 20 @.@ 88 , which placed him second in both the batting and bowling averages , to Bradman and Lindwall respectively . Nevertheless , Miller had become disillusioned with Bradman 's ruthless mentality . Miller was impulsive and cared little for records or ruthlessly dominating his opponents , preferring to play in a flamboyant manner in close contests .
For the 1947 – 48 Australian season , Miller transferred to New South Wales ( NSW ) , for whom he played the remainder of his Sheffield Shield career . He also represented the New South Wales interstate football team at the 1947 Hobart Carnival , as vice captain . This made him one of the few players to play both football and cricket for two states .
Miller had a light workload in the 1947 – 48 home Test series against India , who were on their first tour to Australia . India were well beaten , losing 4 – 0 , three of the four defeats by an innings . Miller was required to bat just once in each Test , accumulating 185 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , including two half @-@ centuries , while the batsmen ahead of him plundered the bowling . His bowling duties were also light ; his 72 overs yielded nine wickets at 24 @.@ 78 . In both his fifties , Miller featured in century partnerships with his partners , respectively Bradman and Hassett in the First and Fourth test respectively . His 58 in the First Test at Brisbane featured many big hits .
= = = Invincibles tour = = =
Donald Bradman 's 1948 touring party to England has become known to cricket history as The Invincibles , remaining undefeated in its 31 matches . Miller started the tour strongly , scoring a hard @-@ hitting 50 not out against Worcestershire , and an unbeaten 202 against Leicestershire . In the next match against Yorkshire , Miller took 6 / 42 , including the prized wicket of Hutton , as the home team were demolished for just 71 . Australia then struggled to 101 , including a counterattacking 34 from Miller , who took 3 / 49 in the second innings in an Australian victory .
In a later match , against Essex , Miller was involved in a famous incident that is frequently cited when his character is discussed ; it also spotlighted his differences with Bradman . On a day when the Australians set a world @-@ record of 721 runs in a single day , Miller came to the crease with his side already dominating , with the score 2 / 364 . He deliberately allowed himself to be bowled first ball , much to Bradman 's displeasure , in a protest against the one @-@ sided nature of the contest .
Australia then took on the MCC at Lord 's ; effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests as many of England 's Test players were in the MCC team . Miller scored 163 in 250 minutes , hitting 20 fours and three sixes in another innings win . Soon after , Rawtenstall dropped the contract dispute with Miller after being offered compensation .
Following another good all @-@ round performance against Hampshire , top @-@ scoring in the first innings and taking 5 / 25 in the second , Miller went into the First Test ( at Trent Bridge ) in fine form . On the first morning , Miller bowled Hutton and Compton on his way to 3 / 38 , helping Australia dismiss England cheaply and seize the initiative . Miller scored a duck , but Australia took a 344 @-@ run lead on the first innings . In the second innings , he resumed his battle with Hutton and Compton , delivering five bouncers in the last over of the day . The batsmen survived , but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd . The next day , he bowled Hutton for 74 and then bounced Compton , causing him to fall onto his stumps for 184 . Australia won by eight wickets , Miller ending with 4 / 125 for the second innings and 7 / 163 for the match .
Miller was unfit to bowl during the Second Test at Lord 's . During England 's first innings , Bradman threw Miller the ball , hoping that he would reverse his decision not to bowl . Miller refused and returned the ball , citing his back . Miller 's action generated news headlines , with journalists believing that he had disobeyed Bradman .
As a batsman , Miller was out for four in the first innings , not offering a shot to an inswinger . In the second innings , Miller 's first ball was a hat @-@ trick ball from English captain Norman Yardley ; he survived a loud leg before wicket appeal and then hit a six into the grandstand , on his way to 74 . Australia declared at 7 / 460 , 595 runs ahead . Miller took three catches as Australia won by 409 runs .
After the Lord 's Test , Miller enjoyed a night out and returned to the team hotel after daybreak the next morning . Australia were due to play Surrey at The Oval that day . With Australia in the field , Bradman sent Miller to the fine leg boundary as a punishment — between overs , he was forced to walk the length of the field . One of the spectators felt sorry for Miller and lent him his bicycle , which Miller used to cycle around the circumference of the ground .
The efforts of Miller and Lindwall against Hutton had led the English selectors to drop the Yorkshireman for the Third Test . The Australians were surprised by the move and thought that it was a bad move by their opponents . Miller had a quiet Third Test at Old Trafford , taking one wicket and scoring 31 as the match ended in a draw . In a rain @-@ shortened match , Miller again earned the ire of the crowd , after aiming a series of bouncers at Edrich , in apparent retaliation to the Englishman 's bouncing of Lindwall . He struck Edrich on the body before Bradman ordered him to stop .
The teams moved to Headingley for the Fourth Test at Leeds . Hutton had been recalled and the home team batted first . England tallied 496 and Miller took 1 / 43 . In reply , Australia were struggling at 3 / 68 in reply on the third morning . Neil Harvey , playing his first Ashes Test , joined Miller at the crease . The pair launched a counterattack , with Miller taking the lead . He hoisted Jim Laker 's first ball over square leg for six . Miller struck consecutive sixes over long off and the sightscreen respectively . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative ; Harvey joined in and hit consecutive boundaries against Laker . Miller then lifted another six over long off , and another over long on from Norman Yardley . He was dismissed for 58 attempting another six . The partnership had yielded 121 runs in only 90 minutes , and was described by Wisden as a " hurricane " . John Arlott described the innings as the most memorable that he had witnessed . He said " Miller played like an emperor ... Every stroke would have been memorable but each one had bettered its predecessor " . Jack Fingleton said that he had never " known a more enjoyable hour " of " delectable cricket " . The momentum swung and Australia finished at 457 on the fourth day , having added almost 396 in one day 's play . Miller took 1 / 53 in the second innings as Australia were set a world record chase of 404 on the final day . He made only 12 but Australia broke the world record to take a 3 – 0 lead .
The Australians moved onto the next match against Derbyshire , where Miller scored a half @-@ century and took 3 / 31 in an innings victory . Against Glamorgan , Miller took two wickets before striking a hard @-@ hitting 84 with five sixes . He struck one of the sixes with one hand , sending it 20 rows into the crowd . In a match against Lancashire , Jack Ikin had reached 99 despite being repeatedly hit . Miller refused to bowl to Ikin , saying that he felt the batsman deserved a century . Lindwall was given the ball and promptly removed Ikin for 99 .
The teams proceeded to The Oval for the Fifth Test . After England elected to bat , Miller bowled John Dewes with his second ball and then removed Jack Crapp without scoring , leaving England at 4 / 23 . Miller ended with 2 / 5 as Lindwall ( 6 / 20 ) cut down the home team for 52 . In his last Test innings for the summer , Miller scored five . Australia led by 337 on the first innings and Miller dismissed Hutton and Crapp to end with 2 / 22 as Australia won by an innings and took a 4 – 0 series win . Miller ended the Tests with 184 runs at 26 @.@ 28 and 13 wickets at 23 @.@ 15 . He took eight catches .
In a match against the Gentlemen of England at Lord 's , Miller scored 69 and was dismissed attempting a third consecutive hooked boundary . Australia went through the remaining tour matches unbeaten to end the summer without a defeat .
After the tour , Bradman was full of praise for Miller , though somewhat critical of his aggressive batting :
One of the most volatile cricketers of any age . Long , rangy , athletic type — drove the ball with tremendous power — tried to hit sixes with abandon . Many of them would have been prodigious . Would have been a far better player had he curbed this propensity and showed more judgement in his hitting . Dangerous bowler with the new ball , swinging it both ways not much short of [ Ray ] Lindwall 's speed . [ ... ] In 1948 he was the best slip field in the world . Altogether , a crowd @-@ pleasing personality ... whose limitations were caused mainly by his own failure to concentrate .
Miller totalled 1 @,@ 088 runs for the tour at an average of 47 @.@ 30 , only the eighth highest in the squad . He took 56 wickets at 17 @.@ 58 and held onto 20 catches .
= = = Omission for South Africa = = =
After returning to Australia , Miller played against Bradman in a testimonial match in 1948 – 49 . Miller bowled three consecutive bouncers at Bradman , dismissing him with the last of the short @-@ pitched deliveries for 53 . Bradman was angered by Miller 's bowling . One week later , the squad to tour South Africa in the following season was announced , and Miller was omitted , despite being ranked as the best all rounder in the world . During the Australian season , which was a purely domestic one , he had scored 400 runs at 33 @.@ 33 and taken 11 wickets at 24 @.@ 09 . He scored one century against Queensland during the season , as well as a 99 against Victoria at the SCG . The surprise omission led to much conjecturing about the reasoning . One was that Miller had stated during the season that he did not want to bowl , so the selectors only considered his batting performances . Another was that Miller 's bouncing of Bradman had provoked his former captain into voting against him at the selection table . Rumours circulated that new captain Lindsay Hassett did not want Miller on the tour because he was undisciplined , which Hassett denied . Another was that Jack Ryder , the Victorian selector and former Australian captain , had voted against Miller in retaliation for his move to New South Wales . Both Bradman and Chappie Dwyer claimed they voted for Miller , leading Miller to quip " somebody 's telling lies " , as there were only three on the selection panel .
The media stridently criticised Miller 's omission , as did former players such as Stan McCabe and Alan Kippax . During the off season , he worked as a journalist and played baseball , but declined a trial with a Major League Baseball club , the Boston Red Sox . Miller captained New South Wales at the start of the 1949 – 50 season as his colleagues went to South Africa , his first leadership experience in the Sheffield Shield . He scored 80 and took six wickets in the first match against Queensland . After another victory over Western Australia , he received a request from the Australian Board of Control . At the request of captain Hassett , Miller was asked to tour South Africa as cover for Johnston , who had been injured in a car crash . Miller accepted the offer and resigned himself to bowling heavily . Miller almost missed the trip after arriving late at the dock in Perth after a drunken night . The next boat to South Africa would not have departed for several weeks . Despite his recall , there remained tension over his initial omission , as Dwyer was the team manager .
Miller was given the responsibility of batting in the number three position when Hassett was afflicted by tonsillitis . In the First Test at Johannesburg , Miller scored 21 and then took 5 / 40 in South Africa 's first innings , only his second match on tour , resulting in the home side being forced to follow on and lose by an innings . In the Second Test at Cape Town , he scored 58 and then took 3 / 54 in the first innings . On the third morning , Miller crashed his car and arrived late to the ground , still putting on his trousers as he entered the playing field . Despite , this he dismissed Dudley Nourse with his third ball . He was wicketless in the second innings , and took only one in the Third Test in Durban and did not pass 10 with the bat . Australia won both matches . He returned to the form in the Fourth Test with 84 , 33 not out and 3 / 75 in a high scoring draw . Miller took match figures of 5 / 66 in the Fifth Test as Australia took the series 4 – 0 . He ended the series with 246 runs at 41 @.@ 00 and 17 wickets at 22 @.@ 94 , placing in the top six in the Test averages for bat and ball . During the tour matches , he took match figures of 11 / 54 against Natal Country Districts and scored a century against Transvaal .
= = = Ashes in Australia = = =
Miller started the 1950 – 51 season with an unbeaten 201 in a Shield match against Queensland . At 438 minutes , it was his longest first @-@ class innings . In the return match , he scored 138 not out in just 118 minutes in a successful run @-@ chase , a sharp contrast to his double @-@ century . In a tour match against the visiting England team at the SCG before the Test series , Miller scored 214 , having been 99 not out at stumps on the previous day . He hit 15 fours and three sixes . However , he made ducks in consecutive matches leading into the First Test in Brisbane . Miller scored 15 and eight on a rain @-@ affected pitch , and took match figures of 3 / 50 in an Australian victory , dismissing Dewes twice . He had another quiet match in the Second Test , scoring 18 and 14 and taking a match total of 2 / 55 . After struggling in the first two Tests , Miller rediscovered his batting form with 98 against the tourists for New South Wales .
England had started the Third Test at Sydney strongly . Australia took its first wicket when Miller caught Washbrook from Johnson with a horizontal diving catch at slip . England were still in control at 1 / 128 when Miller came on to bowl . He removed Hutton and Reg Simpson before bowling Compton for a duck . In the space of four overs from Miller , England were now 4 / 137 . Miller had contributed to all four wickets . Miller ended with 4 / 37 as England were bowled out for 290 on the second day . Miller batted patiently on the third day , reaching 96 by stumps with Australia at 6 / 362 . The next day , with his century four runs away , Miller arrived late , leaving his batting partner Johnson waiting at the players ' gate . Miller progressed to 145 not out despite the interruption . It has been a patient innings by his standards , taking almost a day . England collapsed for 123 , leaving Australia to take an innings victory . In the first innings of the Fourth Test in Sydney , Miller scored 44 and did not take a wicket , but he was heading for consecutive Test centuries in the second innings . He reached 99 when a leg break from Doug Wright spun across him and clipped the off bail . The innings helped Australia to set England a target of 503 . Miller took 3 / 27 on the final day , helping to cut through the middle order as Australia won by 274 runs . Miller was out for seven and a duck in the Fifth Test at the MCG . He took 4 / 76 in the first innings , joining Lindwall in cutting down the middle order , despite which England won by eight wickets . Miller topped the Test batting averages with 350 runs at 43 @.@ 75 , and for the entire first @-@ class season , he scored 1332 runs at 78 @.@ 35 , the highest among all comers . His bowling was also strong , with 17 wickets at 17 @.@ 70 , second only to Jack Iverson ( 21 wickets at 15 @.@ 23 ) . However , an attack by Morris ( 182 ) and Miller ( 83 ) in a Shield match dispirited Iverson , and he never played Test cricket again .
= = = West Indies tour Australia = = =
The 1951 – 52 Australian season saw the first tour by a West Indian team in two decades . The Caribbean team had beaten England 3 – 1 in 1950 and were regarded as the biggest threat to Australia since Bodyline . The batting was led by the " three Ws " : Everton Weekes , Frank Worrell and Clyde Walcott . The English had also been bamboozled by the leg spin and left arm orthodox of Sonny Ramadhin and Alf Valentine , who took 59 wickets between them in four Tests against England . Miller and Lindwall were charged with attacking the opposition batsmen , testing them with short @-@ pitched bowling . The West Indies batted first in the First Test at Brisbane and were dismissed for 216 ; Miller dismissing their captain John Goddard . Miller came to the crease at 3 / 80 and could not pick Ramadhin . He decided to attack the leg spinner without picking him . He missed some , was dropped twice and hit a six before falling for 46 to Valentine . Australia scraped out a 10 @-@ run lead . Miller took another wicket in the second innings but managed only four as Australia stumbled to a three @-@ wicket victory . Between Tests , Miller took eight wickets in the match as New South Wales beat the tourists in a tour match . In the Second Test at Sydney , Miller came to the crease at 3 / 106 having gone wicketless in the West Indies ' first innings of 362 . He began to pick Ramadhin and finished with 129 in 246 minutes . Miller and Hassett put on 235 , an Australian Test record for any wicket against the West Indies . Ramadhin ended with 1 / 196 and was demoralised . In the second innings , Miller took 3 / 50 with a heavy barrage of short balls and claimed two catches to help Australia to a seven @-@ wicket victory . Wisden decried Lindwall and Miller 's " relentless bumper tactics " .
Miller had a lean Third Test , taking only one wicket and scoring four and 35 , as Australia lost by six wickets . In the Fourth Test at the MCG , the West Indies batted first and Miller removed both openers in the first hour , before returning to end with 5 / 60 as the tourists were bowled out for 272 . He then scored 47 as Australia managed only 216 . He took 2 / 49 , but only scored two in Australia 's run @-@ chase of 259 . The home team won by one wicket . In the Fifth Test , Miller took 5 / 26 in the first innings with another concentrated display of short @-@ pitched bowling , and then scored 69 in the second innings . He took two further wickets in the second innings as Australia fell short of their target . Miller ended the series as the leading bowler , with 20 wickets at 19 @.@ 90 . He was second in the batting , with 362 runs at 40 @.@ 22 . Throughout the series , Miller and Lindwall were repeatedly successful with their concerted bouncer tactics , which were heavily criticised .
After the Test series ended , Miller captained a Commonwealth XI that played against a touring England team in Colombo , Ceylon . England had been on a tour of the Indian subcontinent . Miller scored 106 as the Commonwealth compiled 517 . Miller took three wickets in the first innings and led his team to a victory by an innings and 259 runs .
= = = Captain of New South Wales = = =
At the start of the 1952 – 53 season , the New South Wales Cricket Association 's five @-@ man selection panel installed Miller as captain in place of Morris . This was despite Morris leading the state to the Sheffield Shield in the previous season . Miller did not lobby for the job , but the Sydney media had campaigned for Miller , suggesting that his flamboyant style would attract more spectators and help stem the financial losses of the NSWCA . Despite this , Morris remained the Test vice @-@ captain ahead of Miller .
In his first match as leader , Miller scored 109 against Queensland . Taking 260 minutes , it was the slowest century of his career . In another match against the touring South Africans , Miller elected to field and reduced his opponents to 3 / 3 and went on to win by five wickets . His players respected him , and some began to mimic his cough , voice , gait and idiosyncrasies . Richie Benaud unbuttoned his shirt in Miller 's mould . He captained in an unorthodox manner , often trying unusual ploys to unsettle the opposition . He encouraged the opposition to attack in an attempt to get a wicket , and often shuffled his batting order to suit the circumstances of his batsmen . He was soon called before authorities after a match against South Australia . Sid Barnes , his 12th man , had come onto the ground with drinks , dressed as a flight attendant . He also brought things such as cigars , mirrors and combs . Barnes ' antics extended the break longer than usual . Miller was called before the NSWCA after the South Australian Cricket Association lodged a complaint , and had to give an assurance that such an incident would not be repeated .
Miller started the Test series against South Africa poorly . Suffering from a throat infection , he scored three in both innings and took 1 / 46 in an Australian victory . In the Second Test at the MCG , Miller performed consistently with bat and ball , taking 4 / 62 and 3 / 51 and scoring 52 and 31 . In the course of the match , he passed the all @-@ round double of 1000 Test runs and 100 Test wickets when he dismissed John Waite in the second innings , but this was not enough to prevent defeat . In the Third Test , Miller scored 55 , putting on 168 with Harvey , and took 3 / 48 and 2 / 33 in an innings victory . Australia 's fortunes took a turn for the worse in the Fourth Test in Adelaide . Miller scored nine and injured his back after two overs with the ball . Lindwall also broke down . Without their spearheads , Australia were unable to bowl out the South Africans and match was drawn . Both were ruled out of the Fifth Test and the South Africans levelled the series despite conceding 520 runs during the first innings . Australia 's bowlers were unable to stop the South African batsmen without their new ball pair .
= = = 1953 Ashes tour = = =
Australia proceeded to the 1953 Ashes tour . During a stopover at Naples , Miller was locked inside after entering a private opera rehearsal without authorisation , but managed to escape and rejoin the boat as it was about to leave . During his career , several cricket books were published under Miller 's name , and he was embroiled in further controversy when one ghost @-@ written tome , which was printed as the team left for England , criticised his captain Hassett as being too cautious .
The burden on Miller and Lindwall increased when Johnston broke down in an early tour game . Miller was wicketless against Worcestershire , but succeeded with the bat , scoring an unbeaten 220 in just over six hours . He then scored 159 not out against Yorkshire . At this point , Miller had scored 421 runs in the week of May , and the media began to speculate that he could score 1000 runs in one month , something that had been done on a tour only by Bradman .
Miller 's love of horseracing then interfered with his quest . Wanting to attend an afternoon race meeting , he opened the batting in the morning against Cambridge University . Not intending to play a long innings , he attacked the bowling and was out for 20 , before heading for the track . He stayed at the track until late afternoon , and returned to find the Australians walking out to field . This was followed by a match against the MCC at Lord 's where he took four wickets of English Test players . Miller then took match figures of 5 / 27 against Oxford University . In the match against Essex , Miller pulled rib muscles , meaning he could not bowl in the First Test at Trent Bridge . He scored 55 and five in a rain @-@ affected draw .
Australia travelled to Bramall Lane under the captaincy of Miller . Captain Hassett and his deputy Morris were rested and stayed in London with the team manager . After the first day 's play , he organised a party for that lasted until the next afternoon — the rest day . He woke up with a hangover the next day just minutes before the start of play . Improvising , Miller arrived at the ground in a hearse . When it was Australia 's turn to bat , Miller was the last man to be dismissed , having scored 86 despite his hangover .
The Test series moved to Lord 's . Miller resumed bowling , sending down 42 overs and taking a total of 1 / 74 . He managed 25 in the first innings , but promoted to number three in the second innings , he batted patiently to reach stumps before reaching his first Test century on English soil the following morning , but England held on for a draw . More than half of the Third Test at Old Trafford was washed out , resulting in another draw . Miller took 1 / 38 bowling fast off breaks and scored 17 and six . Australia then played Middlesex at Lord 's , where Miller scored a hard @-@ hitting 71 .
Australia elected to field on a wet wicket in the Fourth Test at Headingley . Miller dismissed Edrich and Graveney and ended with 2 / 39 from 38 overs as England were bowled out for 167 . Miller made only five in the first innings . In the second innings , Miller and Lindwall launched a short @-@ pitched barrage and dismissed Watson and Simpson in consecutive balls . England were 5 / 177 a stumps on day four , leading by 78 . The pacemen were booed from the field . The next day , Miller dismissed Evans early , before Trevor Bailey began his resistance . Frustrated by Bailey 's defensive style and time @-@ wasting , Miller lost his cool and aimed a beamer straight at Bailey 's head , further angering the crowd . Miller ended with 4 / 63 from a long spell of 47 overs . England held on for another draw after more time @-@ wasting by Bailey . The teams headed for the Fifth Test at The Oval tied 0 – 0 . Miller 's last Test performance was his least productive ; he scored one and a duck and took a total of 2 / 89 . England won the match and regained the Ashes . Miller 's returns were below his career standards , with 223 runs at 24 @.@ 77 and 10 wickets at 30 @.@ 30 . He took two catches .
Miller scored 67 against the Gentlemen of England at Lord 's and then played against the Combined Services at Kingston . He reached his century before lunch and then proceeded to 262 not out with 24 boundaries . This included a 377 @-@ run fourth @-@ wicket stand by Jim de Courcy in only 205 minutes , in particular targeting Fred Trueman 's bowling . He then took 3 / 17 with the ball . He finished the English summer with 1 @,@ 433 runs at 51 @.@ 17 , the second highest average behind Harvey among batsmen with over 200 runs . He was the only Australian to hit two double centuries and also took 45 wickets at 22 @.@ 51 . For his efforts that summer , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack named him one of its Five Cricketers of the Year .
= = = Overlooked for Test captaincy = = =
Miller returned to Australia and led New South Wales to the Sheffield Shield title in 1953 – 54 . He topped the Australian first @-@ class batting averages with 71 @.@ 10 , but had his poorest season with the ball , taking only 16 wickets at 38 @.@ 75 . The season was purely domestic with no touring side and therefore no Test matches . The season was also a transition point in Australian cricket , as Hassett retired upon return to Australia . Initially , Morris and Miller were the two frontrunners for the captaincy . Miller was the state captain , but Morris was the vice @-@ captain of the Test team ahead of Miller . At the time , Johnson had been dropped from the Australian team , but inherited the Victorian captaincy from Hassett , who accused him of not trying . Hassett told Johnson that he could become Test captain if he regained his form and his Test position . As the outgoing captain , Hassett was believed to have an influence over the selection of his successor . Miller had also criticised Hassett in his book , and there was talk that Hassett was upset about Miller 's departure from South Melbourne and Victoria . Johnson returned to form with 45 wickets at 22 @.@ 75 for the season .
England toured Australia in the 1954 – 55 season . Johnson was selected to lead an Australian XI in a tour match against the Englishmen before the Tests , an indication of the selectors ' inclination . He took 6 / 66 in England 's only innings . The build @-@ up featured a media war , with Melbourne newspapers stumping for Johnson while the Sydney journalists trumpeted Miller . Miller warmed up for the Tests with 86 for New South Wales against England . On 18 November , the Australian Board of Control selected Johnson as captain , with Morris as his deputy . Miller 's irreverent nature was cited as a possible reason for the board 's selection . Johnson was regarded as a superior diplomat , while Miller had a reputation for turning up late and being undisciplined . Miller had frequently been in dispute with Bradman , who was a member of the board and the chairman of selectors . Miller had also questioned where revenue that the board collected from ticket sales was being used . Others claimed that Johnson was appointed because he was part of the establishment ; his father Bill was a former Australian selector . The decision was bitterly criticised by the Sydney press .
There is strong feeling amongst cricket enthusiasts that horse trading on a state basis rather than objective evaluation of cricket skills has dominated selectors discussions . The operating principle seems to have been " you look after my man and we 'll look after yours . "
Miller scored 49 in the First Test at Brisbane as Australia amassed 8 / 601 , before dismissing Simpson and Hutton as England fell to an innings defeat . A knee injury forced Miller to miss the Second Test at the SCG , which England won . Miller returned for the Third Test at the MCG , but was initially unavailable to bowl due to lingering knee problems . However , upon receiving an inquiry about the health of his knee before the match by Prime Minister of Australia Robert Menzies , Miller agreed to try to bowl for a short period and lift his team . England elected to bat and Miller removed Hutton , Edrich and Compton with his outswinger . He ended up bowling for the entire first session of play and had 3 / 5 at lunch from nine overs , before finishing at 3 / 14 . England were bowled out for 191 . Miller struggled with the bat , scoring six and seven as Frank Tyson 's pace saw England inflict a second successive defeat on Australia . Australia needed to win the Fourth Test in Adelaide to keep the series alive . Miller scored 44 and 14 as Australia were bowled out in the second innings to leave England with 94 for victory . Miller made a late burst , removing Edrich , Hutton and Colin Cowdrey in consecutive overs to leave England at 3 / 18 . He then took a difficult catch from Johnston to dismiss Peter May . England were then 4 / 49 but hung on to win by five wickets and secure the Ashes . It was the first time that Australia had lost three consecutive Tests since the Bodyline series of 1932 – 33 . Miller made 19 and 28 in the rain @-@ affected draw in the Fifth Test . He ended the series with 167 runs at 23 @.@ 86 , his lowest ever at international level , and took 10 wickets at 24 @.@ 30 .
He had more success as domestic level . New South Wales beat Victoria in two days at the SCG to win the Sheffield Shield ; Miller taking five wickets in the second innings . He also led his state in a 45 @-@ run win over the tourists , their only defeat apart from the First Test . The match was marked by a quickfire 71 in 57 minutes and his team 's attacking strategy .
= = = West Indies tour = = =
After leading his state to another Sheffield Shield title and a win over England , Miller replaced Morris as the vice @-@ captain for the tour of the West Indies that started in early 1955 . Australia was looking for its first series win against any team in three years , having lost two consecutive series to England . Australia batted first in the opening Test at Sabina Park in Jamaica . Miller came to the wicket at 2 / 137 and put on a 224 @-@ run partnership with Harvey . Both ended with centuries and Miller scored his highest Test score of 147 , striking 15 fours . When Valentine and Ramadhin had conceded 100 runs , he respectively shook their hands . Australia finished at 9 / 515 . Johnson had been injured when hit in the foot by a yorker so Miller was left in charge of the team on the field with Australia one bowler short . Miller attempted to unsettle the batsmen by placing many men close to the bat in an attempt to insult their batting capabilities . He took the new ball at 5 / 239 and the hosts collapsed to be all out for
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First Circuit 's Passamaquoddy decision . Paterson and Roseman argued that the Nonintercourse Act 's restriction on land purchases from tribes was not meant to apply to land within the territory of a U.S. state . According to Paterson and Roseman , " [ n ] either the district nor circuit courts in Passamaquoddy v. Morton had all the available legislative history , administrative rulings , legal analysis or case law necessary to make a fully informed decision . "
Kempers ' 1989 study of the settlement is based on 35 interviews conducted with members of the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes ( 24 Penobscot members and 11 Passamaquoddy members ) conducted between September and December 1985 . According to Kempers , " [ t ] here is no clear consensus on how much the tribes gained or lost in the final negotiations . " But , in Kempers ' view , " [ i ] n the final analysis , however , the settlement negotiations appear to have compromised the very basis of the claim " by bringing the tribes under " much closer state supervision . " " In a very real way , the deterioration of culture that the tribes ' sought to reverse by going to court was aggravated by the litigation and the political negotiation of their claim . "
= Aqua ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Aqua ( Japanese : アクア , Hepburn : Akua ) , also known as Master Aqua ( マスター ・ アクア , Masutā Akua ) , is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . Having first made cameo appearances in the game Kingdom Hearts II , Aqua was introduced in the 2010 prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as one of the three protagonists . In the title , Aqua is introduced as a Keyblade @-@ wielding warrior training under Master Eraqus alongside her best friends Terra and Ventus . Following the disappearance of Master Xehanort , a comrade of Eraqus , Aqua and Terra are tasked with searching for him as while protecting the worlds from creatures known as Unversed .
Unlike Terra and Ventus , Aqua was the only protagonist from Birth by Sleep who did not have a point of reference for director Tetsuya Nomura to design from , and thus was designed from scratch . Later in the design process , Nomura became concerned that Aqua would not be a popular character , and this drove his decision to make her very distinct in her personal bravery and combat abilities . While her outfit design was based on Terra 's , her movements were chosen to distinguish her from other characters by having her specialize in magical combat . Aqua has been voiced by Megumi Toyoguchi in Japanese and Willa Holland in English . Aqua received mixed reviews from game critics , citing boring plot lines and unenthusiastic voice acting combined with weak combat skills . With fans , Aqua was well received , and is one of Kingdom Hearts most popular characters .
= = Appearances = =
Before her introduction as a main character in Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleep , Aqua had earlier made small appearances in the secret endings from Kingdom Hearts II and its re @-@ release , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix . Both events depicted Terra , Ventus and Aqua fighting Xehanort and his apprentice Vanitas . Moreover , Aqua 's Keyblade and armor appear in a room from Radiant Garden in Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , which Xemnas , the " Nobody " of Xehanort , often visits calling the armor " friend " .
In Birth by Sleep , Aqua apprentices in the Land of Departure where potential Keyblade Masters study to receive their " Mark of Mastery " . Training alongside Aqua are her friends Terra and Ventus . Aqua takes the Mark of Mastery exam along with Terra and becomes a Keyblade Master . When Xehanort goes missing , their teacher Eraqus instructs Terra and Aqua to find him while also protecting the worlds they visit from creatures known as the Unversed . Following Terra 's departure , Eraqus asks Aqua to watch over Terra to see if he succumbs to his inner darkness and also bring back Ventus who has suddenly left the world . As she travels across the worlds , Aqua starts to question Terra 's actions in the worlds , while Ventus decides not to return home until Terra is safe . When Aqua meets Yen Sid , an acquaintance of Eraqus , Aqua is told that the latter was killed by Xehanort with Terra 's assistance . Aqua then goes to the Keyblade Graveyard to face confront Terra . He explains to Aqua how Xehanort tricked him into fighting Eraqus , while Ventus reveals that Xehanort plans to use him and his apprentice Vanitas to create the ultimate weapon , a Keyblade known as the χ @-@ blade . The three are then confronted by Xehanort and Vanitas , and proceed to battle . While Terra goes to battle Xehanort , Vanitas takes possession of Ventus ' body to create the χ @-@ blade . With help from King Mickey , Yen Sid 's student , Aqua fights the possessed Ventus until the χ @-@ blade explodes . After learning that Ventus has lost his heart , Aqua locks his catatonic body in Castle Oblivion created from the ruins of the Land of the Departure with Eraqus 's Keyblade . Aqua then tracks Terra to the Radiant Garden , only to find that he has been possessed by Xehanort . In the ensuing battle , Terra 's presence manifests , causing Xehanort to unlock his own heart in the internal struggle , and having lost his essence that makes him a whole person , he falls into the Realm of Darkness . However , Aqua saves Terra 's heart by sending her armor and Keyblade with him back to Radiant Garden . But Aqua ends up trapped in the nexus of the darkness in people 's hearts called the Realm of Darkness . Sometime after the events of Kingdom Hearts II , she meets Ansem the Wise , the former ruler of Radiant Garden , at the shores of the Dark Margin , a black moon @-@ lit ocean in the Realm of Darkness , and learns about the events that occurred in her absence regarding Sora , the new Keyblade bearer . Upon hearing Sora 's name and recognizing it as the name of the little boy she met on Destiny Islands who now possesses Ventus ' heart , Aqua sheds a tear and utters Sora 's name with renewed hope .
Birth by Sleep Final Mix , an update of Birth by Sleep , features a secret episode that slightly expands on Aqua 's time in the Realm of Darkness , battling Heartless with her master 's Keyblade .
In Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , Aqua is revealed to be one of the many people connected with Sora 's heart , causing Mickey to ask Sora to rescue them . She also makes small appearances in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance as part of Sora 's memories and in the ending where she is still at the shores of the Dark Margin .
Aqua is slated to be the protagonist of Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 Birth by Sleep -A fragmentary passage- , which is part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . This new chapter is a prologue to the events of Kingdom Hearts III , which heavily expands on her time in the Realm of Darkness .
= = Creation and development = =
For Aqua 's unnamed first appearance in the secret ending of Kingdom Hearts II , director Tetsuya Nomura stated he did not design her appearance , but had instead focused on what her story would be . While unwilling say who the character was , Nomura pointed that this new character scenes , along with Terra 's and Ventus ' scenes occurred prior to the events from the first game . Following the release of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Nomura revealed more details about Aqua such as a connection with the character Xemnas . Nomura also revealed her name as said by the Lingering Sentiment in Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix and explained that her name follows the " water " theme brought by Kairi 's name . However , a connection with Kairi was not intended , but rather with the series ' main characters whose names bear various themes .
In contrast to Terra and Ventus , Aqua did not have a reference point for the characters design , leading Nomura to create a completely new character from scratch . Her outfit was based on Terra 's Japanese @-@ inspired clothes which are meant to expand the student @-@ and @-@ teacher bond shown in the game . Aqua 's outfit was altered three times during the game 's development . Nomura felt the open back of Aqua ’ s outfit presented at the Tokyo Game Show 2009 was too revealing and modified the design to be more conservative . As with Terra and Ventus , the making of Aqua 's outfit created issues for Nomura like how she would be able to summon her armor . To remedy this , an " X " was added to her clothes as a means to activate her armor . When designing Aqua , Nomura was worried the character would be unpopular due to her weak connection with other Kingdom Hearts characters . This led to a push to make the character distinctly " strong " , which Nomura also did with Xion for Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days but in a different way . While Xion was also a " brave girl " , Nomura wanted to retain Aquas feminine qualities along with her strength . After design was completed , Nomura was still unsure how Aqua would be received . After release however , Nomura noted her popularity with fans , and referenced Megumi Toyoguchi 's work as her voice actress as one of the reasons . Toyoguchi had already worked with Nomura in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 voicing Paine , one of the game 's protagonists . While Toyoguchi used a low tone with Paine , she used tone closer to her original voice when voicing Aqua , which Nomura praised .
From the beginning of Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleeps development , the staff decided its story would have three plot lines centered around three different characters with Aqua 's being the last one written . The original ending of Aqua 's storyline showed her trapped in the Realm of Darkness , but that part was moved to the game 's " Last Episode " playthrough in order to keep the game from being too negative in tone . In terms of gameplay , Aqua was designed to be a character gamers would take some getting used to , and recommended them use her as the last one in order to understand the game 's story better , as he points that scenario with the intention that Aqua would be the last character to leave the Land of Departure . The staff developed her movements to reflect her personality as a serious and dignified young woman .
= = Reception = =
Aqua 's character has received mixed response from video game publications with initial comments focused on her brief appearance in Kingdom Hearts II . Writing for GamesRadar , Chris Antista commented that he did not understand the importance of Aqua and the other characters being briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II , and only later was their importance explored at the end of Birth by Sleep . Prior to Aqua 's appearance in Birth by Sleep 's trailers , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish stated that fans speculated that the character would be male . Having played a demo from Birth by Sleep as Aqua in the E3 2010 , Ryan Clements from IGN enjoyed her character due to her gameplay mechanics .
While reviewing Birth by Sleep , Adam Ghigiino from PALGN criticizing her " idealistic " dialogues , finding them repetitive . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Thomas Williams found the trio as welcome additions to the franchise , finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds . Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot gave praise to Aqua 's character , based on her personality , how it counterparts Ventus ' as well as Holland 's voice acting . 1UP.com 's Steve Watts found Aqua 's gameplay as the weakest from all the three characters as in contrast to Ventus and Terra , she specializes in magic techniques which are weak during the game 's start . On the other hand , Bob Miur from Destructoid found it appealing due to how it contrast previous fighting styles seen in the Kingdom Hearts series . Aqua 's story was also found less entertaining than Ventus ' , but also less predictable than Terra 's . Following Square 's advice of using Aqua as the last playable GameInformer writer Bryan Vore liked how her actions were played with Ventus ' and Terra 's . However , Bore still cited Aqua 's playthrough as repetitive if played as the last one , and also said its plot was weakest from all of them . Alongside Ventus and Terra , X @-@ Play found Aqua similar to the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts with her being compared with Kairi . In contrast to Van Ord , RPGFan 's Ashton Liu found Aqua 's voice " bored for almost the whole game " , citing how it is notable when comparing her with other voice actors such as Mark Hamill and Leonard Nimoy . In an ASCII Media Works poll , Aqua was voted as the twelfth most popular video game character from 2010 . In a Famitsu poll from 2011 , Aqua was voted as the fourth most popular Kingdom Hearts character .
= Skin Trade ( film ) =
Skin Trade is a 2014 action thriller film directed by Ekachai Uekrongtham , and starring Dolph Lundgren , Tony Jaa , Michael Jai White , and Ron Perlman . Lundgren wrote the film with Gabriel Dowrick and Steven Elder , while John Hyams performed uncredited script revisions . The film centers around New Jersey police detective Nick Cassidy , as he travels to Asia intent on killing the man who murdered his family , mobster Viktor Dragovic . He is also set on destroying Dragovic 's human trafficking network .
Development started in 2007 after Lundgren read a news report about a group of girls being smuggled into the United States from Mexico . The girls were left in a vehicle along the border , and trapped inside , they all died of heat stroke and suffocation . Skin Trade had a $ 9 million production budget , and was shot over 50 days in Canada and Thailand . It was the first film to be shot in English by an organization based in Asia ( outside of Hong Kong ) for an international theatrical release .
The film premiered at the American Film Market on November 7 , 2014 . This was followed by a limited theatrical release , starting on April 9 , 2015 in the United Arab Emirates , and succeeded by Thailand ( on April 23 ) , Malaysia ( on April 30 ) , and the United States ( on May 8 ) . The film grossed $ 384 thousand at the worldwide box office , but it received mostly negative reviews . Particular criticism was aimed at Jaa 's fluency in English , as well as at the film 's scant focus on human trafficking .
= = Plot = =
A Cambodian girl leaves her village for Bangkok . Upon arriving , she is kidnapped , drugged , and sold in the skin trade .
In Newark , New Jersey , detective Nick Cassidy discovers that mobster Viktor Dragovic is in town . Meanwhile , in Bangkok , detective Tony Vitayakul attempts to buy a Thai girl from a group of human traffickers . When his cover is blown , he kills the traffickers and frees the girl from captivity .
Captain Costello and Cassidy brief the police department on Dragovic ; revealing he runs the largest human trafficking network in the world . As a cargo ship owned by Dragovic approaches America , Cassidy and the department prepare to intercept it at the docks . When the ship arrives , Dragovic discovers the trafficked women have died during transport . The ship 's captain is held responsible and shot in the head . A shootout erupts as the police move in for an arrest . Cassidy chases Dragovic and his son , Andre , as they flee . He fatally shoots Andre in self @-@ defense and Dragovic is arrested . While in custody , Dragovic arranges to have Cassidy and his entire family murdered ; having his house blown up the same night . Cassidy 's wife and daughter are killed instantly , while Cassidy survives after being shot in the back .
Costello and Reed , an FBI agent , visit Cassidy in hospital . They tell him Dragovic fled the US after being bailed . As soon as they leave , Cassidy staggers out of the hospital unnoticed . He gathers a few weapons and travels to the restaurant of Dragovic 's attorney . After forcing the attorney to reveal Dragovic 's whereabouts , Cassidy kills the attorney and blows up the restaurant .
In Cambodia , Senator Khat warns Dragovic that unless he leaves the country immediately , he will be arrested and extradited to the United States . Dragovic blackmails the Senator into giving him two weeks to put his affairs in order and flee .
Cassidy travels to Thailand in pursuit of Dragovic . Believing that Cassidy has experienced a nervous breakdown , the US authorities have ordered Reed to detain him as soon as he arrives . Tony and his partner , Nung , are told to assist with the arrest . At Suvarnabhumi airport , Cassidy flees as the police try to arrest him . Reed , who has been bought off by Dragovic , kills Nung and frames Cassidy for the murder . Tony pursues Cassidy through the streets , but Cassidy escapes ; he travels to a nightclub in Poipet , where - after torturing one of Dragovic 's men - he discovers the location of Dragovic 's current operations . Tony and Reed arrive at the nightclub and attempt to arrest Cassidy . After fighting with Tony , Cassidy escapes injured . Reed then uses Tony 's cell phone to uncover an informant , who happens to be Tony 's girlfriend , Min . While attempting to sabotage Dragovic 's operations , a shootout erupts between Cassidy and Dragovic 's men . Ivan and Goran shoot their half @-@ brother , Janko , on behalf of their father . Tony arrives and attempts to kill Cassidy , but after learning the truth about his partner 's death , he kills Reed instead . Before dying , Janko reveals his father 's location .
The next day , Cassidy and Tony storm Dragovic 's compound . While there , Cassidy learns that his daughter , Sofia , was not killed , but placed in the human trafficking trade . Ivan tries to kill Min , but Tony shoots him in the head . Cassidy destroys a vehicle with a rocket @-@ launcher , and as a result , Dragovic ’ s helicopter leaves without him . During a shootout between Cassidy and Dragovic 's men , Goran is killed in a hand @-@ to @-@ hand fight with Tony . After the shootout , Cassidy fights with Dragovic ; ultimately stabbing him in the chest . He attempts to retrieve the whereabouts of his daughter from the dying Dragovic , but fails .
In the aftermath , Cassidy says goodbye to Tony and Min . Before leaving , he gives them a picture of Sofia and tells them to hold onto it until he has found her . He then sets out in search of his daughter .
= = Cast = =
Dolph Lundgren as Nick Cassidy , a New Jersey police detective seeking to avenge the murder of his family .
Tony Jaa as Tony Vitayakul , a Thailand police detective tasked with arresting Cassidy .
Michael Jai White as Reed , an FBI agent .
Ron Perlman as Viktor Dragovic , a Serbian mobster running an international human trafficking ring .
Mike Dopud as Goran Dragovic , Viktor 's eldest son , who oversees his father 's operations in the Middle @-@ East .
David Westerman as Ivan Dragovic , Viktor 's other son , who oversees his father 's operations in South @-@ East Asia .
Leo Rano as Janko Dragovic , Viktor 's son from another relationship , who manages a chain of nightclubs in Thailand .
Michael G. Selby as Andre Dragovic , Viktor 's youngest son .
Celina Jade as Min , Tony 's girlfriend .
Peter Weller as Costello , the captain of Cassidy 's police department in Newark , New Jersey .
Tasya Teles as Rosa Cassidy , Nick 's wife .
Chloe Babcook as Sofia Cassidy , Nick 's teenage daughter .
The film also stars Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa as Khat , the Senator of Cambodia ; Maethi Thapthimthong as Nung , Tony 's partner on the Thai police force ; and Bryce Hodgson as Dex , a petty criminal from New Jersey . The film 's co @-@ writer , Steven Elder , appears in a minor role as Dragovic 's attorney .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Lundgren started researching human trafficking in 2005 . He claimed there were " 20 million slaves in the world " , and that human trafficking was a " $ 20 billion industry " ; the world 's " second largest " illegal trafficking enterprise ( as of 2015 ) . He started developing Skin Trade in 2007 ; after reading a news report about a group of girls being smuggled into the United States from Mexico . The girls were left in a vehicle along the border ; trapped inside and with no means of escape , they all died of heat stroke and suffocation . Lundgren , who had " two young daughters " at the time , felt the story of human trafficking " had to be told " . He related with each of the victims , saying : " these people are physically humiliated [ and ] psychologically abused to have no self worth , sort of like [ how ] I used to feel " .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Lundgren wrote the screenplay with Gabriel Dowrick and Steven Elder , while John Hyams performed uncredited script revisions ; seven in total , frequently regarding the setting as Lundgren sought financing . The original script was set in Russia . Lundgren even went as far as to scout for locations and actors ; and to seek financing in Moscow , but it " didn 't work out " . He changed the setting to Southeast Asia after meeting " someone " interested in financing the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Originally , Lundgren planned on playing a supporting role , with a more famous actor in the lead . He also considered directing the film , but decided against it , as he desired to learn more about producing . In 2013 , Lundgren announced the casting of Tony Jaa , in the role of Tony Vitayakul ; and Ekachai Uekrongtham as the director . Lundgren chose Uekrongtham after being impressed with his film , Beautiful Boxer . He contacted him through a mutual friend in Los Angeles , and in mid @-@ 2013 , they arranged to meet in the city . While he had previously turned down scripts offered to him for international markets , Uekrongtham found Skin Trade " riveting " . He said the script " [ had ] the potential to work as a character @-@ driven piece while saying something about how we deal with scars , literal and otherwise " . Jaa , on the other hand , met with Lundgren through his manager and film agent . He couldn 't speak any English when cast , but claimed to have taken " intensive " lessons in preparation for his role ; stating he is now " reasonably fluent " in " conversational " English .
Tasya Teles was cast as Rosa Cassidy on Christmas Day , 2013 . She was heading to Thailand for a holiday " after a year of hard work " , and her agent phoned to tell her about the " perfect role " ; even insisting on her having a " quick look " at the script . Once Teles realized Skin Trade was about human trafficking , she was " instantly hooked " .
On February 7 , 2014 , SC Films announced the casting of Michael Jai White , Ron Perlman , Peter Weller , Celina Jade , and Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa . The film 's co @-@ producer , Craig Baumgarten , was White and Weller 's manager ; he secured them both roles in the film . Weller was the original choice to play Viktor Dragovic , but due to scheduling issues , the role went to Perlman instead . Furthermore , Lundgren considered having White to co @-@ star ; White only accepted the role of FBI agent Reed after finding the script " appealing " .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Filming began on February 2 , 2014 in Thailand . Skin Trade was shot over 50 days : 43 filming in Thailand , and four filming in Vancouver , Canada . In Thailand , filming locations included : Suvarnabhumi Airport , the Min Buri District , the Siam Kempinski Hotel , a rice mill , a leather @-@ bleaching factory , and a century @-@ old mansion . Filming was briefly disrupted by public protests relating to the Thai political crisis . To avoid any further interference , the cast and crew had to travel early to get through the traffic and to the set on time . Most of the film was shot on location , but some scenes were filmed at Baanrig Studios . Skin Trade was the first film to be shot in English by an organization based in Asia ( outside of Hong Kong ) for an international theatrical release .
Uekrongtham arranged a " few lunches and dinners " between Lundgren and his on @-@ screen family ( Tasya Teles and Chloe Babcook ) , so they could bond " on a personal level " before filming scenes together . Babcook spent a week and a half filming her scenes in Bangkok , followed by a few days of filming in Vancouver .
The " heavily choreographed " fight scene between Lundgren and Jaa was planned over " [ one ] or two " months . It was rehearsed for two weeks and took a further week to film . Due to Lundgren 's role as co @-@ producer , the cast had a lot of freedom to improvise their scenes . Jaa filmed his fight scenes without using wirework or CGI . He felt this would give his character " more depth " and allow him to better display his acting abilities . Jaa also performed all of his own stunts . Lundgren claimed he was " very impressed " by Jaa 's acting and fighting abilities . In his opinion , the majority of people wouldn 't be able to perform Jaa 's stunts without using wirework .
According to White , his fight scenes with Jaa were " largely " choreographed ten minutes before filming . On the contrary , Jaa insisted it was something they were practicing " right up until the shoot " . He recalled that while they were rehearsing the sequences and moves together " quite extensively " for a " number of days " , they didn 't rehearse them on the film set . The fight was filmed in three takes .
= = = Effects = = =
Explosions were shot at Baanrig Studios ; by the special effects team that had worked on The Expendables .
= = = Editing = = =
According to Lundgren , the " large " number of editors resulted in him having less " [ creative ] control " over the final product . As co @-@ producer of the film , Lundgren assumed he would have been more involved in the editing process .
= = Release = =
The worldwide premiere was held at California 's American Film Market on November 7 , 2014 , while the Thailand premiere was held in Bangkok ; at the Siam Paragon on April 23 , 2015 . This was followed by theatrical releases in the United Arab Emirates ( on April 9 , 2015 ) , Malaysia ( on April 30 ) , and the United States ( on May 8 ) .
On May 21 , 2015 , the film was screened at a fundraising event for CAST ( The Coalition to Abolish Slavery & Trafficking ) , a charitable organization based in Los Angeles that helps to rescue and reintgrate victims of human trafficking back into society . Lundgren , who was looking for ways to " help out " , started volunteering for CAST during the film 's development stage .
= = = Marketing = = =
A teaser poster was released in 2013 , followed by a teaser trailer on March 26 , 2014 . On April 7 of the same year , Lundgren promoted Skin Trade on CNN . He appeared live in the studio and discussed the film with news anchor Richard Quest . At the 2014 Cannes Film Festival , Hyde Park International presented potential buyers with nine minutes of footage . Magnolia Pictures acquired the U.S. distribution rights on February 20 , 2015 , and announced they were releasing the film through their subsidiary label , Magnet Releasing . The film 's official trailer was released on March 12 , 2015 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Skin Trade received mostly negative reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reports that 25 percent of critics gave a positive review ; the " average " rating being 4 @.@ 8 out of 10 . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 39 out of 100 , also indicating " generally unfavorable " reviews .
Martin Tsai , of the LA Times , described the film as a " movie where cops self @-@ righteously act as judge , jury and executioner " , without considering any protocols or procedures . He also said the film barely touches upon human trafficking . Nick Schager , of Variety , came to a similar conclusion , calling the issue of human trafficking ( within the film ) a " window dressing " for standard " revenge @-@ driven " action . Schager also criticized Jaa 's lack of fluency in English . Other critics have had similar feelings ; Ignatiy Vishnevetsky , of A.V. Club , called it one of the film 's " biggest drawbacks " .
Chuck Bowen , of Slant Magazine , heavily criticized the film ; he awarded zero out of four stars . He said Skin Trade " fails " to satisfy even the " qualified expectations " that someone brings to a " low @-@ rent Dolph Lundgren ass @-@ kicker " . Bowen went on to say there is " no beauty to this film , little rhythm " , and none of the " physical grace " that action @-@ film fans " crave " .
Frank Scheck , of The Hollywood Reporter , rated the film as poor , saying the film is " more suitable for late night cable viewing " than a theatrical release . He went on to criticize Uekrongtham 's directing , saying that " [ Uekrongtham ] clearly paid more attention to the casting than the onscreen mechanics . And for a film so seemingly interested in educating audiences about the evils of sex trafficking " , Uekrongtham has no problem with " including [ a ] copious [ amount ] of female nudity " .
Scott Tobias , of The Dissolve , rated the film two and a half out of five . Calling the film a " throwback to the one @-@ man @-@ army [ action films ] " of the 1980s , he said " if the film happens to raise awareness [ of human trafficking ] " , then it 's more of a " bonus than an objective " . Tobias took a disliking to the film 's " needlessly complicated setup " , which - according to him - " posits Skin Trade as the splashy global production that it [ clearly ] is not " .
Simon Abrams , of Rogerebert.com , gave the film a positive review ; he awarded three out of four stars , and praised the film 's choreography and fight scenes . He said that " while time hasn 't been kind to the best ass @-@ kicking knuckle @-@ draggers , Skin Trade is energetic and winsome " . In his opinion , the movie " hails " from a " decadent period of action cinema " ; " when every renegade cop had a private vendetta , a pet charity / social concern , and a few lousy quips in his back pocket " . He summed his review saying : " you can teach a new dog old tricks , though why you would want to is anyone 's guess " . The Action Elite 's Eoin Friel also enjoyed the film ; he awarded four out of five stars , and praised the choreography , stunts and fight scenes . Unlike Schager or Vishnevetsky , Friel had no issues with Jaa 's fluency in English , and even felt he " handled " the language " pretty well " .
= = = Box office performance = = =
The film debuted in the United Arab Emirates on April 9 , 2015 . It peaked in fifth place at the box office , and made $ 79 @,@ 286 from 19 screenings ( $ 4 @,@ 173 per theater ) . No information is available for the film 's Thailand debut , but it peaked in fifth place during the second week , and grossed $ 137 @,@ 643 from 40 screenings ( $ 3 @,@ 441 per theater ) . By the end of the third week , the film dropped to eleventh place at the Thai box office , making a further $ 3 @,@ 686 ( bringing the entire gross to $ 141 @,@ 329 in Thailand ) . For its debut in Malaysia , Skin Trade came in sixth place , and made $ 98 @,@ 559 from 42 screenings ( $ 3 @,@ 861 per theater ) . By the end of the second week , it dropped two places at the box office , making a further $ 32 @,@ 917 from 39 screenings ( bringing the entire gross to $ 162 @,@ 163 in Malaysia ) . Skin Trade grossed a total of $ 382 @,@ 784 at the foreign box office .
The film debuted in the United States on May 8 , 2015 , making $ 162 ( from one theater showing ) during its opening weekend . It remained in the one theater for a second week , grossing a further $ 510 . By the end of its third and final week of release in the US , Skin Trade grossed a total of $ 1 @,@ 242 at the domestic box office , bringing the film 's entire theatrical gross to $ 384 @,@ 026 .
= = = Home media = = =
Skin Trade was released through Video @-@ on @-@ Demand on April 23 , 2015 , On August 25 , Magnet Releasing distributed the film on Blu @-@ ray and DVD . In the United States , the film was given an R rating by the Motion Picture Association of America , while in the United Kingdom , it was issued a 15 rating by the British Board of Film Classification . As of January 1 , 2016 , Skin Trade has grossed $ 959 thousand in domestic home video sales .
= = Soundtrack = =
All of the music was written and composed by Jacob Groth . The song " Unzip Me " by Belle Rev was played in the film , but not included in the soundtrack .
= = Potential sequel = =
Teles said she would be open to returning for a sequel ; she feels the film was " nicely set up " for one , and claims " [ the cast and crew are ] wondering " if there will be a follow @-@ up . On the possibility of a sequel , Lundgren said : " I didn ’ t consider [ Skin Trade ] as a franchise , but when I was over there [ in Thailand ] , I started thinking , ' How would I do this different ? How would I stay close to the subject matter ? ' Organ trafficking is quite big as well , so I thought that could be interesting . We could follow up with some kind of other trade " .
= Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager =
" Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " is the 24th episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 150th episode overall . The episode was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Troy Miller . It originally aired in the United States on May 12 , 2011 on NBC . The episode also features guest appearances from Kathy Bates , Cody Horn and Michael Schur .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) becomes the interim regional manager , instituting a typically heavy @-@ handed management style . Meanwhile , Gabe ( Zach Woods ) tries to win back Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) , but Andy ( Ed Helms ) gets in his way .
The episode received positive reviews from critics , with many commenting that it proved the series could survive without the lead actor , Steve Carell , and others calling it the best episode of the series in years . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " drew an estimated 6 @.@ 45 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 8 % share among those aged 18 – 49 , making it the second @-@ lowest @-@ rated episode of the season after " Todd Packer " .
= = Synopsis = =
When Deangelo Vickers ends up in a coma on life support , Jo Bennett ( guest star Kathy Bates ) makes Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) the interim regional manager before they find a proper replacement , much to Jim 's chagrin , as the office had actually functioned very smoothly during the manager hiatus . As Jim ( John Krasinski ) notes , everyone showed up , worked for the day with reasonable breaks , and were highly productive . Once appointed , Dwight establishes a strict management style in stark contrast to their previously relaxed style , from making the employees say the Pledge of Allegiance to setting up firewalls and long passwords to use the office 's various machines and installing antique punch clocks . Jim , who had turned down the temporary manager position believing that they should not be assigned one at all , is especially unhappy with the changes , and begins pranking Dwight by suggesting that he is leading an uprising called " The Fist " . In order to impress Jo , Dwight buys a gun , though he is more excited when he receives a holster as a gift from a relative , and uses the gun to accessorize . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) insists that he put it away , but Dwight accidentally fires the gun right by Andy ( Ed Helms ) , causing him temporary hearing loss . Dwight attempts to bribe the office workers into silence with various favors , and Jim insists that Dwight do outlandish things ( such as saying " Shagedelic , baby " ) at certain promptings .
Meanwhile , Gabe ( Zach Woods ) continues with his attempts to win back Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) . He invites Andy to go to the conference room to speak in private . Gabe breaks down , and Andy promises he won 't date Erin again . Gabe confronts Andy with the promise after he sees the two hanging out together , but Andy stands up for himself and embarrasses Gabe by describing Gabe 's crying fit to Erin . When asked whether he wants to date Erin , he refuses to give a straight answer .
When Jo comes to visit the branch , Dwight admits to the gun incident . He attempts to divert the blame to his employees , saying that blackmail is a bigger crime than firing a gun accidentally , but Jo takes the position away from him . Jo later puts Creed ( Creed Bratton ) , who has the most seniority in the office , in charge until a committee composed of Jim , Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) , and Gabe find a replacement . While Jim tells Dwight that Jo did the right thing , he also compliments Dwight , noting that the office got every single company order out on time .
= = Production = =
" Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " was the ninth episode of the series written by supervising producer Justin Spitzer , and the first directed by Troy Miller . The original working title for this episode was " Interim Manager " but was considered too bland by Office writer Mindy Kaling . While writing the episode , Spitzer originally titled it " Dwight K. Schrute " , but decided the title was not descriptive enough , so he renamed it " Dwight K. Schrute , Interim Manager " , before realizing that Acting Manager fits Dwight 's role better and changed it to " Dwight K. Schrute , Acting Manager " . Spitzer then decided that Dwight would downplay the acting part of the position and renamed the episode to its current title " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " .
The episode features the return of Kathy Bates as Jo Bennett . This is her first on @-@ screen appearance since " Nepotism " . The long absence is due to her starring in the other NBC series , Harry 's Law . The episode also marks the second appearance of Cody Horn as Jordan Garfield , Deangelo 's executive assistant , and the first of three new roles since Carell 's departure . The role was originally said to be recurring at first with a chance of her becoming a series regular in the eighth season . She eventually did not return for the eighth season . The episode also features a voice guest appearance from former producer and writer for The Office Michael Schur as Mose Schrute , his first appearance on the show since " Counseling " due to his being the show runner for the other NBC sitcom , Parks and Recreation .
The official website for The Office included two cut scenes from " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first , 66 @-@ second clip , Dwight shows the documentary crew his new office apparel including his desk modeled after Uday Hussein 's desk . In the second , 77 @-@ second clip , Jim pranks Dwight by putting fake results from Jordan 's surveillance of the office . Later in her talking head , it is hinted that Jordan has a crush on Jim . In the third , 86 @-@ second clip , the staff realize they are stuck with Dwight as their boss as Phylis attempts to remember a movie . In the fourth , 49 @-@ second clip , Gabe attempts to get Erin back by using her love of Pixar films , but ultimately fails .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 13 , 2011 , " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 45 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a nine percent drop in the ratings from the previous episode making it the second @-@ lowest @-@ rated episode of the season in the 18 – 49 demographic , after " Todd Packer " . " Dwight K Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " was the sixth most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " received positive reviews from critics . IGN reviewer Cindy White commented : " This episode proved that the show can be funny without him ( Steve Carell ) " . She also praised Rainn Wilson and John Krasinski 's performance in the episode calling it " one of my favorite dynamics on the show " . However , she criticized the Andy @-@ Gabe @-@ Erin love triangle storyline , commenting : " It 's only been made worse by the way they 've turned Gabe from meek , bumbling burocrat [ sic ] into unhinged stalker guy . " She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode " fun " and a " drastic improvement from ' The Inner Circle ' " . He mainly praised the return of " The Dwight / Jim dynamic " , writing that he " briefly rethought the idea of Dwight as long @-@ term boss " , and went on to praise the writers for featuring Dwight as manager for only one episode . He ultimately concluded that " the first real impression of the show after Michael was a strong one . " TV Squad writer Joel Keller was very positive towards the episode commenting that " The story also gave me faith that Lieberstein and company might actually do a credible job of exploring the other folks in the office now that the show 's dominant force , Michael , is gone " .
The A.V. Club 's Myles McNutt stated that " ' Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager ' demonstrated that the show is perfectly capable of being funny without Carell " , but criticized the episode for not featuring more " subtle " humor . He ultimately gave the episode a B. Sam Morgan of Hollywood.com called the episode " fairly decent episode " commenting that the concept of the episode was similar to the 10th episode of the seventh season , " China " . He also positively commented on Ellie Kemper 's performance , writing that " She came into this series as a sketch actor but for the first time I think she finally started being an ' actor . ' " Several commentators praised the scene featuring Dwight massaging Kevin 's back . " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager " was voted the fourth highest @-@ rated episode out of 24 from the seventh season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 81 out of 10 . In another poll , the episode was voted the second @-@ highest @-@ rated out of 24 from the seventh season , according to an " Survivor " episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally .
= The Last Dog on Earth =
The Last Dog on Earth is a 2003 young adult novel written by Daniel Ehrenhaft . It follows Logan , a lonely 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy who adopts a dog from an animal shelter and names her Jack . The pair 's relationship is soon threatened by an incurable prion disease spreading across the nation . Infected dogs become unnaturally violent and bloodthirsty , culminating in the deaths of several people . As public fear heightens and the government intervenes to control the outbreak , Logan struggles to reform his life and remain with Jack .
The Last Dog on Earth largely focuses on the impact of disease and both public and governmental panic . Society is ravaged by fear over the epidemic , endangering Logan and Jack despite the two being uninfected . Additionally , the novel presents a coming of age story in which Logan , a troubled youth , matures through his relationship with Jack , his only friend .
Despite 17th Street Productions holding the rights to The Last Dog on Earth , Dell Publishing gained permission to publish it . The company released the novel in hardcover in 2003 and in paperback in 2004 . Throughout 2009 , the book was published on various e @-@ book readers , including the Nook , Kindle , and several Apple Inc. products . The Last Dog on Earth was a winner of the Texas Lone Star Reading List and recognized by YALSA on a 2006 book list for young adults . The novel garnered mixed feedback from critics , who generally felt that the plot held appeal , but that Ehrenhaft tended to rely on coincidence .
= = Plot = =
Logan Moore is a troubled 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy living with his mother Marianne and stepfather Robert in Newburg , Oregon . Logan does not get along well with Robert or his mother , and holds a grudge against his biological father for leaving when he was young . After an incident at a barbecue , Robert decides to purchase a Labrador Retriever in order to teach Logan responsibility . Eager to rebel against his stepfather , Logan convinces his mother to adopt a dog from an animal shelter . He plans to choose an ugly dog and teach it destructive behavior . At the shelter , Logan encounters a young female mutt who immediately takes a liking to him . Logan adopts the dog and names her Jack after Robert 's former dog .
Meanwhile , a new prion disease named Psychotic Outburst Syndrome ( or POS ) is affecting dogs , causing friendly pets to become violent . Officials struggle to control the disease and immediately terminate any dogs that catch it . Humans soon begin to contract the disease .
Logan quickly bonds with Jack and values her as his only friend . After getting into trouble while attempting to protect her , Logan is sent to boot camp while Jack remains at home . Both he and Jack manage to escape , find each other , and begin traveling together . During their journey , they encounter another dog called White Paws : Jack 's brother who has become infected with POS . White Paws attacks Jack and severely wounds her before dying . Logan worries that Jack may have contracted the disease through contact with White Paws . The pair continue their journey until they reach the town of Dayville . Logan faintly remembers that his biological father lives in the town and decides to find his father and confront him .
While Logan is stealing food from a local shop , Jack is found by three men who , fearing that she may be infected , beat her . Logan is arrested and manages to find his father 's address at the police station before escaping . He returns to find Jack nearly dead and carries her , attempting to find his father 's house , until he faints from exhaustion . He awakens in the house of his biological father , Dr. Craig Westerly , who had found Logan unconscious by his car . Logan learns from Craig that he had not abandoned him and his mother , but that Marianne had divorced him . Logan fears for Jack 's life , afraid that she is infected or will be euthanized . Craig runs tests on the dog and learns that Jack , despite having been in contact with POS , isn 't infected : she is immune .
Craig decides to take Jack to a doctor so that a vaccine can be created . During the meeting , Rudy Stagg , a man infected with POS who had been killing dogs in order to contain the outbreak , stumbles into their room . Rudy ignores pleas to spare Jack and shoots at her , but Logan dives in front of the dog and is shot instead . Logan suffers a collapsed lung and falls into a coma . He awakens weeks later and learns that Jack is on life support . He says a final goodbye to Jack before her life support is turned off . Jack 's immunity to POS leads to the creation of a vaccine and cure , and Logan is finally able to reconcile with Robert , Craig , and Devon Wallace — a childhood enemy whose dog died due to POS . The novel 's epilogue , written as a newspaper article , reveals Logan and his family hold a private ceremony to honor Jack .
= = Themes and style = =
Ehrenhaft deals with several themes over the course of The Last Dog on Earth . Kirkus Reviews commented on the " backdrop of rising governmental and public panic " that interfere with Jack and Logan ; despite escaping the disease , they are unable to escape the panic . Rachel Seftel , author of a Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy review , also commented on the " mass hysteria " that arose due to POS and noted the novel 's core theme of a troubled youth being taught " valuable lessons until an external force threatens to tear them apart . "
In order to track particular events and plot points related to POS , Ehrenhaft inserts various messages , faxes , and articles throughout the novel .
= = Publication history = =
17th Street Productions , a branch of Alloy Entertainment , holds the rights to The Last Dog on Earth . Dell Publishing ( a division of the larger publisher Random House ) made arrangements with 17th Street to have it released under their name . On February 11 , 2003 , the novel was released in hardcover , and was later reprinted in paperback under Dell 's Yearling book imprint on June 8 , 2004 . In January 2009 , the novel received a Barnes & Noble Nook release in the United States , enabling it to be read on the Nook e @-@ book readers . The listed file size of The Last Dog on Earth is 2224 KB for the brand . On January 21 , 2009 , the book was released for the Kindle , Amazon.com 's online e @-@ book reader . Its listed file size is 448 KB . On February 3 , 2010 , The Last Dog on Earth was released on Apple Inc . ' s iTunes . It is listed as being compatible with the iPhone , iPod Touch , and iPad . Later , on February 25 , 2009 , the novel was released digitally with EPUB and mobile @-@ specific file types for the Borders Group e @-@ book app .
= = Reception and influence = =
The Last Dog on Earth has been nominated for several awards . The novel was recognized and listed on the Texas Library Association 's 2004 – 2005 Texas Lone Star Reading List . The book was also a nominee for the 2005 Mark Twain Award and 2007 Minnesota Young Reader Award . The Last Dog on Earth was named on " Popular Paperbacks for Young Adults 2006 " , a list created by YALSA ( Young Adult Library Services Association ) , a division of the American Library Association . The list is conceived by a committee and compiles various novels that hold appeal to teen readers . The Last Dog on Earth was included in the " What Ails You ? " category , comprising literature " about how diseases , disorders , and other general health related symptoms affect our lives " . In a 2005 interview , Daniel Ehrenhaft mentioned that a school in Chicago created an extracurricular activity wherein " kids designed games and gadgets " , having been inspired by Logan 's hobby of inventing devices .
The Last Dog on Earth has received mixed reception from critics , who have praised the plot , but criticized the heavy use of coincidences to advance the plot . Kirkus Reviews commented that " happenstance plays a large role in the plot " and thought Ehrenhaft had " a tendency to trot in typecast characters , then summarily drop them " , but wrote that it would appeal to " disaster @-@ tale fans with a taste for the lurid " . Within the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy , Volume 47 , Rachel Seftel reviewed the novel . She felt that The Last Dog on Earth 's main strength was the " well @-@ developed and sympathetic protagonist " Logan , but noted that the " memos and several subplots " interspersed between chapters and Ehrenhaft 's " [ somewhat ] heavy @-@ handed " attempts to foreshadow were drawbacks . Seftel concluded that , despite Ehrenhaft 's " reach at times [ exceeding ] his grasp , " The Last Dog on Earth was " an interesting and absorbing variation " of the slightly conventional " boy @-@ and @-@ his @-@ dog story . "
= Dave Martinez =
David Martinez ( born September 26 , 1964 ) is an American professional baseball coach and former outfielder . He is the bench coach for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the Cubs , Montreal Expos , Cincinnati Reds , San Francisco Giants , Chicago White Sox , Tampa Bay Devil Rays , Texas Rangers , Toronto Blue Jays , and Atlanta Braves from 1986 to 2001 . Martinez had a .276 career batting average , 1 @,@ 599 hits , 91 home runs , 795 runs scored , and 580 runs batted in .
Martinez became the bench coach for the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008 , during which time he became a candidate for several managerial positions in MLB . After Rays ' manager Joe Maddon became manager of the Cubs after the 2014 season , Martinez joined the Cubs as their bench coach .
= = Early life = =
Martinez was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Puerto Rican parents . He lived at East 93rd Street and Lexington Avenue in Manhattan . At age 13 , his family moved to Orlando , Florida , on the recommendation of an uncle .
Martinez attended Lake Howell High School in Winter Park , Florida . He played on the school 's baseball team , which won the Five Star Conference championship in 1981 . He then enrolled at Valencia Community College , where he played college baseball .
= = Professional career = =
The Chicago Cubs selected Martinez in the January phase of the 1983 Major League Baseball draft . After he signed , he played for the Geneva Cubs of the Class A @-@ Short Season New York – Penn League and the Quad Cities Cubs of the Class A Midwest League . He began the 1984 season with Quad Cities , and in 1985 , he received a promotion to the Winston @-@ Salem Spirits of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League . Martinez led the Carolina League with a .342 batting average ; the second @-@ place finishers , Keith Miller and John Wilson , batted .302 . Martinez began the 1986 season with the Iowa Cubs of the Class AAA American Association .
The Cubs promoted Martinez to the major leagues for the first time on June 15 , 1986 , and he served as an injury replacement for Bob Dernier . He had a .119 batting average ( 8 @-@ for @-@ 67 ) before he was optioned back to the minor leagues in August . Martinez made the Cubs major league roster in 1987 , splitting time in center field with Dernier . He batted .292 in 142 games . Martinez struggled in the 1988 season , batting .230 in mid @-@ June . On July 14 , 1988 , Martinez was traded to the Montreal Expos in exchange for Mitch Webster . He finished 1988 with a .255 batting average and 23 stolen bases .
Martinez was pegged as a platoon player in Montreal , as he batted against right @-@ handed pitchers and sat against left @-@ handed pitchers . The Expos also had outfielders Otis Nixon , Marquis Grissom and Larry Walker on their roster . He played 126 games in 1989 , hitting .274 . In 1990 , Martinez lost the competition for the center field job to Grissom . However , Grissom was injured , and Martinez platooned with Nixon in center field . Martinez batted .279 with 11 home runs in 118 games in 1990 . He batted .295 in 1991 . After the 1991 season , the Expos traded Martinez with Willie Greene and Scott Ruskin to the Cincinnati Reds for Bill Risley and John Wetteland . He was sought out as a replacement for Eric Davis for the Reds . He competed with Reggie Sanders for the starting job during spring training .
Martinez played for Cincinnati in 1992 , but as Sanders established himself as the Reds ' starting center fielder , Martinez declared for free agency after the season . He signed with the San Francisco Giants on a two @-@ year contract for the 1993 and 1994 seasons . He suffered a torn hamstring in 1993 and was limited to 91 games . He hit .241 , his lowest average in several seasons . The Giants waived Martinez in October 1994 after he was held to a .247 average , 4 home runs and 27 runs batted in ( RBI ) .
Martinez signed a one @-@ year , $ 500 @,@ 000 contract with the Chicago White Sox for the 1995 season . He received limited playing time under manager Gene Lamont . When Lamont was replaced by Terry Bevington , Martinez saw an increase in playing time . He signed a two @-@ year $ 1 @.@ 425 million contract for the 1996 and 1997 seasons . He spent the 1996 season as a backup behind Darren Lewis , Tony Phillips , and Danny Tartabull , along with fellow backup Lyle Mouton .
In 1997 , Martinez batted , .286 and set career highs with 12 home runs and 55 RBI . He then signed a two @-@ year contract with the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays worth $ 3 @.@ 5 million with an option for a third season at $ 1 @.@ 75 million . In addition his desire to play in Florida , he was enticed by the Rays ' additions of Fred McGriff , Wilson Álvarez , and Roberto Hernández . In 1998 , he recorded the first hit in Tampa history . His contract option for the 2000 season vested when he recorded his 500th at bat of the 1999 season .
After batting .260 in his first 29 games of the 2000 season , the Devil Rays , who needed to improve their pitching staff , traded Martinez to the Cubs for Mark Guthrie and cash . On June 9 , 2000 , the Cubs traded Martinez to the Texas Rangers in a three team trade that sent Chuck Smith from the Florida Marlins to the Rangers and Brant Brown from the Marlins to the Cubs . On August 4 , 2000 , the Rangers traded Martinez to the Toronto Blue Jays for a player to be named later . The Blue Jays sent Peter Munro to the Rangers to complete the trade . By playing for four MLB teams in one season , Martinez tied the record . Since 1901 , the previous players to play for four MLB teams in a season were Frank Huelsman ( 1904 ) , Willis Hudlin ( 1940 ) , Paul Lehner ( 1951 ) , Wes Covington ( 1961 ) , Mike Kilkenny ( 1972 ) , and Dave Kingman ( 1977 ) . Dan Miceli ( 2003 ) and José Bautista ( 2004 ) later achieved the feat . With Toronto , he filled in for the injured Raúl Mondesí as the Blue Jays contended for the American League wild card . Between the four teams , he had a .274 batting average , five home runs , and 47 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 132 games .
Martinez signed with the Atlanta Braves on a two @-@ year contract covering the 2001 and 2002 seasons , valued at approximately $ 3 million . He batted .328 in the first half of the 2001 season , but only .233 in the second half . Late in the year , he was diagnosed with chronic tendinitis in the patella . He appeared in the MLB postseason for the only time in his career , as he played in the 2001 National League Division Series , as the Braves defeated the Houston Astros , and the 2001 National League Championship Series , where the Braves lost to the Arizona Diamondbacks . Martinez returned to the Braves in 2002 , but missed the entire season after he injured his right knee during spring training . He announced his retirement . In 1 @,@ 919 games played , Martinez had a .276 career batting average , 1 @,@ 599 hits , 91 home runs , 795 runs scored , and 580 RBI .
= = Coaching career = =
Martinez worked for the Tampa Bay Rays as a spring training instructor in 2006 and 2007 . On October 11 , 2007 , he was hired by the Tampa Bay Rays to be their bench coach . As the Rays ' bench coach , Martinez was in charge of defensive positioning , and worked with the Rays ' players on bunting and baserunning .
Martinez interviewed for managerial positions with Toronto in the 2010 offseason and the Cleveland Indians . During the 2011 offseason , Martinez interviewed for White Sox ' managerial position . The White Sox hired Robin Ventura . After the 2012 season , Martinez was considered for the Astros ' managerial position , which went to Bo Porter . During the 2013 offseason , Martinez interviewed for Cubs ' managerial position , which went to Rick Renteria , and the Washington Nationals ' managerial position , which went to Matt Williams .
Rays ' manager Joe Maddon opted out of his contract with Tampa Bay after the 2014 season . The Rays sought feedback from their players on who should manage the team . Evan Longoria , Alex Cobb , and Ben Zobrist endorsed Martinez . Martinez interviewed for the position , but was not among the Rays ' three finalists . Martinez announced his intention to leave the Rays . On December 4 , he was hired to serve as the bench coach for the Cubs under Maddon .
= = Personal life = =
Martinez resides in Safety Harbor , Florida , a suburb of Tampa Bay , with his wife , Lisa , and their four children : David , Jagger , Dalton , and Angelica . Lisa is originally from Chicago ; they met while Martinez was in his first stint with the Cubs . Jagger attended the University of Tampa , where he played for the school 's soccer team .
= Penticton Regional Airport =
Penticton Regional Airport ( IATA : YYF , ICAO : CYYF ) , also known as Penticton Airport , is a regional airport located 1 @.@ 8 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 3 km ; 2 @.@ 1 mi ) southwest of Penticton , British Columbia , a city in the Okanagan region of Canada . It is owned and operated by Transport Canada , serving the South Okanagan , Similkameen and West Kootenay areas . Initial examination for the airport 's construction began in 1937 . The proposed locations were owned by the Penticton Indian Band at that time , but expropriated in 1949 .
Temporary public use of the Penticton Regional Airport was approved in 1945 , and in 1956 , it was given a permanent airport license . It has a 6 @,@ 000 by 148 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 by 45 m ) runway aligned 16 – 34 , and served approximately 80 @,@ 000 passengers in 2011 . The airfield maintains a restaurant , Sky High Diner , as well as a medical facility , accommodation areas and administrative buildings ; food and snacks are also offered . It has seen two accidents and incidents throughout its history .
The airport has three scheduled flights to the Vancouver International Airport every day , with one fewer on Sunday , provided by Air Canada Express . There is also a daily flight to the Calgary International Airport provided by WestJet Encore.The airport now also has a few flights a week leaving Calgary at 8 : 45 PM and arriving in Penticton later on in the night , the plane then stays at the Penticton Airport and leaves for Calgary at 7 : 00 AM and arrives in Calgary around 9 : 00 . Kelowna International Airport has affected traffic at the Penticton Regional Airport , with the former providing more direct flight and connection options for travellers . Penticton Regional Airport also recently under went an expansion to add more seating area in the main terminal building as an addition to the extra WestJet Encore flights on certain days coming in and out of Penticton .
= = History = =
Initial examination for the construction of what would become Penticton Regional Airport began in 1937 , at two locations . The proposed areas — west of Penticton 's city centre and north of the Skaha Lake — were owned by the Penticton Indian Band . The land for the airport was expropriated from the band in 1949 under the War Measures Act , with the preliminary development of the airfield completed in 1941 . Because of wartime military air transportation concerns , the airport acted as an emergency landing strip until its tarmac was completed . Rights for a temporary public use airport were secured in 1945 for an operation of 24 hours a day . In 1946 , more land was acquired from the Penticton Indian Band for the airport 's use .
Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines , now known as Air Canada , and Canadian Pacific Air Lines served Penticton after World War II . In 1956 , the airport was granted a permanent license , replacing the temporary permit . The airport 's runway was extended in 1959 , and a new terminal was built in 1963 . In 1968 , Canadian Pacific Air Lines extended its services for the airport , scheduling two daily flights , only to be taken over by Pacific Western Airlines the following year . However , in 1988 , Canadian Airlines ended this service . That was replaced by Time Air and Air BC airlines ; both airlines are no longer active .
An aviation centre was constructed at the airport in 1976 , which included a 12 @-@ unit motel , flight training school , and aircraft overhaul shop ; the latter is no longer maintained . Later , a helicopter flight and training club was established . In September 2007 , Pacific Coastal Airlines began offering daily flights from this airfield to the Vancouver International Airport and Calgary International Airport for a period of twelve months . During this time , the airline served an 22 @,@ 000 passengers at the airport . It has been able to support emergency Boeing 747 landings since the 1970s , but this capability has never been tested ; the runway has been used by Airbus 320s , Boeing 727 @-@ 200s , Boeing 737 @-@ 400s , Boeing 737 @-@ 700s , and Cessna 150s .
According to statistics , the South Okanagan region is underserved in terms of airports , owing to its population . The Kelowna International Airport provides international flights to 62 commercial destinations daily . South Okanagan is home to 79 @,@ 475 people , totaling 25 percent of the Okanagan area as a whole . The air travel market of the local area consists of 210 @,@ 000 passengers yearly . However , in 1990 , the Penticton Regional Airport was considered to be the area 's primary airport , hence why people questioned the need to expand the Kelowna International Airport at that time , when its runway was in the process of expansion .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located at 49 ° 27 ′ 45 ″ N 119 ° 36 ′ 08 ″ W on 3000 Airport Road in Penticton , 1 @.@ 8 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 3 km ; 2 @.@ 1 mi ) southwest of city centre , situated off of Highway 97 . It is located 73 kilometers ( 45 mi ) north of the Canada – United States border , and opposite the Airport Beach attraction , which is a beach situated in the city . Paid parking , taxis and car rentals are available , but there is no bus service . Car rentals are provided by Budget Rent a Car and National Car Rental .
Food and snacks are available at this airport 's terminal , as well as a medical facility , accommodation areas and administrative buildings . There is a restaurant provided at the airport 's terminal , Sky High Diner , as well as Canada Revenue Agency and Nav Canada offices . The airport 's aircraft obtain their fuel from Spencer Aviation , which is located on site ; Shell Canada serves as an aviation dealer for the Penticton Regional Airport . The airfield has a 6 @,@ 000 by 148 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 by 45 m ) asphalt runway aligned 16 – 34 . This facility maintains a management plan to keep geese off of their runways and properties .
The Penticton Flying Club operates at the airport , which is a club where children receive a flight in an airplane with the pilot , and learn about the airplanes themselves . In addition , the flight school Southern Skies Aviation is based on site ; the school closed in 2011 and was reopened shortly after , after it was bought by Kittyhawk A / C Services . The former is also at the airport , serving as an aircraft maintenance centre . There is a radio navigation aid provided at the Penticton Regional Airport which is used by pilots on aircraft coming from other nearby airports to determine their location . The navigation system is owned by Nav Canada . The local and upcoming weather of Penticton is observed at this airport 's weather station . Nav Canada has noted that most of the aircraft winds at the Penticton Regional Airport blow north and south .
The facility has been recognized as a certified airport by the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation . Transport Canada categorizes a certified airport through a process which ensures that it meets the safety criteria and provides flights to other destinations . Penticton Regional Airport is considered to be a port of entry that serves American fishermen coming to Canada . It has been classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada , and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency . The Penticton Regional Airport employs 247 persons , including its manager David Allen and maintenance workers .
Controversy has occurred over airport ownership before . When a transfer of ownership to the city of Penticton was planned , effective March 31 , 1999 , the Penticton Indian Band protested at the airfield on that same day ; this forced three scheduled flights to be canceled . Members of the band stated that the land belonged to them , noted they would " never relinquish claim to the airport lands " , and expected the airport 's ownership to be transferred to them after World War I and World War II . They attempted to conceptualize a different agreement , but Transport Canada suggested the band 's claims should be ignored , as it is not a proper government . In response , the Penticton Indian Band blocked road entrance to the airport , and terminal . Transport Canada later announced a six @-@ week break from the ownership situation , and a runway @-@ paving project was placed on hiatus . Based on a suggestion from the Penticton City Council , it was later decided that , if the Penticton Regional Airport be closed , the land may be returned to them , although Transport Canada was against this . As of 2011 , the airport is owned and operated by Transport Canada .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Penticton Regional Airport has historically provided flights to several destinations , including Boeing Field — an international airport located in King County , Washington , that serves the Seattle and Tacoma areas — and the Kelowna International Airport. as of
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the law . Such arguments have been ruled without merit under contemporary jurisprudence . Notably , some tax protesters contend that the Fourteenth Amendment itself was never properly ratified , under the theory that the governments of southern states that supported the post @-@ Civil War constitutional amendments were not representative of the people .
= = Sixteenth Amendment = =
It has been argued that the imposition of the U.S. federal income tax is illegal because the Sixteenth Amendment , which grants Congress the " power to lay and collect taxes on incomes , from whatever source derived , without apportionment among the several States , and without regard to any census or enumeration , " was not properly ratified , or that the amendment provides no power to tax income . Proper ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment is disputed by tax protesters who argue that the quoted text of the Amendment differed from the text proposed by Congress , or that Ohio was not a State during ratification . Sixteenth Amendment ratification arguments have been rejected in every court case where they have been raised and have been identified as legally frivolous .
Some protesters have argued that because the Sixteenth Amendment does not contain the words " repeal " or " repealed " , the Amendment is ineffective to change the law . Others argue that due to language in Stanton v. Baltic Mining Co . , the income tax is an unconstitutional direct tax that should be apportioned ( divided equally amongst the population of the various states ) . Several tax protesters assert that the Congress has no constitutional power to tax labor or income from labor , citing a variety of court cases . These arguments include claims that the word " income " as used in the Sixteenth Amendment cannot be interpreted as applying to wages ; that wages are not income because labor is exchanged for them ; that taxing wages violates individuals ' right to property , and several others .
= = Seventeenth Amendment = =
An argument raised in the case of Trohimovich v. Commissioner is that the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was not properly ratified , and that all laws passed by Congress since the year 1919 ( which was not the year of ratification ) are invalid . The Trohimovich case involved a criminal contempt charge against the taxpayer in connection with a failure to obey a subpoena to produce books and records needed for the trial of the case . The United States Tax Court stated :
The [ taxpayer 's ] petition in this case , while rambling and lengthy , appears to rely primarily on arguments that neither the Internal Revenue Service nor this Court has authority to determine petitioner 's tax liability because the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution , which changed the method of electing senators to the U.S. Congress , was improperly proposed and / or adopted , and therefore all laws enacted by Congress ( and the Senate ) subsequent to at least 1919 are invalid . This included the Internal Revenue Code and the legislation which established this Court .
The court rejected the taxpayer 's arguments , and ordered that " he be imprisoned for 30 days as punishment " for criminal contempt in failing to obey court orders or subpoenas .
= = Titles of Nobility Amendment = =
Another tax protester argument centers upon the pending and inoperative Titles of Nobility Amendment . Proposed as an amendment to the Constitution by the 11th Congress in 1810 , it would , if ratified by the required number of states , strip United States citizenship from any citizen who accepted a title of nobility from a foreign government . The contention here is that this amendment was in fact ratified by the required number of states ( in the 1810s ) to have become an operative part of the Constitution , and that , because this is so , actions taken by lawyers and judges , who use the title Esquire – asserted to be a title of nobility and monarchical – are unconstitutional . In fact , the use of " Esquire " by lawyers and judges is merely an informal custom in the United States , not a title with any legal standing . This contention , rarely raised before courts , was most recently addressed in Campion v. Towns , No.CV @-@ 04 @-@ 1516PHX @-@ ROS , * 2 n.1 ( D. Ariz . 2005 ) as a defense to a charge of tax evasion . The court replied :
Additionally , the Court will correct any misunderstanding Plaintiff has concerning the text of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . In his Complaint , Plaintiff includes a certified copy of the Thirteenth Amendment from the Colorado State Archives which was published in 1861 . As included in that compilation , the Thirteenth Amendment would strip an individual of United States citizenship if they accept any title of nobility or honor . However , this is not the Thirteenth Amendment . The correct Thirteenth Amendment prohibits slavery . Although some people claim that state publication of the erroneous Thirteenth Amendment makes it valid , Article V of the Constitution does not so provide .
= = Federal government authority = =
The authority of the federal government has been challenged by protesters , arguing that they should be immune from federal income taxation because they are sovereign individuals or natural individuals , have not requested a privilege or benefit from the government , or are outside the " federal zone " ( D.C. and various federal enclaves such as military bases ) . Neither the U.S. Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ruled that an income tax imposed under the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 is unconstitutional . Under the Supreme Court ruling in Cheek v. United States , a defendant in a tax evasion prosecution who has made arguments that the federal income tax laws are unconstitutional may have the arguments turned against him ( or her ) . Such arguments , even if based on honestly held beliefs , may constitute evidence that helps the prosecutor prove willfulness , one of the elements of tax evasion
= = = Sovereign individual & government privilege = = =
Some tax protesters argue that they should be immune from federal income taxation because they are sovereign individuals or " natural individuals , " or on the ground that they have not requested a privilege or benefit from the government . These kinds of arguments have been ruled without merit . For example , in the case of Lovell v. United States the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit stated :
Plaintiffs argue first that they are exempt from federal taxation because they are " natural individuals " who have not " requested , obtained or exercised any , privilege from an agency of government . " This is not a basis for an exemption from federal income tax . [ citation omitted ] All individuals , natural or unnatural , must pay federal income tax on their wages , regardless of whether they received any " privileges " from the government . Plaintiffs also contend that the Constitution prohibits imposition of a direct tax without apportionment . They are wrong ; it does not . U. S. Const. amend . XVI …
The Court of Appeals in Lovell affirmed a U.S. District Court order upholding a frivolous return penalty under 26 U.S.C. § 6702 ( a ) . Similarly , in United States v. Sloan , the taxpayer 's contention — that he is " not a citizen of the United States , but rather , that he is a freeborn , natural individual , a citizen of the State of Indiana , and a ' master ' — not ' servant ' — of his government " — was ruled to be not a legal ground for the argument that the taxpayer was not subject to the federal tax laws ; the tax evasion conviction was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit . Similarly , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated , in Powers v. Commissioner : " Powers [ the taxpayer ] contends that either he is immune from the tax laws , or he is a ' slave ' to the federal government . This false choice is a creature of Powers ' tax protester ideology , not the laws of this Republic . " Similarly , in 2008 the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit rejected a taxpayer 's argument that gains of an individual 's labor could be taxed only if the gains were received from a " federal venue " . In that case , the taxpayer 's argument — that the IRS had no ability to impose a tax on the taxpayer because he was a citizen " of the several states , " but not a " federal U.S. citizen " — was ruled to be frivolous .
Variations of the argument that an individual is a “ sovereign ” have been rejected in tax cases such as United States v. Hart , Risner v. Commissioner , Maxwell v. Snow , Rowe v. Internal Revenue Serv . , Cobin v. Commissioner , and Glavin v. United States .
The argument that an individual who received Form W @-@ 2 wages or other compensation is not subject to federal income tax because the individual has " neither requested , obtained , nor exercised any privilege from an agency of government " was ruled frivolous by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Sullivan v. United States and again in Kelly v. United States . See also United States v. Buras ( argument that the taxpayer can be subject to an excise tax only if he benefits from a " privilege extended by a government agency " was rejected ) . ; Nichols v. United States ; and Olson v. United States .
The argument that an individual who received Form W @-@ 2 wages is not subject to federal income tax unless the tax is imposed in connection with " government granted privileges " was ruled frivolous by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Coleman v. Commissioner . The argument that an individual who received Form W @-@ 2 wages is not subject to federal income tax unless the taxpayer enjoys a " grant of privilege or franchise " was ruled frivolous by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit in May v. Commissioner . The argument that an individual who received Form W @-@ 2 wages is not subject to federal income tax unless the taxpayer has obtained a " privilege from a governmental agency " was ruled frivolous by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Olson v. United States , and by the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit in Prout v. United States .
In the case of Steward Machine Company v. Davis , the Supreme Court rejected the argument that " the relation of employment is one so essential to the pursuit of happiness that it may not be burdened with a tax , " and upheld the validity of the Social Security tax . The Court stated : " . . . natural rights , so called , are as much subject to taxation as rights of less importance . An excise is not limited to vocations or activities that may be prohibited altogether . It is not limited to those that are the outcome of a franchise . It extends to vocations or activities pursued as of common right . " .
Regarding the taxability of income in connection with events or activities not involving a government privilege or franchise , the United States Supreme Court stated in United States v. Sullivan that gains from illegal traffic in liquor are subject to the Federal income tax . The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Rutkin v. United States that the receipt of money obtained by extortion is taxable as income to the wrongdoer . The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in James v. United States that the receipt of money obtained through embezzlement is taxable as income to the wrongdoer , even though the wrongdoer is required to return the money to its owner .
The argument that a person 's income is not taxed when the person rejects or renounces United States citizenship because the person claims to be a citizen exclusively of a state , and variations of this argument , have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $ 5 @,@ 000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702 ( a ) .
= = = Federal zone = = =
Some tax protesters argue that under Article I , section 8 , clause 17 of the Constitution , federal income taxes can be imposed only inside so called " federal zones " , areas — such as the District of Columbia , military bases or other places – over which Congress has direct authority .
This argument is based in part on the U.S. Supreme Court decision in the case of United States v. Bevans . In Bevans , the parties argued over whether a federal court in Massachusetts had jurisdiction over the case of a U.S. Marine charged with a murder that occurred on a ship in Boston Harbor . No issues regarding federal income taxation or the Internal Revenue Code were presented to or decided by the Court in the Bevans case . The Internal Revenue Code and the Internal Revenue Service did not yet exist in 1818 , when the Bevans murder case was decided .
The Clause 17 argument was specifically rejected in the case of United States v. Sato :
Defendants argue that Clause 17 limits the legislative power of Congress such that the only geographical areas over which Congress may legislate , or may exercise its power of taxation , are those areas described in Clause 17 . This position is contrary to both the natural reading of the Constitution and the case law . Clause 17 limits not the power of Congress , but the power of the states . " [ T ] he word ' exclusive ' was employed to eliminate any possibility that the legislative power of Congress over the District [ of Columbia ] was to be concurrent with that of the ceding states . " . . . Similarly , it is clear that the power of the Congress to collect taxes , created by Article I , Section 8 , Clause 1 of the Constitution , is an independent power which is not limited by the other specific powers enumerated in Section 8 . United States v. Butler , 297 U.S. 1 , 65 @-@ 66 , 56 S. Ct . 312 , 319 ( 1936 ) . It is thus readily apparent that Congress ' power to tax extends beyond the exclusive legislative districts contemplated by Clause 17 . Defendants ' motion to dismiss based on Clause 17 is denied .
The Clause 17 argument was also unsuccessful in Celauro v. United States , Internal Revenue Service . Some tax protesters contend that the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Caha v. United States restricts the jurisdiction of the federal government to impose income taxes inside the " states " , based on the following language from the Court ’ s opinion :
This statute is one of universal application within the territorial limits of the United States , and is not limited to those portions which are within the exclusive jurisdiction of the national government , such as the District of Columbia . Generally speaking , within any state of this Union the preservation of the peace and the protection of person and property are the functions of the state government , and are no part of the primary duty , at least , of the nation . The laws of congress in respect to those matters do not extend into the territorial limits of the states , but have force only in the District of Columbia , and other places that are within the exclusive jurisdiction of the national gover [ n ] ment .
Some tax protesters contend that the Court 's reference to " those matters " restricted the federal government 's jurisdiction over matters of taxation . Caha is not a tax case . The reference to " this statute " was a reference to a perjury statute . The Caha case involved a perjury conviction where the defendant unsuccessfully argued that the federal court had no jurisdiction over a prosecution for the crime of perjury committed in a proceeding in a land office at Kingfisher , Oklahoma regarding ownership of real estate .
The reference in Caha to the " laws of congress in respect to those matters " was a reference to the matters of preservation of the peace and the protection of person and property . The Court in Caha rejected the argument that the federal courts had no jurisdiction to hear a case under the perjury statute , and the defendant 's conviction was affirmed . No issues involving the power to impose and enforce federal taxes in the fifty states were presented to or decided by the court in Caha .
The courts have uniformly rejected the " federal zone " argument that congressional authority to impose an income tax is limited to the District of Columbia , forts , magazines , arsenals , or dockyards , etc . See , for example , United States v. Mundt ; Nelsen v. Commissioner ; Abbs v. Imhoff .
= = Definition of income = =
= = = Stratton 's Independence , Limited v. Howbert = = =
Some tax protesters have cited the U.S. Supreme Court case of Stratton 's Independence , Limited v. Howbert for the argument that an income tax on an individual 's income is unconstitutional . This was an argument raised unsuccessfully by John B. Hill , Jr . , in Hill v. United States. and without success by John B. Cameron , Jr . , in Cameron v. Internal Revenue Serv .. In Stratton , a mining corporation argued that the 1909 corporation tax act did not apply to that corporation . The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the 1909 corporation tax act did apply to mining corporations , and that the proceeds of ores mined by the corporation from its own premises were income within the meaning of the 1909 tax act . The Court also ruled that the corporation was not entitled to deduct " the value of such ore in place and before it is mined " as depreciation within the meaning of the 1909 Act . The Stratton case involved income taxation of a corporation , not of individuals . The Court in the Stratton case did not rule any corporate or individual income tax as unconstitutional .
= = = Doyle v. Mitchell Bros. Co . = = =
Some tax protesters have cited Doyle v. Mitchell Bros. Co. for the proposition that income of individuals cannot be taxed . This was the argument raised unsuccessfully by Joseph T. Tornichio in the case of Tornichio v. United States and by Joram Perl in Perl v. United States ( also unsuccessfully ) . The following language is sometimes cited by protesters :
Yet it is plain , we think , that by the true intent and meaning of the act the entire proceeds of a mere conversion of capital assets were not to be treated as income . Whatever difficulty there may be about a precise and scientific definition of ' income , ' it imports , as used here , something entirely distinct from principal or capital either as a subject of taxation or as a measure of the tax ; conveying rather the idea of gain or increase arising from corporate activities .
The above verbiage is immediately followed in the text of the case by this sentence :
As was said in Stratton 's Independence v. Howbert , 231 U.S. 399 , 415 , 34 S. Sup . Ct . 136 : ' Income may be defined as the gain derived from capital , from labor , or from both combined.'
In Doyle , the taxpayer was a corporation engaged in the manufacture of lumber . In 1903 , the taxpayer purchased certain timber land at a cost of about $ 20 per acre ( $ 49 / ha ) . As of December 31 , 1908 , the value of the land had increased to about $ 40 per acre ( $ 99 / ha ) . The Corporation Excise Tax Act of 1909 was enacted on August 5 , 1909 , and was effective retroactively to January 1 , 1909 . For the years 1909 through 1912 , the taxpayer filed tax returns under the 1909 Act , showing gross receipts from the sale of manufactured lumber and , in arriving at the amount of net income subject to tax under the 1909 Act , deducted an amount based on the $ 40 @-@ per @-@ acre value , rather than the actual cost of about $ 20 per acre . The Commissioner of Internal Revenue argued that the taxpayer should be able to deduct only an amount based on the taxpayer ’ s historical cost basis of $ 20 , rather than the $ 40 fair market value at the time the 1909 Act became effective . ( Essentially , if the taxpayer were allowed to use the $ 40 per acre value as its basis rather than the actual $ 20 historical cost basis , a portion of the taxpayer ’ s gain — the increase in value from 1903 to December 31 , 1908 — would go untaxed . )
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that under the 1909 Act — which had become effective January 1 , 1909 — the taxpayer should be taxed only on the increase in value after 1908 . Increases in value prior to the effective date of the statute were not to be taxed under the terms of that statute . Thus , the taxpayer was entitled to deduct , from its gross receipts from the sale of finished lumber , a basis amount computed with reference to the $ 40 per acre value as of December 31 , 1908 . Doyle is a case involving statutory ( not constitutional ) interpretation . In this case , the Court was interpreting the 1909 statute . Although some tax protesters cite this case for an argument about the constitutional definition of income as excluding income of individuals , no issues involving the constitutional definition of income , or of income under any other tax statutes , were presented to or decided by the Court .
The case is also notable for the fact that it involved a retroactively imposed tax . The taxpayer did not argue — and the Court did not rule — that as a general proposition taxes could not be imposed retroactively . Indeed , the tax in this case was imposed retroactively ; the statute was enacted in August 1909 but was made effective retroactively to January 1 , 1909 .
= = = Corporate profits = = =
One argument repeatedly made by tax protesters is that the income of individuals is not taxable because income should mean only " corporate profits " or " corporate gain " . This is the Merchants ' Loan argument , named after the case of Merchants ’ Loan & Trust Company , as Trustee of the Estate of Arthur Ryerson , Deceased , Plaintiff in Error v. Julius F. Smietanka , formerly United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the First District of the State of Illinois . The argument is essentially that " income " for federal income tax purposes means only the income of a corporation — not the income of a non @-@ corporate taxpayer — because the United States Supreme Court in that case , in discussing the meaning of income , mentioned a statute enacted in 1909 that taxed the income of corporations .
The Court in Merchants ' Loan was specifically interpreting a 1916 statute imposing income taxes on individuals and estates ( among other kinds of entities ) , and not the 1909 corporate tax statute . The taxpayer in Merchants ' Loan was not a corporation but was the " Estate of Arthur Ryerson , Deceased " . The Court was not presented with ( and did not decide ) any issue involving the taxability of " corporate profits " or " corporate gains " or any other kind of income except the gain on the sale of the stock by the " Estate of Arthur Ryerson , Deceased " . The terms " corporate profit " and " corporate gain " are not found in the text of the Court ’ s decision in Merchants ’ Loan . In Merchants ' Loan , the Supreme Court ruled that under the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and the 1916 tax statute applicable at the time , a gain on a sale of stock by the estate of a deceased person is included in the income of that estate , and is therefore taxable to that estate for federal income tax purposes .
The Merchants ' Loan argument has been litigated by tax protesters several times , and the courts have uniformly rejected the argument that income consists only of corporate profits . See , for example : Cameron v. Internal Revenue Serv . , Stoewer v. Commissioner , Reinhart v. United States , Fink v. Commissioner ; Flathers v. Commissioner ; Schroeder v. Commissioner ; Sherwood v. Commissioner ; Ho v. Commissioner ; and Zook v. Commissioner . Tax protesters — who have lost every case using Merchants ' Loan for the theory that only " corporate profits " could be taxable — are citing a case where the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the income of a non @-@ corporate taxpayer is taxable . Neither the United States Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ever ruled that under the Internal Revenue Code the term " income " means only the income of a corporation for federal income tax purposes .
Some tax protesters have cited the Supreme Court case of Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. for the argument that only corporate profits or income can be taxed , using the following quotation :
Excises are taxes laid upon the manufacture , sale or consumption of commodities within the country , upon licenses to pursue certain occupations and upon corporate privileges ... the requirement to pay such taxes involves the exercise of privileges , and the element of absolute and unavoidable demand is lacking ... Conceding the power of Congress to tax the business activities of private corporations .. the tax must be measured by some standard ... It is therefore well settled by the decisions of this court that when the sovereign authority has exercised the right to tax a legitimate subject of taxation as an exercise of a franchise or privilege , it is no objection that the measure of taxation is found in the income produced in part from property which of itself considered is nontaxable .
In Flint v. Stone Tracy Co . , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the corporation tax act of 1909 did not violate the constitutional requirement that revenue measures originate in the U.S. House of Representatives . The Court did not rule that excise taxes consisted only of taxes on corporations and corporate privileges , to the exclusion of taxes on individuals ( natural persons ) . The issue of the validity of an income tax imposed on individuals was neither presented to the Court nor decided by the Court .
The courts have rejected the argument that Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. can be used to avoid taxation of wages . For example , in Parker v. Commissioner , a case where a taxpayer unsuccessfully argued that wages were not taxable , the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit stated ( in part ) :
Appellant cites Flint v. Stone Tracy Co . , 220 U. S. 107 , 31 S. Ct . 342 , 55 L. Ed . 389 ( 1911 ) , in support of his contention that the income tax is an excise tax applicable only against special privileges , such as the privilege of conducting a business , and is not assessable against income in general . Appellant twice errs . Flint did not address personal income tax ; it was concerned with corporate taxation . Furthermore , Flint is pre @-@ sixteenth amendment and must be read in that light . At this late date , it seems incredible that we would again be required to hold that the Constitution , as amended , empowers the Congress to levy an income tax against any source of income , without the need to apportion the tax equally among the states , or to classify it as an excise tax applicable to specific categories of activities .
The argument that only corporations are subject to federal income tax , and variations of this argument , have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $ 5 @,@ 000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702 ( a ) .
= = = Cases indicating definition of income is irrelevant = = =
At least two federal courts have indicated that Congress may constitutionally tax an item as " income , " regardless of whether that item is " income " within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment . In Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated :
It did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax . Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co . , 157 U. S. 429 , 158 U. S. 601 ( 1895 ) , only held that a tax on the income derived from real or personal property was so close to a tax on that property that it could not be imposed without apportionment . The Sixteenth Amendment removed that barrier . Indeed , the requirement for apportionment is pretty strictly limited to taxes on real and personal property and capitation taxes .
It is not necessary to uphold the validity of the tax imposed by the United States that the tax itself bear an accurate label …
It could well be argued that the tax involved here [ an income tax ] is an " excise tax " based upon the receipt of money by the taxpayer . It certainly is not a tax on property and it certainly is not a capitation tax ; therefore , it need not be apportioned . … Congress has the power to impose taxes generally , and if the particular imposition does not run afoul of any constitutional restrictions then the tax is lawful , call it what you will .
In Murphy v. Internal Revenue Serv . , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that a personal injury award received by a taxpayer was " within the reach of the congressional power to tax under Article I , Section 8 of the Constitution " — even if the award was " not income within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment " .
= = Progressive taxation = =
One argument that has been raised is that because the federal income tax is progressive ( i.e. , because the marginal tax rates increase , or progress , as the level of taxable income increases ) , the discriminations and inequalities created by the tax should render the tax unconstitutional . This argument was rejected by the United States Supreme Court in two companion cases — with respect to the income tax on individuals in Thorne v. Anderson , and with respect to the income tax on corporations in Tyee Realty Co. v. Anderson .
= = Taxing labor or income from labor = =
Several tax protesters assert that the Congress has no constitutional power to tax labor or income from labor , citing a variety of court cases . These arguments include claims that the word " income " as used in the Sixteenth Amendment cannot be interpreted as applying to wages ; that wages are not income because labor is exchanged for them ; that taxing wages violates individuals ' right to property ; that an income tax on wages is illegal as a direct tax on the source of income , and several others .
Another protester argument is that the U.S. Constitution authorizes the income tax only on income derived from activities that are government @-@ licensed or otherwise specially protected . The courts have rejected this theory , ruling that " Congress has taxed compensation for services , without any regard for whether that compensation is derived from government @-@ licensed or specially protected activities , … and this has been construed to cover earnings from labor . "
Robert L. Schulz and his We the People Foundation take the positions that the government " is clearly prohibited from doing what it is doing – taxing the salaries , wages and compensation of the working men and women of this country and forcing the business entities that utilize the labor of ordinary American citizens to withhold and turn over to the IRS a part of the earnings of those workers " and " that the federal government DOES NOT possess ANY legal authority – statutory or Constitutional – to tax the wages or salaries of American workers . "
Similarly , tax protester Tom Cryer , who was acquitted of willful failure to file U.S. Federal income tax returns in a timely fashion , argued that " the law does not tax [ a person 's ] wages " , and that the federal government cannot tax " [ m ] oney that you earned [ and ] paid for with your labor and industry " because " the Constitution does not allow the federal government to tax those earnings " ( referring to " wages , salaries and fees that [ a person ] earn [ s ] for [ himself ] " ) .
Arguments about the taxability of compensation for personal services , whether called wages , salary , or some other term , may be either constitutional arguments as in United States v. Connor ( see below ) or statutory arguments as in Cheek v. United States , depending on the details of the argument . For purposes of presentation , these arguments are summarized here rather than in the article Tax protester statutory arguments . The rest of this section explains these arguments in more detail .
= = = Evans v. Gore = = =
Some protesters include false quotations in their arguments . Radio personality Dave Champion contends that the following verbiage is a quotation from the case of Evans v. Gore in his own arguments on the internet about federal income taxes :
The sixteenth [ amendment ] does not justify the taxation of persons or things ( their property ) previously immune … it does not extend taxing power to new or excepted citizens … it is intended only to remove all occasions from any apportionment of income taxes among the states . It does not authorize a tax on a salary . …
The quoted material by Dave Champion is false ; it does not appear in the Court 's decision . In Evans v. Gore , the U.S. Supreme Court actually did rule that a federal income tax on certain income of federal judges was unconstitutional . The Evans v. Gore ruling has been interpreted as barring application of the Federal income tax to a Federal judge who had been appointed prior to the enactment of the tax . This was the Court 's year 1920 interpretation of the " Compensation Clause " , the rule that Federal judges " shall , at stated Times , receive for their Services a Compensation , which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office " under Article III , section 1 of the U.S. Constitution . The decision in Evans v. Gore was eviscerated in the 1939 U.S. Supreme Court decision of O 'Malley v. Woodrough , and was expressly overruled by the U.S. Supreme Court itself in 2001 , in the case of United States v. Hatter . In Hatter , the Supreme Court stated : " We now overrule Evans insofar as it holds that the Compensation Clause forbids Congress to apply a generally applicable , nondiscriminatory tax to the salaries of federal judges , whether or not they were appointed before enactment of the tax . "
Neither the Supreme Court nor any other federal court has ever ruled that the Sixteenth Amendment ( or any other part of the Constitution ) does not authorize a Federal income tax on compensation for personal services .
= = = Southern Pacific Co. v. Lowe = = =
Another United States Supreme Court case frequently cited by tax protesters is Southern Pacific Co. v. Lowe , 247 U.S. 330 ( 1918 ) . Tax protesters attribute the following quotation to the Court in this case : " income ; as used in the statute should be given a meaning so as not to include everything that comes in . " The quotation does not appear in the text of the Supreme Court decision .
This case began in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York . In the decision in that court , the trial court judge stated : " I do not think that ' income ' as used in the statute , should be given a meaning so as to include everything that comes in . " The case did not involve compensation for labor or services . Instead , the case involved the federal income tax treatment of dividends paid by the Central Pacific Railway Company to its parent company , the Southern Pacific Company , which owned 100 % of the stock of Central Pacific Railway Company . The District Court ruled that the dividends were taxable to the Southern Pacific Company . This decision was reversed by the Supreme Court .
What the U.S. Supreme Court actually said was :
We must reject in this case , as we have rejected in cases arising under the Corporation Excise Tax Act of 1909 ( Doyle , Collector , v. Mitchell Brothers Co . , and Hays , Collector , v. Gauley Mountain Coal Co . , decided May 20 , 1918 ) , the broad contention submitted in behalf of the Government that all receipts--everything that comes in--are income within the proper definition of the term " gross income , " and that the entire proceeds of a conversion of capital assets , in whatever form and under whatever circumstances accomplished , should be treated as gross income . Certainly the term " income " has no broader meaning in the 1913 Act than in that of 1909 ( see Stratton 's Independence v. Howbert , 231 U. S. 399 , 416 , 417 ) , and for the present purpose we assume there is no difference in its meaning as used in the two Acts .
In Southern Pacific Company v. Lowe , the Supreme Court ruled that where a shareholder receives a dividend representing earnings of a corporation realized by the corporation prior to January 1 , 1913 , the dividend is not includible in the gross income of the shareholder for purposes of the Federal Income Tax Act of 1913 , Ch . 16 , 38 Stat . 114 ( Oct. 3 , 1913 ) . No issues involving the definition of income with respect to wages , salary or other compensation for labor were decided by the Court .
= = = Colonial Pipeline Co. v. Traigle = = =
Another case that has been cited for the argument that wages are not taxable is the United States Supreme Court decision in Colonial Pipeline Co. v. Traigle . An individual named " William Dixon " at a web site called " godissovereignfast " claims that the following is a statement by the U.S. Supreme Court in that case :
Income taxes statutes apply only to state created creatures known as corporations no matter whether state , local , or federal . " , Colonial Pipeline Co. v. Traigle , 421 US 100 . "
This material alleged to be a quotation does not appear in the text of the case at all . Also , the words " wages " and " salaries " are not found anywhere in the text , and there is no ruling in that case that the federal income tax statutes apply only to " corporations . " The Colonial Pipeline case actually involved the Louisiana corporate franchise tax , not a federal tax . The validity of the Louisiana franchise tax was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in this case . No issues involving the validity or applicability of federal income taxes were presented to , mentioned by , or decided by the Supreme Court in the Colonial Pipeline case .
= = = Lucas v. Earl = = =
For the argument that wages are not taxable , some tax protesters — including convicted tax offender Irwin Schiff — incorrectly attribute to the U.S. Supreme Court the following language in connection with the leading tax case of Lucas v. Earl :
The claim that salaries , wages , and compensation for personal services are to be taxed as an entirety and therefore must be returned [ i.e. , reported on an income tax return ] by the individual who has performed the services which produce the gain is without support , either in the language of the Act or in the decisions of the courts construing it . Not only this , but it is directly opposed to provisions of the Act and to regulations of the U.S. Treasury Department , which either prescribed or permits that compensations for personal services not be taxed as an entirety and not be returned by the individual performing the services . It is to be noted that , by the language of the Act , it is not salaries , wages , or compensation for personal services that are to be included in gains , profits , and income derived from salaries , wages , or compensation for personal services .
This language is not from the Court ’ s opinion in Lucas v. Earl . Instead , it is an almost direct quotation from page 17 of the taxpayer 's brief filed in the case . Guy C. Earl was the taxpayer , and the brief was written by Earl ’ s attorneys : Warren Olney , Jr . , J.M. Mannon , Jr . , and Henry D. Costigan . In some printed versions of the case , this statement and other quotations and paraphrases from pages 8 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 17 , and 18 of the taxpayer 's brief are re @-@ printed as a headnote or syllabus above the opinion of the Court . In the case reprints that include this headnote ( and many of them do not even show it ) , these excerpts are not clearly identified as being from the taxpayer 's brief . A person not trained in analysis of legal materials would not necessarily know that this verbiage , like any headnote or syllabus , is not part of the Court ’ s opinion , perhaps leading to the confusion about the source of the quotation . As explained below , the Supreme Court rejected the arguments in the quotation , and the taxpayer lost the case .
Lucas v. Earl is a leading case in the area of U.S. income taxation , and stands for the Anticipatory Assignment of Income Doctrine . In the case , Mr. Earl was arguing that because he and his wife , in the year 1901 , had made a legally valid assignment agreement ( for state law purposes ) to have his then @-@ current and after @-@ acquired income ( which was earned solely by him ) be treated as the income of both him and his wife as joint tenants with right of survivorship , the assignment agreement should also determine the federal income tax effect of the income he earned ( i.e. , only half the income should be taxed to him ) .
The U.S. Supreme Court rejected that argument , essentially ruling that under federal income tax law all the future income earned by Mr. Earl was taxable to him at the time he earned the income , even though he had already assigned part of the income to his wife , and regardless of the validity of the assignment agreement under state law . The Court in Lucas v. Earl did not rule that wages are not taxable .
= = = Coppage v. Kansas = = =
One case frequently cited by tax protesters for the " wages are not taxable " argument is Coppage v. Kansas with respect to the following quotation :
Included in the right of personal liberty and the right of private property @-@ partaking of the nature of each- is the right to make contracts for the acquisition of property . Chief among such contracts is that of personal employment , by which labor and other services are exchanged for money or other forms of property .
Coppage was a criminal case involving a defendant convicted , under a Kansas statute , of firing an employee for refusing to resign as a member of a labor union . No issues of taxation were presented to or decided by the Court , and the word " tax " is not found in the text of the Court 's decision .
= = = Truax v. Corrigan = = =
Tax protesters also cite or quote from the case of Truax v. Corrigan for the argument that an income tax should not be imposed on labor and at least arguably relating " labor " to a right of " property " :
That the right to conduct a lawful business , and thereby acquire pecuniary profits , is property , is indisputable .
The Truax case involved a Mr. William Truax who owned a restaurant called " English Kitchen , " in Bisbee , Arizona . A Mr. Michael Corrigan and others were former cooks and waiters at the restaurant . Corrigan and others allegedly instituted a boycott of the restaurant , after a dispute arose over the terms and conditions of employment . A strike was allegedly ordered by a local union with respect to certain union members employed at the restaurant . The restaurant ’ s business was allegedly harmed , and Mr. Truax sued various parties on a variety of grounds . The lawsuit was thrown out by the trial court before the case could be heard , on the theory that Mr. Truax was incorrect as a matter of law . Mr. Truax appealed and the case eventually ended up in the U.S. Supreme Court . The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the trial court should not have thrown out the lawsuit , but should have heard Mr. Truax ’ s case . The case was sent back to the trial court so that a trial could take place . Truax was not a tax case . No issues involving taxation were presented to or decided by the Court .
= = = Butchers ' Union Co. v. Crescent City Co . = = =
Tax protesters also cite the U.S. Supreme Court case of Butcher 's Union Co. v. Crescent City Co. for the argument that an income tax should not be imposed on labor , sometimes quoting the following language :
A monopoly is defined ' to be an institution or allowance from the sovereign power of the state , by grant , commission , or otherwise , to any person or corporation , for the sole buying , selling , making , working , or using of anything whereby any person or persons , bodies politic or corporate , are sought to be restrained of any freedom or liberty they had before or hindered in their lawful trade , ' All grants of this kind are void at common law , because they destroy the freedom of trade , discourage labor and industry , restrain persons from getting an honest livelihood , and put it in the power of the grantees to enhance the price of commodities . They are void because they interfere with the liberty of the individual to pursue a lawful trade or employment .
Butchers ' Union Co. was a case involving interpretation of the Louisiana Constitution and certain ordinances of the city of New Orleans . The Court ruled that the Louisiana Constitution and the New Orleans ordinances did not impermissibly impair a pre @-@ existing obligation under a contract when those laws effectively ended a slaughter @-@ house business monopoly by the Crescent City Company . No issues regarding the power to tax incomes from businesses , vocations , or labor were presented to or decided by the Court , and the word " tax " does not appear in the text of the decision .
= = = Murdock case = = =
Tax protesters also cite the case of Murdock v. Pennsylvania ( also known as Jones v. City of Opelika ) :
A state may not impose a charge for the enjoyment of a right granted by the federal constitution .
Murdock ( or Jones v. City of Opelika ) was a case involving the validity of a city ordinance ( in Jeannette , Pennsylvania ) worded as follows :
That all persons canvassing for or soliciting within said Borough , orders for goods , paintings , pictures , wares , or merchandise of any kind , or persons delivering such articles under orders so obtained or solicited , shall be required to procure from the Burgess a license to transact said business and shall pay to the Treasurer of said Borough therefore the following sums according to the time for which said license shall be granted .
'For one day $ 1 @.@ 50 , for one week seven dollars ( $ 7 @.@ 00 ) , for two weeks twelve dollars ( $ 12 @.@ 00 ) , for three weeks twenty dollars ( $ 20 @.@ 00 ) , provided that the provisions of this ordinance shall not apply to persons selling by sample to manufacturers or licensed merchants or dealers doing business in said Borough of Jeannette .
A group of people who were Jehovah 's Witnesses went from door to door distributing literature in the town . They failed to obtain the license under the ordinance . The case ended up in court , and went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court , which stated :
There was evidence that it was their [ the Jehovah ’ s Witnesses ’ ] practice in making these solicitations to request a ' contribution ' of twenty @-@ five cents each for the books and five cents each for the pamphlets but to accept lesser sums or even to donate the volumes in case an interested person was without funds . … The First Amendment , which the Fourteenth makes applicable to the states , declares that ' Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech , or of the press .... ' … It could hardly be denied that a tax laid specifically on the exercise of those freedoms would be unconstitutional .
The protester argument appears to be that the federal government should not be able to tax income from labor because it would be a tax on an exercise of the freedoms mentioned in the quotation . The " tax " in this case was , in effect , a license fee imposed on door to door sales people under a city ordinance . The city was trying to exact the fee from Jehovah ’ s Witness members who were going door to door . Questions about the validity of federal income taxes were neither presented to nor decided by the Court .
= = = Redfield v. Fisher = = =
Some tax protesters cite or quote from Redfield v. Fisher :
The individual , unlike the corporation , cannot be taxed for the mere privilege of existing . The corporation is an artificial entity which owes its existence and charter powers to the state ; but the individual 's rights to live and own property are natural rights for the enjoyment of which an excise cannot be imposed .
The argument seems to be that because " the individual 's rights to live and own property " are arguably rights against which " an excise cannot be imposed , " the federal income tax on income from labor should therefore be unconstitutional . However , Redfield v. Fisher is an Oregon Supreme Court case , not a federal case . No issues involving the validity of federal income tax laws were decided by the court .
= = = Conner v. United States = = =
Some tax protesters cite a case called Conner v. United States , with a quotation that " Congress has taxed income , not compensation " for the argument that wages are not taxable . This was the case cited unsuccessfully by LaKerra Sumter before the U.S. Court of Federal Claims in the case of Sumter v. United States . The Conner case involved the taxability of compensation paid by an insurance company to a policy holder whose house had burned down . The insurance company was reimbursing the homeowner for the costs of renting a place to stay after the home burned down — under the terms of the insurance policy . The insurance company was not paying " wages " . The court was not presented with , and did not decide , any issue involving the taxability of wages .
= = = Eisner v. Macomber = = =
Some tax protesters have cited the U.S. Supreme Court decision in the case of Eisner v. Macomber for the theory that wages are not taxable , or for the theory that dividends are not taxable . The case dealt with a stock dividend on stock that was essentially equivalent to a stock split , as opposed to a cash dividend on stock . In the case of this kind of " dividend " the stockholder does not receive anything or realize any additional value . For example , if a stockholder owns 100 shares of stock having a value of $ 4 per share , the total value is $ 400 . If the corporation declares , say , a " two for one " stock dividend that is essentially similar to a stock split ( and the corporation distributes no money or other property ) , the stockholder now has 200 shares with a value of $ 2 each , which is still $ 400 in value - i.e. , no increase in value and no income . The pie is still the same size — but it 's sliced into more pieces , each piece being proportionately smaller .
More directly to the point , there has been no " sale or other disposition " of the stock . The taxpayer still owns the same asset ( i.e. , the same interest in the corporation ) he owned prior to the stock dividend . So , even if his basis amount ( generally , the amount he originally paid for the stock ) is less than the $ 400 value ( i.e. , even if he has an unrealized or potential gain ) , he still has not yet " realized " the gain . The Court ruled that this kind of stock dividend is not treated as " income " to a shareholder .
The Court in this case did not rule on any issue involving the taxability of labor or income from labor , or wages , salary or ordinary " cash " dividends — where the stockholder actually receives a check from the company , etc . Indeed , the terms " wage " and " salary " do not appear in the text of the decision in Eisner v. Macomber .
= = = Cases where wages or labor ruled taxable = = =
The provisions of the U.S. Constitution authorizing Congress to impose taxes , duties , imposts and excises contain no express exceptions for taxes on wages or labor , or for taxes on income from labor . The courts have consistently rejected arguments that " wages " or " labor " ( whether denominated as " labor property " or not ) cannot be taxed under the Internal Revenue Code . The United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit has stated : " Taxpayers ' argument that compensation for labor is not constitutionally subject to the federal income tax is without merit . There is no constitutional impediment to levying an income tax on compensation for a taxpayer 's
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in Cheek v. United States , the United States Supreme Court specifically labeled defendant John Cheek 's arguments about the constitutionality of the tax law — arguments Cheek had raised in various prior court cases — as " frivolous . " Prior to his conviction , John Cheek had specifically contended that the Sixteenth Amendment did not authorize a tax on wages and salaries , but only on gain or profit .
= = = Monetary penalties for asserting the argument on tax return = = =
The argument that wages , tips and other compensation received for the performance of personal services are not taxable income , the argument that such items are offset by an equivalent deduction , the argument that a person has a " basis " in his or her labor equal to the fair market value of the wages received , and variations of these arguments , have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $ 5 @,@ 000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702 ( a ) .
= Dump months =
The dump months is a term used in the film community for the two periods of the year when there are lowered commercial and critical expectations for most new releases . Audiences during these periods are smaller than the rest of the year , so no tentpole movies are released . January and February are usually most commonly described this way , with August and September sometimes included . Releases during those times primarily include films that would have been released at other times of year had they done better at test screenings , films with less prominent stars , genre films ( particularly horror ) , movies that cannot be easily marketed and films intended for a teenage audience , which has fewer entertainment options outside the home .
Several factors combine to create the dump months , most of them circumstances particular to the United States and Canada , the primary market for most major Hollywood releases . Both periods immediately follow the times of year in which the distributors concentrate films they expect to be the biggest critical and / or commercial successes , periods of increased spending on entertainment generally . While this often means that moviegoers have less disposable income afterwards , economics alone does not explain the dump months . The weather and competition from other forms of mass entertainment , especially professional sports , also play a part ; the winter dump months are further affected by the Academy Awards eligibility rules .
The dump months evolved over the course of the 20th century . Although during the studio era most major releases followed annual patterns similar to today 's , several classics like The Kid , Shadow of a Doubt and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre were released during January . Since the decline of the studios , however , memorable films from the dump months have become rare exceptions . The most notable is The Silence of the Lambs , a well @-@ reviewed box office smash released in late January 1991 that went on to win that year 's Academy Award for Best Picture . Several years before that , Dirty Dancing and Fatal Attraction became hits following releases in August and September respectively .
Films released during the dump months have not always been consigned to cinematic oblivion . Some , like Tremors and Office Space , have become cult classics . Starting with Cloverfield , some 21st @-@ century dump @-@ months releases have managed to exceed $ 100 million on box office receipts . The similar success of low @-@ budget horror films like The Devil Inside and Mama in the early 2010s has prompted studios to release films in that genre at times of the year other than Halloween and the dump months .
= = Etymology = =
The term " dump months " comes from the belief that studios use the time periods in question as a " dumping ground " for movies they are contractually obligated to release but believe to have limited commercial prospects at best . " The first months of the year are known as the ' dump months ' in Hollywood , " wrote Vegas Seven critic Una LaMarche in early 2013 , a period characterized by " movies that studios dislike , and want to release with little fanfare . " Likewise , Paul Shirey at JoBlo.com dismisses September as " one of the most worthless months at the box office . "
The earliest use of the term to turn up in a Google search is a 2007 article in the British newspaper The Guardian . " In the US , January is ' dump month ' at the movies , " critic Jonathan Bernstein wrote . " The films no studios believe in or care about ... suddenly become the sole choice available to regular filmgoers hungry for fresh fare . " Use of the term became more common in the early 2010s .
= = Causes = =
While both dump @-@ month periods immediately follow periods of greater movie attendance when event movies expected to be critical and / or commercial successes are released , and periods of greater consumer spending generally there are also reasons specific to both periods that further dampen movie attendance to limit the expected box office returns to the extent that movies with strong potential will be scheduled for other times of year .
= = = January – February = = =
The main impediment to the release of highly anticipated or high @-@ quality films in January and February is the calendar of the two major film awards , which overlap with those months . The winter weather also adds uncertainty to estimates of potential box office . Two holidays during the time provide some slight relief ; however , they are offset by the distraction of Super Bowl weekend , which depresses spending on movies . The combined gross for all January releases 2002 – 2012 has averaged $ 387 million ; for February it is $ 615 million . By comparison December , with its holiday releases , averages $ 1 @.@ 2 billion .
Spending is low to begin with since many consumers are cutting back and repaying debts incurred during the preceding holiday season , as well as having less free time , Jeremy Kirk of Firstshowing.net , when asked to explain the dearth of good films in January , notes that moviegoers are returning to their work and school routines during the month . C. Robert Cargill of Ain 't It Cool News adds that only those over 35 , " who have savings accounts and weren 't tapped out by Christmas , " can afford to go to the movies regularly then . He attributes the early @-@ year success of Taken and its sequels to that market , as well as that of many of Clint Eastwood 's recent films , to that older market .
The website Box Office Mojo , which publishes reports on film grosses , divides the movie year into five seasons . It defines the winter season as lasting from the first day after New Year 's week or weekend ends through the Thursday before the first Friday in March . The site 's data go back to 1982 , and in every year the winter season has had the lowest box office grosses . The weakest winter was 1983 , when The Entity 's $ 13 million take led the way to a total of $ 93 @.@ 4 million in domestic grosses for all movies released during that season . On the other end , 2012 had the strongest winter , at $ 1 @.@ 24 billion , topped by Safe House , which took in $ 124 million .
= = = = Awards calendar = = = =
At the end of the year comes the holiday movie season , when the studios release both tentpole movies , such as the latest installments in popular franchises that are expected to be highly successful and " Oscar bait " movies that are seen as likely to earn critical praise and , more importantly , nominations for major awards such as the Golden Globes and Oscars , the industry 's most prestigious . Those nominations are then used to promote the film . But while the former nominations are announced in December with the awards themselves given in early January , the Academy Award nominations are announced after the Golden Globes , and the actual awards are not given until late February leaving most of the first two months of the year as Oscar season a period during which any Golden Globes received as well as Oscar nominations can be used to promote the film to audiences , while studios lobby Academy members to vote for their nominees .
To be eligible for award consideration , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences requires that a film be shown in a theater in Los Angeles County , California , for at least seven consecutive days during which is advertised in print media . Studios hoping to position a film for some nominations usually satisfy that minimum requirement , then ease them into wide release from then until the nominations and / or awards ceremony . The flexibility this marketing strategy requires means that screens be available , and studios limit their releases of new films during this time to that end . As critic Ty Burr explained in a 2013 New York Times Magazine article on the mediocrity of new releases in the first month of the year : " [ T ] he studios ... know our attention is elsewhere . "
New films shown publicly anywhere for the first time after January 1 themselves are ineligible for Oscars until the following year , by which time they will likely have been forgotten by critics , audiences and voters . The Silence of the Lambs , winner of the 1991 Academy Award for Best Picture , is a rare exception , as the only film in the post @-@ studio era released in the first two months of its year to go on to win that Oscar . Burr calls it " the grand exception to the January Movies Will Never Amount to Anything rule , " and finds that only one other classic of the late 20th century , Dr. Strangelove , was a January release .
Theaters will also still be running any holiday @-@ season hits even if they had not been nominated for awards , further reducing the screens available for new movies . Ray Subers , an editor at Box Office Mojo , says there are two types of January moviegoer that keep December releases on screens throughout the months . " Discerning adult audiences " , he told The Atlantic in 2012 , spend the month congregating to those films on critics ' lists for the best of the year they have not yet gotten to see , while " the general moviegoers are seeing the event films of December . "
= = = = Winter weather = = = =
During January and February winter storms become more likely than they are in December . While they do not affect the entire U.S. , the Northeast and Midwest are particularly prone to them , along with most neighboring areas of Canada . This includes many major metropolitan areas , and movie markets , in both countries .
When winter storms hit , bringing with them combinations of precipitation that making driving difficult and sometimes dangerous , moviegoers often prefer to stay home . Non @-@ essential travel is officially discouraged , and in severe enough weather all non @-@ emergency driving can be banned in some areas until the situation improves . In anticipation of the February 2013 nor 'easter , which struck on the month 's first weekend , three large chains closed down many of their theaters in the Northeast .
Industry analysts feared that the storm could seriously impact the box office prospects of two films opening that weekend , Identity Thief and Side Effects , both of which were seen as having potential to do better than most winter movies . While it afterwards appeared that the two films were not seriously affected , and did better than expected , with Identity Thief even winning the weekend , despite generally poor reviews and word of mouth , with $ 36 million in receipts , overall box office was down 45 % from the same weekend the previous year . Side Effects finished a distant third with a quarter of Identity Thief 's take . The clearest sign of the storm 's effect , according to Box Office Mojo , was the 35 % drop in earnings for Silver Linings Playbook , then in wide release after several Oscar nominations .
= = = = Holiday weekends and Super Bowl = = = =
While holiday weekends in the US generally increase film audiences and thus attract major releases throughout the year , the two that occur during these months — Martin Luther King Day in January and Presidents ' Day in February – offer only a modest prospect for improvement . The most lucrative take by any movie on Martin Luther King Day weekend is $ 107 @.@ 2 million by American Sniper in 2015 , its first weekend in wide release ; the previous best opening weekend was Ride Along the previous year , taking in $ 41 @.@ 5 million ( $ 48 @.@ 6 million if the entire three @-@ day holiday weekend is counted ) .
Presidents 's Day benefits by its proximity to Valentine 's Day ( which , as it is always February 14 , is often a weekday ) , which offers the studios enough chance of a payoff , usually from romantic comedies and other " chick flicks " marketed towards women as date movies . " [ Some years ] it 's been six straight weeks of dreck until " that holiday , says Cargill . Fifty Shades of Grey , the 2015 adaptation of the bestselling erotic novel , took in $ 93 million on its opening weekend , the largest take for a President 's Day weekend until Deadpool broke that record the year later . Valentine 's Day , the 2010 romantic comedy with a large ensemble cast , is third with $ 63 @.@ 1 million . Third among opening weekends is Ghost Rider , which took in $ 52 million in 2007 ; the best performance by a previously released film on President 's Day weekend is the $ 62 @.@ 4 million take by The Lego Movie , a week after its release in 2014 .
Any boost movie grosses get from those two holidays , however , is offset by what typically comes between them . The Super Bowl , the annual championship game of the National Football League , has been in recent years played on either the last Sunday of January or the first one of February . It is accompanied by heavy media attention and frequent gatherings all over the country to watch the game on television , accompanied with food and beverages purchased with money that might otherwise be spent on movie tickets . " Does the Super Bowl affect ticket sales ? " asks Scott Gwin at Cinemablend . " The answer , of course , is yes . In fact , there 's a decent chance Budweiser spends more on advertising that Sunday than America does in theaters . "
The most successful film to open during Super Bowl weekend is the 2008 concert film Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert , which took in $ 31 @.@ 1 million , almost half the total it would earn during a released limited to just that weekend and the following week . In a close second is Dear John , grossing $ 30 @.@ 5 million in 2010 , for the strongest Super Bowl weekend opening for a conventional release . Both films had strong appeal to female moviegoers , an audience more receptive to moviegoing on a weekend dominated by a sporting event . The 2008 action film Taken , which Cargill noted for its success in appealing to an older audience , took in $ 24 @.@ 7 million on its opening weekend on its way to total receipts of over $ 100 million , making it a distant third .
= = = August – September = = =
" As we enter the dog days of summer , we get the summer movie season dregs as well , " wrote PopMatters editor Bill Gibron , anticipating August 2013 . The year 's other dump period straddles summer and fall , and does not lend itself to being as clearly delineated as the winter dump months . In the past it was usually considered to include all of August and September , and in some years still may . But in years with many major summer movies , some may open on the first or second weekend of August to avoid competing with other such movies , such as Guardians of the Galaxy , the first @-@ ever August release by Marvel Studios , which took in $ 94 million on the first weekend of that month in 2014 . It was the most successful August opening weekend , and it became one of the year 's top @-@ grossing films .
By the end of the summer seasonal jobs end , just as with the winter dump months , and younger moviegoers begin to return to school . Tuition payments , and retailers ' back @-@ to @-@ school sales further cut into movie grosses . " The prevailing wisdom is that people don 't go to the movies in August " due to family vacations , summer camp , among other factors , Vulture complained as it pondered another potentially dreary month in 2008 . While an August release can open as successfully as a film earlier in the summer , " [ i ] t just doesn 't have the ability to run five or six weeks so there 's a scramble for June and July , " Ted Mundorff , head of Landmark Theatres , told the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram in 2014 . The type of films that interest younger audiences in the early summer , he elaborates , do not do well after Labor Day .
It is the month 's last two weekends that are more universally seen as the beginning of the late @-@ summer dump months , when only forgettable films are likely to be released , with occasional exceptions like Dirty Dancing , which went on to make $ 63 million domestically from its release in late August 1987 , and spawn several sequels and a franchise .
At the end of August is the annual American celebration of Labor Day , the only holiday weekend during this period . Of all the year 's holiday weekends it is reliably the weakest in terms of movie box office , with the top grosser for the weekend being the 2007 Rob Zombie @-@ directed reimagining of Halloween , at $ 30 @.@ 5 million . The Sixth Sense , then in its fourth week , is a close second after pulling in $ 29 million in 1999 ; in a distant second for opening weekends is yet another horror film , 2012 's The Possession with $ 21 @.@ 1 million .
Once September begins , younger moviegoers are preoccupied with starting the school year and thus less likely to go to the movies on weeknights than they were in summertime . As with the winter months , football also has an impact at the box office as not only NFL teams but college and high school teams resume play , all on weekends . " [ W ] e are left with a series of movies competing for box office scraps in a month when Hollywood assumes no one goes to the movies , " says a Yahoo critic .
Some September movies have triumphed critically and commercially . In 1987 , Fatal Attraction , which opened in wide release on September 18 not only succeeded at the box office , staying in theaters through June of the next year and garnering six Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture . Twelve years later , in 1999 , the similarly successful American Beauty , which had been in limited release through September before going wide in October , won that award and four others .
September 's counterpart to Sundance , the Toronto International Film Festival , is held at the end of the month . The film community 's attention is focused on the Canadian city . Critics gather to see potential Oscar contenders among the many independent films on the program and studio executives look to line up distribution deals with the same prize in mind . Some of the best are released within a week or so , ending the September dump period .
In past years , October also was when eagerly anticipated horror films reached screens , to capitalize on the approach of Halloween at the end of the month . However , this began to change in the 2000s due to the way franchises such as the Saw and Paranormal Activity films dominated that period , prompting distributors of other horror films to consider releasing them during the winter dump months instead . In 2012 Paramount enjoyed huge success with the unheralded The Devil Inside , released right after New Year 's Day despite a strongly negative critical and audience reaction ; the next year Mama was received enthusiastically by critics and filmgoers when it came out on Martin Luther King Day weekend after being rescheduled from the previous October to avoid going up against Sinister and Paranormal Activity 4 . Only one major horror film , the third adaptation of Stephen King 's Carrie , was released in October 2013 , and it underperformed . " At your local multiplex , the spirit of Halloween is , sadly , dead , " Matt Barone wrote in Complex . " Horror 's now too big of a business for major studios to care much about October . "
= = Statistical analyses = =
The dump months ' obstacles are reflected in their box office totals , particularly the success of movies opening during those months . January 's strongest domestic opening weekend ever was the $ 90 million American Sniper took in when it went into wide release on Martin Luther King Day weekend in 2015 . The best opening weekend for a movie seeing screens for the first time in January was the $ 42 million pulled in by Ride Along the year before ; it is the lowest best opening weekend gross for any month . Close behind is September 's best , the $ 48 million that Hotel Transylvania 2 took in following its 2015 release . August and February are fourth and fifth , respectively , with Guardians of the Galaxy at $ 94 million and Deadpool at $ 132 million respectively ( the all @-@ time champion is December , reflecting Star Wars : The Force Awakens ' massive $ 248 million it made during its 2015 opening weekend ) .
In January 2010 , Metacritic editor Jason Dietz undertook a statistical analysis of whether films released in that month were , as perceived , inferior . He compared the site 's aggregate scores , based on critical and audience consensus , for films released in January , February , and March from 2000 to 2009 . January averaged the fewest releases of the three , and the lowest average scores . Of the 88 films released in the first month of the year during that decade , only six earned above a 61 average on the site 's scale of 0 to 100 , the lowest of any of the three winter months , even accounting for the increase in releases as the spring becomes closer .
It did not seem to Dietz as if there was any relationship between critical praise and audience enthusiasm for January films . The best @-@ rated , Disney 's 2004 animated musical Teacher 's Pet , was a commercial failure , as was 2001 's The Pledge . Cloverfield , the third entry , was a success , and behind it Freedom Writers had ridden its good reviews to do some modest box office in 2007 ; however How She Move had flopped that same year .
Conversely , some of the successful January releases did not meet with critical acclaim . Taken had been highly successful at the end of the month in 2009 despite reviews that ranged across the spectrum . And two weeks before that film 's release , the universally panned comedy Paul Blart : Mall Cop had opened strong on its way to a total take over $ 150 million .
Contemplating the offerings for January 2013 , Adam Raymond at Vulture undertook a ranking of a quarter @-@ century of Januarys based on scores at Rotten Tomatoes ( RT ) , another review aggregator . He averaged the ratings for all films released in a particular January , with the best and worst scores noted . By this method the best and worst Januarys were both in the earliest years for which the site kept scores . " [ T ] his could be more a result of the fact that far fewer movies used to be released then , so it took less to sway the average , " Raymond noted .
The best January was also the first , 1987 , whose 79 % average was led by Woody Allen 's acclaimed Radio Days . At 95 % , it was also the best @-@ rated January film during the survey period . That month 's lowest @-@ rated new release , Outrageous Fortune , still managed a 50 % rating , better than the average for all but one of the other years .
At the other end was January 1989 , where the 26 % achieved by Gleaming the Cube and the 0 % awarded to DeepStar Six bracketed a 16 % average . Five other January films joined it at the bottom of the scale . It was recognized as a nadir among Januarys even at the time . In a contemporary essay in The New York Times after the month had concluded , an exasperated Janet Maslin presciently noted that " the January that has just ended really looks like one for the record books . "
Among the 21st @-@ century Januarys , 2011 did the best at 39 % , led by The Way Back 's 75 % . The worst was 2003 , when Final Destination 2 led the pack to a 23 % average with its score of 47 % . Kangaroo Jack brought up the rear at 8 % .
Looking ahead to the movies of February 2014 , Chris Kirk and Kim Thompson at Slate argued that February 's movies were statistically the worst of any month . Their evidence was the average RT ratings for all movies for each month between 2000 and 2013 . February 's averaged 45 % , three points lower than January and September and four below August . February also had the worst month in the entire sample period , with the 2001 releases from that month coming in at 31 % ; 2010 and 2012 tied for the best February at 54 % .
No comparable analysis has ever been done on films released during the late @-@ summer dump months . At the end of July 2008 , Vulture again greeted the coming month with two posts on the drop in movie quality historically associated with the month , and its theories for what might explain that . One was a history of the previous 15 Augusts , with movies released in each month subjectively rated as " halfway @-@ decent " or " lousy " . It concluded that over that time there had been 169 lousy movies , and 26 halfway @-@ decent ones . " That 's 11 @.@ 2 movies per August that make you want to claw your eyes out . "
Most of the Augusts in the time period in question had one or two " halfway @-@ decent " movies , with the other 9 – 11 movies discarded as " lousy " . The exceptions were the consecutive years 1998 – 99 . The former was regarded as the worst August , with no halfway @-@ decent movies and all its releases ( The Avengers , How Stella Got Her Groove Back and Halloween H20 , among others ) considered lousy . But in August 1999 , there were five halfway @-@ decent films : The Sixth Sense , The Thomas Crown Affair , The Iron Giant , Dick and Bowfinger .
= = History = =
According to Burr , from the earliest days of the studio system major releases had largely followed the same calendar modern audiences would recognize , clustered during spring , summer , and the end @-@ of @-@ year holidays . " Yet January was still in the mix , " he observes . " Silent @-@ era Charlie Chaplin hits like The Kid ( 1921 ) and The Circus ( 1928 ) , the Garbo / John Gilbert melodrama Flesh and the Devil ( 1927 ) and Josef von Sternberg 's Last Command ( 1928 ) all came out during the first month of the year . "
The best decade for January movies , Burr writes , may well have been the 1940s . It began with what he suggests was best January in cinema history . The Grapes of Wrath , His Girl Friday and The Shop Around the Corner , all considered classics , were released in January 1940 . Later in the decade , other classic films would first reach screens during January , such as Sullivan 's Travels , Shadow of a Doubt and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre .
A few months after Treasure 's release , the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc . , holding that it was a violation of antitrust law for the studios to own theater chains as well . This has historically been seen as the beginning of the end of the studio system . Burr found that after it , with movies having less of a guaranteed box office since an adequate theatrical run could no longer be guaranteed , " release patterns began to clump more formally around big weekends , warmer weather and national holidays . "
In the mid @-@ 1970s , the studios discovered the summer blockbuster via the success of Jaws and Star Wars . In the following decade the rise of independent producers dedicated to quality such as Merchant Ivory and Harvey Weinstein made the October – December the year 's other highlight . But those two concentrations left the post @-@ holiday winter and late summer as the lows that followed the highs . By the 2010s , Burr said , " August is death by ennui . And January is suicide . " Similarly , The A.V. Club had noted at the same time , " over the past few decades , the American movie schedule has calcified ... January and February are when studios dump their discards , the movies they have low hopes for and want to disavow . "
In the early 1980s producer Daniel Melnick , whose Altered States was moved up a month into the 1980 Christmas season by the studio over his objections , complained about this in an interview . " I would rather go at a time when there are fewer people attending movies and offer them pictures they want to see , rather than to divide a larger audience with ten other desirable films ... [ A ] s an industry we have very often shown the instinct of lemmings ... We 're all convinced that people go to the movies primarily at Christmas time , so we release our big pictures then ... "
By the end of the decade critics had taken notice as well . After January 1989 , the month that Vulture would 24 years later find to be the movies ' worst January ever , New York Times critic Janet Maslin had had enough . Her idea of " movie hell " she said , included among other indignities having to watch only January releases . " It 's well known that January films have a character that is , let us say , distinctive ... What is it that leads film distributors to regard January as just the right resting place for so many flukes , black sheep , wild cards and also @-@ rans ? " She allowed that recent years had allowed some good films , such as Radio Days and El Norte , to get attention they might note have in other months of the year . However , that January had had as one its major releases The January Man , a thriller she characterized as aptly titled , despite not even being the worst the month had to offer ( that dubious honor went to Deepstar Six ) .
Despite the critical and commercial success of The Silence of the Lambs in 1991 , Burr qualified it as an exception that proved the rule . First , it had been released at the very end of January ; and second , it had only gone into wide release two weeks later . Such a strategy is typical of January , Burr writes . " [ It ' ] s a studio 's way of gritting its teeth and ripping off the Band @-@ Aid . "
In 2013 , Don Fithian , president of the National Association of Theater Owners ( NATO ) , criticized the dump months ( among several other studio practices ) at CinemaCon , the annual gathering of film exhibitors hosted by NATO . The theaters had come off a first quarter where receipts had been down 12 % from the first quarter of 2012 . He faulted the studios for their insufficiently diverse offerings in 2013 as compared to the first quarter of the year before , which he connected to the dump @-@ months phenomenon . " Any month can produce a $ 100 million movie , " he said in his speech . " In 2012 , distributors spread their movies over the calendar , and we had a record year . "
Responding later , in an indieWIRE panel discussion hosted by Anne Thompson , Universal Studios chairman Adam Fogelson agreed in principle with Fithian , saying " there are very few reasons other than historical behavior why almost any film can 't work on almost any weekend ... " he said . He pointed to the 2005 success of White Noise on the first weekend of January as having opened that time up to similar low @-@ budget horror films .
However , he called the belief among some exhibitors that the theaters ' slump was attributable to a plethora of R @-@ rated films saved for January , a criticism repeated by Fithian , " simplistic . " The problem was the movies in question , not their ratings . Django Unchained , he insisted , would have been a hit regardless of the month it opened with . " It happens to be about the movies , " Fogelson said . " People tend to if not forget minimize how complicated this is . "
= = Releasing strategies = =
Critics and movie fans have observed that studios and other distributors have leaned on particular types of movies , or particular genres , to get them through the dump months . Some of them overlap :
" Mediocre comedies " , as Scott Meslow of The Atlantic puts it , referring to films like Tooth Fairy , Bride Wars and Hotel for Dogs , all of which had tepid critical receptions but did better than they might have at other times of year . In the 2010s , these films have been doing even better , with Paul Blart : Mall Cop and Identity Thief both vaulting past unimpressed critics to gross over $ 100 million in consecutive years ; the former is the all @-@ time top @-@ grossing January release .
" Mediocre action movies " . Meslow points to The Book of Eli and Underworld : Evolution as films that , like their comic counterparts , succeeded commercially due to their January release . In 2011 , he adds , rescheduling The Green Hornet to January from its originally intended release the previous summer proved to be a very lucrative decision . A decade earlier , in a piece about his general complaints with August , Slate editor David Plotz included " egregious action movies " dominating movie screens during the month . "
Low @-@ cost rereleases : In 2011 , Meslow recounts , Disney rereleased The Lion King in 3 @-@ D to test whether its core audience would be amenable to the format . The experiment wound up becoming the highest @-@ grossing September release ever . It followed it up with Beauty and the Beast in 3 @-@ D , released the following January . George Lucas primed audiences for the Star Wars prequel trilogy by releasing the enhanced " Special Edition " of the original trilogy during the winter dump months , Meslow recalled .
Low budgets , generally : Taken and Paul Blart 's stars , Liam Neeson and Kevin James respectively , are not considered A @-@ listers , bankable enough to open a major movie on the strength of their names alone . Therefore , Meslow writes , they work for lower salaries , which helps keep budgets low enough for the film to be profitable with a smaller potential audience amid minimal competition .
Teen @-@ oriented movies . Since teenagers , " the demographic with an excess of idle time in January , " are less interested in movies touted as potential Oscar winners than adults , Meslow reasons , studios make the effort to release films targeted to them . So , romantic films like She 's All That , Save the Last Dance and A Walk to Remember have successfully opened in January . The low @-@ budget parody films of Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer , such as Date Movie and Meet the Spartans , have also done well with the teen market in the dump months despite strongly negative reception from critics and audiences .
Not all films released in the dump months were originally intended for that period , however . Movies that failed to live up to studios ' hopes for a competitive summer release often come out in the winter . Vegas Seven 's Una LaMarche pointed at the beginning of 2013 to the then @-@ upcoming Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters as such a film . " If [ it ] were any good , " she wrote , " it would be coming out in June . " It indeed fared poorly in the U.S. , but better abroad .
She also suspected that Broken City , another upcoming release that starred Russell Crowe , Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones and Mark Wahlberg , had been consigned to a January release due to adverse reactions from test audiences , and correctly anticipated the failure of the ensemble comedy Movie 43 for the same reason . For his part , Meslow points to Season of the Witch , a $ 40 million horror film starring Nicolas Cage which failed to recoup even that amount , and Untraceable as emblematic of that kind of big @-@ budget bust buried during dump months . " The marketing plan for a film like this is often just a formal wake , the last stop before a film 's reincarnation as generic product for the on @-@ demand / DVD / streaming after @-@ markets , " says Burr in his Times Magazine piece .
Others that were not originally intended for the dump months get shifted there anyway not because they are bad but because the studios cannot figure out how to market them or aren 't sure they will succeed . C. Robert Cargill , a former critic for Ain 't It Cool News who scripted the successful 2012 horror film Sinister , points to Chronicle , which had a surprisingly strong opening on Super Bowl weekend earlier that year , an example .
Similarly , LaMarche points to two other types of movies difficult to market to large audiences . " Winter can be a boon to little movies with niche audiences , " she writes , pointing to Dustin Hoffman 's directorial debut , Quartet , which received a limited U.S. release in January 2013 , and Struck by Lightning , released at the same time . Movies that also blend genres or defy such categorization , such as the zombie – human Romeo and Juliet retelling , Warm Bodies , or the limited @-@ release Charlie Sheen comedy A Glimpse Inside the Mind of Charles Swan III , are also ideal for their dump @-@ months release time frame .
= = = August = = =
Guardians of the Galaxy had the most successful August opening weekend ever and became 2014 's top @-@ grossing film domestically . These accomplishments led industry observers to reconsider whether they should be so dismissive of August , a trend that had been building even before that year . Cary Carling noted afterwards in the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram that recent Augusts had seen a number of critical and commercial successes , not only franchise movies such as The Bourne Ultimatum and Rise of the Planet of the Apes but films that appealed to adult audiences such as Blue Jasmine , The Help , and the James Brown biopic Get on Up , whose $ 14 million opening weekend against Guardians " met expectations . "
" [ Is ] the summer movie season ... expanding out from its traditional boundaries ? " Jordan Smith asked before the month began on Hollywood.com. He noted that some big @-@ budget movies released in the late spring and early summer of recent years , like After Earth , White House Down , R.I.P.D. and The Lone Ranger , had struggled at the box office against similar competition . He believed a " point of saturation " had been reached , with too many of those movies being released in the early summer . But " audiences are proving that they 'll line up at any time of the year to watch Captain America save the day . "
Dave Farger of Fandango.com believes moviegoers are already adapting . When a film like Guardians of the Galaxy comes out at the time of summer it does , " [ it ] feels like an event , regardless of the month . " He sees it as similar to what has happened to the TV schedule , where both broadcast and cable networks have begun airing new scripted shows during the summer , which was once relegated to reruns due to small audiences .
= = = Horror films = = =
One genre regularly mentioned in connection with the dump months is horror . Once a staple of the periods , yet frequently limited to them , recent successes during the dump months have actually led studios to reevaluate this scheduling limitation and release horror movies at other times of the year . " It seems this time of the year has become the ' other October . ' " said Brian Salisbury of Hollywood.com at the end of February 2013 . LaMarche attributes this to winter 's " cold , dark landscape . "
Critically praised and commercially successful horror films such as 2008 's Cloverfield , which had the best January opening weekend for six years until Ride Along , and 2013 's January champion Mama , have done well by the dump months . But other horror movies have still succeeded in the face of critical condemnation , starting with White Noise in 2005 . As a result , " the only new release is usually one crappy horror movie , " on the year 's first weekend , says Will Goss of Film.com.
In reviewing 2016 's The Forest , David Ehrlich of Slate took note of its release at that time of year . " [ A ] nybody with access to a calendar already knows that The Forest is bad , " he wrote . " [ A ] t this point , that 's less of a presumption than it is a tradition . " In that vein , playing on the movie 's Japanese setting , he likened it to the supposed ancient custom of ubasute in that country , by which elderly people who could no longer care for themselves were purposely abandoned on mountainsides .
In 2012 , The Devil Inside , a low @-@ budget found footage horror film following in the steps of Cloverfield , opened the weekend after New Year 's Day . Critics , for whom it had not been screened , reviewed it harshly if and when they did see it , and audiences reacted angrily to the film 's abrupt ending , which directed them to a website for more information . Yet , as Cargill notes , its success was proof that even on that low @-@ potential weekend , a disengaged audience will " throw money at a terrible movie if it looks like it 's good . " The film 's opening weekend take of $ 33 @.@ 7 million ranks in the top ten for January . The Devil Inside went on to make over $ 50 million domestically and almost that much abroad to break $ 100 million in total receipts .
The success of both films outside of October , usually the month when studios released their quality horror films to capitalize on Halloween 's approach , has actually led studios to rethink that approach and release horror films at other times of year . During the 2000s October , and the weekend before Halloween , had come to be dominated by the Saw and Paranormal Activity franchises . " You would never come up against them because you would be killed , " recalls Rock Alvarez , producer of A Haunted House 2 .
For that reason , Mama was rescheduled from October 2012 to the following January . In October 2013 , Paramount decided to delay the release of Paranormal Activity : The Marked Ones from the weekend before Halloween to March 2014 , and replaced it not with another horror offering but the comedy Johnny Knoxville , leaving the month with only one highly anticipated horror film , the third adaptation of Stephen King 's Carrie .
Tiffany Smith of Fandango.com 's House of Screams says studios are finding holidays with horror associations elsewhere in the year , like Friday the 13th , regardless of season . Insidious : Chapter 2 had actually opened well on that weekend in September . " That weekend actually played as a bigger movie weekend than Halloween is this year , " she told USA Today . In July , The Conjuring had also done well amidst the summer movies . " A lot of people are moving [ horror movies ] everywhere , " said Mama producer Guillermo del Toro .
= = Audience and critical responses = =
Some movie critics have called on the studios to change their release schedules and improve the quality of new films during the dump months . Paul Shirey of JoBlo.com calls on the studios start releasing better films then . " Rather than saving them to win statues , why not put them out to reap some box office and fill an otherwise dead month with something worth seeing ? "
Ty Burr suggested that in January 2013 that no new movies should be released in January . Instead , " studios would have to rerelease their most underrated entertainments from the previous year for a second chance . " He gave The Cabin in the Woods or Chronicle , itself a January release in 2012 , as examples of such films . Failing that happening , he wrote that he was using home media to catch up on older films .
Other critics have tried to look for worthwhile , overlooked films amid the dump @-@ months releases , which do exist , Vegas Seven 's Una LaMarche assures readers . In January 2013 , The Onion 's A.V. Club compiled a list of such overlooked dump months films . It includes many that have since become cult classics , like the 1991 Kevin Bacon horror film Tremors , 1999 's Office Space and Boiler Room from the following year , all released in late February . They also recommend the January 1993 release Matinee , starring John Goodman as legendary gimmick @-@ using film producer William Castle , and The Pledge , a January 2001 film starring Jack Nicholson . " It is Sean Penn 's best film as director , an uncompromising depiction of faith and devotion curdled into something monstrous . "
One critic , Matt Singer of indieWIRE , said in January 2013 that he has " started to look at January with anticipation rather than dread . " He argues that even the month 's bad movies are bad in their own way . Unlike failed summer blockbusters , which have " way too much money riding on [ them ] to be anything but mediocre and boring , " January movies are often spectacular in their failure since the studios do not expect them to do well . " Why throw good money after bad ? " he asks rhetorically . " Just cut your losses and let the thing really suck . " Such benign neglect , he suggests , led to The Devil Inside , " so intensely stupid it 's almost brilliant — and entirely entertaining . " He likened January movies to trainwrecks , while bad movies in June were more like " controlled demolitions . " Cloverfield , he asserted , had begun reversing the trend of forgettable January movies . In more recent years he had been impressed by The Grey and Mama .
" While it 's easy to complain about a stretch of so @-@ so movies , " wrote Matt Patches at Hollywood.com as 2012 began , " the twist is we should really be thanking the studios for catering to niche audiences all month . " For most viewers , it is a chance to catch up on the major awards contenders released in December . But studios and the filmgoers who have already seen those two films can benefit from creative risk @-@ taking by filmmakers . He points to Cloverfield as one such gamble that succeeded . Smaller film distributors also take advantage of the dump months to bring little @-@ seen but highly praised films like Kill List to wider audiences via home @-@ media releases .
Scott Mendelson at Forbes said in January 2014 that only critics in large markets have reason to complain during the dump months . " For the rest " he claimed " January is in fact a deluge of high quality movies " owing to the combination of awards contenders reaching the mass market for the first time , the possibility for unusual successes among the new releases , and overlooked films from the previous year reaching home markets . In that last category , he highly recommended the August 2013 release Short Term 12 .
= Enough Said ( film ) =
Enough Said is a 2013 American romantic comedy @-@ drama film written and directed by Nicole Holofcener . The film stars Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , James Gandolfini , Catherine Keener , Toni Collette and Ben Falcone . Louis @-@ Dreyfus plays Eva , a divorced masseuse who begins a relationship with Albert ( Gandolfini ) , only to discover that he is the ex @-@ husband of her client and friend Marianne ( Keener ) .
Holofcener wrote the script , which was partly inspired by her own life , after she was approached by two producers from Fox Searchlight Pictures who offered to produce her next project . It was filmed in Los Angeles on a budget of US $ 8 million . Gandolfini died after the film was completed but before it was released ; Holofcener dedicated the film to him .
Enough Said premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival and was released on September 18 , 2013 to critical acclaim , ranking as the fifth best @-@ reviewed wide release of the year . Particular praise was given to Gandolfini and Louis @-@ Dreyfus 's performances , along with Holofcener 's script and direction . The film also received several major award nominations , including for a Golden Globe , a Screen Actors Guild Award , two Independent Spirit Awards and four Critics ' Choice Movie Awards .
= = Plot = =
Eva , a masseuse and the divorced mother of a teenage girl , attends a party in Pacific Palisades with her friends , married couple Will and Sarah . There she meets a poet , Marianne , and Will introduces Eva to one of his friends , Albert . After the party , Albert asks Will for Eva 's number and , although hesitant since she is not physically attracted to him , Eva agrees to go on a dinner date with Albert , which goes well . Marianne contacts Eva for a massage , and after taking an immediate liking to one another they become friends .
Eva finds herself growing fonder of Albert and they have lunch with his teenage daughter , Tess , who , like Eva 's daughter Ellen , is graduating from high school and moving away to attend college . A few days later , Eva goes to her massage appointment with Marianne and realizes that Albert is Marianne 's ex @-@ husband after Marianne tells a story about how he manages to pick out onions when scooping salsa — the same story Albert had told Eva , but about guacamole . Tess then arrives at the house and Eva 's suspicions are confirmed . Marianne tries to introduce Eva to Tess , but Eva hides behind a tree to avoid the meeting . Eva continues seeing Albert , keeping her friendship with Marianne a secret ; likewise , she does not tell Marianne that she is seeing him .
Eva encourages Marianne to voice her complaints about Albert so she can identify potential problems in her relationship with him . At the encouragement of Eva , Sarah and Will invite her and Albert to a dinner party , which ends badly after Eva nitpicks over Albert 's faults , which upsets him . At another appointment with Marianne , Eva is exposed when Albert arrives to drop Tess off . He is angry that Eva kept her friendship with Marianne a secret , and breaks up with her .
Eva and her ex @-@ husband take Ellen to the airport for her flight to college . A few months later , on Thanksgiving Day , Eva drives by Albert 's home and stops in front of the house on her way to pick up Ellen from the airport . He sees her and she awkwardly waves . He eventually comes outside , to Eva 's surprise , and sits with her on the porch while they begin to renew their relationship .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Enough Said was the fifth film written and directed by Nicole Holofcener . After the release of her fourth film , Please Give ( 2010 ) , she was approached by Matthew Greenfield and Claudia Lewis from Fox Searchlight , who offered to produce Holofcener 's next project on the condition that it was more mainstream than her previous films . She wrote three drafts of the screenplay over six months . The premise was partly inspired by Holofcener 's own life as a divorced mother of two teenagers and her " feelings and fears about what [ her ] life will be like when [ her ] kids go away " . While writing the film , she said , " I was having thoughts about my ex @-@ husband and my new boyfriend and thinking about being married and how I 'm trying to have a relationship that 's happier the second time . " Small details of the plot were also drawn from her life ; Albert 's guacamole @-@ eating habit was inspired by a story that her boyfriend told her about his ex @-@ wife .
Neither Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus nor James Gandolfini was Holofcener 's first choice to play the lead roles . Louis @-@ Dreyfus was cast after she approached Holofcener to express her interest in appearing in one of Holofcener 's films . Holofcener 's first choice as Albert was Louis C.K. , who read part of the script but was not interested in the role . Gandolfini did not feel that he was right for the part , but Holofcener later described him as " perfect " . Catherine Keener , who played Marianne , is a frequent collaborator of Holofcener 's , having appeared in all four previous films that Holofcener had directed .
The film was shot on location over 24 days in Los Angeles , with a budget of $ 8 million . It was filmed by cinematographer Xavier Pérez Grobet , with whom Holofcener had previously worked on the HBO television series Enlightened . Although each scene was scripted , the actors would often ad @-@ lib lines of dialogue . The final scene of the film , in which Eva and Albert reunite in front of his house , was improvised by Louis @-@ Dreyfus and Gandolfini . It was edited by Robert Frazen , Holofcener 's boyfriend at the time , who had also worked on all four of her previous films .
Gandolfini died of a heart attack in June 2013 , almost a year after production on the film had ended but before it was released . The film 's editing was complete by then but Holofcener added a dedication to the end @-@ credits reading " For Jim " . Gandolfini never saw the completed film .
= = Release = =
Enough Said premiered on September 7 , 2013 at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released theatrically shortly thereafter on September 18 , 2013 . On its opening weekend , the film earned $ 240 @,@ 000 from four theaters for a $ 60 @,@ 000 per @-@ theater average , ranking among 2013 's best specialty release openers . It received a wide release on September 27 and gradually expanded to a peak of 835 theaters in late October . Over 121 days in theaters , the film grossed $ 17 @.@ 6 million at the U.S. box office . It earned $ 7 @.@ 7 million from other countries , making a total worldwide gross of $ 25 @.@ 3 million .
The film was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray format on January 14 , 2014 . The Blu @-@ ray disc includes six making @-@ of featurettes , titled " Second Takes " , " Cast " , " Story " , " Meet Eva and Albert " , " Nicole Holofcener " and " Julia " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Enough Said received positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 96 % , based on 167 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 , and the critical consensus reads , " Wryly charming , impeccably acted , and ultimately quite bittersweet , Enough Said is a grown @-@ up movie in the best possible way . " Another review aggregation website , Metacritic , gave the film a score of 78 out of 100 , based on 44 critics , signifying " generally favorable reviews " . In their year @-@ end tabulations , Rotten Tomatoes dubbed Enough Said the fifth best @-@ reviewed wide release of 2013 and the runner @-@ up for the best @-@ reviewed romance film of 2013 ( second to Before Midnight ) . Many critics also listed the film among their 10 best of the year .
Specifically , Enough Said was praised for its commitment to realism , both in the way Holofcener 's characters converse and in the themes the film addresses . In a review for The New York Times , A. O. Scott claimed that " Line for line , scene for scene , it is one of the best @-@ written American film comedies in recent memory . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times felt that Enough Said demonstrated " Holofcener 's gift for portraying life as it is lived " , while David Denby , writing for The New Yorker , wrote that it " approaches novelistic richness " . In The New York Times Book Review , Francine Prose praised Holofcener for having written characters " with sufficient depth and wisdom that ... the actors never seem to be movie stars impersonating people . Rather , they disappear into the vulnerable and self @-@ doubting characters they play without a hint of the preening vanity that so often causes cinematic performances to seem forced and shallow . "
Numerous critics also praised Gandolfini and Louis @-@ Dreyfus 's performances in the film . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post wrote that Gandolfini brought " superb sensitivity and naked vulnerability " to his portrayal of Albert , while Indiewire 's Eric Kohn felt that Gandolfini " truly blossoms " in the film . Writing for The Wall Street Journal , Joe Morgenstern similarly described Gandolfini 's performance as " marvelous " and " grounded in genial humanity " , and found Louis @-@ Dreyfus to be " equally endearing " . Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote that Gandolfini gave " a performance of immense tenderness and charm " , " as endearing as it is heartbreaking " , and said of Louis @-@ Dreyfus , " Holofcener brings out a vulnerability you may have forgotten was in this actress . " Slate magazine 's Dana Stevens , meanwhile , wrote that " There 's no one making films right now who writes that kind of dialogue better than Holofcener ... And it 's hard to imagine anyone speaking it better than Gandolfini and Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus . "
In a negative review for the San Francisco Chronicle , Mick LaSalle wrote that he found Eva and Albert 's romantic pairing implausible and , knowing that Gandolfini died after making the film , found the references to Albert 's obesity " awkward and macabre and not at all enjoyable " . The Financial Times ' Antonia Quirke , meanwhile , described the film as immemorable , " very modest " and " too depressing " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Mallory Hagan =
Mallory Hytes Hagan ( born December 23 , 1988 ) is an American actress , model and beauty queen who won Miss America 2013 and Miss New York 2012 . She was also Miss New York City 2012 , Miss Manhattan 2011 , Miss Brooklyn 2010 , and a two @-@ time Miss New York first runner @-@ up . She is a native of Alabama , where she had been runner @-@ up in the Miss Alabama 's Outstanding Teen Program , and a non @-@ finalist talent winner at Miss Alabama . She won the Miss America competition on a platform of child sexual abuse awareness and prevention . She also gave a timely response on the issue of gun control in which she opposed fighting violence with violence . She moved to New York after her first year of college at Auburn University , which is the local college near where she was raised .
= = Early life and education = =
Hagan is from Opelika , Alabama and is a 2007 graduate of Opelika High School . She was influenced by her formative years spent with a mother who ran a dance studio in the Auburn @-@ Opelika area , where she was raised . Her grandmother had run a dance studio in Tennessee , where Hagan was born . She is a former student at Auburn University , where she spent a year studying biomedical science . She was also a member of the sorority Pi Beta Phi Alabama Gamma chapter , becoming the fourth Pi Beta Phi to become Miss America ( Marilyn Van Derbur , Jackie Mayer , and Susan Akin ) .
She moved to the Bedford – Stuyvesant , Brooklyn neighborhood in New York City in October 2008 . At the time of her arrival , she had $ 1000 and a dream of beauty pageant success . Several sources stated that Hagan was a Park Slope , Brooklyn resident when she won Miss America . The Wall Street Journal ran a correction ( that was corroborated by The New York Times ) that she was a resident of Windsor Terrace , Brooklyn at the time . Hagan had lived in six different Brooklyn neighborhoods between her arrival in 2008 and her Miss America victory in 2013 , including Sunset Park and Williamsburg .
At the time of the 2013 Miss America competition , she was a Fashion Institute of Technology ( FIT ) student , where she studied advertising , marketing and communications with aspirations of a profession related to cosmetic and fragrance marketing . At FIT , she was a part of the Presidential Honors Program . Her three placements in the Miss New York competition provided her with sufficient scholarship monies to pay for her entire FIT tuition . She trained several different methods to prepare for the pageant . Her trainers included Richard Talens of social fitness network Fitocracy , Sohee Lee , and Mark Fisher of Mark Fisher Fitness . One of her training elements was also CrossFit exercise programs .
= = Pageants = =
Hagan won Miss Brooklyn on March 28 , 2010 . Her prior pageant experience has been reported to include runner @-@ up placements in the Miss Alabama 's Outstanding Teen and the Miss Alabama competition . However , Hagan stated that in the Miss Alabama 2008 competition , which was her only attempt at that title , " I did get a non @-@ finalist talent award . " She competed in Miss Alabama 's Outstanding Teen from the ages of 13 to 17 .
Hagan was the first runner @-@ up in both of the Miss New York 2010 and Miss New York 2011 pageants . She then went on to win the title of Miss New York 2012 ( in which Miss America 2014 Nina Davuluri was the second runner up ) . During Hagan 's reign as Miss New York 2012 , her platform was child sexual abuse awareness and prevention . Her contest bio stated that " Hagan has chosen to honor the women in her family who have been victims of sexual abuse by sharing their personal stories and encouraging others to take a stand . " According to statements made during an Associated Press interview , her mother , Mandy Moore , convinced her to tackle child sexual abuse since it had affected her mother , aunt , grandmother , and cousins . Hagan has stated that she has experienced the ripple effects of child sexual abuse . Hagan 's mother , father , Phil Hagan , and 32 friends and family members from Opelika attended her crowning . Her grandfather , Stan Hagan , says that Mallory 's comments regarding gun control represented most of her family . At the time of her victory , she was also supported by her then boyfriend , Charmel Maynard from New York City . Hagan is the fourth Miss New York , second individual from New York City , and first individual from Brooklyn to serve as Miss America .
= = 2013 Miss America pageant = =
Hagan was crowned Miss America 2013 on January 12 , 2013 in Las Vegas , Nevada by outgoing Miss America 2012 Laura Kaeppeler , beating out first runner @-@ up Miss South Carolina 2012 Ali Rogers . Due to the decision to move the pageant back to Atlantic City , New Jersey , her reign was cut short by four months and ended on September 15 , 2013 . Although Hagan follows a few other Miss New York contestants to earn the Miss America crown , she is the first Brooklynite to win . The 2013 competition was Hagan 's final year of Miss America Organization eligibility . Her introductory quip to the Miss America 2013 audience at the beginning of the on @-@ air broadcast was " Sandy may have swept away our shores but never our spirit . " During the Miss America 2013 competition , she performed a tap dance routine to James Brown 's " Get Up Offa That Thing " while wearing a latex rodeo outfit . Other elements of her winning wardrobe included a black string bikini and an asymmetric white evening gown . At the time of her Miss America victory , she was 24 years old and a resident of Brooklyn . Part of her prize package was a $ 50 @,@ 000 scholarship . She won the swimsuit and evening wear portions of the show .
= = Miss America role = =
Hagan promoted awareness of child sexual abuse , and in her first 24 hours as Miss America , she was in communication with United States Secretary of Education Arne Duncan . Her first initiative as Miss America was to become spokesperson for the IHOP 's 8th Annual National Pancake Day Celebration in which they hope to raise $ 3 Million for the Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals . As Miss America , Hagan claimed to travel 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 187 km ) per month . She was derided in the press for gaining weight a few months after becoming Miss America . Hagan responded : " I 'm human … and I 'd like to equate getting ready for the Miss America pageant , you know , to getting ready for a boxing match [ ... ] We get into shape and then afterwards life goes back to normal . "
= = Career = =
Hagan stated that she will use her scholarship money from both the Miss New York and Miss America pageants to complete her education at the Fashion Institute of Technology ( FIT ) where she is a communications major and hopes to pursue a career in television .
= Frank Pick =
Frank Pick Hon. RIBA ( 23 November 1878 – 7 November 1941 ) was a British transport administrator . After qualifying as a solicitor in 1902 , he worked at the North Eastern Railway , before moving to the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) in 1906 . At the UERL he rose through the corporate ranks , becoming joint assistant managing director in 1921 and managing director in 1928 . He was chief executive officer and vice @-@ chairman of the London Passenger Transport Board from its creation in 1933 until 1940 .
Pick had a strong interest in design and its use in public life . He steered the development of the London Underground 's corporate identity by commissioning eye @-@ catching commercial art , graphic design and modern architecture , establishing a highly recognisable brand , including the first versions of the roundel and typeface still used today . Under his direction , the UERL 's Underground network and associated bus services expanded considerably reaching out into new areas and stimulating the growth of London 's suburbs . His impact on the growth of London between the world wars led to him being likened to Baron Haussmann and Robert Moses .
Pick 's interest extended beyond his own organisation ; he was a founding member and later served as President of the Design and Industries Association . He was also the first chairman of the Council for Art and Industry and regularly wrote and lectured on design and urban planning subjects . For the government , Pick prepared the transport plan for the mass evacuation of civilians from London at the outbreak of war and produced reports on the wartime use of canals and ports .
= = Early life = =
Frank Pick was born on 23 November 1878 at Spalding , Lincolnshire . He was the first child of five born to draper Francis Pick and his wife Fanny Pick ( née Clarke ) . Pick 's paternal grandfather , Charles Pick , was a farmer in Spalding who died in his forties , leaving eight children . His maternal grandfather , Thomas Clarke , was a blacksmith and Wesleyan lay preacher . As a child , Pick was bookish , preferring to read and build collections of moths and butterflies and objects found on the beach rather than take part in sports .
Before becoming a draper , Pick 's father had had an ambition to become a lawyer and he encouraged his son to follow this career . Pick attended St Peter 's School in York on a scholarship , but failed to get a scholarship to Magdalen College , Oxford . Instead , he was articled to a York solicitor , George Crombie , in March 1897 . He qualified in January 1902 and completed a law degree at the University of London in the same year , but he was not sufficiently interested in a legal career to apply to practice .
In 1902 , Pick began working for the North Eastern Railway . He worked first in the company 's traffic statistics department before becoming assistant to the company 's general manager , Sir George Gibb in 1904 . In 1904 , Pick married Mabel Mary Caroline Woodhouse . The couple had no children .
= = London 's transport = =
In 1906 , Gibb was appointed managing director of the UERL . At Gibb 's invitation , Pick also moved to the UERL to continue working as his assistant . The UERL controlled the District Railway and , during 1906 and 1907 , opened three deep @-@ level tube lines – the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( Bakerloo tube ) , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( Hampstead tube ) and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( Piccadilly tube ) .
The UERL had financial problems . Ticket prices were low and passenger numbers were significantly below the pre @-@ opening estimates . The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly the result of competition between the UERL 's lines and those of the other tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies . The spread of street @-@ level electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , also took a large number of passengers away from the trains .
= = = Branding – a clear identity = = =
By 1908 , Pick had become publicity officer responsible for marketing and it was at this time that , working with the company 's general manager Albert Stanley , he began developing the strong corporate identity and visual style for which the London Underground later became famous , including the introduction of the " UNDERGROUND " brand . Pick 's philosophy on design was that " the test of the goodness of a thing is its fitness for use . If it fails on this first test , no amount of ornamentation or finish will make it any better ; it will only make it more expensive , more foolish . "
Pick became traffic development officer in 1909 and commercial manager in 1912 . Albert Stanley replaced Gibb as managing director in 1910 . During 1912 and 1913 , the UERL increased its control over transport services in London by purchasing two tube railways , the City & South London Railway ( C & SLR ) and Central London Railway ( CLR ) , and a number of bus and tram companies . One of Pick 's responsibilities was to increase passenger numbers , and he believed that the best way to do so was by encouraging increased patronage of the company 's services outside peak hours . He commissioned posters which promoted the Underground 's trains and London General Omnibus Company 's ( LGOC 's ) buses as a means of reaching the countryside around London and attractions within the city . Pick realised that variety was important to maintain travellers ' interest and he commissioned designs from artists working in many different styles . At the same time , he rationalised bus routes to ensure that they complemented and acted as feeder services for the company 's railway lines , tripling the number of LGOC operated routes during 1912 and extending the area covered to five times its previous size . Sunday excursion services to leisure destinations were implemented to fully utilise otherwise idle buses and agreements were established with rural bus operators to coordinate services rather than compete with them .
Pick introduced a common advertising policy , improving the appearance of stations by standardising poster sizes , limiting the number used and controlling their positioning . Before he took control of advertising , posters had been stuck up on any available surface on station buildings and platform walls in a crowded jumble of shapes and sizes that led to complaints from passengers that it was difficult to find the station name . Pick standardised commercial poster sizes on printers ' double crown sheets , arranging these in organised groups to enable the station name to be easily seen . The Underground 's own promotional posters were smaller , using single or paired double royal sheets , and were arranged separately from the commercial advertising . Pick described the process : " after many fumbling experiments I arrived at some notion of how poster advertising ought to be . Everyone seemed quite pleased and I got a reputation that really sprang out of nothing . "
To make the Underground Group 's posters and signage more distinctive he commissioned calligrapher and typographer Edward Johnston to design a clear new typeface . Pick specified to Johnston in 1913 that he wanted a typeface that would ensure that the Underground Group 's posters would not be mistaken for advertisements ; it should have " the bold simplicity of the authentic lettering of the finest periods " and belong " unmistakably to the twentieth century " . Johnston 's sans serif " Underground " typeface , ( now known as Johnston ) was first used in 1916 and was so successful that , with minor modifications in recent years , it is still in use today .
In conjunction with his changes to poster display arrangements , Pick experimented with the positioning and sizing of station name signs on platforms , which were often inadequate in number or poorly placed . In 1908 , he settled on an arrangement where the sign was backed by a red disc to make it stand out clearly , creating the " bulls @-@ eye " device – the earliest form of what is today known as the roundel . In 1909 , Pick started to combine the " bulls @-@ eye " and the " UNDERGROUND " brand on posters and station buildings , but was not satisfied with the arrangement . By 1916 , he had decided to adapt the logo used by the LGOC , the Underground Group 's bus company , which was in the form of a ring with a bar bearing the name " GENERAL " across the centre . Pick commissioned Johnston to redesign the " bulls @-@ eye " and the form used today is based on that developed by Johnston and first used in 1919 .
= = = Expansion – a growing network = = =
In 1919 , with a return to normality after the First World War , Pick began developing plans to extend the Underground network out into suburbs that lacked adequate transport services . The only major extensions made to the Underground network since the three tube lines had opened were the extension of the District Railway to Uxbridge in 1910 , and the extension of the Bakerloo tube to Watford Junction between 1913 and 1917 . Approved schemes put on hold during the war were revived : the CLR was extended to Ealing Broadway in 1920 , the Hampstead tube was extended to Edgware between 1923 and 1924
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other authors of the day . Though she spent most of her adult life in Greece , few details of her life are fully known . Some scholars suggest that Aspasia was a brother keeper and a prostitute . Aspasia 's role in history provides crucial insight to the understanding of the women of ancient Greece . Very little is known about women from her time period . One scholar stated that , " To ask questions about Aspasia 's life is to ask questions about half of humanity . "
= = Origin and early years = =
Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus ( in the modern province of Aydın , Turkey ) . Little is known about her family except that her father 's name was Axiochus , although it is evident that she must have belonged to a wealthy family , for only the well @-@ to @-@ do could have afforded the excellent education that she received . Some ancient sources claim that she was a Carian prisoner @-@ of @-@ war turned slave ; these statements are generally regarded as false .
It is not known under what circumstances she first traveled to Athens . The discovery of a 4th @-@ century grave inscription that mentions the names of Axiochus and Aspasius has led historian Peter K. Bicknell to attempt a reconstruction of Aspasia 's family background and Athenian connections . His theory connects her to Alcibiades II of Scambonidae ( grandfather of the famous Alcibiades ) , who was ostracized from Athens in 460 BC and may have spent his exile in Miletus . Bicknell conjectures that , following his exile , the elder Alcibiades went to Miletus , where he married the daughter of a certain Axiochus . Alcibiades apparently returned to Athens with his new wife and her younger sister , Aspasia . Bicknell argues that the first child of this marriage was named Axiochus ( uncle of the famous Alcibiades ) and the second Aspasios . He also maintains that Pericles met Aspasia through his close connections with Alcibiades 's household .
= = Life in Athens = =
According to the disputed statements of the ancient writers and some modern scholars , in Athens Aspasia became a hetaera and probably ran a brothel . Hetaerae were professional high @-@ class entertainers , as well as courtesans . Besides displaying physical beauty , they differed from most Athenian women in being educated ( often to a high standard , as in Aspasia 's case ) , having independence , and paying taxes . They were the nearest thing perhaps to liberated women ; and Aspasia , who became a vivid figure in Athenian society , was probably an obvious example . According to Plutarch , Aspasia was compared to the famous Thargelia , another renowned Ionian hetaera of ancient times .
Being a foreigner and possibly a hetaera , Aspasia was free of the legal restraints that traditionally confined married women to their homes , and thereby was allowed to participate in the public life of the city . She became the mistress of the statesman Pericles in the early 440s . After he divorced his first wife ( c . 445 BC ) , Aspasia began to live with him , although her marital status remains disputed . Their son , Pericles the Younger , must have been born by 440 BC . Aspasia would have to have been quite young , if she were able to bear a child to Lysicles c . 428 BC .
In social circles , Aspasia was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser rather than merely an object of physical beauty . Plutarch writes that despite her immoral life , friends of Socrates brought their wives to hear her converse .
= = Personal and judicial attacks = =
Though they were influential , Pericles , Aspasia and their friends were not immune from attack , as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule . Her relationship with Pericles and her subsequent political influence aroused many reactions . Donald Kagan , a Yale historian , believes that Aspasia was particularly unpopular in the years immediately following the Samian War . In 440 BC , Samos was at war with Miletus over Priene , an ancient city of Ionia in the foot @-@ hills of Mycale . Worsted in the war , the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians . When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration at Athens , the Samians refused . In response , Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos . The campaign proved to be difficult and the Athenians had to endure heavy casualties before Samos was defeated . According to Plutarch , it was thought that Aspasia , who came from Miletus , was responsible for the Samian War , and that Pericles had decided against and attacked Samos to gratify her .
According to some later accounts , before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War ( 431 BC – 404 BC ) , Pericles , some of his closest associates ( including the philosopher Anaxagoras and sculptor Phidias ) and Aspasia faced a series of personal and legal attacks . Aspasia , in particular , was reportedly accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles ' perversions . According to Plutarch , she was put on trial for impiety , with the comic poet Hermippus as prosecutor . The historical nature of the accounts about these events is disputed , and apparently no harm came to her as a result .
In The Acharnians , Aristophanes blames Aspasia for the Peloponnesian War . He claims that the Megarian decree of Pericles , which excluded Megara from trade with Athens or its allies , was retaliation for prostitutes being kidnapped from the house of Aspasia by Megarians . Aristophanes ' portrayal of Aspasia as responsible , from personal motives , for the outbreak of the war with Sparta may reflect memory of the earlier episode involving Miletus and Samos . Plutarch reports also the taunting comments of other comic poets , such as Eupolis and Cratinus . According to Podlecki , Douris appears to have propounded the view that Aspasia instigated both the Samian and Peloponnesian Wars .
Aspasia was labeled the " New Omphale " , " Deianira " , " Hera " and " Helen " . Further attacks on Pericles ' relationship with Aspasia are reported by Athenaeus . Even Pericles ' own son , Xanthippus , who had political ambitions , did not hesitate to slander his father about his domestic affairs .
= = Later years and death = =
In 429 BC during the Plague of Athens , Pericles witnessed the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons , Paralus and Xanthippus , from his first wife . With his morale undermined , he burst into tears , and not even Aspasia 's companionship could console him . Just before his death , the Athenians allowed a change in the citizenship law of 451 BC that made his half @-@ Athenian son with Aspasia , Pericles the Younger , a citizen and legitimate heir , a decision all the more striking in considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides . Pericles died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC .
Plutarch cites Aeschines Socraticus , who wrote a dialogue on Aspasia ( now lost ) , to the effect that after Pericles 's death , Aspasia lived with Lysicles , an Athenian strategos ( general ) and democratic leader , with whom she had another son ; and that she made him the first man at Athens . Lysicles was killed on expedition to levy subsidies from allies in action in 428 BC With Lysicles ' death the contemporaneous record ends . It is unknown , if she was alive when her son , Pericles , was elected general or when he was executed after the Battle of Arginusae . The time of her death that most historians give ( c . 401 BC @-@ 400 BC ) is based on the assessment that Aspasia died before the execution of Socrates in 399 BC , a chronology which is implied in the structure of Aeschines ' Aspasia .
= = = Ancient philosophical works = = =
Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato , Xenophon , Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes . Some scholars argue that Plato was impressed by her intelligence and wit and based his character Diotima in the Symposium on her , while others suggest that Diotima was in fact a historical figure . According to Charles Kahn , Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania , Diotima is in many respects Plato 's response to Aeschines ' Aspasia .
In Menexenus , Plato satirizes Aspasia 's relationship with Pericles , and quotes Socrates as claiming ironically that she was a trainer of many orators and that since Pericles was educated by Aspasia , he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon . He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries ' veneration of Pericles . Kahn maintains that Plato has taken from Aeschines the motif of Aspasia as teacher of rhetoric for Pericles and Socrates . Plato 's Aspasia and Aristophanes ' Lysistrata are two apparent exceptions to the rule of women 's incapacity as orators , though these fictional characters tell us nothing about the actual status of women in Athens . As Martha L. Rose , Professor of History at Truman State University , explains , " only in comedy do dogs litigate , birds govern , or women declaim " .
Xenophon mentions Aspasia twice in his Socratic writings : in Memorabilia and in Oeconomicus . In both cases her advice is recommended to Critobulus by Socrates . In Memorabilia Socrates quotes Aspasia as saying that the matchmaker should report truthfully on the good characteristics of the man . In Oeconomicus Socrates defers to Aspasia as more knowledgeable about household management and the economic partnership between husband and wife .
Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes each named a Socratic dialogue after Aspasia ( though neither survives except in fragments ) . Our major sources for Aeschines Socraticus ' Aspasia are Athenaeus , Plutarch , and Cicero . In the dialogue , Socrates recommends that Callias send his son Hipponicus to Aspasia for instructions . When Callias recoils at the notion of a female teacher , Socrates notes that Aspasia had favorably influenced Pericles and , after his death , Lysicles . In a section of the dialogue , preserved in Latin by Cicero , Aspasia figures as a " female Socrates " , counseling first Xenophon 's wife and then Xenophon himself ( the Xenophon in question is not the famous historian ) about acquiring virtue through self @-@ knowledge . Aeschines presents Aspasia as a teacher and inspirer of excellence , connecting these virtues with her status as hetaira . According to Kahn , every single episode in Aeschines ' Aspasia is not only fictitious but incredible .
Of Antisthenes ' Aspasia only two or three quotations are extant . This dialogue contains much slander , but also anecdotes pertaining to Pericles ' biography . Antisthenes appears to have attacked not only Aspasia , but the entire family of Pericles , including his sons . The philosopher believes that the great statesman chose the life of pleasure over virtue . Thus , Aspasia is presented as the personification of the life of sexual indulgence .
= = = Modern literature = = =
Aspasia appears in several significant works of modern literature . Her romantic attachment with Pericles has inspired some of the most famous novelists and poets of the last centuries . In particular the romanticists of the 19th century and the historical novelists of the 20th century found in their story an inexhaustible source of inspiration . In 1835 Lydia Maria Child , an American abolitionist , novelist , and journalist , published Philothea , a classical romance set in the days of Pericles and Aspasia . This book is regarded as the most successful and elaborate of the author 's productions , because the female characters , especially Aspasia , are portrayed with great beauty and delicacy .
In 1836 , Walter Savage Landor , an English writer and poet , published Pericles and Aspasia , one of his most famous books . Pericles and Aspasia is a rendering of classical Athens through a series of imaginary letters , which contain numerous poems . The letters are frequently unfaithful to actual history but attempt to capture the spirit of the Age of Pericles . Robert Hamerling is another novelist and poet who was inspired by Aspasia 's personality . In 1876 he published his novel Aspasia , a book about the manners and morals of the Age of Pericles and a work of cultural and historical interest . Giacomo Leopardi , an Italian poet influenced by the movement of romanticism , published a group of five poems known as the circle of Aspasia . These Leopardi poems were inspired by his painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for a woman named Fanny Targioni Tozzetti . Leopardi called this person Aspasia , after the companion of Pericles .
In 1918 , novelist and playwright George Cram Cook produced his first full @-@ length play , The Athenian Women ( an adaption of Lysistrata ) , which portrays Aspasia leading a strike for peace . Cook combined an anti @-@ war theme with a Greek setting . American writer Gertrude Atherton in The Immortal Marriage ( 1927 ) treats the story of Pericles and Aspasia and illustrates the period of the Samian War , the Peloponnesian War and the Plague of Athens . Taylor Caldwell 's Glory and the Lightning ( 1974 ) is another novel that portrays the historical relationship of Aspasia and Pericles .
= = Fame and assessments = =
Aspasia 's name is closely connected with Pericles ' glory and fame . Plutarch accepts her as a significant figure both politically and intellectually and expresses his admiration for a woman who " managed as she pleased the foremost men of the state , and afforded the philosophers occasion to discuss her in exalted terms and at great length " . The biographer says that Aspasia became so renowned that even Cyrus the Younger , who went to war with the King Artaxerxes II of Persia , gave her name to one of his concubines , who before was called Milto . After Cyrus had fallen in battle , this woman was carried captive to the King and acquired a great influence with him . Lucian calls Aspasia a " model of wisdom " , " the admired of the admirable Olympian " and lauds " her political knowledge and insight , her shrewdness and penetration " . A Syriac text , according to which Aspasia composed a speech and instructed a man to read it for her in the courts , confirms Aspasia 's rhetorical fame . Aspasia is said by the Suda , a 10th @-@ century Byzantine encyclopedia , to have been " clever with regards to words , " a sophist , and to have taught rhetoric .
On the basis of such assessments , researchers such as Cheryl Glenn , Professor at the Pennsylvania State University , argue that Aspasia seems to have been the only woman in classical Greece to have distinguished herself in the public sphere and must have influenced Pericles in the composition of his speeches . Some scholars believe that Aspasia opened an academy for young women of good families or even invented the Socratic method . However , Robert W. Wallace , Professor of classics at Northwestern University , underscores that " we cannot accept as historical the joke that Aspasia taught Pericles how to speak and hence was a master rhetorician or philosopher " . According to Wallace , the intellectual role Aspasia was given by Plato may have derived from comedy . Kagan describes Aspasia as " a beautiful , independent , brilliantly witty young woman capable of holding her own in conversation with the best minds in Greece and of discussing and illuminating any kind of question with her husband " . Roger Just , a classicist and Professor of social anthropology at the University of Kent , believes that Aspasia was an exceptional figure , but her example alone is enough to underline the fact that any woman who was to become the intellectual and social equal of a man would have to be a hetaera . According to Sr. Prudence Allen , a philosopher and seminary professor , Aspasia moved the potential of women to become philosophers one step forward from the poetic inspirations of Sappho .
= = In art = =
The 1979 installation artwork The Dinner Party by feminist Judy Chicago has a place setting for Aspasia among the 39 figured .
= = Historicity of her life = =
The main problem remains , as Jona Lendering points out , that most of the things we know about Aspasia are based on mere hypothesis . Thucydides does not mention her ; our only sources are the untrustworthy representations and speculations recorded by men in literature and philosophy , who did not care at all about Aspasia as a historical character . Therefore , in the figure of Aspasia , we get a range of contradictory portrayals ; she is either a good wife like Theano or some combination of courtesan and prostitute like Thargelia . This is the reason modern scholars express their scepticism about the historicity of Aspasia 's life .
According to Wallace , " for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality " . Hence , Madeleine M. Henry , Professor of Classics at Iowa State University , maintains that " biographical anecdotes that arose in antiquity about Aspasia are wildly colorful , almost completely unverifiable , and still alive and well in the twentieth century " . She finally concludes that " it is possible to map only the barest possibilities for [ Aspasia 's ] life " . According to Charles W. Fornara and Loren J. Samons II , Professors of Classics and history , " it may well be , for all we know , that the real Aspasia was more than a match for her fictional counterpart " .
= Briarcliff Farms =
Briarcliff Farms was a farm established in 1890 by Walter William Law in Briarcliff Manor , a village in Westchester County , New York . One of several enterprises established by Law at the turn of the 20th century , the farm was known for its milk , butter , and cream and also produced other dairy products , American Beauty roses , bottled water , and print media . At its height , the farm was one of the largest dairy operations in the Northeastern United States , operating about 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 sq mi ) with over 1 @,@ 000 Jersey cattle . In 1907 , the farm moved to Pine Plains in New York 's Dutchess County , and it was purchased by New York banker Oakleigh Thorne in 1918 , who developed it into an Angus cattle farm . After Thorne 's death in 1948 , the farm changed hands several times ; in 1968 it became Stockbriar Farm , a beef feeding operation . Stockbriar sold the farmland to its current owners in 1979 .
The farm combined a practical American business model with the concept of a European country seat or manor , with cows being milked constantly , and with milk promptly chilled and bottled within five minutes , and shipped to stores in New York City each night . The farm was progressive , with sterile conditions , numerous employee benefits , good living conditions for livestock , and regular veterinary inspections to maintain a healthy herd . The farm also made use of tenant farming , established working blacksmith , wheelwright , and harness shops on @-@ site , was located around Walter Law 's manor house , and constructed numerous buildings in the Tudor Revival architectural style .
Briarcliff Farms was the original location for the School of Practical Agriculture and Horticulture , established by the New York State Committee for the Promotion of Agriculture in conjunction with Walter Law . The school 's purpose was to teach students in farming , gardening , poultry @-@ keeping , and other agriculture @-@ related skills . The school moved to a farm near Poughkeepsie in 1903 , and the school building was run as a hotel for two years until it became Miss Knox 's School . After the building burned down in 1912 , Miss Knox 's School was relocated several times ; since 1954 , the Knox School has been located in St. James , New York .
= = History = =
James Stillman owned a small farm on Pleasantville Road since at least 1886 . It was known as Briarcliff Farm after John David Ogilby 's estate , Brier Cliff ( itself named after Ogilby 's family home in Ireland ) . In 1887 Stillman had a display at the Great Dairy and Cattle Show in New York City 's Madison Square Garden , where he demonstrated setting milk , churning cream and making butter . In 1890 , Walter Law began purchasing property in the present @-@ day village of Briarcliff Manor as part of his desire for rest and recreation . That year , Law paid James Stillman $ 35 @,@ 000 ( $ 921 @,@ 800 in 2015 ) for his 236 @-@ acre ( 96 ha ) farm and renamed it Briarcliff Farms . In 1893 , The New York Times reported that the 14th Duke of Veragua ( a livestock farmer ) and a large party visited the farm on the afternoon of June 16 ; at that time , the farm had about 330 cattle and 100 sheep . The party went from New York to Scarborough , proceeding by carriage to Briarcliff , and visited the farm 's poultry yard , hennery and stables . After observing the farm 's heifers and stallions , they went to the creamery to taste Briarcliff butter . The guests went to Law 's Yonkers home , Hillcrest , for dinner before returning to New York . After the visit , the duke had said " Well , this is a perfect place . I am delighted with what I have seen . "
In 1898 Law retired from the vice @-@ presidency of W. & J. Sloane , moved with his family to the area and began devoting his time to agriculture . He rapidly added to his holdings , buying about forty parcels in less than ten years ; by 1900 , Law owned more than 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 sq mi ) of Westchester County and was its largest individual landholder . Some previous owners became tenant farmers ; Law received half of the hay and straw from a 160 @-@ acre ( 60 ha ) farm formerly owned by Jesse Bishop , and one @-@ third of everything else . Law and Briarcliff Farms initially deepened the Pocantico River for 2 miles ( 3 km ) , taking out rifts so the stream would flow and adjacent swamps would drain . Workers also cut rock and took out trees lining the swamps to reclaim land for farming .
Law found the soil poor , since it had been farmed for a half @-@ century . The fields were bare , and cows gave poor @-@ quality milk : " I had to begin at the bottom and repair the waste of fifty years . " He improved the soil 's fertility by arranging for manure from New York City streets and stables to be regularly brought to his farm ; for four years , twenty carloads of manure a week were spread on the land . As a result , the farm 's hay yield increased from two to five tons . Law also decided to improve the area 's roads , giving them a base layer of large , closely packed stones and layers of top gravel . He developed his herd ; at first the farm had weak cattle ( many afflicted with tuberculosis ) and " ordinary milk " , but after Law 's development the farm had strong cattle , healthy calves and an abundance of rich milk . Law hired Leonard Pearson ( a professor of veterinary medicine at the University of Pennsylvania ) to check each cow every six months for tuberculosis and other diseases , exceeding New York City Board of Health standards .
Although Law had little knowledge or experience of farming at first , he had enough money to reach his goal of maximizing his dairy farm 's quality and output . Law 's farm had 500 workers tending cattle , pigs , chickens , Thoroughbred horses , pheasants , peacocks and sheep at its peak . In 1900 , when the US government asked Briarcliff Farms to exhibit its milk , butter and cream at Paris ' Exposition Universelle , the farm submitted raw , pasteurized , and sterilized milk ; however , according to the French , " There is no use sending these , for your fresh milk keeps fresh " . The farm contributed to the USDA Bureau of Animal Industry and the New York State Commission to the Paris Exhibition 's joint exhibit , winning gold medals for its milk , cream , and butter and a silver medal for social benefit or economy . Concerned that the farm 's milk had preservatives , French authorities requested an affidavit that no chemicals were added . Photographs by the US government of Briarcliff Farms ' barns , farmland , Law 's mottoes and employees were displayed in the exposition 's Palace of Social Economy and Congress .
On September 2 , 1901 , the farm 's dairy buildings were destroyed by fire . The cause of the fire ( which was discovered in the dairy building 's tower ) was unknown , and the damage was covered by insurance . Law quickly arranged for a temporary dairy in a room of the electric plant which had a boiler for sterilization ; by the afternoon , milk was processed as usual . A larger dairy building was planned closer to the railroad station for faster shipping .
When Briarcliff Manor was incorporated on November 21 , 1902 , Law owned all but two small parcels of the square @-@ mile village and employed nearly all of its residents ( around 100 ) . He developed the village , establishing schools , churches , parks and the Briarcliff Lodge . The population grew , encouraging Law to incorporate the area as a village . A proposition was presented to the supervisors of Mount Pleasant and Ossining on October 8 , 1902 that a 640 @-@ acre ( 260 ha ) area with a population of 331 be incorporated as the Village of Briarcliff Manor , and it was incorporated on November 21 . That year Law 's son , Walter Jr . , joined his father and brother Henry in managing the farm and realty company ; he was the second village president , in office from 1905 to 1918 .
In April 1906 , Governor General of Canada Albert Grey and US Representative and farm architect Edward Burnett drove up from New York City and toured the farm as guests of Walter Law . According to Briarcliff Outlook , they " expressed hearty approval of Briarcliff ways " .
= = = Relocation to Pine Plains = = =
Law developed his Briarcliff Manor property primarily as a corporation until 1907 when , due to rising property values and falling agricultural development in Westchester County , he purchased twelve farms — totaling 3 @,@ 249 acres ( 5 sq mi ) — for Briarcliff Farms on both sides of the Pine Plains @-@ Stanford Road ( present @-@ day New York State Route 82 ) in Pine Plains and began developing his Briarcliff Manor properties for houses , churches and schools . Law 's general manager , George W. Tuttle ( who had worked at Briarcliff Farms since 1901 ) , arranged the Pine Plains purchases and the construction of new barns , a creamery , a power station and other buildings . The barns used Franklin Hiram King 's King ventilation system , and the concrete dairy building cost about $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 658 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) . The farm 's well , 700 feet ( 210 m ) from the barn , was 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) deep and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter .
In 1907 and 1908 , the farm and many of its workers moved to Pine Plains . Although preliminary steps in the relocation were primarily small , the final October 1908 transfer used two trains to move 300 cattle . The rest of the cattle were transferred a day later , to the farm 's main station ( between Pine Plains and Attlebury on the Central New England Railway ) at Barn A. During Briarcliff Manor 's first automobile race in 1908 , the barns were used for mechanic crews and each driver had his own crew weeks before the race . In 1909 Law formed the Briarcliff Realty Company to sell the original Briarcliff Manor property . He sold the Pine Plains property in 1918 and died in 1924 .
On October 9 , 1918 , New York banker Oakleigh Thorne and several partners purchased the 4 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 7 sq mi ) Briarcliff Farms property , cattle and dairy buildings for $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 @.@ 87 million in 2015 ) . Thorne began breeding Aberdeen Angus cattle under the Briarcliff Farms name , and the farm remained well known for its beef . Thorne and W. Alan McGregor began the herd by importing cattle from Scotland in 1925 , and enlarged it through breeding . The Aberdeen Angus industry became prominent in the United States due to Briarcliff Farms ; in 1955 , about 95 percent of US Angus cattle were from Briarcliff stock .
Thorne hired William Harper Pew for Pew 's knowledge of livestock bloodlines . At the time , the farm had over 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 sq mi ) and 1 @,@ 000 purebred Aberdeen Angus cattle ( the largest Aberdeen Angus herd in the country ) . Pew began eighteen Angus herds in Dutchess County , and was a director of the American Angus Association . At the International Livestock Show in 1927 , the farm had the International Grand Champion Female , and in 1930 it had the 1930 International Grand Champion Bull . Because of the 1931 and 1933 expositions , Thorne became first to win a grand champion twice , with two of his livestock awarded International Grand Champion Steers . At the 1934 Dutchess County Fair 's beef @-@ cattle show , 100 cattle and steers were exhibited . Briarcliff Aristocrat , a summer yearling weighing 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) , was named the grand champion steer . The grand champion bull was the farm 's Briarcliff Barbarian 8th , the first @-@ prize senior yearling of the 1933 International Livestock Show . The grand champion female was Briarcliff Mighonne 10th , the first @-@ prize senior yearling heifer of the 1933 international show .
The farm had an impact on a number of herds , and the Briarcliff prefix is still seen in many pedigrees . In 1935 the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 3 sq mi ) portion of the farm east of the road was sold to Henry Jackson , who named it Bethel Farms . After Thorne 's death in 1948 , Briarcliff Farms changed hands a number of times . In 1968 it became Stockbriar Farm , a beef @-@ feeding operation . Stockbriar tried to sell the farm several times , and it nearly became a county zoo . In 1979 , Stockbriar sold the farmland to the Conservation and Preservation Association ( CAPA ) for $ 2 @.@ 1 million ( $ 6 @.@ 85 million in 2015 ) .
In 1982 CAPA hired a Millbrook realtor , who advertised the farm for $ 2 @.@ 75 million ( $ 6 @.@ 74 million in 2015 ) in The New York Times , The Wall Street Journal and newspapers published by Taconic Press . Around that time Stockbriar Farms filed four lawsuits against CAPA and its lessee ( Mashomack Fish and Game Preserve ) over the Pine Plains farm , claiming that the preserve operated a private club without a liquor permit and CAPA missed a March 23 , 1982 payment which was the bulk of its total payment for the farm . Stockbriar Farms requested that Mashomack be evicted , and its property returned . One lawsuit was filed in county court , and the other three were filed in New York Supreme Court . Although Mashomack and CAPA won the first two , in 1984 a state supreme court justice ordered Mashomack and CAPA to vacate the property and Stockbriar Farms remained for sale .
= = Locations = =
= = = Briarcliff Manor = = =
The farm , overlooking the Hudson River , was established between the Hudson and Pocantico Rivers in the hamlet of Whitson 's Corners ( present @-@ day Briarcliff Manor ) , 27 miles ( 40 km ) from Manhattan . Its location was described in 1901 as " the most healthy , hilly portion of Westchester ... where there are neither swamps nor contaminated streams of water " . The original land plot , four miles ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) long and three miles ( 4 @,@ 800 m ) wide , was developed within twelve years . In 1901 , Briarcliff Farms ( including its school farm ) encompassed 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 9 sq mi ) between Pleasantville and Old Briarcliff Roads north of Scarborough Road . At its peak , its original location covered 7 @,@ 800 acres ( 10 sq mi ) . In Briarcliff Manor , the farm had six main barns : Barn A , near its office building on Pleasantville Road , housed the horses for the farm and the Briarcliff Lodge . The farm 's blacksmith , wheelwright , harness shops and other buildings were located around that barn , and a smokehouse and butcher 's shop were on @-@ site . Barns B ( housing 78 cattle ) and C ( housing 118 cattle ) were at the south end of Dalmeny Road ; Barn D ( housing 116 cattle ) , between Beech Hill Road and New York State Route 117 , was later used as a boarding stable for horses . Barn E ( housing 118 cattle ) was on Pleasantville Road just east of the present Taconic State Parkway , and Barn F ( housing 118 cattle ) was in Millwood near the intersection of the Taconic and New York State Route 100 . The farm also had a large barn near New York State Route 9A for supplies , including feed for the farm . Each barn had an ice shed to cool milk ; ice was harvested primarily from Echo Lake ( source of the Pocantico River ) , with Kinderogen Lake ( now part of the Edith Macy Conference Center ) as a supplemental source . The farm had a large supply store , with feed and other items , southeast of the service station at North State and Pleasantville Roads .
The Briarcliff Farms office , Walter Law 's personal office , was also the first dairy building ; it burned down in 1901 , and was rebuilt the following year . From Briarcliff Manor 's 1902 incorporation to the construction of its first municipal building in 1913 , the office housed the village government . During the 1960s the building was redesigned , rebuilt and became a local union headquarters for the International Union of Operating Engineers . The farm was enclosed , and its pastures were divided by stone walls from within the farm ; the stones were also used for roadbeds , and for walls of the farm buildings , office , and Law 's house .
Walter Law encouraged his Briarcliff Farms employees to move into the village , selling 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) or 11 @,@ 250 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 045 m2 ) plots of land to workers for a nominal price . He asked workers to choose the type of house they wanted ; he would have it built and hold the mortgage , or allow them to rent a cottage . Law built several wood @-@ framed cottages near the farms , with steep front @-@ gable roofs and open porches using some of the first @-@ floor space . Of the cottages still standing , six are on Dalmeny Road and three are on Old Briarcliff Road . The farm also owned and operated a farm in Peekskill previously owned by John Paulding , a militiaman who helped capture British major John André , running the Peekskill farm as a nursery for maples , oaks , lindens , hemlocks , spruces and other trees . During the early 1900s Law purchased farms in Lewisboro and Pound Ridge , using those farms to replenish the main farm 's cattle herd . He also purchased a house in Pound Ridge , which his Briarcliff Realty Company sold to Westchester County after his death ; it became the headquarters of the Ward Pound Ridge Reservation , the county 's largest park .
= = = = Dalmeny = = = =
Walter Law provided Dalmeny , a boarding house on Dalmeny Road , for the farm 's single men . The building , modeled after the Mills Houses in New York City , was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and four stories tall . Its first floor had a social hall for meetings and entertainment , a parlor and reading room equipped with books , newspapers , magazines , and games , a large dining room , a private dining room , a kitchen and a bathroom with marble basins and clean towels . The upper floors had seventy individual bedrooms for the men , with bathrooms with showers and tubs on every floor . Dalmeny also had a resident barber . Farm workers were not required to live in the boarding house , although the number of people wanting to live there exceeded the space available . Rent was $ 15 – 18 per month , including room , board and laundry . Law frequently joined the men at meals , lecturers visited the boarding house and the farm workers had a performing orchestra , brass band and glee club .
Dalmeny opened on Christmas 1899 and closed in July 1908 , in conjunction with the farm 's relocation to Upstate New York . Over a period of several months in 1909 the building was moved to the Briarcliff Lodge property , where it was adjacent to the Lodge 's laundry building . When the Lodge was the campus of King 's College from 1955 to 1994 , the school called the former boarding house Harmony Hall and used it for classrooms and staff housing . In autumn 1979 , King 's College demolished the building shortly after dedicating a new classroom building .
= = = Pine Plains = = =
Briarcliff Farms ' second location , in the town of Pine Plains , initially covered 3 @,@ 249 acres ( 5 sq mi ) . The farm , 2 miles ( 3 km ) from the hamlet of Pine Plains , was adjacent to the Central New England Railway in the shallow Stissing Basin and 12 miles ( 20 km ) from the Hudson River . The Pine Plains farm had three barns , each built at a cost of about $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 526 @,@ 700 in 2015 ) and housing 200 Jersey cattle bedded in sawdust or shavings . Barn B was in the Pine Plains hamlet of Bethel and Barn C was farther south , in the town of Stanford .
= = Operations = =
The farm utilized the concept of a European country seat , through tenant farming , established blacksmith , wheelwright , and harness shops on @-@ site , in addition to a butcher shop and smokehouse . Buildings were centrally located around Walter Law 's manor house , many of which were constructed in the Tudor Revival style . The farm 's office building , Dysart House , the Briarcliff Lodge , and the railroad station shared that architectural style .
The farm , one of the first producers of certified milk in the US , operated under the supervision of the Milk Commission of the Medical Society of the County of New York . With the farm producing about 4 @,@ 500 US quarts ( 4 @,@ 300 litres ) of milk daily ( an average of 8 US quarts ( 7 @.@ 6 litres ) per cow per day ) , Briarcliff Farms was one of the largest dairy operations in the northeast . According to Nebraska 's department of agriculture in 1903 , the three largest owners of dairy cows in the eastern US were Fairfield Farm Dairy in New Jersey , Briarcliff Farms and the Walker @-@ Gordon Laboratory Company ( which had " branches in all of the principal cities " ) . In 1897 the farm had Jersey , Normande and Simmental cattle , selling the breeds ' milk for 10 , 12 and 15 cents per quart respectively . Briarcliff Farms also sold cream ( with 50 percent butterfat ) for 60 cents per quart , Jersey butter for 50 cents per pound and Normande or Simmental butter for 60 cents per pound . In 1909 , half the farm 's herd consisted of registered Jerseys and the other half high @-@ grade Jerseys . In Pine Plains , many of Barn B 's milkers were from the Netherlands because of that country 's reputation for good milkers .
In 1905 , Briarcliff Farms was milking nearly 500 cows at any given time . The farm raised its own stock , feeding the cattle eight pounds of dry feed twice a day with pasture and green corn in summer . The feed mixture was 50 percent bran , 25 percent crushed oats and 25 percent cornmeal , all of which were claimed to be the best available . The farm required that each cow produce 6 @,@ 000 pounds of milk with 5 percent butterfat or 5 @,@ 000 pounds of milk with 6 percent butterfat , or she would be butchered or sold . Each cow ate an average of seven pounds of grain per day ( varying from two pounds on pasture to 12 in winter ) , 1 @.@ 5 to 2 pounds of oil meal each day and free @-@ choice timothy and clover hay — 17 – 20 pounds ( 7 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 1 kg ) daily , depending on size . Each worker milked , cleaned and groomed 16 to 18 cattle daily . The New York Milk Commission analyzed the farm 's milk weekly ; although the board of health regulations in New York allowed three million bacteria per cubic centimeter in milk , the milk commission limited bacteria to 30 @,@ 000 . The farm chilled its milk within two minutes of milking to 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) , often limiting its bacteria counts to 200 – 400 per cc . A chemical analysis of the milk was performed every month ; although regulations required a minimum of three percent butterfat , Briarcliff required its milk to have over five percent butterfat to be sold . A March 1905 New York Milk Commission analysis indicated that the farm 's milk had 8 @.@ 2 percent butterfat , the " richest Briarcliff product ever reported on " .
In 1901 the farm had 1 @,@ 045 Jersey cattle , 4 @,@ 000 chickens and ducks , 1 @,@ 500 pigs , and 400 sheep . It grew , with 500 workers tending those animals in addition to Thoroughbred horses , pheasants and peacocks . The pigs ( which included Chester Whites and Berkshires ) lived outdoors , because the farm superintendent believed they should be penned only for breeding ; in summer , they were allowed to run in the orchards or the woods . About 2 @,@ 000 were butchered each year . The farm 's 31 poultry houses had a head poulterer and 40 assistants ; each building was 18 by 100 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 by 30 @.@ 5 m ) , and they were spread around the property . The farm , which used 300 @-@ egg insulators , fed the hens a mix of grains ( including oats , wheat and corn ) five times a day . The farm butchered 7 @,@ 000 broilers each season . Eggs sold for 35 to 50 cents per dozen , with demand exceeding supply . Broilers sold for $ 1 @.@ 50 ( $ 43 in 2015 ) to $ 3 @.@ 00 ( $ 85 in 2015 ) per pair . Briarcliff Farms raised about 300 lambs each spring , primarily Dorset Horns . The lambs , which were dressed ( their internal organs removed ) on the farm , sold for $ 12 ( $ 341 in 2015 ) or more apiece ; demand also exceeded supply .
The farm gardens grew a variety of crops , adapting to the market ; in 1900 this included oats , rye , corn , wheat , buckwheat , carrots , mangolds , turnips , rutabagas , radishes , sugar beets , potatoes , apples , cabbages , rye , oat , and wheat straw , hay , corn stalks and silage . The farm rotated its grain production to grow better vegetables . At one time the farm had 12 acres ( 0 @.@ 02 sq mi ) of asparagus , which sold for 35 to 50 cents per bunch .
Briarcliff Farms operated a printing press and office north of the farm office on Pleasantville Road . The print shop produced Briarcliff Farms , the Briarcliff Bulletin in 1900 , the monthly Briarcliff Outlook in 1903 and The Briarcliff Once @-@ a @-@ Week in 1908 ( all edited by Arthur W. Emerson ) and bottle caps for Briarcliff dairy products . The Briarcliff Table Water Company sold its products in New York City , Lakewood , New Jersey and the Westchester municipalities of Yonkers , Tarrytown , White Plains , and Ossining . The company owned 250 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 76 m ) wells . Around 1901 , the Briarcliff Steamer Company No. 1 ( later the Briarcliff Manor Fire Department ) housed its equipment and horses at Briarcliff Farms ' Barn A. The American Plasmon Syndicate , a producer of the dried milk product plasmon , had its factory in Briarcliff for milk from Briarcliff Farms ; the farm built the factory and its power plant .
In a 1900 publication the farm 's motto was reported to be " The production of pure food of the highest standard of excellence " , although a 1902 publication reported that its motto was " Do unto a cow as you would that a cow would do unto you " ( also saying that the motto appeared in large letters in every barn on the farm ) . Notices printed by the farm began with the verse , " If a Cobbler by trade , I 'll make it my pride , the best of all Cobblers to be ; and if only a Tinker , no Tinker on earth shall mend an old Kettle like me " ; this verse and several other mottoes decorated friezes on the interior walls of the Dalmeny boarding house .
= = = Processing and delivery = = =
At its peak , the farm delivered milk to areas from Albany to New York City . After it was cooled , the milk was brought daily to the dairy @-@ processing building , where it was poured into a large , sterilized tank and forced — with compressed air at 160 US quarts ( 150 @,@ 000 ml ) per minute — through sterilized pipes to the building 's second floor . There the milk was cooled , strained five times and bottled . The bottles were sealed with parchment circles with the supervising commission 's certification and the date , and then put in boxes with ice . The entire process , from entering the building to bottling , took five minutes . Every utensil contacting the milk ( or workers ) would be regularly sterilized with live steam . The building was as free of bacteria as the farm could make it ; its rooms had white @-@ tiled walls and floors , with coving ( concave tiling ) between the walls and floors for better cleaning . Milk bottles were reused after several cleanings with rotating wire brushes and two hours of heat sterilization .
The farm 's products were packaged as milk , cream , butter or kumyss , and sent every night on the New York and Putnam Railroad to New York City for delivery the next day ; they were also sold in the farm 's stores or from wagons . Briarcliff Farms had three stores in New York City and stores in Greenwich , Connecticut , Yonkers , Dobbs Ferry and Tarrytown . The farm 's first New York City store was in Manhattan 's Windsor Arcade , at Fifth Avenue and 46th Street , and it had an office in the Seymour Building at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street . The office produced advertisements for the New @-@ York Tribune , The New York Times , New York Evening Post and the Mail and Express ( papers which , according to Printers ' Ink , advertised to wealthy residents ) . The farm 's stores sold Briarcliff dairy products and table water . Milk was sent to the Hotel Lorraine , the St. Regis , the Waldorf Astoria , Mendel 's Lunch Room at Grand Central Station [ sic ] and Milhau 's Drug Store on Broadway , and kumyss was sent to seventeen New York City drugstores . Milk was sold to stores in New York free on board for $ 0 @.@ 084 ( $ 2 @.@ 13 in 2015 ) per quart . The farm also supplied the Briarcliff Lodge with cream , milk , butter , eggs and vegetables . It shipped its products in zinc @-@ lined cases on ocean @-@ going steamers and shipped nationwide every day except Sunday ( shipping a double order on Saturday ) . The farm 's milk was processed into milk , cheese , butter or buttermilk at its Barn A creamery in Pine Plains , and packaged for its 101 @-@ mile ( 200 km ) rail shipment to New York City .
= = = Ethos and advances = = =
In 1906 , Andrew Carnegie wrote about Briarcliff Farms : " Every known appliance or mode of treatment is at hand , and the herd is pronounced free from all and every ailment . In cases of doubt animals are sacrificed " . The farm used the best obtainable stock , with extensive experimenting , for its products . The operation immediately removed every cow that appeared ill , and many cattle were butchered during the farm 's first few years to improve the herd 's overall health . According to Walter Law , " It is not the cows that have been put in , but those which have been taken out , that have made the Briarcliff herd what it is " . The farm 's large , light barns had concrete floors , which were cleaned daily , and up @-@ to @-@ date appliances for separating , churning , handling and packing its products .
Law made annual five @-@ dollar cash awards ( $ 142 in 2015 ) to workers in September ( giving them out at Dalmeny on December 24 ) , which included " most gentle with cows " , " most careful teamster in feeding his horses and keeping his stables clean " , " cleanest delivery wagon " , " neatest house yard " , " best garden truck " and " best @-@ kept room in Dalmeny " ; the farm emphasized the commercial value of such virtues . On Christmas Eve , after the Briarcliff Orchestra played George Frideric Handel 's " Largo " , Law spoke about the farm 's improvements that year and awarded the prizes . The orchestra was made up of the farm 's workers , and among its members was Law 's son Walter Jr .
Briarcliff Farms intended to prove that optimal farming practices could be profitable . Law believed that kind treatment would produce better cattle , and was intolerant of animal abuse : " Cruelty to a cow is the same as cruelty to me , and shall never be permitted on this farm . " He knew everyone who lived at the farms , and the farm workers knew the name of each cow ( which was on a brass plate at the front of the cow 's stall ) . The cows were sponged several times a day , and workers wore white cotton suits which were sterilized daily by boiling . Law treated his workers as intelligent co @-@ workers , rather than laborers . Each cow was groomed before milking , and a pail of warm water and a brush would then be used on her sides , flanks and udders . The flank and udder were washed again with a one @-@ percent creolin solution , rinsed and dried . Workers would milk into a fine wire strainer placed over a pail ; during milking no talking , laughing , smoking or spitting was permitted , since such behavior was claimed to have a " perceptible effect upon their milk " . The workers were required to wash their hands thoroughly after cleaning the udders and before milking each cow . Each worker had a set of towels and washed , cared for and milked 15 or 16 cows . The cattle grazed from early spring until late autumn , and were in the barns only for milking . In 1901 , The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review said it doubted that any other large New York @-@ area dairy did this .
The farm had a veterinary chemist and a laboratory for regular milk analysis . Its dairy plant had a visitor @-@ observation area , permitting the viewing of each step of the farm 's dairy processing . In one room ( separated from the viewing area by glass doors ) , cream was skimmed ; in a second milk was bottled , and in a third butter was churned . The building 's sterilizing , pasteurizing , and shipping departments were in the basement . Briarcliff Farms shipped 2 @,@ 000 US quarts ( 1 @,@ 900 l ) of milk , 300 US quarts ( 280 l ) of cream and 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) of butter each day . Students from the Ethical Culture School and nurses from New York City hospitals visited the farm to learn about its practices in relation to their work , and Briarcliff Farms was reportedly chosen as the most typical New York industry available for inspection .
= = = Greenhouses = = =
Although Briarcliff Farms ' primary operation was dairy , a secondary agricultural product was its American Beauty rose . The farm had two groups of greenhouses ; one , behind Walter Law 's house and west of the Briarcliff Lodge , produced decorations for Briarcliff Farms , the Briarcliff Lodge and Law 's and his workers ' houses . The other group , the Pierson commercial greenhouses , grew the American Beauty rose and rare carnations ; it produced 22 varieties and about 2 @,@ 500 blooms a day . The greenhouses , advanced for their time , had light steel frames and glass panes unique in their " almost unshadowed exposure to the light " . The newer greenhouses , 50 by 300 feet ( 15 by 91 m ) , held up to 40 @,@ 000 plants apiece . The Pierson roses , which earned up to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @.@ 84 million in 2015 ) a year , were sold in winter for eight to 12 cents each with most shipped to New York City . The Briarcliff Lodge sponsored an annual American Beauty carnival with a golf tournament , water sports , moonlight bathing and night diving , a dinner dance , a cinema program and a concert .
Greenhouse foreman George Romaine propagated an American Beauty rose with longer , more @-@ pointed buds and a brighter color , and Paul M. Pierson registered it with the American Rose Society as the Briarcliff Rose . It is Briarcliff Manor 's village symbol , and since 2006 has been used on village street signs . Although the Briarcliff Manor Garden Club also uses the Briarcliff Rose as its symbol , the variety is now lost .
= = School of Practical Agriculture = =
During the winter of 1895 @-@ 96 , the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor researched the causes of youth moving from the country to cities to develop the most efficient method of attracting them back to the country . That , and an examination of agricultural needs for a year , resulted in meetings at the homes of Abram S. Hewitt and R. Fulton Cutting and the formation of the New York State Committee for the Promotion of Agriculture . The committee , chaired by Hewitt , included Cutting , Jacob H. Schiff , John G. Carlisle , Mrs. Seth Low , Josephine Shaw Lowell , Walter Law and William E. Dodge . Its board of trustees had five officers ( with Theodore L. Van Norden president ) and seventeen other trustees , including Law , V. Everit Macy and James Speyer . George T. Powell , a " recognized authority on scientific agriculture " according to The New York Times , was consulted ; he later organized the school and became its director . When Walter Law was included the school took shape , since he provided its land and building . In September 1900 , Law and the committee established the School of Practical Agriculture and Horticulture as part of Briarcliff Farms , on an elevated 66 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) site about midway between the Briarcliff Manor and Pleasantville train stations on Pleasantville Road . Law leased the 66 acres ( which were worth $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 28 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) an acre ) for 20 years at the rate of a dollar per year , gave the trustees $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 853 @,@ 300 in 2015 ) to build a dormitory and promised them $ 3 @,@ 000 ( $ 85 @,@ 300 in 2015 ) a year for expenses until the school earned a profit . With that and $ 30 @,@ 000 from the trustees , the school opened ; the committee focused the curriculum on horticulture , floriculture , gardening and aviculture . The school 's progress was followed by members of the public interested in agricultural education .
When it was founded , the school was considered an experiment . Its goal was " to open an independent means of livelihood for young men and women , especially of our cities ; to demonstrate that higher values may be obtained from land under intelligent management , and to develop a taste for rural life . " Most students were trained in garden and farm operations in a two @-@ year course , with short summer courses in nature study also offered . The academic year had three terms , with twelve weeks of vacation . Although the school allowed new students to begin at any term , a September start was considered the most desirable . Instruction was offered in agriculture , horticulture , cold storage , botany , chemistry , geology , physics , agricultural zoology , entomology , beekeeping , meteorology , land surveying and leveling , soils , drainage , irrigation , tillage , fertilizers , plant diseases , stock , fruit growing , landscape gardening and bookkeeping . It was a practical school , with no attempt to provide a general education . Work included caring for orchard trees and bush fruit , greenhouse culture of fruits and vegetables , jelly- and jam @-@ making , market gardening , tillage , fertilizer use , hybridizing and propagating flowers , harvesting and marketing crops . The school used Briarcliff Farms , where students worked the land , tested milk and cared for a variety of animals . Students also raised flowers , vegetables and fruit , and accompanied their products to cities for marketing . The New York Botanical Garden arranged with the school for student access to its lectures , museums and conservatories . Tuition was $ 100 a year ( $ 2 @,@ 800 in 2015 ) , and board $ 280 a year ( $ 8 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Instruction was primarily weekday @-@ morning lectures with laboratory work ; during the afternoon , students worked on the school farm ( which had a foreman , gardener and several workmen to ensure continuous operation ) under instructor supervision . In 1901 35 students attended , followed by 34 in 1902 ( almost all from cities ) , ranging in age from 16 to 35 . Most had a high @-@ school education before enrolling , and some had been to college . The school had a capacity of 35 students , and planned to expand .
For one year it met in the basement of Pleasantville 's public school ( until the Briarcliff Farms building was completed ) , and did not provide housing . The farm building was completed in spring 1901 and dedicated on May 15 . The large Colonial Revival building , with a plain exterior and wide halls , had lecture halls , a library , a laboratory , an office , a dining hall and dormitory space for 40 staff members and students . Its grounds had an orchard , a working garden , experimental greenhouses , poultry houses , a farmhouse and barns . The school 's faculty included a director , a horticulturalist , an agriculturalist and instructors in nature study and cold storage . It was coeducational , with identical courses for men and women . Students were required to be proficient in English , provide good references , be at least 16 years of age , and be in good health . On January 1 , 1902 Henry Francis du Pont , then in his third year at Harvard University , wrote to Powell requesting admission to the school ; Powell replied that DuPont was listed first in the school 's 1903 class . However , DuPont was unable to attend and left Harvard ( perhaps due to his mother 's sudden death in autumn 1902 ) .
= = = Relocation and closure = = =
The school outgrew its Briarcliff location , and in autumn 1902 R. Fulton Cutting purchased a 415 @-@ acre ( 168 ha ) farm near Poughkeepsie as a permanent upstate location . It had been popularly known as the Briarcliff School , and after the move it was formally known as the School of Practical Agriculture at Poughkeepsie . When the school was established , Theodore Van Norden said that it needed funds for equipment and an endowment . The land had no buildings , and the school rented two houses in Poughkeepsie until funds were obtained to build . It initially hoped to raise one million dollars ; in 1903 , after raising $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 32 million in 2015 ) of a hoped @-@ for $ 150 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @.@ 95 million in 2015 ) to operate the school , director George Powell announced that it would close and the property be sold . Cutting presented a plan to the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts to carry out the plan devised for the school in Poughkeepsie . In 1908 , school funds were donated to Cornell University as the Agricultural Student Loan Fund for students in Cornell 's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences .
From 1903 to 1905 the original school building was known as Pocantico Lodge , a small year @-@ round hotel . In 1905 Alice Knox , an employee at Mrs. Dow 's School , opened Miss Knox 's School in the building . Destroyed by fire
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Hermann Weyl , Élie Cartan and many others . Its algebraic counterpart , the theory of algebraic groups , was first shaped by Claude Chevalley ( from the late 1930s ) and later by the work of Armand Borel and Jacques Tits .
The University of Chicago 's 1960 – 61 Group Theory Year brought together group theorists such as Daniel Gorenstein , John G. Thompson and Walter Feit , laying the foundation of a collaboration that , with input from numerous other mathematicians , led to the classification of finite simple groups , with the final step taken by Aschbacher and Smith in 2004 . This project exceeded previous mathematical endeavours by its sheer size , in both length of proof and number of researchers . Research is ongoing to simplify the proof of this classification . These days , group theory is still a highly active mathematical branch , impacting many other fields .
= = Elementary consequences of the group axioms = =
Basic facts about all groups that can be obtained directly from the group axioms are commonly subsumed under elementary group theory . For example , repeated applications of the associativity axiom show that the unambiguity of
a • b • c
= ( a • b ) • c =
a • ( b • c )
generalizes to more than three factors . Because this implies that parentheses can be inserted anywhere within such a series of terms , parentheses are usually omitted .
The axioms may be weakened to assert only the existence of a left identity and left inverses . Both can be shown to be actually two @-@ sided , so the resulting definition is equivalent to the one given above .
= = = Uniqueness of identity element and inverses = = =
Two important consequences of the group axioms are the uniqueness of the identity element and the uniqueness of inverse elements . There can be only one identity element in a group , and each element in a group has exactly one inverse element . Thus , it is customary to speak of the identity , and the inverse of an element .
To prove the uniqueness of an inverse element of a , suppose that a has two inverses , denoted b and c , in a group ( G , • ) . Then
The term b on the first line above and the c on the last are equal , since they are connected by a chain of equalities . In other words , there is only one inverse element of a . Similarly , to prove that the identity element of a group is unique , assume G is a group with two identity elements e and f . Then e
= e • f =
f , hence e and f are equal .
= = = Division = = =
In groups , the invertibility of the group action means that division is possible : given elements a and b of the group G , there is exactly one solution x in G to the equation x • a
= b . In fact , right multiplication of the equation by a − 1 gives the solution x =
x • a • a − 1
= b • a − 1 . Similarly there is exactly one solution y in G to the equation a • y =
b , namely y
= a − 1 • b . If the • operation is commutative , we get that x =
y . If not , x may be different from y .
A consequence of this is that multiplying by a group element g is a bijection . Specifically , if g is an element of the group G , there is a bijection from G to itself called left translation by g sending h ∈ G to g • h . Similarly , right translation by g is a bijection from G to itself sending h to h • g . If G is abelian , left and right translation by a group element are the same .
= = Basic concepts = =
To understand groups beyond the level of mere symbolic manipulations as above , more structural concepts have to be employed . There is a conceptual principle underlying all of the following notions : to take advantage of the structure offered by groups ( which sets , being " structureless " , do not have ) , constructions related to groups have to be compatible with the group operation . This compatibility manifests itself in the following notions in various ways . For example , groups can be related to each other via functions called group homomorphisms . By the mentioned principle , they are required to respect the group structures in a precise sense . The structure of groups can also be understood by breaking them into pieces called subgroups and quotient groups . The principle of " preserving structures " — a recurring topic in mathematics throughout — is an instance of working in a category , in this case the category of groups .
= = = Group homomorphisms = = =
Group homomorphisms are functions that preserve group structure . A function a : G → H between two groups ( G , • ) and ( H , ∗ ) is called a homomorphism if the equation
a ( g • k )
= a ( g ) ∗ a ( k )
holds for all elements g , k in G. In other words , the result is the same when performing the group operation after or before applying the map a . This requirement ensures that a ( 1G ) =
1H , and also a ( g ) − 1
= a ( g − 1 ) for all g in G. Thus a group homomorphism respects all the structure of G provided by the group axioms .
Two groups G and H are called isomorphic if there exist group homomorphisms a : G → H and b : H → G , such that applying the two functions one after another in each of the two possible orders gives the identity functions of G and H. That is , a ( b ( h ) ) =
h and b ( a ( g ) )
= g for any g in G and h in H. From an abstract point of view , isomorphic groups carry the same information . For example , proving that g • g =
1G for some element g of G is equivalent to proving that a ( g ) ∗ a ( g ) = 1H , because applying a to the first equality yields the second , and applying b to the second gives back the first .
= = = Subgroups = = =
Informally , a subgroup is a group H contained within a bigger one , G. Concretely , the identity element of G is contained in H , and whenever h1 and h2 are in H , then so are h1 • h2 and h1 − 1 , so the elements of H , equipped with the group operation on G restricted to H , indeed form a group .
In the example above , the identity and the rotations constitute a subgroup R
= { id , r1 , r2 , r3 } , highlighted in red in the group table above : any two rotations composed are still a rotation , and a rotation can be undone by ( i.e. is inverse to ) the complementary rotations 270 ° for 90 ° , 180 ° for 180 ° , and 90 ° for 270 ° ( note that rotation in the opposite direction is not defined ) . The subgroup test is a necessary and sufficient condition for a nonempty subset H of a group G to be a subgroup : it is sufficient to check that g − 1h ∈ H for all elements g , h ∈ H. Knowing the subgroups is important in understanding the group as a whole .
Given any subset S of a group G , the subgroup generated by S consists of products of elements of S and their inverses . It is the smallest subgroup of G containing S. In the introductory example above , the subgroup generated by r2 and fv consists of these two elements , the identity element id and fh =
fv • r2 . Again , this is a subgroup , because combining any two of these four elements or their inverses ( which are , in this particular case , these same elements ) yields an element of this subgroup .
= = = Cosets = = =
In many situations it is desirable to consider two group elements the same if they differ by an element of a given subgroup . For example , in D4 above , once a reflection is performed , the square never gets back to the r2 configuration by just applying the rotation operations ( and no further reflections ) , i.e. the rotation operations are irrelevant to the question whether a reflection has been performed . Cosets are used to formalize this insight : a subgroup H defines left and right cosets , which can be thought of as translations of H by arbitrary group elements g . In symbolic terms , the left and right cosets of H containing g are
gH
= { g • h : h ∈ H } and Hg =
{ h • g : h ∈ H } , respectively .
The left cosets of any subgroup H form a partition of G ; that is , the union of all left cosets is equal to G and two left cosets are either equal or have an empty intersection . The first case g1H
= g2H happens precisely when g1 − 1 • g2 ∈ H , i.e. if the two elements differ by an element of H. Similar considerations apply to the right cosets of H. The left and right cosets of H may or may not be equal . If they are , i.e. for all g in G , gH =
Hg , then H is said to be a normal subgroup .
In D4 , the introductory symmetry group , the left cosets gR of the subgroup R consisting of the rotations are either equal to R , if g is an element of R itself , or otherwise equal to U
= fcR =
{ fc , fv , fd , fh } ( highlighted in green ) . The subgroup R is also normal , because fcR
= U =
Rfc and similarly for any element other than fc . ( In fact , in the case of D4 , observe that all such cosets are equal , such that fhR
= fvR =
fdR = fcR . )
= = = Quotient groups = = =
In some situations the set of cosets of a subgroup can be endowed with a group law , giving a quotient group or factor group . For this to be possible , the subgroup has to be normal . Given any normal subgroup N , the quotient group is defined by
G / N
= { gN , g ∈ G } , " G modulo N " .
This set inherits a group operation ( sometimes called coset multiplication , or coset addition ) from the original group G : ( gN ) • ( hN ) =
( gh ) N for all g and h in G. This definition is motivated by the idea ( itself an instance of general structural considerations outlined above ) that the map G → G / N that associates to any element g its coset gN be a group homomorphism , or by general abstract considerations called universal properties . The coset eN
= N serves as the identity in this group , and the inverse of gN in the quotient group is ( gN ) − 1 =
( g − 1 ) N.
The elements of the quotient group D4 / R are R itself , which represents the identity , and U
= fvR . The group operation on the quotient is shown at the right . For example , U • U =
fvR • fvR
= ( fv • fv ) R =
R. Both the subgroup R
= { id , r1 , r2 , r3 } , as well as the corresponding quotient are abelian , whereas D4 is not abelian . Building bigger groups by smaller ones , such as D4 from its subgroup R and the quotient D4 / R is abstracted by a notion called semidirect product .
Quotient groups and subgroups together form a way of describing every group by its presentation : any group is the quotient of the free group over the generators of the group , quotiented by the subgroup of relations . The dihedral group D4 , for example , can be generated by two elements r and f ( for example , r =
r1 , the right rotation and f
= fv the vertical ( or any other ) reflection ) , which means that every symmetry of the square is a finite composition of these two symmetries or their inverses . Together with the relations
r 4 =
f 2
= ( r • f ) 2 =
1 @,@
the group is completely described . A presentation of a group can also be used to construct the Cayley graph , a device used to graphically capture discrete groups .
Sub- and quotient groups are related in the following way : a subset H of G can be seen as an injective map H → G , i.e. any element of the target has at most one element that maps to it . The counterpart to injective maps are surjective maps ( every element of the target is mapped onto ) , such as the canonical map G → G / N. Interpreting subgroup and quotients in light of these homomorphisms emphasizes the structural concept inherent to these definitions alluded to in the introduction . In general , homomorphisms are neither injective nor surjective . Kernel and image of group homomorphisms and the first isomorphism theorem address this phenomenon .
= = Examples and applications = =
Examples and applications of groups abound . A starting point is the group Z of integers with addition as group operation , introduced above . If instead of addition multiplication is considered , one obtains multiplicative groups . These groups are predecessors of important constructions in abstract algebra .
Groups are also applied in many other mathematical areas . Mathematical objects are often examined by associating groups to them and studying the properties of the corresponding groups . For example , Henri Poincaré founded what is now called algebraic topology by introducing the fundamental group . By means of this connection , topological properties such as proximity and continuity translate into properties of groups . For example , elements of the fundamental group are represented by loops . The second image at the right shows some loops in a plane minus a point . The blue loop is considered null @-@ homotopic ( and thus irrelevant ) , because it can be continuously shrunk to a point . The presence of the hole prevents the orange loop from being shrunk to a point . The fundamental group of the plane with a point deleted turns out to be infinite cyclic , generated by the orange loop ( or any other loop winding once around the hole ) . This way , the fundamental group detects the hole .
In more recent applications , the influence has also been reversed to motivate geometric constructions by a group @-@ theoretical background . In a similar vein , geometric group theory employs geometric concepts , for example in the study of hyperbolic groups . Further branches crucially applying groups include algebraic geometry and number theory .
In addition to the above theoretical applications , many practical applications of groups exist . Cryptography relies on the combination of the abstract group theory approach together with algorithmical knowledge obtained in computational group theory , in particular when implemented for finite groups . Applications of group theory are not restricted to mathematics ; sciences such as physics , chemistry and computer science benefit from the concept .
= = = Numbers = = =
Many number systems , such as the integers and the rationals enjoy a naturally given group structure . In some cases , such as with the rationals , both addition and multiplication operations give rise to group structures . Such number systems are predecessors to more general algebraic structures known as rings and fields . Further abstract algebraic concepts such as modules , vector spaces and algebras also form groups .
= = = = Integers = = = =
The group of integers Z under addition , denoted ( Z , + ) , has been described above . The integers , with the operation of multiplication instead of addition , ( Z , · ) do not form a group . The closure , associativity and identity axioms are satisfied , but inverses do not exist : for example , a
= 2 is an integer , but the only solution to the equation a · b =
1 in this case is b = 1 / 2 , which is a rational number , but not an integer . Hence not every element of Z has a ( multiplicative ) inverse .
= = = = Rationals = = = =
The desire for the existence of multiplicative inverses suggests considering fractions
<formula>
Fractions of integers ( with b nonzero ) are known as rational numbers . The set of all such fractions is commonly denoted Q. There is still a minor obstacle for ( Q , · ) , the rationals with multiplication , being a group : because the rational number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse ( i.e. , there is no x such that x · 0
= 1 ) , ( Q , · ) is still not a group .
However , the set of all nonzero rational numbers Q ∖ { 0 } =
{ q ∈ Q | q ≠ 0 } does form an abelian group under multiplication , denoted ( Q ∖ { 0 } , · ) . Associativity and identity element axioms follow from the properties of integers . The closure requirement still holds true after removing zero , because the product of two nonzero rationals is never zero . Finally , the inverse of a / b is b / a , therefore the axiom of the inverse element is satisfied .
The rational numbers ( including 0 ) also form a group under addition . Intertwining addition and multiplication operations yields more complicated structures called rings and — if division is possible , such as in Q — fields , which occupy a central position in abstract algebra . Group theoretic arguments therefore underlie parts of the theory of those entities .
= = = Modular arithmetic = = =
In modular arithmetic , two integers are added and then the sum is divided by a positive integer called the modulus . The result of modular addition is the remainder of that division . For any modulus , n , the set of integers from 0 to n − 1 forms a group under modular addition : the inverse of any element a is n − a , and 0 is the identity element . This is familiar from the addition of hours on the face of a clock : if the hour hand is on 9 and is advanced 4 hours , it ends up on 1 , as shown at the right . This is expressed by saying that 9 + 4 equals 1 " modulo 12 " or , in symbols ,
9 + 4 ≡ 1 modulo 12 .
The group of integers modulo n is written Zn or Z / nZ .
For any prime number p , there is also the multiplicative group of integers modulo p . Its elements are the integers 1 to p − 1 . The group operation is multiplication modulo p . That is , the usual product is divided by p and the remainder of this division is the result of modular multiplication . For example , if p
= 5 , there are four group elements 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . In this group , 4 · 4 =
1 , because the usual product 16 is equivalent to 1 , which divided by 5 yields a remainder of 1 @.@ for 5 divides 16 − 1
= 15 , denoted
16 ≡ 1 ( mod 5 ) .
The primality of p ensures that the product of two integers neither of which is divisible by p is not divisible by p either , hence the indicated set of classes is closed under multiplication . The identity element is 1 , as usual for a multiplicative group , and the associativity follows from the corresponding property of integers . Finally , the inverse element axiom requires that given an integer a not divisible by p , there exists an integer b such that
a · b ≡ 1 ( mod p ) , i.e. p divides the difference a · b − 1 .
The inverse b can be found by using Bézout 's identity and the fact that the greatest common divisor gcd ( a , p ) equals 1 . In the case p =
5 above , the inverse of 4 is 4 , and the inverse of 3 is 2 , as 3 · 2 = 6 ≡ 1 ( mod 5 ) . Hence all group axioms are fulfilled . Actually , this example is similar to ( Q ∖ { 0 } , · ) above : it consists of exactly those elements in Z / pZ that have a multiplicative inverse . These groups are denoted Fp × . They are crucial to public @-@ key cryptography .
= = = Cyclic groups = = =
A cyclic group is a group all of whose elements are powers of a particular element a . In multiplicative notation , the elements of the group are :
... , a − 3 , a − 2 , a − 1 , a0
= e , a , a2 , a3 , ... ,
where a2 means a • a , and a − 3 stands for a − 1 • a − 1 • a − 1 =
( a • a • a ) − 1 etc . Such an element a is called a generator or a primitive element of the group . In additive notation , the requirement for an element to be primitive is that each element of the group can be written as
... , − a − a , − a , 0 , a , a + a , ...
In the groups Z / nZ introduced above , the element 1 is primitive , so these groups are cyclic . Indeed , each element is expressible as a sum all of whose terms are 1 . Any cyclic group with n elements is isomorphic to this group . A second example for cyclic groups is the group of n @-@ th complex roots of unity , given by complex numbers z satisfying zn
= 1 . These numbers can be visualized as the vertices on a regular n @-@ gon , as shown in blue at the right for n =
6 . The group operation is multiplication of complex numbers . In the picture , multiplying with z corresponds to a counter @-@ clockwise rotation by 60 ° . Using some field theory , the group Fp × can be shown to be cyclic : for example , if p
= 5 , 3 is a generator since 31 =
3 , 32 = 9 ≡ 4 , 33 ≡ 2 , and 34 ≡ 1 .
Some cyclic groups have an infinite number of elements . In these groups , for every non @-@ zero element a , all the powers of a are distinct ; despite the name " cyclic group " , the powers of the elements do not cycle . An infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to ( Z , + ) , the group of integers under addition introduced above . As these two prototypes are both abelian , so is any cyclic group .
The study of finitely generated abelian groups is quite mature , including the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups ; and reflecting this state of affairs , many group @-@ related notions , such as center and commutator , describe the extent to which a given group is not abelian .
= = = Symmetry groups = = =
Symmetry groups are groups consisting of symmetries of given mathematical objects — be they of geometric nature , such as the introductory symmetry group of the square , or of algebraic nature , such as polynomial equations and their solutions . Conceptually , group theory can be thought of as the study of symmetry . Symmetries in mathematics greatly simplify the study of geometrical or analytical objects . A group is said to act on another mathematical object X if every group element performs some operation on X compatibly to the group law . In the rightmost example below , an element of order 7 of the ( 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 7 ) triangle group acts on the tiling by permuting the highlighted warped triangles ( and the other ones , too ) . By a group action , the group pattern is connected to the structure of the object being acted on .
In chemical fields , such as crystallography , space groups and point groups describe molecular symmetries and crystal symmetries . These symmetries underlie the chemical and physical behavior of these systems , and group theory enables simplification of quantum mechanical analysis of these properties . For example , group theory is used to show that optical transitions between certain quantum levels cannot occur simply because of the symmetry of the states involved .
Not only are groups useful to assess the implications of symmetries in molecules , but surprisingly they also predict that molecules sometimes can change symmetry . The Jahn @-@ Teller effect is a distortion of a molecule of high symmetry when it adopts a particular ground state of lower symmetry from a set of possible ground states that are related to each other by the symmetry operations of the molecule .
Likewise , group theory helps predict the changes in physical properties that occur when a material undergoes a phase transition , for example , from a cubic to a tetrahedral crystalline form . An example is ferroelectric materials , where the change from a paraelectric to a ferroelectric state occurs at the Curie temperature and is related to a change from the high @-@ symmetry paraelectric state to the lower symmetry ferroelectric state , accompanied by a so @-@ called soft phonon mode , a vibrational lattice mode that goes to zero frequency at the transition .
Such spontaneous symmetry breaking has found further application in elementary particle physics , where its occurrence is related to the appearance of Goldstone bosons .
Finite symmetry groups such as the Mathieu groups are used in coding theory , which is in turn applied in error correction of transmitted data , and in CD players . Another application is differential Galois theory , which characterizes functions having antiderivatives of a prescribed form , giving group @-@ theoretic criteria for when solutions of certain differential equations are well @-@ behaved . Geometric properties that remain stable under group actions are investigated in ( geometric ) invariant theory .
= = = General linear group and representation theory = = =
Matrix groups consist of matrices together with matrix multiplication . The general linear group GL ( n , R ) consists of all invertible n @-@ by @-@ n matrices with real entries . Its subgroups are referred to as matrix groups or linear groups . The dihedral group example mentioned above can be viewed as a ( very small ) matrix group . Another important matrix group is the special orthogonal group SO ( n ) . It describes all possible rotations in n dimensions . Via Euler angles , rotation matrices are used in computer graphics .
Representation theory is both an application of the group concept and important for a deeper understanding of groups . It studies the group by its group actions on other spaces . A broad class of group representations are linear representations , i.e. the group is acting on a vector space , such as the three @-@ dimensional Euclidean space R3 . A representation of G on an n @-@ dimensional real vector space is simply a group homomorphism
ρ : G → GL ( n , R )
from the group to the general linear group . This way , the group operation , which may be abstractly given , translates to the multiplication of matrices making it accessible to explicit computations .
Given a group action , this gives further means to study the object being acted on . On the other hand , it also yields information about the group . Group representations are an organizing principle in the theory of finite groups , Lie groups , algebraic groups and topological groups , especially ( locally ) compact groups .
= = = Galois groups = = =
Galois groups were developed to help solve polynomial equations by capturing their symmetry features . For example , the solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
<formula>
Exchanging " + " and " − " in the expression , i.e. permuting the two solutions of the equation can be viewed as a ( very simple ) group operation . Similar formulae are known for cubic and quartic equations , but do not exist in general for degree 5 and higher . Abstract properties of Galois groups associated with polynomials ( in particular their solvability ) give a criterion for polynomials that have all their solutions expressible by radicals , i.e. solutions expressible using solely addition , multiplication , and roots similar to the formula above .
The problem can be dealt with by shifting to field theory and considering the splitting field of a polynomial . Modern Galois theory generalizes the above type of Galois groups to field extensions and establishes — via the fundamental theorem of Galois theory — a precise relationship between fields and groups , underlining once again the ubiquity of groups in mathematics .
= = Finite groups = =
A group is called finite if it has a finite number of elements . The number of elements is called the order of the group . An important class is the symmetric groups SN , the groups of permutations of N letters . For example , the symmetric group on 3 letters S3 is the group consisting of all possible orderings of the three letters ABC , i.e. contains the elements ABC , ACB , ... , up to CBA , in total 6 ( or 3 factorial ) elements . This class is fundamental insofar as any finite group can be expressed as a subgroup of a symmetric group SN for a suitable integer N ( Cayley 's theorem ) . Parallel to the group of symmetries of the square above , S3 can also be interpreted as the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle .
The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive integer n such that a n = e , where a n represents
<formula>
i.e. application of the operation • to n copies of a . ( If • represents multiplication , then an corresponds to the nth power of a . ) In infinite groups , such an n may not exist , in which case the order of a is said to be infinity . The order of an element equals the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by this element .
More sophisticated counting techniques , for example counting cosets , yield more precise statements about finite groups : Lagrange 's Theorem states that for a finite group G the order of any finite subgroup H divides the order of G. The Sylow theorems give a partial converse .
The dihedral group ( discussed above ) is a finite group of order 8 . The order of r1 is 4 , as is the order of the subgroup R it generates ( see above ) . The order of the reflection elements fv etc. is 2 . Both orders divide 8 , as predicted by Lagrange 's theorem . The groups Fp × above have order p − 1 .
= = = Classification of finite simple groups = = =
Mathematicians often strive for a complete classification ( or list ) of a mathematical notion . In the context of finite groups , this aim leads to difficult mathematics . According to Lagrange 's theorem , finite groups of order p , a prime number , are necessarily cyclic ( abelian ) groups Zp . Groups of order p2 can also be shown to be abelian , a statement which does not generalize to order p3 , as the non @-@ abelian group D4 of order 8 = 23 above shows . Computer algebra systems can be used to list small groups , but there is no classification of all finite groups . An intermediate step is the classification of finite simple groups . A nontrivial group is called simple if its only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the group itself . The Jordan – Hölder theorem exhibits finite simple groups as the building blocks for all finite groups . Listing all finite simple groups was a major achievement in contemporary group theory . 1998 Fields Medal winner Richard Borcherds succeeded in proving the monstrous moonshine conjectures , a surprising and deep relation between the largest finite simple sporadic group — the " monster group " — and certain modular functions , a piece of classical complex analysis , and string theory , a theory supposed to unify the description of many physical phenomena .
= = Groups with additional structure = =
Many groups are simultaneously groups and examples of other mathematical structures . In the language of category theory , they are group objects in a category , meaning that they are objects ( that is , examples of another mathematical structure ) which come with transformations ( called morphisms ) that mimic the group axioms . For example , every group ( as defined above ) is also a set , so a group is a group object in the category of sets .
= = = Topological groups = = =
Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law . In order for the group law and the topology to interweave well , the group operations must be continuous functions , that is , g • h , and g − 1 must not vary wildly if g and h vary only little . Such groups are called topological groups , and they are the group objects in the category of topological spaces . The most basic examples are the reals R under addition , ( R ∖ { 0 } , · ) , and similarly with any other topological field such as the complex numbers or p @-@ adic numbers . All of these groups are locally compact , so they have Haar measures and can be studied via harmonic analysis . The former offer an abstract formalism of invariant integrals . Invariance means , in the case of real numbers for example :
<formula>
for any constant c . Matrix groups over these fields fall under this regime , as do adele rings and adelic algebraic groups , which are basic to number theory . Galois groups of infinite field extensions such as the absolute Galois group can also be equipped with a topology , the so @-@ called Krull topology , which in turn is central to generalize the above sketched connection of fields and groups to infinite field extensions . An advanced generalization of this idea , adapted to the needs of algebraic geometry , is the étale fundamental group .
= = = Lie groups = = =
Lie groups ( in honor of Sophus Lie ) are groups which also have a manifold structure , i.e. they are spaces looking locally like some Euclidean space of the appropriate dimension . Again , the additional structure , here the manifold structure , has to be compatible , i.e. the maps corresponding to multiplication and the inverse have to be smooth .
A standard example is the general linear group introduced above : it is an open subset of the space of all n @-@ by @-@ n matrices , because it is given by the inequality
det ( A ) ≠ 0 @,@
where A denotes an n @-@ by @-@ n matrix .
Lie groups are of fundamental importance in modern physics : Noether 's theorem links continuous symmetries to conserved quantities . Rotation , as well as translations in space and time are basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics . They can , for instance , be used to construct simple models — imposing , say , axial symmetry on a situation will typically lead to significant simplification in the equations one needs to solve to provide a physical description . Another example are the Lorentz transformations , which relate measurements of time and velocity of two observers in motion relative to each other . They can be deduced in a purely group @-@ theoretical way , by expressing the transformations as a rotational symmetry of Minkowski space . The latter serves — in the absence of significant gravitation — as a model of space time in special relativity . The full symmetry group of Minkowski space , i.e. including translations , is known as the Poincaré group . By the above , it plays a pivotal role in special relativity and , by implication , for quantum field theories . Symmetries that vary with location are central to the modern description of physical interactions with the help of gauge theory .
= = Generalizations = =
In abstract algebra , more general structures are defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group . For example , if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated , the resulting algebraic structure is called a monoid . The natural numbers N ( including 0 ) under addition form a monoid , as do the nonzero integers under multiplication ( Z ∖ { 0 } , · ) , see above . There is a general method to formally add inverses to elements to any ( abelian ) monoid , much the same way as ( Q ∖ { 0 } , · ) is derived from ( Z ∖ { 0 } , · ) , known as the Grothendieck group . Groupoids are similar to groups except that the composition a • b need not be defined for all a and b . They arise in the study of more complicated forms of symmetry , often in topological and analytical structures , such as the fundamental groupoid or stacks . Finally , it is possible to generalize any of these concepts by replacing the binary operation with an arbitrary n @-@ ary one ( i.e. an operation taking n arguments ) . With the proper generalization of the group axioms this gives rise to an n @-@ ary group . The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups .
= = = Special references = = =
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= Bloodletting ( The Walking Dead ) =
" Bloodletting " is the second episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It initially aired on AMC in the United States on October 23 , 2011 . The episode was written by Glen Mazzara and directed by Ernest Dickerson . In this episode , Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) rush to save the life of Rick 's son , Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) , and discover a possible haven in the process .
Production commenced in Newnan , Georgia at Newnan High School in early July 2011 , after attaining approval from the city council and the Coweta County School System . The episode featured guest appearances from Scott Wilson , Lauren Cohan , Emily Kinney and Pruitt Taylor Vince , amongst several other recurring actors and actresses for the series . " Bloodletting " was well received by television critics , who praised the character development in the episode . Upon airing , it gained 6 @.@ 70 million viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
In a flashback , Lori Grimes ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) is talking with other mothers about a fight she had with her husband , Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) . Rick 's partner , Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) , pulls up in a police cruiser and tells Lori that Rick has been severely wounded in a highway shootout . Lori then tells her and Rick 's son , Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) the news , causing him to break down in tears .
In the present , Carl has been accidentally shot by a man named Otis ( Pruitt Taylor Vince ) , who was hunting for deer . Otis brings Rick , Carl and Shane to a veterinarian named Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) , for whom Otis works as a farm hand . Hershel lives with his daughters Maggie ( Lauren Cohan ) and Beth ( Emily Kinney ) , Beth 's boyfriend Jimmy ( James Allen McCune ) , and Otis ' wife Patricia ( Jane McNeill ) . He treats Carl , but he reveals that the bullet was broken into six fragments . Rick must donate blood to Carl in order to keep him alive .
Lori , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) , Carol Peletier ( Melissa McBride ) , Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) and Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) are still searching for Carol 's daughter Sophia ( Madison Lintz ) , when they overhear a gunshot . Meanwhile , on the highway , Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) believes that T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) has contracted a blood infection from a wound he received in the previous episode , and both search for antibiotics , but they fail to find any .
At the Greene home , Hershel reveals that Carl needs major surgery to live , and that he will need a respirator . Otis suggests that they might find supplies at a nearby high school – where the Federal Emergency Management Agency has set up a trailer – although the place is likely overrun with walkers . Otis and Shane decide to get the supplies , while Maggie retrieves Lori from the group and brings her to the Greene home . Rick and Hershel discuss the walker epidemic ; Rick believes there is no cure , while Hershel has faith that there could be one .
The group searching for Sophia returns to the highway , where Daryl reveals that he has a bag containing painkillers and doxycycline antibiotics that T @-@ Dog can take . Shane and Otis retrieve the supplies , but are spotted by walkers . The two have no choice but to barricade themselves in the high school .
= = Production = =
" Bloodletting " was written by Glen Mazzara and directed by Ernest Dickerson . In June 2011 , it was announced that Scott Wilson , Lauren Cohan , and Pruitt Taylor Vince would appear on the second season as recurring characters . In an interview with TV Guide , Gale Anne Hurd explained that Wilson 's character , Hershel Greene , served as a patriarchal figure for the group . She continued : " He 's a veterinarian with a great sense of humanity and a very unique take on the [ walkers ] . " According to Hurd , Scott Wilson was cast because of his " tremendous scope and gravitas " . Hurd also stated that Cohan 's character , Greene 's daughter Maggie , was a woman in her twenties who eventually becomes a romantic interest for Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) . Further , Cohan added in an interview with the Philadelphia Daily News that Maggie was a Christian from a sheltered background . In preparation for her role , she spent a few months in Los Angeles , California to work with a dialect coach . Emily Kinney also joined the cast as Hershel 's younger daughter and Maggie 's half @-@ sister , Beth .
Principal photography commenced in Newnan , Georgia at Newnan High School in July 2011 , after approval was received from the city council and the Coweta County School System . Site preparation initiated on July 1 , and filming began at the gymnasium of the school over a period of four days from July 7 – 8 and again from July 11 – 12 . The location was temporarily renovated to mirror an abandoned Federal Emergency Management Agency camp . Michael Riley , the production manager for the episode , contacted the Newnan Police Department to collaborate with producers . Because of the large size of the filming location , Riley 's production company notified surrounding neighborhoods , to avoid inconvenience .
" Bloodletting " begins with a flashback of Rick Grimes ' relationship with Lori , before she became romantically linked to Shane . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Robert Kirkman asserted that it " speaks to Shane and his relationship to Lori and Rick in the early days . " He continued :
" A lot of people think of Shane as a clear villain and that he did a bad thing . But if you really analyze that situation , he ’ s a good guy and has done the right thing at every turn . Because he 's done that , and it ’ s not working out for him , it ’ s driving him crazy . So we really wanted to show that he ’ s a tragic figure much more than a villainous figure . It ’ s just a series of unfortunate situations that have led to him slowly losing himself in this world . Popping back in time and showing his concern for Rick and how he cares for Lori and Carl , I thought that would be a good thing to do . "
During a scene on the road , Daryl reveals a plastic bag of Merle 's drug stash he originally kept in hiding from the crew , only bringing it out to aid T @-@ Dog 's rising fever . In the bag are doxycyclin ( because , Daryl explains , Merle occasionally catches the clap ) , painkillers , ecstasy , and methamphetamine . The meth is blue , leading to speculations that it was a reference to the famous blue meth prepared by Walter White in the television series , Breaking Bad . In his interview in the after @-@ show Talking Dead , Kirkman stated that the scene was " a little Easter egg we were doing for AMC fans . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Bloodletting " was first broadcast on October 23 , 2011 in the United States on AMC . The episode received 6 @.@ 70 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . An encore presentation gained an additional 2 @.@ 077 million viewers and garnered a 1 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . Along with becoming the highest @-@ rated program on basic cable for the night , " Bloodletting " became the second highest @-@ rated program of the week on basic cable , scoring higher than the season finale of Jersey Shore , but garnering less than a game between the Miami Dolphins and the New York Jets as part of the 2011 NFL season . Total viewership and ratings for the episode were moderately down from the previous episode , " What Lies Ahead " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 26 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode was well received by television critics . Ology writer Josh Harrison gave the episode a nine out of ten rating , and opined that the episode was a " home run episode " for the series . Harrison continued : " Its central conflict is intense , its action is solid , and its new arrivals are engaging characters in their own right . Light on the gore and heavy on the drama — just how I like my Sunday night zombie adventures . " Scott Meslow from The Atlantic gave the episode a positive review , deeming it as an improvement from the previous episode , and appreciated that the episode had opened up new plot points for future episodes to come . Meslow wrote , " At the bare minimum , The Walking Dead should be exciting , and the final moments of " Bloodletting " provides more than enough action . " Echoing similar sentiments , Catherine Gee of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , and compared it to the second season premiere , opining : " It may have been a calmer episode but there was no shortage of story to chew on . " Joe Oesterle of Mania.com commended the opening sequence of the episode , and praised the performances of Lincoln and Bernthal . Oesterle wrote , " Andrew Lincoln and Jon Bernthal [ ... ] gave a fine bit of acting , and I found it interesting how the character Rick started looking and walking a little bit zombish after giving blood . The scenes between the two men were moving , and if you listened close you could decipher the main differences between these two cowboy cops . Rick is bound and determined to get back to his wife and let her know their son is in mortal danger , without ever doubting his own ability to successfully complete the mission , while Shane on the other hand is not quite as automatically selfless and heroic . " In conclusion , Oesterle gave " Bloodletting " a ' B ' grade . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of ten , signaling a " great " response . Goldman stated that it was an improvement over the last episode , and that it had a great scare moment and cliffhanger . Similarly , Paste 's Josh Jackson gave the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of ten rating , signifying a " commendable " rating . Steve West of Cinema Blend expressed that " Bloodletting " was superior to the previous episode , opining that it was " a character strengthening episode . " He continued : " Even those throwaway threads are immensely important to what ’ s about to go down at the Green farm . "
Some television critics were less enthusiastic about the episode . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club felt that the episode was inferior to the previous episode , deeming it tedious . He wrote , " ' Bloodletting ' was a step down from last week 's première , mostly because it focused more on conversations than scares . Much as I want this show to find some way to do its characters right , those conversations were bland , providing no new information beyond , hey , it would suck to have your son get shot in front of you , huh ? " Concluding his review , Handlen gave the episode a ' B – ' grade . In concurrence , Nate Rawlings of Time stated : " For an episode titled ' Bloodletting ' there was surprisingly little of it last night . What we got instead were outpourings of emotion and frustration . Two entries in , and it 's already clear that the show wants to strike a balance between gore and humanity . " Andrew Conrad of the Chicago Tribune was unhappy with the episode ; he expressed disappointment with the low amount of zombie sequences , writing , " It must be a bit of a relief for the show 's make @-@ up department , but I 'd like to see at least one walker every ten minutes or so . "
= Typhoon Maria ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Maria was a weak typhoon which brushed the southeastern coast of Japan during early August 2006 . The seventh named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Maria formed out of a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . On August 5 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the depression as a tropical storm while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) kept it as a depression . The storm quickly strengthened into a typhoon the next day , reaching its peak intensity with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) early on August 6 . The storm gradually weakened as it began to recurve , causing it to parallel the southeastern coast of Japan . On August 9 , Maria weakened into a tropical depression and later into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating on August 15 . Maria had only minor effects in Japan , mainly heavy rains which were estimated to have peaked over 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) on the Izu Peninsula . One person was killed after being struck by lightning and six others were injured .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 3 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring a tropical depression located to the southeast of Minami Torishima Island . The depression slowly developed as it moved towards the west @-@ northwest . At 1630 UTC on August 5 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the developing system while it was located about 740 km ( 460 mi ) east @-@ northeast of the northern Mariana Islands . Deep convection was present around the center of circulation but the overall structure of the storm resembled a subtropical cyclone . However , the storm was likely to intensify as it was located within an area of low to moderate vertical wind shear with favorable diffulence aloft . Later that day , the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Maria ; a name submitted by the United States and a common Chamorro feminine name . Maria continued towards the west @-@ northwest along the edge of a broad subtropical ridge located east of Japan .
As the JMA issued their first advisory , the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Depression 09W while located about 280 km ( 175 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Iwo Jima . Early the next day , the JMA classified Maria as a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) while the JTWC reported that Maria had just become a tropical storm with winds reaching 75 km / h ( 45 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The storm also had a slight northward relocation . Tracking towards the northwest , the storm intensified into a typhoon and reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and minimum pressure of 975 hPa ( mbar ) at 0900 UTC . Around the same time , the JTWC assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . However , the JTWC operationally classified Maria as a minimal typhoon with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) on August 7 .
On August 7 , a banding eye feature developed with deep convection around the eastern portion of the storm . Later that day , the storm sharply recurved towards the northeast and paralleled the southern coastline of Honshu . As Maria made the turn , dry air began to enter the system , causing it to weaken . Along with the dry air , wind shear began to increase and the JMA downgraded Maria to a severe tropical storm early on August 8 . The storm continued to weaken as it came very close to landfall near Tokyo , Japan on August 9 . Both agencies downgraded Maria to a tropical depression early on August 9 , with the JTWC issuing their final advisory at that time . Maria remained a tropical depression for another 24 hours before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on August 10 while located about 835 km ( 520 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Tokyo . The extratropical remnants turned towards the north and dissipated late on August 14 over the Sea of Okhotsk .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Weather officials warned residents about heavy rains , strong winds , and high waves in the Tōkai region , Kantō region , Kōshin 'etsu region , and the Izu Islands between August 8 and 9 . Seven flights out of Tokyo at Haneda airport were cancelled due to Maria . The JR Ito Line , an express train line , was temporarily shut down as a result of rain . As Maria brushed Japan , it produced heavy rains over the southeastern areas of the country . Yokota Air Base recorded 38 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall and winds up to 34 km / h ( 21 mph ) . Parts of the Izu Peninsula recorded rainfall in excess of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) over a two @-@ day span , peaking at 458 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) in Tokyo . In Gifu Prefecture , thunderstorms associated with the typhoon resulted in a landslide that knocked out power to 510 residences . One man was injured and two cows died after a small farm was severely damaged by high winds . Flooding and landslides affected dozens of homes in Chōshi , Chiba , prompting the evacuation of 63 families . One person was killed in Tokyo after being struck by lightning . Five people were injured when a plane headed for Tokyo encountered turbulence produced by Maria .
= Climate of India =
The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography , making generalisations difficult . Based on the Köppen system , India hosts six major climatic subtypes , ranging from arid desert in the west , alpine tundra and glaciers in the north , and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories . Many regions have starkly different microclimates . The nation has four seasons : winter ( January and February ) , summer ( March , April and May ) , a monsoon ( rainy ) season ( June to September ) , and a post @-@ monsoon period ( October , November and December ) .
India 's geography and geology are climatically pivotal : the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime . As Earth 's highest and most massive mountain range , the Himalayas bars the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia . Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter ; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer .
Though the Tropic of Cancer — the boundary between the tropics and subtropics — passes through the middle of India , the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical . As in much of the tropics , monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable : epochal droughts , floods , cyclones , and other natural disasters are sporadic , but have displaced or ended millions of human lives . There is one scientific opinion which states that South Asia is likely to see such climatic events , along with their aleatory unpredictability , to change in frequency and are likely to increase in severity . Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level rises and the attendant inundation of India 's low @-@ lying coastal areas are other impacts , current or predicted , that are attributable to global warming .
= = History = =
During the Triassic period of some 251 – 199 @.@ 6 Ma , the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea . Despite its position within a high @-@ latitude belt at 55 – 75 ° S — as opposed to its current position between 5 and 35 ° N , latitudes now occupied by Greenland and parts of the Antarctic Peninsula — India likely experienced a humid temperate climate with warm and frost @-@ free weather , though with well @-@ defined seasons . India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana , a process beginning some 550 – 500 Ma . During the Late Paleozoic , Gondwana extended from a point at or near the South Pole to near the equator , where the Indian craton ( stable continental crust ) was positioned , resulting in a mild climate favourable to hosting high @-@ biomass ecosystems . This is underscored by India 's vast coal reserves — much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence — the fourth @-@ largest reserves in the world . During the Mesozoic , the world , including India , was considerably warmer than today . With the coming of the Carboniferous , global cooling stoked extensive glaciation , which spread northwards from South Africa towards India ; this cool period lasted well
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obi . The mountain ranges prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from travelling further east , resulting in much snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India . Despite being a barrier to the cold northerly winter winds , the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds , thus lowering the temperature in Northeast India and Bangladesh . The Himalayas , which are often called " The Roof of the World " , contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles . Ten of Asia 's largest rivers flow from there . The two Himalayan states in the east , Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh , receive substantial snowfall . The extreme north of West Bengal centred on Darjeeling experiences snowfall , but only rarely .
In South India , particularly the hinterlands of Maharashtra , parts of Karnataka , and Andhra Pradesh , somewhat cooler weather prevails . Minimum temperatures in western Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh hover around 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) ; in the southern Deccan Plateau , they reach 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) . Coastal areas — especially those near the Coromandel Coast and adjacent low @-@ elevation interior tracts — are warm , with daily high temperatures of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and lows of around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . The Western Ghats , including the Nilgiri Range , are exceptional ; lows there can fall below freezing . This compares with a range of 12 – 14 ° C ( 54 – 57 ° F ) on the Malabar Coast ; there , as is the case for other coastal areas , the Indian Ocean exerts a strong moderating influence on weather . The region averages 800 millimetres ( 31 in ) per year , most of which falls between October and December . The topography of the Bay of Bengal and the staggered weather pattern prevalent during the season favours the northeast monsoon , which has a tendency to cause cyclones and hurricanes rather than steady precipitation . As a result , the coast is hit by what can mildly be termed as inclement weather almost every year between October and January .
= = = Summer = = =
Summer in northwestern India starts from April and ends in July , and in the rest of the country from March to June . The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer . The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is April ; for most of North India , it is May . Temperatures of 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season . Another striking feature of summer is the Loo ( wind ) . These are strong , gusty , hot , dry winds that blow during the day in India . Direct exposure to these winds may be fatal . In cooler regions of North India , immense pre @-@ monsoon squall @-@ line thunderstorms , known locally as " Nor 'westers " , commonly drop large hailstones . In Himachal Pradesh , Summer lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot ( except in alpine zone which experience mild summer ) with the average temperature ranging from 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) to 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) . Winter lasts from late November till mid March . Snowfall is generally common in alpine tracts that are above 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 218 ft ) , especially those in the higher- and trans @-@ Himalayan regions . Near the coast the temperature hovers around 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) , and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity . In southern India , the temperatures are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast .
By May , most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , while maximum temperatures often exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . In the hot months of April and May , western disturbances , with their cooling influence , may still arrive , but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses . Notably , a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset ( thus extending summer ) in northwest India . In eastern India , monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the past several decades , resulting in shorter summers there .
Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent , with higher parts of the Deccan Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler . Hill stations , such as Ootacamund ( " Ooty " ) in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas , with average maximum temperatures of around 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , offer some respite from the heat . At lower elevations , in parts of northern and western India , a strong , hot , and dry wind known as the Looblows in from the west during the daytime ; with very high temperatures , in some cases up to around 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) ; it can cause fatal cases of sunstroke . Tornadoes may also occur , concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan . They are rare , however ; only several dozen have been reported since 1835 .
= = = Monsoon = = =
The southwest summer monsoon , a four @-@ month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India 's weather , is Earth 's most productive wet season . A product of southeast trade winds originating from a high @-@ pressure mass centred over the southern Indian Ocean , the monsoonal torrents supply over 80 % of India 's annual rainfall . Attracted by a low @-@ pressure region centred over South Asia , the mass spawns surface winds that ferry humid air into India from the southwest . These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local jet stream , which itself results from rising summer temperatures over Tibet and the Indian subcontinent . The void left by the jet stream , which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of Tibet , then attracts warm , humid air .
The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean . This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the normally equatorial intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) , a low @-@ pressure belt of highly unstable weather , northward towards India . This system intensified to its present strength as a result of the Tibetan Plateau 's uplift , which accompanied the Eocene – Oligocene transition event , a major episode of global cooling and aridification which occurred 34 – 49 Ma .
The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches : the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch . The latter extends towards a low @-@ pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch . The monsoon typically breaks over Indian territory by around 25 May , when it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal . It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the Malabar Coast of Kerala . By 9 June , it reaches Mumbai ; it appears over Delhi by 29 June . The Bay of Bengal branch , which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to Orissa , swerves to the northwest towards the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain . The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas . By the first week of July , the entire country experiences monsoon rain ; on average , South India receives more rainfall than North India . However , Northeast India receives the most precipitation . Monsoon clouds begin retreating from North India by the end of August ; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October . As India further cools during September , the southwest monsoon weakens . By the end of November , it has left the country .
Monsoon rains impact the health of the Indian economy ; as Indian agriculture employs 600 million people and composes 20 % of the national GDP , good monsoons correlate with a booming economy . Weak or failed monsoons ( droughts ) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth . Yet such rains reduce temperatures and can replenish groundwater tables , rivers .
= = = Post @-@ monsoon = = =
During the post @-@ monsoon months of October to December , a different monsoon cycle , the northeast ( or " retreating " ) monsoon , brings dry , cool , and dense air masses to large parts of India . Winds spill across the Himalayas and flow to the southwest across the country , resulting in clear , sunny skies . Though the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) and other sources refers to this period as a fourth ( " post @-@ monsoon " ) season , other sources designate only three seasons . Depending on location , this period lasts from October to November , after the southwest monsoon has peaked . Less and less precipitation falls , and vegetation begins to dry out . In most parts of India , this period marks the transition from wet to dry seasonal conditions . Average daily maximum temperatures range between 28 and 34 ° C ( 82 and 93 ° F ) .
The northeast monsoon , which begins in September , lasts through the post @-@ monsoon seasons , and only ends in March . It carries winds that have already lost their moisture out to the ocean ( opposite from the summer monsoon ) . They cross India diagonally from northeast to southwest . However , the large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal into India 's eastern coast means that the flows are humidified before reaching Cape Comorin and rest of Tamil Nadu , meaning that the state , and also some parts of Kerala , experience significant precipitation in the post @-@ monsoon and winter periods . However , parts of West Bengal , Orissa , Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and Mumbai also receive minor precipitation from the northeast monsoon .
= = Statistics = =
Shown below are temperature and precipitation data for selected Indian cities ; these represent the full variety of major Indian climate types . Figures have been grouped by the four @-@ season classification scheme used by the IMD ; year @-@ round averages and totals are also displayed .
= = = Temperature = = =
= = = Precipitation = = =
= = Disasters = =
Climate @-@ related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property . Droughts , flash floods , cyclones , avalanches , landslides brought on by torrential rains , and snowstorms pose the greatest threats . Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms , which usually track from north to south ; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions . Hail is also common in parts of India , causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat .
= = = Floods and landslides = = =
In the Lower Himalaya , landslides are common . The young age of the region 's hills result in labile rock formations , which are susceptible to slippages . Rising population and development pressures , particularly from logging and tourism , cause deforestation . The result , denuded hillsides , exacerbates the severity of landslides , since tree cover impedes the downhill flow of water . Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low @-@ intensity landslides . Avalanches occur in Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh , and Sikkim .
Floods are the most common natural disaster in India . The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks , often flooding surrounding areas . Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation , the floods can kill thousands and displace millions . Excess , erratic , or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops . Almost all of India is flood @-@ prone , and extreme precipitation events , such as flash floods and torrential rains , have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades , coinciding with rising temperatures . Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain .
= = = Cyclones = = =
Tropical cyclones , which are severe storms spun off from the Intertropical Convergence Zone , may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions . Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal . Cyclones bring with them heavy rains , storm surges , and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies . In the North Indian Ocean Basin , the cyclone season runs from April to December , with peak activity between May and November . Each year , an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) form ; of these , two strengthen into true tropical cyclones , which have sustained gusts greater than 117 km / h ( 73 mph ) . On average , a major ( Category 3 or higher ) cyclone develops every other year .
During summer , the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating , giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that morph into cyclones . The 1737 Calcutta cyclone , the 1970 Bhola cyclone , and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone rank among the most powerful cyclones to strike India , devastating the coasts of eastern India and neighbouring Bangladesh . Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in the exposed coastal states of West Bengal , Orissa , Andhra Pradesh , and Tamil Nadu . India 's western coast , bordering the more placid Arabian Sea , experiences cyclones only rarely ; these mainly strike Gujarat and , less frequently , Kerala .
Cyclone 05B , a supercyclone that struck Orissa on 29 October 1999 , was the deadliest in more than a quarter @-@ century . With peak winds of 160 miles per hour ( 257 km / h ) , it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane . Almost two million people were left homeless ; another 20 million people lives were disrupted by the cyclone . Officially , 9 @,@ 803 people died from the storm ; unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Droughts = = =
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water . In some parts of India , the failure of the monsoons result in water shortages , resulting in below @-@ average crop yields . This is particularly true of major drought @-@ prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra , northern Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , Western Orissa , Gujarat , and Rajasthan . In the past , droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines . These include the Bengal famine of 1770 , in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died ; the 1876 – 1877 famine , in which over five million people died ; the 1899 famine , in which over 4 @.@ 5 million died ; and the Bengal famine of 1943 , in which over five million died from starvation and famine @-@ related illnesses .
All such episodes of severe drought correlate with El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) events . El Niño @-@ related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output . Nevertheless , ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Ocean — in one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) — have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation , resulting in unusually wet weather across India . Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s . A contrasting phenomenon is that , instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean , an ENSO @-@ related oceanic low pressure convergence centre forms ; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia , desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season . This reversed air flow causes India 's droughts . The extent that an ENSO event raises sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific Ocean influences the extent of drought .
= = = Heat waves = = =
A study from 2005 concluded that heat waves significantly increased in the frequency , persistence and spatial coverage in the decade 1991 @-@ 2000 , when compared to the period between 1971 – 80 and 1981 @-@ 90 . A severe heat wave in Orissa in 1998 , resulted in nearly 1300 deaths . Based on observations , heat wave related mortality has increased in India prior to 2005 . The 2015 Indian heat wave killed more than 2 @,@ 500 people .
= = Extremes = =
= = = Extreme Temperatures : Low = = =
India 's lowest recorded temperature was − 45 ° C ( − 49 ° F ) in Dras , Ladakh , in eastern Jammu and Kashmir ; the reading was taken with non @-@ standard equipment . Figures as low as − 30 @.@ 6 ° C ( − 23 ° F ) have been taken in Leh , further east in Ladakh . However , temperatures on the disputed but Indian @-@ controlled Siachen Glacier near Bilafond La ( 5 @,@ 450 metres or 17 @,@ 881 feet ) and Sia La ( 5 @,@ 589 metres or 18 @,@ 337 feet ) have fallen below − 55 ° C ( − 67 ° F ) , while blizzards bring wind speeds in excess of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , or hurricane @-@ force winds ranking at 12 — the maximum — on the Beaufort scale . These conditions , not hostile actions , caused more than 97 % of the roughly 15 @,@ 000 casualties suffered among Indian and Pakistani soldiers during the Siachen conflict .
= = = Extreme Temperatures : High = = =
The highest temperature ever recorded in India occurred on 19 May 2016 in Phalodi , Jodhpur District , Rajasthan at 51 @.@ 0 ° C ( 123 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Before this , the highest reliable temperature reading was 50 @.@ 6 ° C ( 123 @.@ 1 ° F ) in Alwar , Rajasthan in 1955 . The India Meteorological Department doubts the validity of 55 ° C ( 131 ° F ) readings reported in Orissa during 2005 .
= = = Rain = = =
The average annual precipitation of 11 @,@ 872 millimetres ( 467 in ) in the village of Mawsynram , in the hilly northeastern state of Meghalaya , is the highest recorded in Asia , and possibly on Earth . The village , which sits at an elevation of 1 @,@ 401 metres ( 4 @,@ 596 ft ) , benefits from its proximity to both the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal . However , since the town of Cherrapunji , 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the east , is the nearest town to host a meteorological office — none has ever existed in Mawsynram — it is officially credited as being the world 's wettest place . In recent years the Cherrapunji @-@ Mawsynram region has averaged between 9 @,@ 296 and 10 @,@ 820 millimetres ( 366 and 426 in ) of rain annually , though Cherrapunji has had at least one period of daily rainfall that lasted almost two years . India 's highest recorded one @-@ day rainfall total occurred on 26 July 2005 , when Mumbai received more than 650 mm ( 26 in ) ; the massive flooding that resulted killed over 900 people .
= = = Snowfall = = =
Remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir such as Baramulla district in the east and the Pir Panjal Range in the southeast experience exceptionally heavy snowfall . In southern areas around Jammu the climate is typically monsoonal , though the region is sufficiently far west to average 40 – 100 mm ( 2 – 4 in ) of rain monthly from January and March . In the hot season , Jammu city is very hot and can reach up to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) while in July and August , very heavy — though erratic — rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to 650 millimetres ( 26 in ) . Rainfall declines in September ; by October conditions are extremely dry , with temperatures of around 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) . Across from the Pir Panjal range , the South Asian monsoon is no longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from southwestern cloudbands . Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea , Srinagar receives as much as 25 inches ( 635 mm ) of rain from this source , with the wettest months being March to May with around 85 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 inches ) per month .
= = = Leh and the Zanskars = = =
North of the main Himalaya Range , even the southwestern cloudbands break up or founder ; hence the climate of Leh and the Zanskars is extremely dry and cold . Annual precipitation is only around 100 mm ( 4 inches ) per year and humidity is very low . This region is almost entirely above 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 750 ft ) above sea level ; thus winters are extremely cold . In the Zanskars , the average January temperature is − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) with extremes as low as − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) . All rivers freeze over ; locals cross unbridged rivers in winter because summer glacier melt deepens the waters and inhibits fording . Summer in Leh and the Zanskars are a pleasantly warm 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , but the low humidity and thin air can render nights cold . Kashmir 's highest recorded monthly snowfall occurred in February 1967 , when 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 27 @.@ 6 ft ) fell in Gulmarg , though the IMD has recorded snowdrifts up to 12 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) in several Kashmiri districts . In February 2005 , more than 200 people died when , in four days , a western disturbance brought up to 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of snowfall to parts of the state .
= = Global warming = =
Current sea level rise , increased cyclonic activity , increased ambient temperatures , and increasingly fickle precipitation patterns are effects of global warming that have affected or are projected to impact India . Thousands of people have been displaced by ongoing sea level rises that have submerged low @-@ lying islands in the Sundarbans . Temperature rises on the Tibetan Plateau are causing Himalayan glaciers to retreat , threatening the flow rate of the Ganges , Brahmaputra , Yamuna , and other major rivers ; the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of farmers depend on these rivers . A 2007 World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) report states that the Indus River may run dry for the same reason .
Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam . Ecological disasters , such as a 1998 coral bleaching event that killed off more than 70 % of corals in the reef ecosystems off Lakshadweep and the Andamans and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming , are also projected to become increasingly common . Meghalaya and other northeastern states are also concerned that rising sea levels will submerge much of Bangladesh and spawn a refugee crisis . If severe climate changes occurs , Bangladesh and parts of India that border it may lose vast tracts of coastal land .
The Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research has reported that , if the predictions relating to global warming made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change come to fruition , climate @-@ related factors could cause India 's GDP to decline by up to 9 % . Contributing to this would be shifting growing seasons for major crops such as rice , production of which could fall by 40 % . Around seven million people are projected to be displaced due to , among other factors , submersion of parts of Mumbai and Chennai if global temperatures were to rise by a mere 2 ° C ( 3 @.@ 6 ° F ) . Such shifts are not new . Earlier in the Holocene epoch ( 4 @,@ 800 – 6 @,@ 300 years ago ) , parts of what is now the Thar Desert were wet enough to support perennial lakes ; researchers have proposed that this was due to much higher winter precipitation , which coincided with stronger monsoons . Kashmir 's erstwhile subtropical climate dramatically cooled 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 7 Ma and experienced prolonged cold spells starting 600 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = Atmospheric pollution = =
Thick haze and smoke originating from burning biomass in northwestern India and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India often concentrate over the Ganges Basin . Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the sheer @-@ faced Tibetan Plateau towards eastern India and the Bay of Bengal . Dust and black carbon , which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas , can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau . The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and convect upwards , increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid @-@ troposphere and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols .
= Ontario Highway 427 =
King 's Highway 427 ( pronounced " four twenty @-@ seven " ) , also known as Highway 427 and colloquially as the 427 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) and Gardiner Expressway with York Regional Road 7 ( formerly Highway 7 ) via Highway 401 . An arterial extension , known as York Regional Road 99 , continues 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) north to Zenway Boulevard . It is Ontario 's second busiest freeway by volume and third busiest in North America , behind Highway 401 and Interstate 405 in California . Like Highway 401 , a portion of the route is divided into a collector @-@ express system with twelve to fourteen continuous lanes . Notable about Highway 427 are its several multi @-@ level interchanges ; the junctions with QEW and Highway 401 are two of the largest interchanges in Ontario and were constructed between 1967 and 1971 , while the interchanges with Highway 409 and Highway 407 are more recent and were completed in 1992 and 1995 , respectively .
Highway 427 is the main feeder to Toronto Pearson International Airport from the north and south . However , while much of the traffic comes from Highway 407 , Highway 401 ( eastbound ) , and the QEW / Gardiner Expressway makes use of the freeway for airport access , it serves the western portion of Toronto ( Etobicoke ) , the northeastern portion of Mississauga ( Malton ) , the southeastern portion of Brampton ( Claireville ) , and the western portion of Vaughan ( Woodbridge ) . The section between Highway 401 and Dundas Street is a heavily traversed transit corridor ; GO Transit , MiWay , and the Toronto Transit Commission ( TTC ) all operate express buses along this section of the highway .
First designated in 1972 , Highway 427 follows what was originally a two lane roadway known as Highway 27 , as well as a short freeway north of Highway 401 known as the Airport Expressway . Both routes were upgraded throughout the 1950s and 1960s , eventually becoming intertwined into the present configuration in 1972 . The freeway was extended north from Pearson Airport to Highway 7 over the following twenty years . A short arterial extension was later built , though this section is designated as York Regional Road 99 ( Zenway Boulevard ) . Plans have been announced to extend Highway 427 north to Major Mackenzie Drive with funding beginning in 2017 ; no further timeline has been provided as of 2015 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 427 is the second busiest freeway in Canada with an average of 300 @,@ 000 vehicles that use it between the QEW and Highway 401 per day . The section between Burnhamthorpe Road and Rathburn Road has an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) count of 353 @,@ 100 . The route is 19 @.@ 9 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) long .
At its southern terminus , the route begins at Coules Court , where Brown 's Line becomes Highway 427 . Alderwood Plaza , located on the east side of the route , has a parking lot which provides access to the highway ; this is the only at @-@ grade access along the length of the route . The four lane road splits into a divided highway and descends below Evans Avenue . The highway weaves through a complicated interchange , providing northbound access to Evans Avenue and the Gardiner Expressway , and southbound access to The Queensway , QEW / Gardiner Expressway , and Evans Avenue . North of the interchange , the lanes from Brown 's Line diverge and form the collector lanes of a collector @-@ express system . Flyover ramps to and from the QEW / Gardiner pass over the southbound lanes and converge to form the express lanes . This collector @-@ express system serves to divide local traffic from freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway traffic ; the express lanes provide access between the QEW / Gardiner Expressway and Highway 401 , while the collector lanes provide local access between those interchanges .
After crossing Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) tracks , the freeway interchanges with Dundas Street . A set of criss @-@ crossing ramps provide access between the collector and express lanes north of here , referred to as The Basketweave . The highway passes beneath Bloor Street West but does not provide direct access . Instead , it provides ramps to parallel arterial roads ; The East Mall and The West Mall run parallel with the freeway from Evans Avenue to Rathburn Road . A full interchange is provided shortly after with Burnhamthorpe Road , southwest of Burnhamthorpe Collegiate Institute . Across from the college , an offramp provides access from the southbound lanes to Holiday Drive and The West Mall . Following the offramp , to the north , is a partial interchange with Rathburn Road , which provides access from the northbound lanes and to the southbound lanes .
Transfers provide a second and final opportunity to cross between express and collector lanes , or vice versa , south of the complicated 1 @.@ 56 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 60 sq mi ) Highway 401 interchange . A final set of ramps along the collector @-@ express system provides access to and from the southbound lanes and Eringate Drive , after which the collectors diverge , and the express lanes cross the southbound collectors . The collector lanes provide access to and from Eglinton Avenue then transition into Highway 27 , while the express lanes interchange with Highway 401 and continues the route of Highway 427 north . The Highway 427 express lanes and flyover ramps to / from Highway 401 are constructed around the Richview Memorial Cemetery . Highway 427 passes through the sprawling interchange and becomes displaced approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the west . Despite its size , there are no ramps to provide access from southbound Highway 427 to eastbound Highway 401 and vice versa , as this connection is handled by Highway 409 . Highway 427 crosses Renforth Drive and then curves to the east of Runway 24R and 24L of Pearson Airport . Shortly thereafter , it crosses and interchanges with Dixon Road and Airport Road , between which it forms the demarcation line . Several ramps diverge at this point to provide access to Pearson Airport , and the freeway narrows to eight lanes .
From here to Finch Avenue , the freeway follows the boundary line between Toronto and Mississauga . It encounters the third multi @-@ level junction along its length , with Highway 409 , which provides access to the airport as well as the southbound to eastbound movement that cannot be performed at the interchange with Highway 401 to the south . Highway 427 continues straight north and narrows again to six lanes . After crossing the Kitchener GO line , it passes west of Woodbine Racetrack and beneath Rexdale Boulevard , Morning Star Drive , and Finch Avenue West , the first and last interchange with the route . The freeway bends slightly eastward , diverging from the Mississauga – Toronto boundary , and crosses the West Humber River where it drains from Claireville Reservoir . Approaching the fourth and final sprawling interchange , it crosses Steeles Avenue and enters Vaughan . It passes beneath Highway 407 and crosses through an undeveloped area before terminating at its final interchange with Highway 7 . The mainline continues north as a four lane arterial road to Zenway Boulevard and is designated as York Regional Road 99 .
= = History = =
= = = QEW to Highway 401 = = =
Although Highway 427 was not officially designated until 1972 , several sections of freeway were already in place prior to that date . The designation was applied following the completion of the interchanges at the QEW and Highway 401 as well as the expansion of the section between them into a collector @-@ express system .
Highway 27 was designated as a two lane road travelling north from Highway 2 ( Lake Shore Boulevard ) towards Barrie . As Toronto grew outwards following the annexation of various municipalities , the Ontario Department of Highways ( DHO ) began planning for a bypass of the city , aptly named the Toronto Bypass . A significant portion of this bypass was designed to be incorporated into the Transprovincial Highway , now Highway 401 . The remainder was designed to follow the existing right @-@ of @-@ way of Highway 27 between the QEW and Richview Sideroad ( now Eglinton Avenue ) .
Construction of the Toronto Bypass began near Yonge Street in 1949 ( along present @-@ day Highway 401 ) and on the four @-@ laning of Highway 27 in 1953 . The Highway 27 work involved the construction of two interchanges : a three @-@ way stack at Highway 401 and a large cloverleaf at the QEW , the latter of which would become one of the worst bottlenecks in the province a decade after its completion , according to Minister of Transportation Charles MacNaughton . By September 1956 , it was possible to bypass Toronto entirely on the four lane divided highway composed of Highway 401 and Highway 27 . Highway 401 was extended to the west soon after , but Highway 27 remained a two lane highway north of it .
= = = Airport Expressway 1964 @-@ 1971 = = =
During the early 1960s , Toronto International Airport was expanded with the construction of the Aeroquay One terminal . To serve the expected demand of the expansion , the DHO built a new four lane freeway north from Highway 401 at Renforth Drive . This new route , which roughly followed the same route as Highway 427 as far as Dixon / Airport Road , was known as the Toronto Airport Expressway and was opened on January 3 , 1964 . It featured a connection with the western terminus of Richview Sideroad at the southern end of the interchange with Highway 401 as well as an interchange with Renforth Drive .
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1963 , it was announced by MacNaughton that Highway 401 would be widened from a four lane highway to a collector @-@ express system , modelled after the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago . Plans were soon developed to apply this model to the QEW between Highway 27 and Royal York Road and to Highway 27 between the QEW and Highway 401 , and were unveiled to Etobicoke council on October 13 , 1966 . Design work followed and was completed by May 1967 . This reconstruction once again involved the junctions with the QEW and Highway 401 , which were reconfigured into complicated multi @-@ level interchanges to permit free @-@ flow movement ; construction began in September 1968 . The widening of Highway 27 required the demolition and rebuilding of overpasses at Bloor Street , Burnhamthorpe Road and Rathburn Road constructed just over a decade earlier .
The junction with the QEW was built over 48 @.@ 5 ha ( 120 acres ) and required the construction of 19 bridges and the equivalent of 42 km ( 26 mi ) of two lane roadway . The junction with Highway 401 sprawls over 156 ha ( 385 acres ) and required the construction of 28 bridges and the equivalent of 46 @.@ 6 km ( 29 mi ) of two lane roadway , the largest interchange in Canada . The former was opened to traffic on November 14 , 1969 , while the latter required several more years of construction staging , fully opening on December 4 , 1971 ( though portions were opened in the weeks prior to that ) , just prior to Highway 27 's renumbering as Highway 427 . The rest of the route was rebuilt prior to the completion of these interchanges .
The completed project resulted in the creation of Highway 427 between the QEW and Dixon / Airport Road , north of which traffic was defaulted onto Indian Line . The entire Airport Expressway was removed to make way for the new interchange , but the new route still included direct access to the airport .
= = = Extensions beyond Highway 401 = = =
Ultimately , it was planned to extend Highway 427 north along Indian Line to the future Highway 407 , where ramps would direct northbound traffic onto Highway 27 . An extension north of Dixon / Airport Road began in 1976 as part of the work to build Highway 409 , and it included the construction of the interchange between the two freeways . By the beginning of 1980 , this work was completed , and construction was progressing on the section north to Rexdale Boulevard , which opened by the end of the year . In 1982 , Construction began on the next section of Highway 427 , which would extend it to Albion Road , north of the West Humber River . This project included the extension of Finch Avenue west from Highway 27 to Steeles Avenue West and was completed in late 1984 .
As part of the initial phase of Highway 407 , Highway 427 was extended north to Highway 7 in Vaughan and began with the construction of the interchange between the two in 1988 . With the interchange only half @-@ completed , the extension was opened in late 1991 . By 1994 , the final at @-@ grade intersections — one at Morning Star Drive , and another as a left turn to the southbound lanes with eastbound Highway 409 — were replaced , making Highway 427 a fully controlled @-@ access freeway for its entire length .
= = Future = =
An environmental assessment has been completed on a northward extension of Highway 427 to Major Mackenzie Drive to relieve traffic issues on Highway 7 and provide improved access to the Canadian Pacific Intermodal Terminal . A temporary arterial road extension was opened in the autumn of 2008 by York Region and designated as Regional Road 99 . This road serves to provide improved access to Highway 27 and Highway 50 , but will be removed when construction begins on the freeway extension . Technical designs have been prepared for the approved route as far as Major Mackenzie Drive , but no timeline has been set for construction yet beyond inclusion in the 2017 provincial budget .
A section of Highway 427 between Campus Road @-@ Fasken Drive and Steeles Avenue is being expanded to four lanes in each direction as of 2015 . This project includes the installation of high @-@ mast lighting , median barriers , and the addition of an HOV lane in both directions . Completion is scheduled for fall 2017 .
On March 3 , 2016 , the Ontario government approved the extension of Highway 427 north towards Major Mackenzie Drive , along with road widening from 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Albion Road to Highway 7 . Construction would start in 2017 , and the extension and widening would be completed by 2020 . In addition , the government will also install high occupancy toll lanes , which will run from south of Highway 409 towards north of Rutherford Road . These toll lanes will be completed in 2021 .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 427 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . All exits are unnumbered .
= Helicobacter pylori =
Helicobacter pylori , previously Campylobacter pylori , is a gram @-@ negative , microaerophilic bacterium found usually in the stomach . It was identified in 1982 by Australian scientists Barry Marshall and Robin Warren , who found that it was present in a person with chronic gastritis and gastric ulcers , conditions not previously believed to have a microbial cause . It is also linked to the development of duodenal ulcers and stomach cancer . However , over 80 % of individuals infected with the bacterium are asymptomatic , and it may play an important role in the natural stomach ecology .
More than 50 % of the world 's population harbor H. pylori in their upper gastrointestinal tract . Infection is more prevalent in developing countries , and incidence is decreasing in Western countries . H. pylori 's helical shape ( from which the genus name is derived ) is thought to have evolved to penetrate the mucoid lining of the stomach .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Up to 85 % of people infected with H. pylori never experience symptoms or complications . Acute infection may appear as an acute gastritis with abdominal pain ( stomach ache ) or nausea . Where this develops into chronic gastritis , the symptoms , if present , are often those of non @-@ ulcer dyspepsia : stomach pains , nausea , bloating , belching , and sometimes vomiting or black stool .
Individuals infected with H. pylori have a 10 to 20 % lifetime risk of developing peptic ulcers and a 1 to 2 % risk of acquiring stomach cancer . Inflammation of the pyloric antrum is more likely to lead to duodenal ulcers , while inflammation of the corpus ( body of the stomach ) is more likely to lead to gastric ulcers and gastric carcinoma . However , H. pylori possibly plays a role only in the first stage that leads to common chronic inflammation , but not in further stages leading to carcinogenesis . A meta @-@ analysis conducted in 2009 concluded the eradication of H. pylori reduces gastric cancer risk in previously infected individuals , suggesting the continued presence of H. pylori constitutes a relative risk factor of 65 % for gastric cancers ; in terms of absolute risk , the increase was from 1 @.@ 1 % to 1 @.@ 7 % .
H. pylori has been associated with colorectal polyps and colorectal cancer . It may also be associated with eye disease .
= = Microbiology = =
H. pylori is a helix @-@ shaped ( classified as a curved rod , not spirochaete ) Gram @-@ negative bacterium about 3 μm long with a diameter of about 0 @.@ 5 μm . It is microaerophilic ; that is , it requires oxygen , but at lower concentration than is found in the atmosphere . It contains a hydrogenase which can be used to obtain energy by oxidizing molecular hydrogen ( H2 ) produced by intestinal bacteria . It produces oxidase , catalase , and urease . It is capable of forming biofilms and can convert from spiral to a possibly viable but nonculturable coccoid form , both likely to favor its survival and be factors in the epidemiology of the bacterium .
H. pylori possesses five major outer membrane protein families . The largest family includes known and putative adhesins . The other four families are porins , iron transporters , flagellum @-@ associated proteins , and proteins of unknown function . Like other typical Gram @-@ negative bacteria , the outer membrane of H. pylori consists of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide ( LPS ) . The O antigen of LPS may be fucosylated and mimic Lewis blood group antigens found on the gastric epithelium . The outer membrane also contains cholesterol glucosides , which are found in few other bacteria . H. pylori has four to six lophotrichous flagella ; all gastric and enterohepatic Helicobacter species are highly motile owing to flagella . The characteristic sheathed flagellar filaments of Helicobacter are composed of two copolymerized flagellins , FlaA and FlaB .
= = = Microscopy = = =
H. pylori can be demonstrated in tissue by Gram stain , Giemsa stain , haematoxylin @-@ eosin stain , Warthin @-@ Starry silver stain , acridine @-@ orange stain , and phase @-@ contrast microscopy .
= = = Genome = = =
H. pylori consists of a large diversity of strains , and the genomes of three have been completely sequenced . The genome of the strain " 26695 " consists of about 1 @.@ 7 million base pairs , with some 1 @,@ 576 genes . The two sequenced strains show large genetic differences , with up to 6 % of the nucleotides differing .
= = = Transcriptome = = =
In 2010 , Sharma et al. presented a comprehensive analysis of transcription at single @-@ nucleotide resolution by differential RNA @-@ seq which confirmed the known acid induction of major virulence loci such as the urease ( ure ) operon or the cag pathogenicity island ( see below ) . More importantly , this study identified a total of 1 @,@ 907 transcriptional start sites , 337 primary operons , and 126 additional suboperons , and 66 monocistrons . Until 2010 , only about 55 transcriptional start sites ( TSSs ) were known in this species . Notably , 27 % of the primary TSSs are also antisense TSSs , indicating that — similar to E. coli — antisense transcription occurs across the entire H. pylori genome . At least one antisense TSS is associated with about 46 % of all open reading frames , including many housekeeping genes . Most ( about 50 % ) of the 5 ' UTRs are 20 – 40 nucleotides ( nt ) in length and support the AAGGag motif located about 6 nt ( median distance ) upstream of start codons as the consensus Shine – Dalgarno sequence in H. pylori .
= = = = Genes involved in virulence and pathogenesis = = = =
Study of the H. pylori genome is centered on attempts to understand pathogenesis , the ability of this organism to cause disease . About 29 % of the loci have a colonization defect when mutated . Two of sequenced strains have an around 40 @-@ kb @-@ long Cag pathogenicity island ( a common gene sequence believed responsible for pathogenesis ) that contains over 40 genes . This pathogenicity island is usually absent from H. pylori strains isolated from humans who are carriers of H. pylori but remain asymptomatic .
The cagA gene codes for one of the major H. pylori virulence proteins . Bacterial strains with the cagA gene are associated with an ability to cause ulcers . The cagA gene codes for a relatively long ( 1186 @-@ amino acid ) protein . The cag pathogenicity island ( PAI ) has about 30 genes , part of which code for a complex type IV secretion system . The low GC @-@ content of the cag PAI relative to the rest of the Helicobacter genome suggests the island was acquired by horizontal transfer from another bacterial species .
= = Pathophysiology = =
= = = Adaptation to the stomach ’ s acidic environment = = =
To avoid the acidic environment of the interior of the stomach ( lumen ) , H. pylori uses its flagella to burrow into the mucus lining of the stomach to reach the epithelial cells underneath , where the pH is more neutral . H. pylori is able to sense the pH gradient in the mucus and move towards the less acidic region ( chemotaxis ) . This also keeps the bacteria from being swept away into the lumen with the bacteria ’ s mucus environment , which is constantly moving from its site of creation at the epithelium to its dissolution at the lumen interface .
H. pylori is found in the mucus , on the inner surface of the epithelium , and occasionally inside the epithelial cells themselves . It adheres to the epithelial cells by producing adhesins , which bind to lipids and carbohydrates in the epithelial cell membrane . One such adhesion , BabA , binds to the Lewis b antigen displayed on the surface of stomach epithelial cells . Another such adhesion , SabA , binds to increased levels of sialyl @-@ Lewis x antigen expressed on gastric mucosa .
In addition to using chemotaxis to avoid areas of low pH , H. pylori also neutralizes the acid in its environment by producing large amounts of urease , which breaks down the urea present in the stomach to carbon dioxide and ammonia . The ammonia , which is basic , then neutralizes stomach acid .
= = = Inflammation , gastritis , and ulcer = = =
H. pylori harms the stomach and duodenal linings by several mechanisms . The ammonia produced to regulate pH is toxic to epithelial cells , as are biochemicals produced by H. pylori such as proteases , vacuolating cytotoxin A ( VacA ) [ this damages epithelial cells , disrupts tight junctions and causes apoptosis ] , and certain phospholipases . Cytotoxin associated gene CagA can also cause inflammation and is potentially a carcinogen .
Colonization of the stomach by H. pylori can result in chronic gastritis , an inflammation of the stomach lining , at the site of infection . Helicobacter cysteine @-@ rich proteins ( Hcp ) , particularly HcpA ( hp0211 ) , are known to trigger an immune response , causing inflammation . Chronic gastritis is likely to underlie H. pylori @-@ related diseases .
Ulcers in the stomach and duodenum result when the consequences of inflammation allow stomach acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin to overwhelm the mechanisms that protect the stomach and duodenal mucous membranes . The location of colonization of H. pylori , which affects the location of the ulcer , depends on the acidity of the stomach . In people producing large amounts of acid , H. pylori colonizes near the pyloric antrum ( exit to the duodenum ) to avoid the acid @-@ secreting parietal cells at the fundus ( near the entrance to the stomach ) . In people producing normal or reduced amounts of acid , H. pylori can also colonize the rest of the stomach .
The inflammatory response caused by bacteria colonizing near the pyloric antrum induces G cells in the antrum to secrete the hormone gastrin , which travels through the bloodstream to parietal cells in the fundus . Gastrin stimulates the parietal cells to secrete more acid into the stomach lumen , and over time increases the number of parietal cells , as well . The increased acid load damages the duodenum , which may eventually result in ulcers forming in the duodenum .
When H. pylori colonizes other areas of the stomach , the inflammatory response can result in atrophy of the stomach lining and eventually ulcers in the stomach . This also may increase the risk of stomach cancer .
= = = The cag pathogenicity island = = =
The pathogenicity of H. pylori may be increased by genes of the cag pathogenicity island ; about 50 – 70 % of H. pylori strains in Western countries carry it . Western people infected with strains carrying the cag PAI have a stronger inflammatory response in the stomach and are at a greater risk of developing peptic ulcers or stomach cancer than those infected with strains lacking the island . Following attachment of H. pylori to stomach epithelial cells , the type IV secretion system expressed by the cag PAI " injects " the inflammation @-@ inducing agent , peptidoglycan , from their own cell walls into the epithelial cells . The injected peptidoglycan is recognized by the cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptor ( immune sensor ) Nod1 , which then stimulates expression of cytokines that promote inflammation .
The type @-@ IV secretion apparatus also injects the cag PAI @-@ encoded protein CagA into the stomach 's epithelial cells , where it disrupts the cytoskeleton , adherence to adjacent cells , intracellular signaling , cell polarity , and other cellular activities . Once inside the cell , the CagA protein is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues by a host cell membrane @-@ associated tyrosine kinase ( TK ) . CagA then allosterically activates protein tyrosine phosphatase / protooncogene Shp2 . Pathogenic strains of H. pylori have been shown to activate the epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) , a membrane protein with a TK domain . Activation of the EGFR by H. pylori is associated with altered signal transduction and gene expression in host epithelial cells that may contribute to pathogenesis . A C @-@ terminal region of the CagA protein ( amino acids 873 – 1002 ) has also been suggested to be able to regulate host cell gene transcription , independent of protein tyrosine phosphorylation . A great deal of diversity exists between strains of H. pylori , and the strain with which one is infected is predictive of the outcome .
= = = Cancer = = =
Two related mechanisms by which H. pylori could promote cancer are under investigation . One mechanism involves the enhanced production of free radicals near H. pylori and an increased rate of host cell mutation . The other proposed mechanism has been called a " perigenetic pathway " , and involves enhancement of the transformed host cell phenotype by means of alterations in cell proteins , such as adhesion proteins . H. pylori has been proposed to induce inflammation and locally high levels of TNF @-@ α and / or interleukin 6 ( IL @-@ 6 ) . According to the proposed perigenetic mechanism , inflammation @-@ associated signaling molecules , such as TNF @-@ α , can alter gastric epithelial cell adhesion and lead to the dispersion and migration of mutated epithelial cells without the need for additional mutations in tumor suppressor genes , such as genes that code for cell adhesion proteins .
The strain of H. pylori to which a person is exposed may influence the risk of developing gastric cancer . Strains of H. pylori that produce high levels of two proteins , vacuolating toxin A ( VacA ) and the cytotoxin @-@ associated gene A ( CagA ) , appear to cause greater tissue damage than those that produce lower levels or that lack those genes completely . These proteins are directly toxic to cells lining the stomach and signal strongly to the immune system that an invasion is underway . As a result of the bacterial presence , neutrophils and macrophages set up residence in the tissue to fight the bacteria assault .
= = = Survival of H. pylori = = =
The pathogenesis of H. pylori depends on its ability to survive in the harsh gastric environment characterized by acidity , peristalsis , and attack by phagocytes accompanied by release of reactive oxygen species . In particular , H. pylori elicits an oxidative stress response during host colonization . This oxidative stress response induces potentially lethal and mutagenic oxidative DNA adducts in the H. pylori genome .
Vulnerability to oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage occurs commonly in many studied bacterial pathogens , including Neisseria gonorrhoeae , Hemophilus influenzae , Streptococcus pneumoniae , S. mutans , and H. pylori . For each of these pathogens , surviving the DNA damage induced by oxidative stress appears to be supported by transformation @-@ mediated recombinational repair . Thus , transformation and recombinational repair appear to contribute to successful infection .
Transformation ( the transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another through the intervening medium ) appears to be part of an adaptation for DNA repair . H. pylori is naturally competent for transformation . While many organisms are competent only under certain environmental conditions , such as starvation , H. pylori is competent throughout logarithmic growth . All organisms encode genetic programs for response to stressful conditions including those that cause DNA damage . In H. pylori , homologous recombination is required for repairing DNA double @-@ strand breaks ( DSBs ) . The AddAB helicase @-@ nuclease complex resects DSBs and loads RecA onto single @-@ strand DNA ( ssDNA ) , which then mediates strand exchange , leading to homologous recombination and repair . The requirement
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to the way comic books in general treat women , like fetishy sexual fantasy . I wanted to start off just at the lowest point in society , a very beaten down secretary . " Harvey Dent appeared in early drafts of the script , but was deleted . His disfiguring appearance of Two @-@ Face would have appeared in the climax when Catwoman kisses him with a taser to the face , which was replaced with Max Shreck . Waters quoted , " Sam Hamm definitely planned that . I flirted with it , having Harvey start to come back and have one scene of him where he flips a coin and it 's the good side of the coin , deciding not to do anything , so you had to wait for the next movie . " In early scripts Max Shreck was the " golden boy " of the Cobblepot family , whereas Penguin was the deformed outsider . It turned out that Shreck would be the Penguin 's long @-@ lost brother . Max Shreck was also a reference to actor Max Schreck , known for his role as Count Orlok in Nosferatu .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Burton hired Wesley Strick to do an uncredited rewrite . Strick recalled , " When I was hired to write Batman Returns ( Batman II at the time ) , the big problem of the script was Penguin 's lack of a ' master plan ' . " Warner Bros. presented Strick with warming , or freezing Gotham City , a plot point they would later use in Batman & Robin . Strick gained inspiration from a Moses parallel that had Penguin killing the firstborn sons of Gotham . A similar notion was used when the Penguin 's parents threw him into a river as a baby . Robin appeared in the script , but was deleted because Waters felt the film had too many characters . Waters called Robin " the most worthless character in the world , especially with [ Batman as ] the loner of loners . " Robin started out as a juvenile gang leader , who becomes an ally to Batman . Robin was later changed to a black teenage garage mechanic . Waters explained , " He 's wearing this old @-@ fashioned garage mechanic uniform and it has an ' R ' on it . He drives the Batmobile , which I notice they used in the third film ! " Marlon Wayans was cast , and signed for a sequel . The actor had attended a wardrobe fitting , but it was decided to save the character for a third installment .
Michael Keaton returned after a significant increase in his salary to $ 10 million . Annette Bening was cast as Catwoman after Burton saw her performance in The Grifters , but she dropped out due to pregnancy . Raquel Welch , Jennifer Jason Leigh , Madonna , Ellen Barkin , Cher , Bridget Fonda , Lorraine Bracco , Jennifer Beals and Susan Sarandon were then in competition for the role . Sean Young , who was originally chosen for Vicki Vale in the previous film , believed the role should have gone to her . Young visited production offices dressed in a homemade Catwoman costume , demanding an audition . Burton was unfamiliar with Michelle Pfeiffer 's work , but was convinced to cast her after one meeting . Pfeiffer received a $ 3 million salary , $ 2 million more than Bening , and a percentage of the box office . The actress undertook kickboxing lessons for the role . Kathy Long served as Pfeiffer 's body double . On Danny DeVito 's casting , Waters explained , " I kind of knew that DeVito was going to play The Penguin . We didn 't really officially cast it , but for a short nasty little guy , it 's a short list . I ended up writing the character for Danny DeVito . "
= = = Filming = = =
In early 1991 , two of Hollywood 's largest sound stages ( Stage 16 at Warner Bros. and Stage 12 at Universal Studios ) were being prepared for the filming of Batman Returns . Filming started in June 1991 . Stage 16 held Gotham Plaza , based on Rockefeller Center . Universal 's Stage 12 housed Penguin 's underground lair . A half @-@ a @-@ million gallon tank filled with water was used . Burton wanted to make sure that the penguins felt comfortable . Eight other locations on the Warner Bros. lot were used , over 50 % of their property was occupied by Gotham City sets .
Animal rights groups started protesting the film after finding out that penguins would have rockets strapped on their backs . Richard Hill , the curator of the penguins , explained that Warner Bros. was very helpful in making sure the penguins were comfortable . " On the flight over the plane was refrigerated down to 45 degrees " , recalls Hill . " In Hollywood , they were given a refrigerated trailer , their own swimming pool , half @-@ a @-@ ton of ice each day , and they had fresh fish delivered daily straight from the docks . Even though it was 100 degrees outside , the entire set was refrigerated down to 35 degrees . "
The streets of Gotham City use the old Brownstone Street and Hennessy Street on the Warners ’ backlot .
Warner Bros. devoted a large amount of secrecy for Batman Returns . The art department was required to keep their office blinds pulled down . Cast and crew had to have photo ID badges with the movie 's fake working title Dictel to go anywhere near the sets . Kevin Costner was refused a chance to visit the set . An entertainment magazine leaked the first photos of Danny DeVito as the Penguin ; in response Warner Bros. employed a private investigator to track down the accomplice . $ 65 million was spent during the production of Batman Returns , while $ 15 million was used for marketing , coming to a total cost of $ 80 million . The final shot of Catwoman looking at the Bat @-@ Signal was completed during post @-@ production and was not part of the shooting script . After Batman Returns was completed Warner Bros. felt it was best for Catwoman to survive , saving more characterizations in a future installment . Pfeiffer was unavailable and a body double was chosen .
= = = Design and effects = = =
Bo Welch , Burton 's collaborator on Beetlejuice and Edward Scissorhands , replaced Anton Furst as production designer , since Furst was unable to return for the sequel due to contractual obligations . Welch blended " Fascist architecture with World 's fair architecture " for Gotham City . He also studied Russian architecture and German Expressionism . An iron maiden was used for Bruce Wayne 's entry into the Batcave . Stan Winston , who worked with Burton on Edward Scissorhands , designed Danny DeVito 's prosthetic makeup , which took two hours to apply . DeVito had to put a combination of mouthwash and red / green food coloring in his mouth " to create a grotesque texture of some weird ooze . "
More than 60 Catsuits were designed in the six @-@ month shoot at $ 1 @,@ 000 each . The Batsuit was updated , which was made out of a thinner , slightly more flexible foam rubber material than the suit from Batman . DeVito was uncomfortable with his costume , but this made it easy for him to get into character . J. P. Morgan 's wardrobe was used for inspiration on Max Shreck 's costume design .
The bats were entirely composed of computer @-@ generated imagery since it was decided directing real bats on set would be problematic . The Penguin 's " bird army " was a combination of CGI , robotic creatures , men in suits and even real penguins . Robotic penguin puppets were commissioned by Stan Winston . In total 30 African penguins and 12 king penguins were used . A miniature effect was used for the exteriors of the Cobblepot Mansion in the opening scene and for Wayne Manor . The same method was used for the Bat Ski @-@ boat and the exterior shots of the Gotham Zoo .
= = = Music = = =
Danny Elfman had great enthusiasm for returning because " I didn 't have to prove myself from the first film . I remember Jon Peters was very skeptical at first to hire me . " Elfman 's work schedule was 12 hours a day , 7 days a week . " When completing this movie I realized it was something of a film score and an opera . It was 95 minutes long , twice the amount of the average of film score . " Burton allowed Elfman to be more artistic with the sequel score , such as the " scraping " on violins for the cat themes . Under the pressure of finishing the score , however , the relationship between the two strained , which — along with further " creative differences " on The Nightmare Before Christmas — led Burton to use Howard Shore to score his next film Ed Wood . The musician co @-@ orchestrated " Face to Face " , which was written and performed by Siouxsie and the Banshees . The song can be heard in one scene during the film and during the end credits .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Batman Returns was released in America on June 19 , 1992 , earning $ 45 @.@ 69 million in 2 @,@ 644 theaters on its opening weekend . This was the highest opening weekend in 1992 and the highest opening weekend of any film up to that point . The film went on to gross $ 162 @.@ 83 million in North America , and $ 104 million in foreign countries , coming to a worldwide total of $ 266 @.@ 83 million . Batman Returns was the third highest grossing film in America of 1992 , and sixth highest in worldwide totals . The film was declared a financial success , but Warner Bros. felt the film should have been more successful .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Batman Returns has received very positive critical reception . Based on 70 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 80 % of critics enjoyed the film , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 . Much of the critics gave praise toward Tim Burton 's visual style , Danny Elfman 's musical score , accompanied by production designer Bo Welch , as well as the casting of Michelle Pfeiffer , Danny DeVito and Christopher Walken in supporting roles to complement Keaton 's portrayal of Batman , though the consistently dark and violent tone received mixed reviews .
Janet Maslin in The New York Times thought that " Mr. Burton creates a wicked world of misfits , all of them rendered with the mixture of horror , sympathy and playfulness that has become this director 's hallmark . " She described Michael Keaton as showing " appropriate earnestness " , Danny DeVito as " conveying verve " , Christopher Walken as " wonderfully debonair " , Michelle Pfeiffer as " captivating ... fierce , seductive " , Bo Welch 's production design as " dazzling " , Stefan Czapsky 's cinematography as " crisp " , and Daniel Waters 's screenplay as " sharp . "
Peter Travers in Rolling Stone wrote : " Burton uses the summer 's most explosively entertaining movie to lead us back into the liberating darkness of dreams . " He praised the performances : " Pfeiffer gives this feminist avenger a tough core of intelligence and wit ; she 's a classic dazzler ... Michael Keaton 's manic @-@ depressive hero remains a remarkably rich creation . And Danny DeVito 's mutant Penguin — a balloon @-@ bellied Richard III with a kingdom of sewer freaks — is as hilariously warped as Jack Nicholson 's Joker and even quicker with the quips . "
Desson Howe in The Washington Post wrote : " Director Burton not only re @-@ creates his one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind atmosphere , he one @-@ ups it , even two @-@ ups it . He 's best at evoking the psycho @-@ murky worlds in which his characters reside . The Penguin holds court in a penguin @-@ crowded , Phantom of the Opera @-@ like sewer home . Keaton hides in a castlelike mansion , which perfectly mirrors its owner 's inner remoteness . Comic strip purists will probably never be happy with a Batman movie . But Returns comes closer than ever to Bob Kane 's dark , original strip , which began in 1939 . " He described Walken as " engaging " , DeVito as " exquisite " and Pfeiffer as " deliciously purry . "
Todd McCarthy in Variety wrote that " the real accomplishment of the film lies in the amazing physical realization of an imaginative universe . Where Burton 's ideas end and those of his collaborators begin is impossible to know , but the result is a seamless , utterly consistent universe full of nasty notions about societal deterioration , greed and other base impulses . " He praised the contributions of Stan Winston , Danny Elfman , Bo Welch and cinematographer Stefan Czapsky , and in terms of performances , opined that " the deck is stacked entirely in favor of the villains " , calling DeVito " fascinating " and Pfeiffer " very tasty . "
Conversely , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film two stars out of four , writing : " I give the movie a negative review , and yet I don 't think it 's a bad movie ; it 's more misguided , made with great creativity , but denying us what we more or less deserve from a Batman story . No matter how hard you try , superheroes and film noir don 't go together ; the very essence of noir is that there are no more heroes . " He compared the Penguin negatively with the Joker of the first film , writing that " the Penguin is a curiously meager and depressing creature ; I pitied him , but did not fear him or find him funny . The genius of Danny DeVito is all but swallowed up in the paraphernalia of the role . " Jonathan Rosenbaum called DeVito " a pale substitute for Jack Nicholson from the first film " and felt that " there 's no suspense in Batman Returns whatsoever " . Batman comic book writer / artist Matt Wagner was quoted as saying : " I hated how Batman Returns made Batman little more than just another costumed creep , little better than the villains he 's pursuing . Additionally , Burton is so blatantly not an action director . That aspect of both his films just sucked . " Ty Burr in Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B- ; he wrote that " Burton still hasn 't figured out how to tell a coherent story : He 's more interested in fashioning pretty beads than in putting them on a string .... Yet for all the wintry weirdness , there 's more going on under the surface of this movie than in the original . No wonder some people felt burned by Batman Returns : Tim Burton just may have created the first blockbuster art film . "
A " parental backlash " criticized Batman Returns with violence and sexual references that were unsuitable for children . McDonald 's shut down their Happy Meal promotion for the film . Burton responded , " I like Batman Returns better than the first one . There was this big backlash that it was too dark , but I found this movie much less dark . "
In 2016 , James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film number fourteen on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals .
= = = Accolades = = =
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Catwoman ( Selina Kyle ) — Nominated Villain
The Penguin ( Oswald Cobblepot ) — Nominated Villain
= = Legacy = =
Batman Returns would be the last film in the Warner Bros. Batman film series that featured Burton and Michael Keaton as director and leading actor . With Batman Forever , Warner Bros. decided to go in a " lighter " direction to be more mainstream in the process of a family film . Burton had no interest in returning to direct a sequel , but was credited as producer . With Warner Bros. moving on development for Batman Forever in June 1993 , a Catwoman spin @-@ off was announced . Michelle Pfeiffer was to reprise her role , with the character not to appear in Forever because of her own spin @-@ off .
Burton became attached as director , while producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters also returned . In January 1994 , Burton was unsure of his plans to direct Catwoman or an adaptation of " The Fall of the House of Usher " . On June 6 , 1995 , Waters turned in his Catwoman script to Warner Bros. , the same day Batman Forever was released . Burton was still being courted to direct . Waters joked , " Turning it in the day Batman Forever opened may not have been my best logistical move , in that it 's the celebration of the fun @-@ for @-@ the @-@ whole @-@ family Batman . Catwoman is definitely not a fun @-@ for @-@ the @-@ whole @-@ family script . " In an August 1995 interview , Pfeiffer re @-@ iterated her interest in the spin @-@ off , but explained her priorities would be challenged as a mother and commitments to other projects . The film labored in development hell for years , with Pfeiffer replaced by Ashley Judd . The film ended up becoming the critically panned Catwoman ( 2004 ) , starring Halle Berry .
= = = Film analysis = = =
From Comic To Pfeiffer 's Cat Batman @-@ Online.com 's in @-@ depth analysis on Tim Burton 's Catwoman 's comic origins
Possible Comic Influences On Batman Returns Batman @-@ Online.com 's in @-@ depth analysis on possible comic book influences of Batman Returns ' plotline
= Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video =
The Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video was an honor presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 for quality performance music videos . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category . This category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced by awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . Criteria changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Performance Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Concept Music Video . Best Performance Music Video award recipients were Anthony Eaton as the video producer of The Prince 's Trust All @-@ Star Rock Concert , a recording of a benefit concert for The Prince 's Trust , and the Irish rock band U2 for " Where the Streets Have No Name " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video .
= = Background = =
The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees , Michael Nesmith for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) as well as Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 , the top award of which is also presented for Video of the Year . The Academy replaced the category with the awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album beginning with the 26th Grammy Awards . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and honors were presented for the categories Best Concept Music Video and Best Performance Music Video . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively .
= = Recipients = =
For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Performance Music Video nominees included Anthony Eaton for producing The Prince 's Trust All @-@ Star Rock Concert ( a recording of a benefit concert for The Prince 's Trust ) , Russian American pianist Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz in Moscow , Cyndi Lauper for Cyndi Lauper in Paris , Bobby McFerrin for Spontaneous Inventions , and Barbra Streisand for One Voice . Directed by Brian Large , Horowitz in Moscow was a recording of Horowitz 's first concert appearance in Russia since 1925 and features compositions by Chopin , Mozart , Rachmaninoff , Schubert and other composers . Cyndi Lauper in Paris was filmed at Zénith de Paris on March 12 , 1987 , the final date of her world tour . Produced by John Diaz and directed by Andy Morahan , the recording features Sterling Campbell on drums , Rick Derringer on guitar , Sue Hadjopoulas on percussion , Kevin Jenkins on bass , and David Rosenthal on keyboards . Ferrin 's Spontaneous Inventions , directed by Bud Schaetzle , is an hour @-@ long recording of a 1986 performance in Hollywood . Streisand 's video One Voice , directed by Dwight Hemion , is a companion piece to her 1987 live album of the same name . Originally broadcast as an HBO special , the September 6 , 1986 concert recording marked her first " official " live performance since 1972 , held in part as a protest against the nuclear arms race during Ronald Reagan 's presidency . The concert was filmed in Streisand 's backyard and features special appearances by Burt Bacharach , Barry Gibb , Richard Marx , Carole Bayer Sager and comedian Robin Williams . The award was presented to Eaton as the producer of the concert recording , which included appearances by Elton John , Sting , Tina Turner and others .
Nominees for the 31st Grammy Awards were English musician David Bowie for Glass Spider , Canadian musician and producer David Foster for The Symphony Sessions , American singer @-@ songwriter John Cougar Mellencamp for " Check It Out " , Stevie Nicks for Stevie Nicks : Live at Red Rocks , and the Irish rock band U2 for " Where the Streets Have No Name " . Glass Spider was a recording of a live two @-@ hour concert filmed in Sydney , Australia in November 1987 . The Symphony Sessions included ten compositions by Foster presented as a " collage of video images " in performance with the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra . Recorded over a period of five nights in Vancouver , Foster wrote , arranged , produced and played piano for the project ( which included a recording of the theme for the 1988 Winter Olympics ) with the assistance of Jeremy Lubbock , David Paich , and Lee Ritenour . The music video for " Check It Out " , a song that appears on Mellencamp 's 1987 album The Lonesome Jubilee , was filmed live at Market Square Arena in Indianapolis , Indiana on December 11 , 1987 . Directed by Marty Callner , Stevie Nicks : Live at Red Rocks is an hour @-@ long recording of a live concert filmed at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison , Colorado with special guests Mick Fleetwood and Peter Frampton . The music video for U2 's " Where the Streets Have No Name " was filmed on the roof of a Los Angeles liquor store . During the filming process , police ordered the band to stop the shoot " due to fears the crowd was getting out of hand " . Awards were presented to members of U2 ( Bono , Adam Clayton , The Edge , Larry Mullen , Jr . ) as the performing group , along with Meiert Avis as the video director and Ben Dossett and Michael Hamlyn as the video producers .
= DeSmogBlog =
The DeSmogBlog , founded in January 2006 , is a blog that focuses on topics related to global warming . The site describes itself as " the world 's number one source for accurate , fact based information regarding Global Warming misinformation campaigns . " DeSmogBlog opposes what it describes as " a well @-@ funded and highly organized public relations campaign " that it says is " poisoning " the climate change debate .
Since its inception , the site has received several mentions in the media regarding its involvement in global warming issues . The site was co @-@ founded by James Hoggan , president of a public relations firm based in Vancouver , Canada . The website was recognized in December 2007 with an award by a trade organization for its standards and content .
= = Content = =
= = = Mission and audience = = =
The blog was co @-@ founded in January 2006 by James Hoggan , president of the public relations firm Hoggan and Associates . In a February 2007 interview with the Vancouver Sun , Hoggan conveys his anger at industry interests who he believes mislead the public about the scientific understanding of global warming . He referred to this alleged misrepresentation of the facts as , " public relations at its sleaziest " . Hoggan used his public relations skills to start a blog that would " clear the PR pollution that clouds the science of climate change " and expose organizations and individuals which he considered to be unethical . DeSmogBlog says it reports on the credibility of experts who appear to misrepresent the science of global warming in the media by investigating their scientific background , funding sources , and industry interests . The site originally targeted a Canadian audience but is now involved in global climate change coverage .
Contributors to the site assist in researching organizations that the site 's staff believe are phony , grassroots organizations , or astroturf groups sponsored directly or indirectly by industries seeking to thwart climate change @-@ related legislation . Organizations alleged by the blog to be astroturfs include Friends of Science , Natural Resources Stewardship Project , Global Climate Coalition , and International Climate Science Coalition . Individuals that the site has identified as pushing an anti @-@ climate change point of view are listed in the site 's " Denial Database " , with accompanying information about their industry affiliations and professional biographies . In a Financial Post column , Canadian environmentalist Lawrence Solomon stated that the organization was , in Solomon 's words , " specifically created for the purpose of discrediting skeptics . "
In a report in the Globe and Mail , Hoggan stated that the most frequent visitors to the site came from Calgary , Ottawa , and Washington D.C ..
= = = Notable issues or media mentions = = =
In one instance , the site responded to a 2006 open letter opposing the Canadian Government 's climate @-@ change plans , claimed to be signed by " accredited experts in climate and related scientific disciplines " , by analyzing the list of the signatories . The site concluded that those checked had few peer @-@ reviewed publications on the topic and / or had fossil @-@ fuel industry connections .
DeSmogBlog has criticized Financial Post editor and columnist Terence Corcoran , claiming he impedes progress on climate change and environmental protection legislation in Canada . In turn , Corcoran has criticized Hoggan and his website , accusing both of serving the interests of large corporations hoping to make money on emissions trading .
The blog has been referenced in The Guardian by George Monbiot , who most recently cited a study by the website showing that in 2008 " the number of internet pages proposing that man @-@ made global warming is a hoax or a lie more than doubled " . In another column , Monbiot noted that DeSmogBlog posted a video critical of Anthony Watts 's blog Watts Up With That that Watts had deleted from YouTube for copyright reasons . Monbiot has also mentioned DeSmogBlog 's efforts to expose efforts by oil , coal , and electricity companies to manipulate media views on climate change .
= = = Heartland Institute documents = = =
In February 2012 , DeSmogBlog posted a number of internal documents purportedly from The Heartland Institute , a libertarian think tank . According to a statement posted on the Heartland Institute website , " Some of these documents were stolen from Heartland , at least one is a fake , and some may have been altered ... the authenticity of those documents has not been confirmed . "
Days after the document posting , blogger and journalist Megan McArdle wrote on The Atlantic website of a comment to a blog post that suggested that one of the documents , a memo titled " 2012 Heartland Climate Strategy , " was likely a fake based on the document being a scan which included metadata with a US west coast time zone . DeSmogBog responded that they had " no evidence supporting Heartland 's claim that the Strategic document is fake " and then included a number of references to McArdle 's first piece on the topic . McArdle then said of the DeSmogBlog response that " The first two links are to my post , and they are an egregious misrepresentation of what I said , " and goes on to note that " the stubborn willingness to ignore obvious problems becomes the story . "
On February 20 , 2012 , Peter Gleick issued a statement in the Huffington Post explaining that he had received an anonymous document in the mail that seemed to contain details on the climate program strategy of The Heartland Institute . He admitted to soliciting and receiving additional material from the Institute " under someone else 's name , " calling his actions " a serious lapse of my own and professional judgment and ethics . "
= = Founder and staff = =
The site 's co @-@ founder , James Hoggan , is President of the Vancouver @-@ based public relations firm James Hoggan & Associates , chair of the David Suzuki Foundation , a trustee of the Dalai Lama Center for Peace and Education , and an executive member of the Urban Development Institute . He is the author ( with Richard Littlemore ) of the 2009 book Climate Cover @-@ Up : The Crusade to Deny Global Warming ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1553654858 ) , which criticizes global warming denial and conspiracy theories . The sources do not identify the site 's other co @-@ founder .
The website names John Lefebvre as a benefactor . Frequent contributors to the blog include Ross Gelbspan and Richard Littlemore . Littlemore is a science writer who formerly worked for the Vancouver Sun . The site 's project manager was Kevin Grandia , who left to become the Director of Online Strategy at Greenpeace . The site is now managed by Brendan DeMelle .
= = Awards = =
The site was recognized in December 2007 by three British Columbia chapters of the Canadian Public Relations Society , the Vancouver , Victoria ( CPRS @-@ vi ) and Northern Lights in Prince George , with an award for demonstrating " The highest ethical and professional standards while performing outstanding work " . In a CPRS press release which accompanied the award , Hoggan stated that the site had been viewed by 520 @,@ 000 people over its history , had been cited as a source by 24 media outlets , and mentioned in more than 4 @,@ 500 other blogs . According to the press release , the blog was selected for the award by a panel of journalists and public relations professionals in Victoria , Vancouver , and Prince George .
DeSmogBlog was also listed by Time magazine as one of the " best blogs of 2011 " in June , 2011 .
= Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut , BWV 199 =
Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut ( English : My heart swims in blood ) BWV 199 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the solo cantata for soprano in Weimar between 1711 and 1714 , and performed it on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity , 12 August 1714 .
The text was written by Georg Christian Lehms and published in Darmstadt in 1711 in the collection Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer , on the general topic of a looking for redemption . The librettist wrote a series of alternating recitatives and arias , and included as movement 6 of 8 the third stanza of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " . It is not known when Bach composed the work , but he performed it as part of his monthly cantata productions on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity , 12 August 1714 . The solo voice is accompanied by a chamber orchestra of oboe , strings and continuo . The singer expresses in a style similar to Baroque opera the dramatic development from feeling like a " monster in God 's eyes " to being forgiven . Bach revised the work for later performances , leading to three different editions in the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe .
= = History and words = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court orchestra ( Kapelle ) of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . He performed the cantata on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity as the fifth cantata of the series , following Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , on the gospel of Christ and his ( Paul 's ) duty as an apostle ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 1 – 10 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector ( Luke 18 : 9 – 14 ) .
The text , which concerns a sinner seeking and finding redemption , was written by Georg Christian Lehms . Lehms was based in Darmstadt , and it is not known whether Bach knew him personally , but he may well have had access to Lehms 's 1711 publication Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer , which includes this text and that of another solo cantata , Widerstehe doch der Sünde , BWV 54 , performed the month before . The third stanza of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " is integrated as movement 6 . The text in the first person shows the dramatic change of a person initially feeling as " a monster in God 's eyes " to finally feeling accepted as God 's child . The cantata text was set to music in 1712 by Christoph Graupner in Darmstadt . It is not known if Bach knew of Graupner 's composition . The text has no specific relation to the prescribed readings , therefore it is possible that Bach may have already composed the work before his promotion to concert master with regular Sunday services , like the other cantata on a text by Lehms .
Bach first performed the cantata on 12 August 1714 . When he performed it again in Leipzig on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity in 1723 ( 8 August ) it was the first solo cantata and the most operatic work which he had presented to the congregation up to that point . He made revisions for that performance , such as transposing it from C minor to D minor and changing the obbligato viola to violoncello piccolo . In the same service , he also performed a new work , Siehe zu , daß deine Gottesfurcht nicht Heuchelei sei , BWV 179 : one before and one after the sermon .
The Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe recognises three distinct versions : the Weimar version , a Köthen version , and the Leipzig version .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata , structured in eight movements , is scored as chamber music for a solo soprano voice ( S ) , oboe ( Ob ) , violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon ( Fg ) and violone ( Vo ) . In the Weimar version , it is in C minor , with a viola as the obbligato instrument in movement 6 . The title page of the parts for this version reads : " Geistliche Cantate / Mein Herze schwimt im Blut / â / Soprano solo / 1 Hautb . / 2 Viol . / Viola / e / Basso / di / J.S.Bach " . In the Leipzig version , it is in D minor , with an obbligato violoncello piccolo instead of the viola .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Although limited to one soprano voice , Bach achieves a variety of musical expression in the eight movements . All but one recitative are accompanied by the strings ( accompagnato ) , and only movement 5 is secco , accompanied by the continuo only . The solo voice is treated to dramatic declamation , close to contemporary opera .
= = = 1 = = =
A recitative sets the scene , " Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut " ( " My heart swims in blood " ) .
The musicologist Julian Mincham explains that it " drips with the self @-@ obsessed agonies of sin , pain and abandonment ... with the torment of an abandoned soul swamped by its own sin and sorrow . Its finely wrought contours portray dramatically the vacillating emotions ranging from horror and terror to lonely and dispirited resignation . "
= = = 2 = = =
The first aria , a da capo aria , " Stumme Seufzer , stille Klagen " ( Mute sighs , silent cries ) , is accompanied by the oboe . The theme of the ritornello is present throughout the movement . The middle section begins with a dissonance to stress the sorrowful image of " Und ihr nassen Tränenquellen " ( " And you , moist springs of tears " ) . It ends with a passage set as a secco recitative , described by Mincham : " Time almost appears to stand still with this final expression of misery " .
= = = 3 = = =
The following recitative , " Doch Gott muss mir genädig sein " ( " But God must be gracious to me " ) , ends in a statement of repentance .
= = = 4 = = =
The second aria , " Tief gebückt und voller Reue " ( " Deeply bowed and filled with regret " ) , is dominated by rich string sound . An adagio passage leads to the da capo . The aria expresses repentance in a " civilised and refined minuet " .
= = = 5 = = =
A short secco recitative , " Auf diese Schmerzensreu " ( " Upon this painful repentance " ) , introduces the following hymn stanza . It begins with " a musical echo of the torments of the heart swimming in blood " .
= = = 6 = = =
The only chorale stanza of the work is " Ich , dein betrübtes Kind " ( " I , Your troubled child " ) , the third stanza of Johann Heermann 's " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " ( " Where should I flee " ) , published in 1630 . Its term " troubled child " is a good summary of the position of the human being in relation to God . The wording of its conclusion , " In deine tiefen Wunden , da ich stets Heil gefunden " ( " into Your deep wounds , where I have always found salvation " ) leads to the following recitative . The voice is accompanied by an obbligato viola ( violoncello piccolo in the Leipzig version ) in a lively figuration .
Bach used a rather unusual melody by Caspar von Stieler , whereas he based his later chorale cantata on this hymn on the melody by Jacob Regnart . The hymn is treated as in a chorale fantasia , with string ritornellos between the verses .
= = = 7 = = =
The last recitative , " Ich lege mich in diese Wunden " ( " I lay myself on these wounds " ) , introduces a different mood ; the final measures are a " soaring melisma " , a " joyously uplifting prelude " to the last movement .
= = = 8 = = =
The final aria , " Wie freudig ist mein Herz " ( " How joyful is my heart " ) , expresses joy as a cheerful gigue , with a long coloratura on " fröhlich " ( joyful ) . It is comparable to the gigues in Bach 's French Suites . Mincham concludes :
This cantata , expressed throughout in the first person , is highly personal . It makes a clear and dramatic journey from the cesspools of sinful misery to the euphoria of redemption and salvation . It has no trumpets , horns or drums to drive its message home ; they are not needed within this highly private context . "
= = Selected recordings = =
The work has been recorded often , both by Bach specialists and others . The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website , which lists 54 recordings as of 2015 . A red background colour roughly designates a large orchestra , green an ensemble playing on period instruments in historically informed performance .
= Blanche Lazzell =
Blanche Lazzell ( October 10 , 1878 – June 1 , 1956 ) was an American painter , printmaker and designer . Known especially for her white @-@ line woodcuts , she was an early modernist American artist , bringing elements of Cubism and abstraction into her art .
Born in a small farming community in West Virginia , Lazzell traveled to Europe twice , studying in Paris with French artists Albert Gleizes , Fernand Léger , and André Lhote . In 1915 , she began spending her summers in the Cape Cod art community of Provincetown , Massachusetts and eventually settled there permanently . She was one of the founding members of the Provincetown Printers , a group of artists who experimented with a white @-@ line woodcut technique based on the Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Nettie Blanche Lazzell was born October 10 , 1878 on a farm near Maidsville , West Virginia to Mary Prudence Pope and Cornelius Carhart Lazzell . Her father was a direct descendant of Reverend Thomas and Hannah Lazzell , pioneers who settled in Monongalia County after the American Revolutionary War . The Lazzells were devout Methodists , attending the Bethel Methodist Episcopal Church . The ninth of ten children , she was nicknamed " Pet " by her older brother Rufus , a name that her family would continue to use throughout her life . She grew up on the 200 acre ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) family farm , attending a one @-@ room schoolhouse on the property where students from the first through eighth grades were taught from October through February . Her mother died when she was twelve .
When Lazzell was fifteen , she enrolled in the West Virginia Conference Seminary ( now West Virginia Wesleyan College ) in Buckhannon . Probably sometime prior to her entering the Seminary she became partially deaf , although the exact origin of her condition is unclear . In 1894 she sought treatment from a Baltimore doctor who blamed her deafness on catarrh .
In 1899 , Lazzell enrolled in the South Carolina Co @-@ educational Institute . Upon graduation later that year , she became a teacher at the Red Oaks School in Ramsey , South Carolina . In spring of 1900 , she returned to Maidsville , where she tutored her younger sister , Bessie .
Lazzell was matriculated into the West Virginia University ( WVU ) in 1901 and decided to study fine art . While her education was paid for by her father , she kept a strict account of her expenditures and took a job coloring photographs at Frieds , a studio in Morgantown . She took drawing and art history classes from William J. Leonard and studied with Eva E. Hubbard . In June 1905 Lazzell was graduated , earning her degree in fine arts . She continued to study at WVU off and on until 1909 , furthering her art studies and twice substituting as a painting teacher for Hubbard . During this time she learned ceramics , gold etching , and china decoration .
She enrolled in the Art Students League of New York in 1908 where she studied under painters Kenyon Cox and William Merritt Chase . Georgia O 'Keeffe attended the league during the same period , but it is not clear whether the two attended classes together . In 1908 , Lazzell 's father died and she left the Art Students League .
= = = Travels to Europe = = =
Lazzell boarded the SS Ivernia on July 3 , 1912 bound for Europe on a summer tour arranged by the American Travel Club . The tour began in England and continued through the Netherlands , Belgium , and Italy , where Lazzell studied the architecture of churches . In August she left the tour and traveled to Paris , where she stayed at a pension in Montparnasse on the Left Bank . She attended lectures by Florence Heywood and Rossiter Howard , avoided the cafe life , and joined the Students Hostel on Boulevard Saint @-@ Michel . While in Paris , Lazzell took classes at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière , Académie Julian , and Académie Delécluse , eventually settling in at the Académie Moderne where she studied with post @-@ impressionist painter Charles Guérin and David Rosen . Lazzell felt most comfortable at the Moderne , which was associated with the Parisian avant @-@ garde . She embarked upon a six @-@ week sketching tour of Italy with four other young women in February 1913 . The quintet returned to Paris via Germany where Lazzell partook in her first glass of beer in Munich . In April she visited an ear specialist who removed a growth from the back of her throat , resulting in what she characterized as " a slight improvement " in her hearing . She continued to study with Guérin , who recognized Lazzell 's inclination for landscape art . Lazzell extended her stay in France and attended lectures at the Louvre concerning Flemish paintings , Dutch art and the Italian Renaissance . She returned to the United States at the end of September , sailing from London on the SS Arabic of the White Star Line .
Upon returning to Morgantown , Lazzell focused on painting and lived with her sister Bessie . She held a solo exhibition in December 1914 that included her sketches and paintings . Lazzell rented a studio where she taught art while supporting herself through the sales of hand @-@ painted china .
= = = Provincetown = = =
Lacking artistic stimulation in Morgantown , Lazzell journeyed to Provincetown , Massachusetts in 1915 . Already an artists ' colony , Provincetown was a mecca for European artists escaping World War I. Stella Johnson and Jessie Fremont Herring , two of Lazzell 's companions from her tour in Italy , were already in Provincetown and Lazzell stayed with Johnson 's mother . Lazzell took a morning outdoor painting class that summer from Charles Webster Hawthorne at his Cape Cod School of Art where she was exposed to Fauvist color and technique . She returned to Morgantown in the autumn and held an exhibition in her studio that October .
Lazzell returned to Provincetown the following summer and requested that painting instructor , Oliver Chaffee , teach her the white @-@ line woodcut technique innovated by Arthur Wesley Dow and adopted by a group of artists who had spent the previous winter in Provincetown . The white @-@ line woodcuts were inspired by Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints , but only used a single block of wood . Designs were etched into the surface of woodblocks , with the incised lines separating sections of the blocks . The sections were individually painted and printed onto paper with the carved portions forming white lines . Lazzell and other artists specializing in the white @-@ line technique formed the Provincetown Printers , an artist collective that later would earn national recognition . Toward the close of 1916 she traveled to Manhattan where she studied with Homer Boss and did an analysis of color with William E. Schumacher . Two of her pieces in the white @-@ line style were exhibited in the Provincetown Art Association 's annual show in 1917 .
Originality , Simplicity , Freedom of Expression , and above all Sincerity , with a clean cut block , are characteristics of a good wood block print .
In the summer of 1917 , she spent time at Byrdcliffe Colony , an artists ' colony in Woodstock , New York . There she studied with William Schumacher , under whom she made her first color woodcut . She also studied with William Zorach and Andrew Dasburg . In the summer of 1918 Lazzell moved to Provincetown permanently , converting an old fish house overlooking the Provincetown Harbor into a studio . She spent the winters in Morgantown and Manhattan until 1922 , always returning to Provincetown for the summer . In addition to her involvement with the Provincetown Printers , Lazzell was a member of the Provincetown Art Association and the Sail Loft Club , Provincetown 's women 's art club .
Although the bohemian atmosphere of Provincetown contrasted with Lazzell 's church @-@ going conservative demeanor , she wove herself into a tight circle of friends , including Ada Gilmore , Agnes Weinrich , and Otto Karl Knaths . She became close to Simeon C. Smith , a former WVU English professor who had retired to Provincetown . She spent Thanksgiving with his family in 1918 and while the couple became romantically entangled , they never married .
In 1919 Lazzell was featured in an exhibition in Manhattan at the Touchstone Gallery alongside Weinrich , Mary Kirkup , and Flora Schoenfeld . Later that year , the Provincetown Printers were featured at the Detroit Institute of Arts exhibition " Wood Block Prints in Color by American Artists " . That show included Lazzell 's depiction of the Monongahela River in Morgantown The Monongahela , which was cut at Byrdcliffe in William E. Schumacher 's studio . Critics and galleries associated the Provincetown Printers with modernist schools of painting and the artist collective continued to receive national exposure over the next few years with exhibitions in Chicago , Los Angeles , Philadelphia , Baltimore , and New Orleans .
Lazzell turned her old fish shack into a personal space and built large flower boxes around her studio , allowing morning glory and Madeira vines to grow up to the roof . Her studio 's garden became a local attraction and she hosted teas for which she made homemade candy . During this time Lazzell produced white @-@ line prints and flower monoprints and she taught painting and block printing classes .
= = = Return to Europe = = =
Lazzell returned to Europe in 1923 with Tannahill and Kaesche , touring Italy and spending two months in Cassis before settling in Paris late that summer . Her friend Flora Schoenfeld convinced her to dye her hair red in the fashion of many women in their circle . While in Paris Lazzell studied Cubism and geometric abstraction alongside Fernand Léger , André Lhote , and Albert Gleizes . Lazzell 's work was exhibited at the Salon d 'Automne and the American Women 's Club in 1923 . She returned to Morgantown in August 1924 after her sister Bessie had given birth to a son .
= = = Later years = = =
Lazzell grew close to her niece , Frances Reed , for whom she was a mentor and role model . For six years she served on the committee of selection for the Annual Modern Exhibition . After her return to Provincetown in 1926 , Lazzell tore down her studio and had a new building constructed , as the fish house was too cold during the winter . She participated in a show called " Fifty Prints of the Year " where she debuted her compositions The Violet Jug and Trees . She was particularly influenced by Gleizes and produced a series of abstract Synthetic cubist paintings based on the golden ratio , including Painting VIII .
Lazzell was a member of the international arts group Société Anonyme and was asked by artist and patron Katherine Dreier to be on its board of directors in 1928 . Lazzell later joined the New York Society of Women Artists and the Society of Independent Artists . Lazzell began incorporating abstract designs into her woodblocks and created designs for hooked rugs toward the end of the decade . She returned to Morgantown in the winter of 1929 and offered art lessons . Among her students was Ella Sophonisba Hergesheimer .
In 1934 , Lazzell was one of two West Virginians who received Federal Art Project grants through the Works Progress Administration . That same year she created a mural for a court room in the Monongalia County Courthouse entitled , Justice . The mural took fourteen weeks to complete . The mural is currently displayed at the Art Museum of West Virginia University in Morgantown , WV . She continued experimenting with woodprints and , in 1935 , studied with the renowned German abstract expressionist Hans Hofmann in Provincetown . Hofmann 's push / pull spatial theory is evident in the asymmetry of her later works . Lazzell 's studies of flowers were inspired by her lavish potted gardens , such as Star Phlox ( 1931 ) . Her 1948 floral print , Red and White Petunia , won first prize at the American Color Print Society exhibition . A collection of her prints are housed at the Art Museum of West Virginia University .
In 1956 , Lazzell 's health began to fail and she was hospitalized in Bourne , Massachusetts toward the end of May for a suspected stroke . After suffering a documented stroke , Lazzell died on June 1 . She is interred next to her father in Bethel Cemetery in Maidsville .
= = Artistic style = =
While Lazzell is most well known for her white @-@ line woodcuts , she also created ceramics , hooked rugs , paintings , and gouache studies . The subjects of her paintings and prints included landscape scenery and harbor scenes in Provincetown as well as flowers and still lifes . These and her abstract works incorporated elements of both Synthetic and Analytic cubism and frequently comprised arrangements of vibrantly colored geometric shapes . She was among the earliest women artists in the United States to work in a modernist style .
Lazzell 's paintings demonstrated a rich and nuanced use of color . She preferred French watercolor pigments that , alongside the grain of the woodblocks , created embossed lines and striated patterns . Typically the woodblocks she created were made from cherry or basswood and she only pulled three or four prints from each woodblock . From 1916 to 1955 , Lazzell created 138 woodblocks . Modern exhibitions of Lazzell 's artworks have included the woodblocks themselves .
Although she was a pioneer in the white @-@ line woodcut technique and played a role in the development of abstract art in the United States , Lazzell 's work faded into obscurity for a time . With a resurgence of interest in the modern print , and especially the white @-@ line woodcut , Lazzell 's popularity has surged lately . On August 3 , 2012 Lazzell 's print ' Sail Boat ' reached a staggering $ 106 @,@ 200 at auction .
= German destroyer Z9 Wolfgang Zenker =
Z9 Wolfgang Zenker was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . Several days after the start of World War II , she unsuccessfully attacked , together with another destroyer , Polish ships anchored at the naval base on the Hel Peninsula . In early 1940 the ship made two successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed six merchant ships . Wolfgang Zenker participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign by transporting troops to the Narvik area in early April 1940 . The ship fought in both naval Battles of Narvik several days later and had to be scuttled after she exhausted her ammunition .
= = Design and description = =
Wolfgang Zenker had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Wolfgang Zenker carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nmi ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Wolfgang Zenker carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( German : Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 9 January 1935 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 22 March 1935 as yard number G535 . She was launched on 27 March 1936 and completed on 2 July 1937 . Wolfgang Zenker participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 6th Destroyer Division and the following fleet exercise . On the morning of 3 September 1939 , after the start of World War II , the destroyers Leberecht Maass and Wolfgang Zenker , under the command of Rear Admiral Günther Lütjens , attacked the Polish destroyer Wicher and the minelayer Gryf as they laid anchored in the naval base on the Hel Peninsula . The German ships opened fire at a range of 12 @,@ 700 meters ( 13 @,@ 900 yd ) . The Polish ships , as well as a coast defense battery of 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) replied effectively and forced the German destroyers to make evasive maneuvers and to lay a smoke screen to throw off the aim of the Polish gunners . A 15 @-@ centimeter shell struck Leberecht Maass , killing four men and disabling one gun . Admiral Lutjens ordered the action broken off 40 minutes later as the German fire was ineffective .
Although the other destroyers were busy escorting the German heavy ships and laying minefields off the British coast , Wolfgang Zenker played no part of any of these operations until the night of 10 / 11 January 1940 when she laid a minefield off Cromer with her sisters Bruno Heinemann and Erich Koellner . Three ships totaling 11 @,@ 155 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) were sunk by this minefield . The same three ships made another sortie on the night of 9 / 10 February into the same area and laid 157 mines that claimed three ships totaling 11 @,@ 855 GRT . Wolfgang Zenker suffered ice damage in mid @-@ February and was forced to return prematurely when she was escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst when they attempted to intercept British convoys to Scandinavia .
Wolfgang Zenker was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . When they arrived at the Ofotfjord , west of Narvik , on the early morning of 9 April , the three ships of the 4th Flotilla , under the command of Commander Erich Bey , were ordered to land their troops in the Herjangsfjord ( a northern branch of the Ofotfjord ) in order to capture a Norwegian Army armory at Elvegårdsmoen . The troops encountered little resistance , but off @-@ loading them was slow because there was only a single wooden pier available . Wolfgang Zenker was able to partially refuel during the following night , but returned to the Herjansfjord well before dawn .
Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the German ships in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik . Commander Bey 's other two ships were very low on fuel and all three were running low on ammunition , so he decided not to continue the pursuit of the British ships since they were being engaged by the last two destroyers of Group 1 .
Commander Bey was ordered during the afternoon of 10 April to return to Germany with all seaworthy ships that evening . Only Wolfgang Zenker and her sister Erich Giese were ready for sea and they slipped out of the Ofotfjord and turned south . Visibility was good that evening and they spotted the light cruiser HMS Penelope and her two escorting destroyers and Commander Bey decided to turn back even though his ships had not been spotted by the British . Three other destroyers refuelled and completed their repairs on 11 April , but Bey decided against another breakout attempt despite the fog and poor visibility that night . While at anchor , Wolfgang Zenker briefly grounded during the night and damaged her port propeller , which limited her speed to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Bey made no attempt to breakout during the night of 12 / 13 April .
That night he received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . Wolfgang Zenker was still under repair , although her torpedoes had been replenished from the damaged destroyers . The battleship HMS Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Wolfgang Zenker , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . Wolfgang Zenker was able to make a torpedo attack on Warspite before being driven off , but her torpedoes all missed . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Wolfgang Zenker had exhausted her ammunition and she was beached at the head of the fjord . Her crew placed demolition charges and abandoned the ship . By the time the British reached the ship she had rolled over onto her side .
= Jimi Hendrix =
James Marshall " Jimi " Hendrix ( born Johnny Allen Hendrix ; November 27 , 1942 – September 18 , 1970 ) was an American rock guitarist , singer , and songwriter . Although his mainstream career spanned only four years , he is widely regarded as one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music , and one of
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criticism from his superiors . They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks . On May 24 , Hendrix 's platoon sergeant , James C. Spears , filed a report in which he stated : " He has no interest whatsoever in the Army ... It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier . I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible . " On June 29 , 1962 , Captain Gilbert Batchman granted Hendrix an honorable discharge on the basis of unsuitability . Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and falsely stated that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump .
= = Music career = =
= = = Early years = = =
In September 1963 , after Cox was discharged from the Army , he and Hendrix moved to Clarksville , Tennessee and formed a band called the King Kasuals . Hendrix had watched Butch Snipes play with his teeth in Seattle and by now Alphonso ' Baby Boo ' Young , the other guitarist in the band , was performing this guitar gimmick . Not to be upstaged , Hendrix learned to play with his teeth . He later commented : " The idea of doing that came to me ... in Tennessee . Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot . There 's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage . " Although they began playing low @-@ paying gigs at obscure venues , the band eventually moved to Nashville 's Jefferson Street , which was the traditional heart of the city 's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene . They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town , the Club del Morocco , and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South who were affiliated with the Theater Owners ' Booking Association ( TOBA ) , widely known as the Chitlin ' Circuit . In addition to playing in his own band , Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul , R & B , and blues musicians , including Wilson Pickett , Slim Harpo , Sam Cooke , and Jackie Wilson .
In January 1964 , feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders , Hendrix decided to venture out on his own . He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem , where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon , known as " Faye " , who became his girlfriend . A Harlem native with connections throughout the area 's music scene , Pridgon provided him with shelter , support , and encouragement . Hendrix also met the Allen twins , Arthur and Albert . In February 1964 , Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest . Hoping to secure a career opportunity , he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands . At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex , Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers ' back @-@ up band , the I.B. Specials , which he readily accepted .
= = = First recordings = = =
In March 1964 , Hendrix recorded the two @-@ part single " Testify " with the Isley Brothers . Released in June , it failed to chart . In May , he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song , " Mercy Mercy " . Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic , the track reached number 35 on the Billboard chart .
Hendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964 , but near the end of October , after growing tired of playing the same set every night , he left the band . Soon afterward , Hendrix joined Little Richard 's touring band , the Upsetters . During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965 , he recorded his first and only single with Richard , " I Don 't Know What You Got ( But It 's Got Me ) " , written by Don Covay and released by Vee @-@ Jay Records . Richard 's popularity was waning at the time , and the single peaked at number 92 , where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart . Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood , and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single , which included the Arthur Lee penned " My Diary " as the A @-@ side , and " Utee " as the B @-@ side . Hendrix played guitar on both tracks , which also included background vocals by Lee . The single failed to chart , but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years ; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee 's band , Love .
In July 1965 , on Nashville 's Channel 5 Night Train , Hendrix made his first television appearance . Performing in Little Richard 's ensemble band , he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on " Shotgun " . The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing . Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness , wardrobe , and Hendrix 's stage antics , and in late July , Richard 's brother Robert fired him . He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers , and recorded a second single with them , " Move Over and Let Me Dance " backed with " Have You Ever Been Disappointed " . Later that year , he joined a New York @-@ based R & B band , Curtis Knight and the Squires , after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying . Hendrix performed with them for eight months . In October 1965 , he and Knight recorded the single , " How Would You Feel " backed with " Welcome Home " and on October 15 , Hendrix signed a three @-@ year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin . While the relationship with Chalpin was short @-@ lived , his contract remained in force , which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix . During his time with Knight , Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters , and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe 's two @-@ part single , " Help Me " . Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals , " Hornets Nest " and " Knock Yourself Out " , released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966 .
Feeling restricted by his experiences as an R & B sideman , Hendrix moved to New York City 's Greenwich Village in 1966 , which had a vibrant and diverse music scene . There , he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha ? on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June , Jimmy James and the Blue Flames , which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California . The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience . In September , they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe au Go Go , as John Hammond Jr . ' s backing group .
= = = The Jimi Hendrix Experience = = =
By May 1966 , Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R & B circuit , so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City 's most popular nightspots , the Cheetah Club . During a performance , Linda Keith , the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards , noticed Hendrix . She remembered : " [ His ] playing mesmerised me " . She invited him to join her for a drink ; he accepted and the two became friends .
While he was playing with Jimmy James and the Blue Flames , Keith recommended Hendrix to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein . They failed to see Hendrix 's musical potential , and rejected him . She then referred him to Chas Chandler , who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists . Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song " Hey Joe " , and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist . Impressed with Hendrix 's version of the song , he brought him to London on September 24 , 1966 , and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex @-@ Animals manager Michael Jeffery . On September 24 , Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James , and later that night he began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years .
Following Hendrix 's arrival in London , Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight the guitarist 's talents , the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals , where Redding 's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix , who stated that he also liked Redding 's hairstyle . Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix 's band ; Redding agreed . Chandler then began looking for a drummer and soon after , he contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend . Mitchell , who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames , participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues . When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position , he readily accepted . Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from Jimmy to the exotic looking Jimi .
On September 30 , Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street , where Cream was scheduled to perform , and where Hendrix and Eric Clapton met . Clapton later commented : " He asked if he could play a couple of numbers . I said , ' Of course ' , but I had a funny feeling about him . " Halfway through Cream 's set , Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin ' Wolf song " Killing Floor " . In 1989 , Clapton described the performance : " He played just about every style you could think of , and not in a flashy way . I mean he did a few of his tricks , like playing with his teeth and behind his back , but it wasn 't in an upstaging sense at all , and that was it ... He walked off , and my life was never the same again " .
= = = = UK success = = = =
In mid @-@ October 1966 , Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday 's supporting act during a brief tour of France . Thus , the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their very first show on October 13 , 1966 , at the Novelty in Evreux . Their enthusiastically received 15 @-@ minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band . In late October , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp , managers of the Who , signed the Experience to their newly formed label , Track Records , which released the Experience 's first single on October 23 . " Hey Joe " , which included a female chorus provided by the Breakaways , was backed by Hendrix 's first songwriting effort after arriving in England , " Stone Free " .
In mid @-@ November , they performed at the Bag O 'Nails nightclub in London , with Clapton , John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Jeff Beck , Pete Townshend , Brian Jones , Mick Jagger , and Kevin Ayers in attendance . Ayers described the crowd 's reaction as stunned disbelief : " All the stars were there , and I heard serious comments , you know ' shit ' , ' Jesus ' , ' damn ' and other words worse than that . " The successful performance earned Hendrix his first interview , published in Record Mirror with the headline : " Mr. Phenomenon " . " Now hear this ... we predict that [ Hendrix ] is going to whirl around the business like a tornado " , wrote Bill Harry , who asked the rhetorical question : " Is that full , big , swinging sound really being created by only three people ? " Hendrix commented : " We don 't want to be classed in any category ... If it must have a tag , I 'd like it to be called , ' Free Feeling ' . It 's a mixture of rock , freak @-@ out , rave and blues " . After appearances on the UK television shows Ready Steady Go ! and the Top of the Pops , " Hey Joe " entered the UK charts on December 29 , 1966 , peaking at number six . Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit " Purple Haze " , and in May with " The Wind Cries Mary " , which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks , peaking at number six .
On March 31 , 1967 , while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria , Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band 's media exposure . When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice , Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who , which involved the smashing of instruments . Hendrix joked : " Maybe I can smash up an elephant " , to which Altham replied : " Well , it 's a pity you can 't set fire to your guitar " . Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid . During the show , Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45 @-@ minute set . In the wake of the stunt , members of London 's press labeled Hendrix the " Black Elvis " and the " Wild Man of Borneo " .
= = = = Are You Experienced = = = =
After the moderate UK chart success of their first two singles , " Hey Joe " and " Purple Haze " , the Experience began assembling material for a full @-@ length LP . Recording began at De Lane Lea Studios and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios . The album , Are You Experienced , features a diversity of musical styles , including blues tracks such as " Red House " and " Highway Chile " , and the R & B song " Remember " . It also included the experimental science fiction piece , " Third Stone from the Sun " and the post @-@ modern soundscapes of the title track , with prominent backwards guitar and drums . " I Don 't Live Today " served as a medium for Hendrix 's guitar feedback improvisation and " Fire " was driven by Mitchell 's drumming .
Released in the UK on May 12 , 1967 , Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts , peaking at number two . It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . On June 4 , 1967 , Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of Sgt. Pepper 's title track , which was released just three days previous . Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time , and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance . McCartney described the moment : " The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing ' Sgt. Pepper ' . It 's a pretty major compliment in anyone 's book . I put that down as one of the great honors of my career . " Released in the U.S. on August 23 by Reprise Records , Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200 .
In 1989 , Noe Goldwasser , the founding editor of Guitar World magazine , described Are You Experienced as " the album that shook the world ... leaving it forever changed " . In 2005 , Rolling Stone called the double @-@ platinum LP Hendrix 's " epochal debut " , and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time , noting his " exploitation of amp howl " , and characterizing his guitar playing as " incendiary ... historic in itself " .
= = = = Monterey Pop Festival = = = =
Although popular in Europe at the time , the Experience 's first U.S. single , " Hey Joe " , failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1 , 1967 . The group 's fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival . He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix , whom he called " an absolute ace on the guitar " , and he agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid @-@ June .
Introduced by Brian Jones as " the most exciting performer [ he had ] ever heard " , Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin ' Wolf 's song " Killing Floor " , wearing what author Keith Shadwick described as " clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere . " Shadwick wrote : " [ Hendrix ] was not only something utterly new musically , but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like . " The Experience went on to perform renditions of " Hey Joe " , B.B. King 's " Rock Me Baby " , Chip Taylor 's " Wild Thing " , and Bob Dylan 's " Like a Rolling Stone " , as well as four original compositions : " Foxy Lady " , " Can You See Me " , " The Wind Cries Mary " , and " Purple Haze " . The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience . Rolling Stone 's Alex Vadukul wrote :
When Jimi Hendrix set his guitar on fire at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival he created one of rock 's most perfect moments . Standing in the front row of that concert was a 17 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Ed Caraeff . Caraeff had never seen Hendrix before nor heard his music , but he had a camera with him and there was one shot left in his roll of film . As Hendrix lit his guitar , Caraeff took a final photo . It would become one of the most famous images in rock and roll .
Caraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage while taking a series of four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar . Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera as a shield to protect his face from the heat . Rolling Stone later colorized the image , matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover . According to author Gail Buckland , the fourth and final frame of " Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar , hands raised , is one of the most famous images in rock . " Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote : " Hendrix 's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention . " The Los Angeles Times asserted that , upon leaving the stage , Hendrix " graduated from rumor to legend " . Author John McDermott commented : " Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they 'd just heard and seen . " According to Hendrix : " I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice . You sacrifice things you love . I love my guitar . " The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker , and later included in the concert documentary Monterey Pop , which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the U.S. public .
Immediately after the festival , the Experience were booked for a series of five concerts at Bill Graham 's Fillmore , with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane . The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights , and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth . Following their successful West Coast introduction , which included a free open @-@ air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go , the Experience were booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees . They requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans , but their young audience disliked the Experience , who left the tour after six shows . Chandler later admitted that he engineered the tour in an effort to gain publicity for Hendrix .
= = = = Axis : Bold as Love = = = =
The second Experience album , Axis : Bold as Love , opens with the track " EXP " , which innovatively utilized microphonic and harmonic feedback . It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix 's guitar move through the stereo image , revolving around the listener . The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space . He composed the album 's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses , during which he pairs emotions with personas , comparing them to colors . The song 's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing . Shadwick described the composition as " possibly the most ambitious piece on Axis , the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence " in Hendrix 's songwriting . His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion , with tremolo @-@ picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus , which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as " simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played " . The track fades out on tremolo @-@ picked thirty @-@ second note double stops .
The scheduled release date for Axis was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP , leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi . With the deadline looming , Hendrix , Chandler , and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session , but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of " If 6 Was 9 " . Bassist Noel Redding had a tape recording of this mix , which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled . During the verses , Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals . Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re @-@ mixed the album so quickly , and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time .
Axis featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various forms of Vishnu , incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law , from a photo @-@ portrait by Karl Ferris . The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass @-@ produced religious poster . Hendrix stated that the cover , which Track spent $ 5 @,@ 000 producing , would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage . He commented : " You got it wrong ... I 'm not that kind of Indian . " Track released the album in the UK on December 1 , 1967 , where it peaked at number five , spending 16 weeks on the charts . In February 1968 , Axis : Bold as Love reached number three in the U.S.
While author and journalist Richie Unterberger described Axis as the least impressive Experience album , according to author Peter Doggett , the release " heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix 's work " . Mitchell commented : " Axis was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board , as well as playing , and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded . It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio . "
= = = = Electric Ladyland = = = =
Recording for the Experience 's third and final studio album , Electric Ladyland , began at the newly opened Record Plant Studios , with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren . As the sessions progressed , Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix 's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes . Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio , which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix . Redding later recalled : " There were tons of people in the studio ; you couldn 't move . It was a party , not a session . " Redding , who had formed his own band in mid @-@ 1968 , Fat Mattress , found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience , so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on Electric Ladyland . The album 's cover stated that it was " produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix " .
During the Electric Ladyland recording sessions , Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians , including Jefferson Airplane 's Jack Casady and Traffic 's Steve Winwood , who played bass and organ , respectively , on the fifteen @-@ minute slow @-@ blues jam , " Voodoo Chile " . During the album 's production , Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King , Al Kooper , and Elvin Bishop . Electric Ladyland was released on October 25 , and by mid @-@ November it had reached number one in the U.S. , spending two weeks at the top spot . The double LP was Hendrix 's most commercially successful release and his only number one album . It peaked at number six in the UK , spending 12 weeks on the chart . Electric Ladyland included Hendrix 's cover of Bob Dylan 's song , " All Along the Watchtower " , which became Hendrix 's highest @-@ selling single and his only U.S. top 40 hit , peaking at number 20 ; the single reached number five in the UK . " Burning of the Midnight Lamp " , which was his first recorded song to feature the use of a wah @-@ wah pedal , was added to the album . It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 in the charts .
In 1989 , Noe Goldwasser , the founding editor of Guitar World magazine , described Electric Ladyland as " Hendrix 's masterpiece " . According to author Michael Heatley , " most critics agree " that the album is " the fullest realization of Jimi 's far @-@ reaching ambitions . " In 2004 , author Peter Doggett commented : " For pure experimental genius , melodic flair , conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance , Electric Ladyland remains a prime contender for the status of rock 's greatest album . " Doggett described the LP as " a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician . "
= = = Break @-@ up of the Experience = = =
In January 1969 , after an absence of more than six months , Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham 's Brook Street apartment , which was next door to the Handel House Museum in the West End of London . During this time , the Experience toured Scandinavia , Germany , and gave their final two performances in France . On February 18 and 24 , they played sold @-@ out concerts at London 's Royal Albert Hall , which were the last European appearances of this line @-@ up .
By February 1969 , Redding had grown weary of Hendrix 's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience 's music . During the previous month 's European tour , interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated , particularly between Hendrix and Redding . In his diary , Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions : " On the first day , as I nearly expected , there was nothing doing ... On the second it was no show at all . I went to the pub for three hours , came back , and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in . Then we argued ... On the last day , I just watched it happen for a while , and then went back to my flat . " The last Experience sessions that included Redding — a re @-@ recording of " Stone Free " for use as a possible single release — took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York . Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York ; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21 .
The last performance of the original Experience line @-@ up took place on June 29 , 1969 , at Barry Fey 's Denver Pop Festival , a three @-@ day event held at Denver 's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience . The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck , which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle . Before the show , a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there ; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox . The next day , Redding quit the Experience and returned to London . He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career , blaming Hendrix 's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving . Redding later commented : " Mitch and I hung out a lot together , but we 're English . If we 'd go out , Jimi would stay in his room . But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard , getting too tired , and taking too many drugs ... I liked Hendrix . I don 't like Mitchell . "
Soon after Redding 's departure , Hendrix began lodging at the eight @-@ bedroom Ashokan House , in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York , where he had spent some time vacationing in mid @-@ 1969 . Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album . During this time , Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery , which included Hendrix 's first appearance on U.S. TV — on The Dick Cavett Show — where he was backed by the studio orchestra , and an appearance on The Tonight Show where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy .
= = = Woodstock = = =
By 1969 , Hendrix was the world 's highest @-@ paid rock musician . In August , he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time . For the concert , he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez . The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance , and according to Mitchell , they never connected musically . Before arriving at the engagement , he heard reports that the size of the audience had grown to epic proportions , which gave him cause for concern as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds . He was an important draw for the event , and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee he was the festival 's highest @-@ paid performer . As his scheduled time slot of midnight on Sunday drew closer , he indicated that he preferred to wait and close the show in the morning ; the band took the stage around 8 : 00 a.m. on Monday . By the time of their set , Hendrix had been awake for more than three days . The audience , which peaked at an estimated 400 @,@ 000 people , was now reduced to 30 – 40 @,@ 000 , many of whom had waited to catch a glimpse of Hendrix before leaving during his performance . The festival MC , Chip Monck , introduced the group as the Jimi Hendrix Experience , but Hendrix clarified : " We decided to change the whole thing around and call it Gypsy Sun and Rainbows . For short , it 's nothin ' but a Band of Gypsys " .
Hendrix 's performance featured a rendition of the U.S. national anthem , " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , during which he used copious amounts of amplifier feedback , distortion , and sustain to replicate the sounds made by rockets and bombs . Although contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War , three weeks later Hendrix explained its meaning : " We 're all Americans ... it was like ' Go America ! ' ... We play it the way the air is in America today . The air is slightly static , see " . Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film , Woodstock , his guitar @-@ driven version would become part of the sixties Zeitgeist . Pop critic Al Aronowitz of The New York Post wrote : " It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock , and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties . " Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue @-@ beaded white leather jacket with fringe , a red head @-@ scarf , and blue jeans are widely regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era . He played " Hey Joe " during the encore , concluding the 3 ½ -day festival . Upon leaving the stage , he collapsed from exhaustion . In 2011 , the editors of Guitar World placed his rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at Woodstock at number one in their list of his 100 greatest performances .
= = = Band of Gypsys = = =
A legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin . After two years of litigation , the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material . Hendrix decided that they would record the LP , Band of Gypsys , during two live appearances . In preparation for the shows he formed an all @-@ black power @-@ trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles , formerly with Wilson Pickett , the Electric Flag , and the Buddy Miles Express . Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz @-@ rock fusionists , and their collaboration as pioneering . Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music . Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows " the most brilliant , emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar " that he had ever heard . Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak @-@ up for civil rights .
Hendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September , and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1 , at the Fillmore East . They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP , which was produced by Hendrix . The album includes the track " Machine Gun " , which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix 's career , and " the premiere example of [ his ] unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist ... In this performance , Jimi transcended the medium of rock music , and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar . " During the song 's extended instrumental breaks , Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare , including rockets , bombs , and diving planes .
The Band of Gypsys album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime ; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year . The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records ; it reached the top ten in both the U.S. and the UK . That same month a single was issued with " Stepping Stone " as the A @-@ side and " Izabella " as the B @-@ side , but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re @-@ mixed , preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix 's least successful single ; it was also his last .
On January 28 , 1970 , a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place ; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti @-@ Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the " Winter Festival for Peace " . American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert ; he recalled : " [ Hendrix ] came in with his head down , sat on the couch alone , and put his head in his hands ... He didn 't move until it was time for the show . " Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for " Foxy Lady " . He then began playing " Earth Blues " before telling the audience : " That 's what happens when earth fucks with space " . Moments later , he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage . Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance . Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup . Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit , ending the Band of Gypsys .
= = = Cry of Love Tour = = =
Soon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution , Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience line @-@ up . Although Hendrix , Mitchell , and Redding were interviewed by Rolling Stone in February 1970 as a united group , Hendrix never intended to work with Redding . When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a reformed Experience , he was told that he had been replaced with Cox . During an interview with Rolling Stone 's Keith Altham , Hendrix defended the decision : " It 's nothing personal against Noel , but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy 's style of playing suits the new group better . " Although the lineup of Hendrix , Mitchell , and Cox became known as the Cry of Love band , after their accompanying tour , billing , advertisements , and tickets were printed with the New Jimi Hendrix Experience or occasionally just Jimi Hendrix .
During the first half of 1970 , Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP . Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as The Cry of Love . He had started writing songs for the album in 1968 , but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned . Soon afterward , he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum , performing for 20 @,@ 000 people . Set @-@ lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material . Several shows were recorded , and they produced some of Hendrix 's most memorable live performances . At one of them , the second Atlanta International Pop Festival , on July 4 , he played to the largest American audience of his career . According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz , as many as 500 @,@ 000 people attended the concert . On July 17 , they appeared at the New York Pop Festival ; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show , and the set was considered a disaster . The American leg of the tour , which included 32 performances , ended at Honolulu , Hawaii , on August 1 , 1970 . This would be Hendrix 's final concert appearance in the U.S.
= = = Electric Lady Studios = = =
In 1968 , Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village . They had initially planned to reopen the establishment , but after an audit revealed that Hendrix had incurred exorbitant fees by block @-@ booking lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided that the building would better serve them as a recording studio . With a facility of his own , Hendrix could work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures , which had reached a reported $ 300 @,@ 000 annually . Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix , who requested that they avoid right angles where possible . With round windows , an ambient lighting machine , and a psychedelic mural , Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix 's creativity . The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted , with their total investment estimated at $ 1 million .
Hendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15 , 1970 , when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic ; the next day , he recorded his first track there , " Night Bird Flying " . The studio officially opened for business on August 25 , and a grand opening party was held the following day . Immediately afterwards , Hendrix left for England ; he never returned to the States . He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox , joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival .
= = = European tour = = =
When the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began , Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet , and was not eager to fulfill the commitment . On September 2 , 1970 , he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs , stating : " I 've been dead a long time " . Four days later , he gave his final concert appearance , at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in Germany . He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night 's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution . Immediately following the festival , Hendrix , Mitchell , and Cox travelled to London .
Three days after the performance , Cox , who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly , quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania . Within days of Hendrix 's arrival in England , he had spoken with Chas Chandler , Alan Douglas , and others about leaving his manager , Michael Jeffery . On September 16 , Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band , War . They began by playing a few of their recent hits , and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during " Mother Earth " and " Tobacco Road " . His performance was uncharacteristically subdued ; he quietly played backing guitar , and refrained from the histrionics that people had come to expect from him . He died less than 48 hours later .
= = Drugs and alcohol = =
In July 1962 , after Hendrix was discharged from the U.S. Army , he entered a small club in Clarksville , Tennessee . Drawn in by live music , he stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $ 400 he had saved . He explained : " I went in this jazz joint and had a drink . I liked it and I stayed . People tell me I get foolish , good @-@ natured sometimes . Anyway , I guess I felt real benevolent that day . I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me . I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left . " According to the authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber : " Alcohol would later be the scourge of his existence , driving him to fits of pique , even rare bursts of atypical , physical violence . "
While Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966 , according to the authors Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek , the earliest that Hendrix is known to have taken it was in June 1967 , while attending the Monterey Pop Festival . According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross , the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith 's New York apartment ; when one of Keith 's friends offered Hendrix acid , a street name for lysergic acid diethylamide , Hendrix asked for LSD instead , showing what Cross described as " his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics " . Before that , Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs , his experimentation was significantly limited to cannabis , hashish , amphetamines and occasionally cocaine . After 1967 , he regularly smoked cannabis and hashish and used LSD and amphetamines , particularly while touring . According to Cross , by the time of his death in September 1970 , " few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi " .
= = = Substance abuse and violence = = =
Hendrix would often become angry and violent when he drank too much alcohol or when he mixed alcohol with drugs . His friend Herbie Worthington explained : " You wouldn 't expect somebody with that kind of love to be that violent ... He just couldn 't drink ... he simply turned into a bastard " . According to journalist and friend Sharon Lawrence , Hendrix " admitted he could not handle hard liquor , which set off a bottled @-@ up anger , a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise " .
In January 1968 , the Experience travelled to Sweden for a one @-@ week tour of Europe . During the early morning hours of the first day , Hendrix became engaged in a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen , in Gothenburg , smashing a plate @-@ glass window and injuring his right hand , for which he received medical treatment . The incident culminated in his arrest and release , pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine . After the 1969 burglary of a house Hendrix was renting in Benedict Canyon , California and while he was under the influence of drugs and alcohol , he punched his friend Paul Caruso and accused him of the theft . He then chased Caruso away from the residence while throwing stones at him . A few days later , one of Hendrix 's girlfriends , Carmen Borrero , required stitches after he hit her above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken , jealous rage .
= = = Canadian drug charges and trial = = =
On May 3 , 1969 , while Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport , authorities detained him after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage . Four hours later , he was formally charged with drug possession and released on $ 10 @,@ 000 bail . He was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing . The incident proved stressful for Hendrix , and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months that he awaited trial . For the Crown to prove possession they had to show that Hendrix knew the drugs were there . During the jury trial , which took place in December , he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication , which he put in his bag not knowing what was in it . He was acquitted of the charges . Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto ; both men also stated that they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix 's bag .
= = Death , post @-@ mortem , and burial = =
Although the details of Hendrix 's last day and death are widely disputed , he spent much of September 17 , 1970 , in London with Monika Dannemann , the only witness to his final hours . Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill , sometime around 11 p.m. , when they shared a bottle of wine . She drove Hendrix to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1 : 45 a.m. , where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. Dannemann said they talked until around 7 a.m. , when they went to sleep . She awoke around 11 a.m. , and found Hendrix breathing , but unconscious and unresponsive . She called for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. ; they arrived on the scene at 11 : 27 a.m. Paramedics then transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12 : 45 p.m. on September 18 , 1970 .
To determine the cause of death , coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post @-@ mortem examination on Hendrix 's body , which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare , a forensic pathologist . Thurston completed the inquest on September 28 , and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . Citing " insufficient evidence of the circumstances " , he declared an open verdict . Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets , 18 times the recommended dosage .
After Hendrix 's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , it was flown to Seattle , Washington , on September 29 , 1970 . After a service at Dunlop Baptist Church on October 1 , it was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington , the location of his mother 's gravesite . Hendrix 's family and friends traveled in twenty @-@ four limousines and more than two hundred people attended the funeral , including several notable musicians such as original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding , as well as Miles Davis , John Hammond , and Johnny Winter .
= = Unauthorized and posthumous releases = =
By 1967 , as Hendrix was gaining in popularity , many of his pre @-@ Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums , sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix . The recordings , which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX , with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965 , were often re @-@ mixed between their repeated reissues , and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol . Hendrix publicly denounced the releases , describing them as " malicious " and " greatly inferior " , stating : " At PPX , we spent on average about one hour recording a song . Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song . " These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue , amounting to hundreds of albums .
Some of Hendrix 's unfinished material was released as the 1971 title The Cry of Love . Although the album reached number three in the U.S. and number two in the UK , producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971 's Rainbow Bridge ; still others were issued on 1972 's War Heroes . Material from The Cry of Love was re @-@ released in 1997 as First Rays of the New Rising Sun , along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include .
In 1993 , MCA Records delayed a multimillion @-@ dollar sale of Hendrix 's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement . He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974 , but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue . Under a settlement reached in July 1995 , Al Hendrix prevailed in his legal battle and regained control of his son 's song and image rights . He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family @-@ run company Experience Hendrix LLC , formed in 1995 . In August 2009 , Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment 's Legacy Recordings division which would take effect in 2010 . Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010 Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project , starting with the release of Valleys of Neptune in March of that year . In the months before his death , Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled Black Gold , which are now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC ; as of 2013 no official release date has been announced .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Guitars and amplifiers = = =
Hendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career , but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster . He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966 , when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964 . He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings . In 1967 , he described the instrument as " the best all @-@ around guitar for the stuff we 're doing " ; he praised its " bright treble and deep bass sounds " .
With few exceptions , Hendrix played right @-@ handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left @-@ hand playing . This had an important effect on the sound of his guitar ; because of the slant of the bridge pickup , his lowest string had a brighter sound while his highest string had a darker sound , which was the opposite of the Stratocaster 's intended design . In addition to Stratocasters , Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters , Duosonics , two different Gibson Flying Vs , a Gibson Les Paul , three Gibson SGs , a Gretsch Corvette , and a Fender Jaguar . He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on The Dick Cavett Show in September 1969 , and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970 .
During 1965 and 1966 , while Hendrix was playing back @-@ up for soul and R & B acts in the U.S. , he used an 85 @-@ watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier . When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966 , he supplied him with 30 @-@ watt Burns amps , which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs . After an early London gig when he was unable to use his preferred Fender Twin , he asked about the Marshall amps that he had noticed other groups using . Years earlier , Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from the amp builder , Jim Marshall , and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall . At their initial meeting , Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100 @-@ watt Super Lead amplifiers ; he would grow accustomed to using all three in unison . The equipment arrived on October 11 , 1966 , and the Experience used the new gear during their first tour . Marshall amps were well @-@ suited for Hendrix 's needs , and they were paramount in the evolution of his heavily overdriven sound , enabling him to master the use of feedback as a musical effect , creating what author Paul Trynka described as a " definitive vocabulary for rock guitar " . Hendrix usually turned all of the amplifier 's control knobs to the maximum level , which became known as the Hendrix setting . During the four years prior to his death , he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers . Jim Marshall said that he was " the greatest ambassador " his company ever had .
= = = Effects = = =
One of Hendrix 's signature effects was the wah @-@ wah pedal , which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream 's " Tales of Brave Ulysses " , released in May 1967 . In July of that year , while playing gigs at the Scene club in New York City , Hendrix met Frank Zappa , whose band , the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater . Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa 's application of the pedal , and he experimented with one later that evening . He used a wah pedal during the opening to " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " , creating one of the best @-@ known wah @-@ wah riffs of the classic rock era . He can also be heard using the effect on " Up from the Skies " , " Little Miss Lover " , and " Still Raining , Still Dreaming " .
Hendrix consistently used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and live performances , but he also experimented with other guitar effects . He enjoyed a fruitful long @-@ term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer , whom he once called " the secret " of his sound . Mayer introduced him to the Octavia , an octave doubling effect pedal , in December 1966 , and he first recorded with the effect during the guitar solo to " Purple Haze " .
Hendrix also utilized the Uni @-@ Vibe , which was designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker by providing a rich phasing sound that could be manipulated with a speed control pedal . He can be heard using the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track " Machine Gun " , which prominently features the Uni @-@ vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face . His signal flow for live performance involved first plugging his guitar into a wah @-@ wah pedal , then connecting the wah @-@ wah pedal to a Fuzz Face , which was then linked to a Uni @-@ Vibe , before connecting to a Marshall amplifier .
= = Influences = =
As an adolescent during the 1950s , Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley , Little Richard , and Chuck Berry . In 1968 , he told Guitar Player magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters , Elmore James , and B.B. King inspired him during the beginning of his career ; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence . Of Muddy Waters , the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware , he said : " I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and it scared me to death because I heard all of these sounds . " In 1970 , he told Rolling Stone that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville , the television show the Grand Ole Opry .
Cox stated that during their time serving in the U.S. military he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King . According to Cox , " King was a very , very powerful influence " . Howlin ' Wolf also inspired Hendrix , who performed Wolf 's " Killing Floor " as the opening song of his U.S. debut at the Monterey Pop Festival . The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix 's guitar playing , and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix 's songwriting ; he was known to play Dylan 's records repeatedly , particularly Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde .
= = Legacy = =
The Experience 's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states : " Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before . His boundless drive , technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah @-@ wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll . " Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as " one of the most creative " and " influential musicians that has ever lived " . Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote : " In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians , Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers . His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s . "
Hendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain . He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback , and helped to popularize use of the wah @-@ wah pedal in mainstream rock . He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb . He applied this technique during the beginning bars of " Little Wing " , which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody . This method has been described as piano style , with the thumb playing what a pianist 's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand . Having spent several years fronting a trio , he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together , giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing . He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings . Holly George @-@ Warren of Rolling Stone commented : " Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source . Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion , but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled , fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began . " Aledort wrote : " In rock guitar , there are but two eras — before Hendrix and after Hendrix . "
While creating his unique musical voice and guitar style , Hendrix synthesized diverse genres , including blues , R & B , soul , British rock , American folk music , 1950s rock and roll , and jazz . Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix 's playing style , and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber , " [ He ] explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock " . His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats , and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock , heavy metal , funk , post @-@ punk , and hip hop music . His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate ; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others . Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism , he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings . More than 40 years after his death , Hendrix remains as popular as ever , with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime .
Hendrix has influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists , including Prince , George Clinton , John Frusciante , formerly of the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic , and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers . Hendrix 's influence also extends to many hip hop artists , including De La Soul , A Tribe Called Quest , Digital Underground , Beastie Boys , and Run – D.M.C. Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix , and he compared Hendrix 's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane . Hendrix also influenced industrial artist Marilyn Manson , blues legend Stevie Ray Vaughan , Metallica 's Kirk Hammett , instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani , and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen , who said : " [ Hendrix ] created modern electric playing , without question ... He was the first . He started it all . The rest is history . "
= = = Recognition and awards = = =
Hendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously . In 1967 , readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year . In 1968 , Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year . Also in 1968 , the City of Seattle gave him the Keys to the City . Disc & Music Echo newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 , Guitar Player magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year .
Rolling Stone ranked his three non @-@ posthumous studio albums , Are You Experienced ( 1967 ) , Axis : Bold as Love ( 1967 ) , and Electric Ladyland ( 1968 ) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time , and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time . Guitar World 's readers voted six of Hendrix 's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 70 ) , " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " ( 52 ; from Live at Woodstock ) , " Machine Gun " ( 32 ; from Band of Gypsys ) , " Little Wing " ( 18 ) , " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " ( 11 ) , and " All Along the Watchtower " ( 5 ) . Rolling Stone placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 17 ) , " All Along the Watchtower " ( 47 ) " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " ( 102 ) , " Foxy Lady " ( 153 ) , " Hey Joe " ( 201 ) , " Little Wing " ( 366 ) , and " The Wind Cries Mary " ( 379 ) . They also included three of Hendrix 's songs in their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 2 ) , " Voodoo Child " ( 12 ) , and " Machine Gun " ( 49 ) .
A star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14 , 1991 , at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard . The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . In 1999 , readers of Rolling Stone and Guitar World ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century . In 2005 , his debut album , Are You Experienced , was one of 50 recordings added that year to the United States National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress , " [ to ] be preserved for all time ... [ as ] part of the nation 's audio legacy " .
The blue plaque identifying his former residence at 23 Brook Street , London ( next door to the former residence of George Frideric Handel ) was the first one issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star . A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle . In May 2006 , the city renamed a park near its Central District , Jimi Hendrix Park , in his honor . In 2012 , an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron , Georgia . The marker text reads , in part : “ Over thirty musical acts performed , including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career . ”
Hendrix 's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards , starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992 , followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums Are You Experienced and Electric Ladyland ; Axis : Bold as Love received a Grammy in 2006 . In 2000 , he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition , " Purple Haze " , and in 2001 for his recording of Dylan 's " All Along the Watchtower " . Hendrix 's rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " was honored with a Grammy in 2009 .
The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014 .
= = Discography = =
= = Documentaries = =
= Robert Deniston Hume =
Robert Deniston Hume ( October 31 , 1845 – November 25 , 1908 ) was a cannery owner , pioneer hatchery operator , politician , author , and self @-@ described " pygmy monopolist " who controlled salmon fishing for 32 years on the lower Rogue River in U.S. state of Oregon . Born in Augusta , Maine , and reared by foster parents on a farm , Hume moved at age 18 to San Francisco to join a salmon @-@ canning business started by two of his brothers . They later re @-@ located to Astoria on the Columbia River , where they prospered . After the death of his first wife and their two young children , Hume moved again and started anew in Gold Beach , at the mouth of the Rogue .
In 1877 Hume bought rights to a Rogue River fishery , then built a salmon cannery and many other structures and acquired all of the tidelands bordering the lower 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the river . He remarried , invested in a small fleet of ships and a salmon hatchery and expanded his business interests to include a store , hotel , newspaper , and many other enterprises in Gold Beach and in the nearby community of Wedderburn , which he founded . Canning , shipping , and selling hundreds of tons of salmon over the years , he became known as the Salmon King of Oregon .
Hume often wrote editorials , engaged in litigation , appealed to legislators , and waged political campaigns to protect his business interests . Running as a Republican , he was twice elected , in 1900 and 1902 , to represent Coos and Curry counties in the Oregon House of Representatives . According to his biographer , he voted self @-@ interest first and conservative positions second , resisting Populist ideas in vogue at the time .
Among his publications were a series of articles about fish management , collected and reprinted as Salmon of the Pacific Coast in 1893 . Despite his efforts to maintain a steady fish supply through egg @-@ collecting and fish @-@ rearing , salmon catches on the Rogue , rising in some years and falling in others , generally declined over time . Seventeen years after Hume 's death in 1908 , the state closed the river to commercial fishing .
= = Early life = =
Robert Hume , the youngest surviving boy in a family of 12 children , was born in Augusta , Maine , on October 31 , 1845 . Because his parents , William and Elizabeth Hume , had little money , he was adopted by the Robert Denistons when he was four years old . After growing up on the Deniston farm , he went to San Francisco at the age of 18 to work in a cannery operated by two of his brothers . In 1867 , when Hume was 22 , he and his brothers , who had moved north to Oregon , opened the first cannery on the Columbia River near Astoria . In 1869 he married Celia Bryant , with whom he had two children . The first , a girl , died while still a baby . The second , a boy , died at age 4 in 1875 , and Celia Hume died shortly thereafter . Celia and the two children were buried in Lone Fir Cemetery in Portland .
Although Hume had prospered , buying several Columbia River canneries between 1872 and 1876 , when his wife and children
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keep the tidelands law intact and continued to support laissez @-@ faire government and low taxes . Hume attempted but failed to win nomination for a seat in the state Senate in 1904 , a seat in the state House of Representatives in 1906 , and a seat in the state Senate in 1908 . Dodds sums up Hume 's political career by saying :
His accomplishments as a legislator were slight ; only one of his bills ever passed . On the other hand , he spoke and voted against many measures that were defeated and his credo of legislative decision was , first , his own interests and , second , support of a conservative position . In the midst of the Progressive era he remained a " stalwart among the stalwarts " , although during the Populist regime he had expediently yielded for a time to free silver .
= = Hatcheries = =
Although Hume had shown no early interest in salmon conservation on the Columbia and elsewhere , on the Rogue he tried to protect the fish supply . Disappointed with his company 's catch in 1877 , he built a hatchery in Ellensburg , and in all but 7 of his 32 years on the river he operated hatcheries along the Rogue .
Through his newspapers , lawsuits , lobbying , and speeches made while a member of the Oregon Legislature , Hume tried to influence public opinion about artificial fish propagation . In 1893 , he published a series of articles , later reprinted as Salmon of the Pacific Coast , that summarized his ideas about ichthyology . In 1897 , Hume persuaded the United States Fish Commission to run an egg @-@ collecting station at Elk Creek 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the mouth of the Rogue . Hume built the station , and the government paid the salaries of the workers who collected the eggs and shipped them to Hume 's hatchery in Wedderburn . Although his observations on salmon were well received in some quarters , they " often conflicted with the opinions of other pioneers in the field " , and his attempts to control upriver fishing and dams met with resistance and with arguments that he was overfishing the river at its mouth .
Despite Hume 's attempts to preserve the fishery , fish runs , oscillating from year to year for a variety of reasons , trended downward over time . The total reported Rogue River salmon catch in 1877 , Hume 's first year on the Rogue , was 531 @,@ 000 pounds ( 241 @,@ 000 kg ) ; the peak catch was 1 @,@ 632 @,@ 000 pounds ( 740 @,@ 000 kg ) in 1890 , and the catch in 1908 , the year of Hume 's death , was 476 @,@ 000 pounds ( 216 @,@ 000 kg ) . As fish runs continued to diminish , the state legislature closed the river to commercial fishing in 1935 .
= = Family life , death , and legacy = =
In December 1877 , the year after his move to Ellensburg , Hume married Mary Duncan , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a former New Zealander , George Duncan , who had lost his fortune in the stock market and hoped to make another by canning salmon in the U.S. According to Dodds , Mary led a relatively secluded life , working in her flower garden , writing letters , and talking to friends , and occasionally selecting clothing for Hume 's store or acting as his secretary when he was sick . Although business occupied Hume most of the time , he seemed to value his wife 's help , Dodds says , and " events indicated their mutual affection " .
In October 1908 Hume was traveling on the schooner Osprey , which was towing another ship , Enterprise , when a storm arose . The Enterprise was wrecked , but Osprey rescued its crew and arrived safely in Wedderburn . Hume , who had been exposed to wet and cold , grew ill , rallied briefly , then died on November 17 . According to Dodds , " His dying wish was that he be buried at Hunt Rock overlooking his empire on the Rogue . " In 1912 , after she had sold the Hume holdings in Curry County , Mary Hume had Hume 's body moved to San Francisco .
Opinions vary about Hume 's fish theories and practices , which influenced state and federal salmon management for many decades after his death . " Hume was ahead of his time " , Dodds says , " in his belief in hatcheries , in his practice of retaining fry [ immature fish ] in feeding ponds , and in his belief in the home @-@ stream theory of salmonology . " Another writer says that " Robert Hume 's efforts to restock the Rogue with hatchery fish were an early glimmer in the dawning of a new era on the river and in the nation at large " even though " his motives may have been suspect , and the practice a less @-@ than @-@ perfect solution " . An environmental historian says that while many Oregonians regarded Hume as a salmon expert , " his reputation often exceeded his results " . A late 20th @-@ century fisheries scientist sees Hume as " a keen observer of the salmon 's natural history , although he did not always interpret his observations correctly . "
= Country Grammar =
Country Grammar is the debut studio album by American rapper Nelly . It was released on June 27 , 2000 , by Universal Records ( who released the album after listening to demos by Nelly , before signing a record deal with the rapper in 1999 ) . The production on the album was handled by Jason " Jay E " Epperson , with additional production by C @-@ Love , Kevin Law , City Spud , Steve " Blast " Wills and Basement Beats . Nelly contributed to all lyrics on the album , with Epperson and City Spud also contributing . The album introduced a unique Saint Louis , Midwestern sound , and introduces Nelly 's vocal style of pop @-@ rap singalongs and Midwestern , Missouri twang . It was supported four successful singles : " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , " E.I. " , " Ride wit Me " and " Batter Up " . Its lead single , " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart . " E.I. " charted at number 16 , number 12 and number 11 on the Hot 100 , UK Singles Chart and ARIA Singles Chart , respectively . " Ride wit Me " peaked within the top five on the Hot 100 , ARIA Singles Chart , Irish Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart . The album 's fourth and final single , " Batter Up " featuring Murphy Lee and Ali , achieved moderate chart success .
Country Grammar received positive reviews , with critics praising Nelly 's vocal style and the album 's production . It topped the US Billboard 200 chart for five consecutive weeks , and the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for six consecutive weeks . It peaked in the top five on the New Zealand Albums Chart and Australian Albums Chart , as well as the top ten on the Canadian Albums Chart and Dutch Albums Chart . The album was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) and Music Canada ( MC ) , denoting shipments of 45 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 copies , respectively .
As of July 26 , 2016 , Country Grammar has sold 10 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan , ranking it as the ninth best @-@ selling rap album of all time in the United States . It was certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , making it one of the highest certified albums in the US history . Its commercial success secured Nelly 's status as one of the most successful hip hop acts of the 2000s decade . On Billboard 's decade @-@ end chart , Nelly ranked as the third most successful act of the 2000s decade , largely in part to the success of Country Grammar and his follow @-@ up album Nellyville ( 2002 ) .
= = Background and production = =
In his early years , Nelly frequently moved locations within the US , before residing in the city of St. Louis . It was there where he discovered rap artists synonymous within the city ; in his teenage years , Nelly moved to University City , where he shifted his aspirations from becoming a baseball player to producing stories and rhymes . Along with some high school friends — Ali Jones , Torhi Harper , Kyjuan and Lavell Webb — Nelly formed the group St. Lunatics in 1993 . Frustrated by the lack of attention from record companies , the group formed the consensus to allow Nelly to pursue a solo career , with the rest possibly releasing their own solo albums . Nelly produced demos , which were sent to national labels , eventually gaining attention from Universal Records who signed a record deal with Nelly and the St. Lunatics in 1999 , with Universal releasing the former 's debut album , Country Grammar , in 2000 . All songs on Country Grammar were recorded by Steve Eigner , and mixed by Rich Travali . Kenny Dystra provided recording assistance and Jason Standard assisted in mixing . Mastering was performed by Herb Powers , with A & R directed by Kevin Law and Coordinated by Craig Yoskowitz . Management was provided by Tony Davis and Courtney Benson , with legality handled by Todd Rubenstein . Creative direction was handled by Sandra Brummels , with design and photography done so by BENTO Design and Jonathen Mannion , respectively .
= = Composition = =
Much of Nelly 's rap style draws from his origins , as it contains Southern drawl with Midwestern , Missouri twang , that incorporates both country and urban styles . In conjunction , Nelly approaches a pop @-@ rap singalong vocal style , which Allmusic 's Jason Birchmeier notes present within Country Grammar 's tracks including " Ride wit Me " and " E.I. " . Peter Shapiro described Nelly 's vocals as using " unforgettable hooks based on schoolyard songs , double @-@ dutch chants , and nonsense rhymes " . Much of Country Grammar 's tracks are bass @-@ heavy , that are primarily Southern hip @-@ hop based and minimalistic . In the album 's self @-@ titled track , Nelly 's vocals are slurred and slow , and are a " smooth , slippery @-@ fast instrument " with " reggae inflections " . Rolling Stone found the song 's lyrics to depict Nelly " riding around town in an expensive SUV with an assault weapon " . " Ride wit Me " is rap , pop crossover , that samples composition from DeBarge 's 1982 " I Like It " , and its lyrics feature Nelly introspecting . Rolling Stone found the chorus of " E.I. " to contain the vocal style of rapper The Notorious B.I.G .. " Luven Me " samples " Don 't Stop ( Ever Loving Me ) " and " Whatever You Want " from bands One Way and Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , respectively . NME interpreted " Luven Me " as a " virtual rewrite " of rapper Tupac Shakur 's 1995 " Dear Mama " .
= = Singles = =
" Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " was released as the album 's first single on February 29 , 2000 in the US . The song was written by Nelly and Jason " Jay E " Epperson , and produced by the latter . Its lyrics are based off the children clapping game Down Down Baby . " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart . It also reached number ten and twenty on the Canadian Hot 100 and ARIA Singles Chart , respectively . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The second single , " E.I. " , was written by Nelly and Epperson and produced by the latter . It reached number sixteen on the Hot 100 , number eleven on the UK Singles Chart and number twelve on the ARIA Singles Chart . It was certified gold by the ARIA .
Written by Nelly and Epperson and produced by the latter , " Ride wit Me " was released as Country Grammar 's third single . The track features City Spud , and reached number three on the Hot 100 , the highest charting song from Country Grammar in the US . It also peaked at number three on the UK Singles chart , number four on the ARIA Singles Chart , Irish Singles Chart , number five on the Dutch Singles Chart and number seven on the Norwegian Singles Chart . It was certified gold by the RIAA and platinum by the ARIA . " Batter Up " was released as the fourth and final single from the album . It features Murphy Lee and Ali , and was written by Nelly , Epperson and Steve " Blast " Wills , while being produced by Wills . " Batter Up " peaked at number eight on the Belgian Singles Chart ( Flanders ) and number nineteen on the ARIA Singles Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Country Grammar was well received by music critics . NME lauded the album , praising Nelly 's utilization of vocal characteristics from other rap artists , including Tupac Shakur and Cypress Hill . The magazine described the album as a " rarity " , noting stand @-@ out tracks such as the " seductive rap / pop crossover " " Ride wit Me " , while likening " Batter Up " to " DMX with a humour infusion " . NME closed their review declaring Country Grammar as " album of the year " . Giving the album a B – , Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne wrote the album demonstrates that " tiresome rap topics " are not restricted to " the coasts " . Though what salvages the album is Nelly 's " smooth , slippery @-@ fast " voice , which contains " reggae inflections " . Browne describes the album 's content as minimalistic , with " introspective moments " such as " Ride wit Me " .
In Robert Christgau 's Consumer Guide review , he wrote that Nelly presents an " easy mix of N.O. Bounce , Cleveland thug harmony , and L.A. tweedle @-@ twaddle " , noting Nelly 's heavy accent which makes his hedonism more accessible . People noted that Nelly implements his own " laid @-@ back charm " to Country Grammar 's southern hip hop . Despite Nelly showing " limited thematic vocabulary " he articulates escapism to compensate for this . Allmusic 's Jason Birchmeier praised the album 's " tongue @-@ twisting " self @-@ titled track as " infectious " , noting other tracks to contain the same elements , including " Ride wit Me " and " E.I. " . Birchmeier wrote that the album transcends regional styles such as southern hip hop to appeal to rap @-@ pop audiences , while praising producer Jason " Jay E " Epperson 's contribution to the album .
Rolling Stone explained that the album 's " liquid bass bumps " interlopes well with Nelly 's " wordplay @-@ heavy sing @-@ song rhyme @-@ flow " , while declaring Country Grammar to be the best thing to come out of St. Louis since comedian Redd Foxx . At the 2001 Soul Train Music Awards , Country Grammar earned Nelly the award for Best R & B / Soul or Rap New Artist . Nelly was nominated for four awards at the Online Hip @-@ Hop Awards , for Favorite Music Video , Song of the Year ( both for " E.I. " ) , Album of the Year ( for Country Grammar ) and Outstanding Graphic Design for his official website . He won the awards for Song of the Year and Artist of the Year .
? = = Commercial performance = =
Country Grammar entered the Billboard 200 on the week of July 15 , 2000 , at number 3 , selling 235 @,@ 000 copies . The album remained within the top ten for several weeks before topping it on the week of August 17 , 2000 , selling 235 @,@ 000 copies and passing 1 @.@ 5 million in sales that week . Entertainment Weekly put the album 's sales down to its support by its lead single , " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , as well as the lack of releases from other music artists during that period . The album sold 235 @,@ 000 copies again the following week , continuing to stay atop the Billboard 200 . Country Grammar topped US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for six consecutive weeks . On October 30 , 2000 , the album had sold three million copies , and was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies . On June 29 , 2002 , Country Grammar had sold 7 @.@ 7 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the RIAA on April 27 , 2004 , denoting shipments of nine million copies . As of June 2014 , Country Grammar had sold 8 @,@ 561 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Country Grammar entered the New Zealand Albums Chart on the week of September 24 , 2000 , at number 5 . It reached its peak at number 3 , for twenty @-@ eight weeks after its debut on the chart , where it remained there for two non @-@ consecutive weeks . It stayed on the chart for forty @-@ two weeks before dropping out . The album was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments of 45 @,@ 000 units . On the Australian Albums Chart , Country Grammar debuted at number 45 . It re @-@ entered the chart five times , and reached its peak at number 4 on the week of October 7 , 2001 . The album remained on the chart for thirty @-@ three weeks , and was certified three times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Country Grammar reached at number 7 on the Canadian Albums Chart , and stayed on the chart for twenty @-@ five weeks before dropping out . It was certified three times platinum by Music Canada ( MC ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . On the Dutch Albums Chart , the album peaked at number 8 .
On the UK Albums Chart , Country Grammar reached at number 14 , and stayed on it for thirty @-@ one weeks . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The album peaked within the top thirty on the Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) , Finnish Albums Chart and Danish Albums Chart . It reached at number 45 on the German Albums Chart , remaining on it for forty @-@ three weeks . It peaked on the Swiss Albums Chart and French Albums Chart at number 90 and number 109 , respectively . Country Grammar topped the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums year @-@ end chart in 2000 .
= = Legacy = =
Country Grammar 's success cemented Nelly 's position as one of the most successful hip hop acts of the emerging decade . Vibe emphasized Nelly 's expeditious fame , writing that the rapper debuted without the benefit of " guest spots or Pen and Pixel produced teasers on his CD cover " . The magazine continued to note the rapper 's absence of being associated with a notable group , " he just came out and sold two million records in less than a month " . Nelly 's success helped in making St. Louis more notable for emerging hip hop acts , increasing the city 's general reputation . Country Grammar experienced commercial success , topping the US Billboard 200 chart for five weeks in 2000 , eventually going on to sell over 9 million copies in the US , making it the ninth best @-@ selling rap album of all time in the country . It is one of the highest certified albums in the US history , being certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Nelly ranked third on the Billboard 2000 – 2009 decade @-@ end chart , due to the success of Country Grammar as well as his follow @-@ up album Nellyville ( 2002 ) . The latter album went on to sell 6 @,@ 488 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written by Nelly ( Cornell Haynes , Jr . ) , additional writers listed below .
Notes
" Ride wit Me " contains a portion of composition from DeBarge 's 1982 's " I Like It " .
" Batter Up " contains a portion of composition from Primal Scream 's " Movin ' on Up " .
" Luven Me " samples elements from One Way 's 1984 " Don 't Stop ( Ever Loving Me ) " . It also samples elements from Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s 1990 's " Whatever You Want " .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
Steve Eigner – recording
Kenny Dykstra – recording , assistant
Rich Travali – mixing
Jason Standard – mixing , assistant
Herb Powers – mastering
Kevin Law – A & R directing
Craig Yoskowitz – A & R coordinating
Tony Davis – management
Courtney Benson – management
Todd Rubenstein – legal
Sandra Brummel – creative directing
BENTO Design – design
Jonathen Mannion – photography
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= AFVG =
The AFVG ( standing for Anglo @-@ French Variable Geometry ) was a supersonic multi @-@ role combat aircraft with a variable @-@ geometry wing , being jointly developed by British Aircraft Corporation in the United Kingdom and Dassault Aviation of France . The project was cancelled in June 1967 , when the French Government withdrew from participation . BAC modified the specification to solely satisfy Royal Air Force needs , reconfiguring the design as the UKVG and sought out new partners to procure the aircraft , which ultimately emerged as the tri @-@ national consortium @-@ funded MRCA Panavia Tornado , a variable @-@ geometry wing fighter aircraft .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
The AFVG project followed on from the earlier BAC P.45 design study for a variable @-@ geometry strike / trainer / fighter aircraft for the Royal Air Force ; one of a number of proposed designs to meet AST.362.
= = = Anglo @-@ French collaboration = = =
Discussions took place in 1964 between France and Great Britain on collaborative military aviation programs with Handel Davies , the co @-@ chairman of an Anglo @-@ French committee , and his French counterpart , Ingénieur @-@ General Lecamus , negotiating the launch of two new military combat aircraft . The French would take the lead role in a light ground @-@ attack / trainer , while the British assumed the leadership of a swing @-@ wing multirole fighter project .
On 17 May 1965 , after the cancellation of the BAC TSR @-@ 2 , the British and French governments signed agreements for the two joint projects ; one based on the Breguet Aviation Br.121 ECAT ( " Tactical Combat Support Trainer " ) proposal ; this would later evolve , after the cancellation of AFVG , to become the SEPECAT Jaguar . The other was the AFVG , a larger , variable @-@ geometry carrier @-@ capable fighter aircraft for the French Navy ( Aéronavale ) as well as fulfilling interceptor , tactical strike and reconnaissance roles for the Royal Air Force .
= = = Design specifications = = =
In RAF service , the AFVG was originally intended as a fighter , replacing the English Electric Lightning . However , following the RAF 's decision to procure the F @-@ 4 Phantom II instead , the AFVG 's expected role changed in 1966 to supplementing the F @-@ 111K strike aircraft in replacing the English Electric Canberra and the V bomber force .
The AFVG was to be powered by two SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley M45G turbofans , fed by Mirage @-@ style half @-@ shock cone inlets . The engine development programme contract was to be issued by the French government to a SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley joint venture company registered in France .
= = = Cancellation = = =
For Marcel Dassault , the founder of the firm that bore his name , relinquishing leadership on a major project , essentially taking a subordinate position to BAC on the AFVG threatened his company 's long @-@ term objective of becoming a premier prime contractor for combat aircraft . After less than a year , Dassault began to actively undermine the AFVG project , working on two competing " in @-@ house " projects : the variable @-@ geometry Mirage G and the Mirage F1 .
In June 1967 , the French government announced their withdrawal from the AFVG project ostensibly on grounds of cost . The unilateral French decision led to a censure debate in the House of Commons . By 1967 when the French withdrew from the AFVG programme , the Air Ministry was faced with a dilemma stemming from the imminent prospect of cancelling the F @-@ 111K , a decision that was taken in November 1967 , to be formalized on 20 March 1968 .
= = Redesign = =
With the prospect of no operational aircraft available to fulfill the RAF 's strike role , BAC revamped the AFVG design , eliminating the carrier capabilities that were no longer necessary , into a larger , more strike @-@ oriented VG aircraft , renamed UKVG . While funding for the UKVG in the United Kingdom was seriously restricted , the government sought partners in NATO to create a common NATO strike aircraft . This eventually led to the Multi @-@ Role Combat Aircraft ( MRCA ) project , later to become the Panavia Tornado .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Project Cancelled : The Disaster of Britain 's Abandoned Aircraft Projects
General characteristics
Crew : Two
Length : 57 @.@ 19 ft ( 17 @.@ 43 m )
Wingspan : 42 @.@ 6 ft ( unswept ) ( 12 @.@ 98 m )
Height : 17 @.@ 68 ft ( 5 @.@ 39 m )
Loaded weight : 30 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 lb ( 13 @,@ 608 to 22 @,@ 680 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley M45G
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 875 mph , 3 @,@ 017 km / h )
Range : 3 @,@ 500 nm ( ferry ) ( 6 @,@ 486 km )
Service ceiling : 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 290 m )
Armament
2 × 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) autocannon
2 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 134 kg ) tactical nuclear weapon
= Turning Tables =
" Turning Tables " is a song by British singer Adele and the last single from her second studio album , 21 . Conceived after an altercation with her former lover , the song was co @-@ written by Adele and singer @-@ songwriter Ryan Tedder , whilst the production was completed by Jim Abbiss . " Turning Tables " is a pop ballad with a soulful sound ; its instrumentation consists of piano , " Broadway @-@ worthy " strings and guitar . Lyrically , the song describes a domestic dispute in which its narrator assumes a defensive stance against a manipulative ex @-@ lover . XL Recordings sent the song to UK mainstream radio on 5 November 2011 as fifth single from 21 along with " Rumour Has It " .
" Turning Tables " received acclaim from music critics , who praised Adele 's vocals and its production . The song reached the top @-@ twenty of the singles charts in four countries , including Belgium , Italy and the Netherlands . It also peaked at number 62 on the UK Singles Chart and 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Adele performed " Turning Tables " on television shows such as Late Night with David Letterman in the US and The Jonathan Ross Show in the UK and included it on the Adele Live concert tour . American actress and singer Gwyneth Paltrow performed a cover of the single in the Glee episode " A Night of Neglect " .
= = Background = =
In April 2009 , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Adele , who had recently embarked on her first serious relationship with a man 10 years her senior , began composing the follow @-@ up to her 2008 debut album 19 . In response to the media 's typecasting her as an " old soul " due to the vintage production and sentimental nature of her songs , Adele decided on a more upbeat and contemporary second album . However , studio sessions were generally unproductive and , after two weeks , yielded only one song recorded to the singer 's satisfaction — the Jim Abbiss @-@ produced " Take It All " , a lovelorn piano ballad not unlike the songs on 19 . Disillusioned with her lack of inspiration and the slow progress of the studio sessions , she cancelled the remaining recording dates . Adele had written " Take It All " during a difficult moment in her relationship . When she played the song for her boyfriend , the two got into a bitter argument that culminated in the end of their 18 @-@ month relationship . Heartbroken but musically stimulated , the singer channelled her rush of emotions into her music , crafting songs that examined her failed relationship from the perspectives of vengeful ex @-@ lover , heartbroken victim , and nostalgic old flame . After several recording sessions with writers and producers like Paul Epworth , Fraser T Smith and Rick Rubin , Adele got enough material for creating a full LP . She released her second studio album on 19 January 2011 under the title 21 . Adele first intended to title the album Rolling in the Deep , her adaptation of the slang phrase " roll deep " , which summarises how she felt about her relationship ; in her loose translation , the phrase refers to having someone " that has your back " and always supports you . However , the singer later deemed the title too confusing for some of her audiences . Although she had wanted to avoid the number motif of her debut , Adele considered " 21 " the most fitting title as it represented her age at the time of the album 's composition , serving as an autobiographical period piece , and symbolised the personal maturity and artistic evolution since her debut .
= = Writing , production and release = =
" Turning Tables " was written by American singer @-@ songwriter and frontman of pop @-@ rock band OneRepublic , Ryan Tedder and Adele herself . The production of the song was helmed by Jim Abbiss . When the demos to two songs were completed , Adele approached Tedder , who was in London at the time for a radio show . Tedder had expressed interest in collaborating with the singer after they met at the 2009 Grammy Awards ceremony in February . He arrived four hours early to their first studio session held at Sphere Studios in London , buying time to better familiarise himself with some of her previous work . Although unaware of Adele 's personal predicament , he composed the opening piano sequence and first few lines of " Turning Tables " .
Coincidentally , it perfectly captured the experience of the singer , who arrived at the studio moments after another altercation with her former lover . Angry and unfocused , she denounced her ex @-@ lover 's tendency to " turn the tables " on her during their arguments , an expression that Tedder decided to reference in the song 's lyrics . Adele recorded the demo with Abbis the following day . " Turning Tables " was mixed by Abbiss and Ian Dowling . Neil Cowley played the piano in the song , while the string arrangement was made by Chris Elliot . The strings were played by Patrick Kernan , Stephen Morris , Tom Pigott @-@ Smith , Julian Leaper , Boguslaw Kostecki , Bruce White , Peter Lale , Rachel Stephanie Bolt , David Danels , Caroline Dale , Warren Zelnski , Jackie Shave , Chris Laurence , Rita Manning , Cathy Thompson , Emlyn Singleton and Chris Worsey . XL Recordings serviced the song to UK mainstream radio on 5 November 2011 as fifth single from 21 alongside " Rumour Has It " . On 14 December 2011 , the song was sent for airplay to Italian radio stations .
= = Composition = =
" Turning Tables " is a pop ballad with a soulful sound that lasts for four minutes and 10 seconds . John Murphy of musicOMH recognized the single as a fragile piano ballad which shows off Adele 's voice to its best effect . Sputnikmusic 's Joseph Viney described the song as a delicate ballad that possesses an astonishing beauty . Its instrumentation consists of piano , " Broadway @-@ worthy " strings and guitar . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Turning Tables " is written in the key of C minor and set in common time , with 78 beats per minute . Adele 's vocal range spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 .
Lyrically , " Turning Tables " is a song of domestic dispute , where its narrator assumes a defensive stance against a manipulative ex @-@ lover . Reconciling herself with the termination of a contentious relationship , she vows emotional distance to shield herself from future heartbreak . Bryan Boyd of The Irish Times likened the singer to 1980s Welsh rocker Bonnie Tyler in delivering the vocals with a mixture of anger , pain and pathos . According to Paste magazine , cinematic strings " serve as fitting counterpoint to [ the song 's ] heartbroken , hollowed @-@ out lyrics . " " Turning Tables " opens with a piano sequence after which Adele sings the first lines : " Close enough to start a war / All that I have is on the floor " . The chorus consists of the lyrics : " So I won ’ t let you close enough to hurt me , No , I won ’ t ask you , you to just desert me , I can 't give you what you think you gave me , It ’ s time to say goodbye to turning tables . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
" Turning Tables " received acclaim from music critics . Ian Walker of the website AbsolutePunk commented that the song " contains some of the album 's greatest vocal moments , further cementing Adele 's reputation as a competent vocalist showing no signs of stopping . " A writer from the Daily Herald said that Adele sounds " epic " on the song . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt found a " scorned @-@ woman balladry " in the song . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune found a " piano @-@ based melancholy " in the song . A reviewer of HauteThought wrote that " Adele 's natural ease and original tone shines in Turning Tables . The song allows her to explore her upper register without ignoring the lower , soulful sound she always seems able create . " Lily Moayeri stated that on the " barely contained ' Turning Tables ' , Adele lets forth her formidable lungpower . " Ryan Reed of Paste called the single " tearjerking " , while Margaret Wappler of Los Angeles Times labeled the song as " softly sentimental " .
= = = Commercial = = =
" Turning Tables " debuted at its peak of number 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the issue dated 7 May 2011 . The next week , the song dropped 21 places to number 85 and became the biggest fall of the week . The single stayed on the chart for total of three weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 500 @,@ 000 digital copies . As of May 2015 " Turning Tables " has sold 883 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US alone . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song debuted at number 60 for the issue dated 7 May 2011 . It fell to number 91 the next week becoming the biggest fall of the week . " Turning Tables " was certified gold by Music Canada for selling over 40 @,@ 000 digital copies of the song . In the UK , it entered the singles chart at its peak of number 62 on 14 May 2011 . On 21 May 2011 " Turning Tables " dropped to number 80 , before falling of the chart the next week . On 17 September 2011 the song re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number 68 . It was more successful on Belgium Ultratip singles chart where it reached number two in Wallonia and number four in Flanders . " Turning Tables " debuted at number nine on the Italian Singles Chart on 19 January 2012 . After three weeks on the chart , the song reached its peak of number eight on 16 February 2012 .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Adele performed " Turning Tables " at Live at Largo in Los Angeles on 9 February 2011 . Robie Daw of Idolator recognized the performance as " intimate " and commented that it featured Adele 's soulful vocals simply accompanied by " haunting " piano chords . She performed the single on VH1 Unplugged on 3 March 2011 . Adele performed the song at Late Night with David Letterman ; the performance was later uploaded to her Vevo account on YouTube . On 4 September 2011 , the singer performed " Turning Tables " at the premiere of the The Jonathan Ross Show and was also interviewed . " Turning Tables " was part of the set list on Adele 's second concert tour entitled Adele Live ( 2011 ) . On 22 November 2011 , Adele unveiled a video of her performance of the song from the concert held at the Royal Albert Hall in London . The performance was later included in her first video album Live at the Royal Albert Hall which was released on 25 November 2011 . Adele described the concert as the most special show that she would ever play . Adele performed the song on 27 January 2012 at Live from the Artists Den . During the performance the singer stated : " Nothing in life moves me as much as being on stage does . I love the closeness of playing in small rooms , and this room was lovely and simple , just beautiful . "
" Turning Tables " was covered by American actress and singer Gwyneth Paltrow , in the " A Night of Neglect " episode of the Fox Broadcasting Company television show Glee . Her performance of the song was considered inferior to the original . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone named it her least @-@ favorite of Paltrow 's covers to date and said that her vocals " lacked the texture that made Adele 's version so heartbreaking . " Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly gave it her lowest grade of the episode , a " B – " , and Aly Semigran of MTV opined that while Paltrow is " a nice enough singer , " she " in no way has the chops " the song requires . Whilst The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez called it a " scene @-@ stealing turn " and commended it visually and vocally , he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele 's veracity . Released as a single , this version peaked at number 66 on US Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 . As of 2 July 2012 , the Glee version had sold 113 @,@ 000 paid downloads in the US alone . Co @-@ writer of the song Ryan Tedder performed the song at Denver 's Acoustic Christmas ( a charity concert hosted by all Colorado artists ) with his band OneRepublic in 2011 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Sphere Studios , London , United Kingdom
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of 21 , XL Recordings .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= French ironclad La Galissonnière =
La Galissonnière was lead ship of a class of wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvettes built for the French Navy during the 1870s . She was named after the victor of the Battle of Minorca in 1756 , Marquis de la Galissonnière . She bombarded Sfax in 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia and was present in Alexandria shortly before the British bombarded it before the beginning of the 1882 Anglo @-@ Egyptian War . The ship participated in a number of battles during the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . La Galissonnière was condemned in 1894 .
= = Design and description = =
The La Galissonnière @-@ class ironclads were designed as faster , more heavily armed versions of the Alma @-@ class armored corvettes by Henri Dupuy de Lôme . They used the same central battery layout as their predecessors , although the battery was lengthened 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) to provide enough room to work the larger 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . A two @-@ propeller layout was adopted in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the ship 's draft .
La Galissonnière measured 76 @.@ 62 meters ( 251 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 84 meters ( 48 ft 8 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 55 meters ( 21 ft 6 in ) and displaced 4 @,@ 654 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 580 long tons ) . The ship had a metacentric height of .926 meters ( 3 ft 0 @.@ 5 in ) . Her crew numbered between 352 and 382 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
La Galissonnière had two Wolf vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single 3 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 6 in ) propeller . Her engines were powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engines produced a total of 2 @,@ 370 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 770 kW ) and the ship reached 13 @.@ 08 knots ( 24 @.@ 22 km / h ; 15 @.@ 05 mph ) . La Galissonnière carried 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 1 @,@ 707 square meters ( 18 @,@ 370 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship mounted four of her six 240 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 240 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship , abaft the funnel . La Galissonnière 's secondary armament of four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns was also mounted on the upper deck . They were replaced by six 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in 1880 . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millimeter gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
The ship received four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns in 1878 . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . La Galissonnière also received several towed Harvey torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
La Galissonnière had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high laid over 650 millimeters ( 26 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron backed by 520 millimeters ( 20 in ) of wood and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by thin iron plates .
= = Service = =
La Galissonnière was laid down at Brest on 22 June 1868 and launched on 7 May 1872 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , the budget for the French Navy was cut after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and the French dockyards had not been reformed with working practices more suitable for the industrial age . The ship began her sea trials on 20 April 1874 and was not commissioned until 18 July 1874 . She became flagship of the Pacific Squadron on 16 May 1874 under the command of Rear Admiral Perigot . She return to Brest on 19 March 1877 , having circumnavigated the world via the Suez Canal . The ship was placed in reserve upon her return until she recommissioned on 15 August 1878 in preparation for a commission as flagship of the Caribbean Squadron which began on 6 October under Rear Admiral Peyron . Two years later she sailed to Cherbourg and was reduced to reserve on 13 May 1880 .
La Galissonnière became the flagship of the Levant Squadron ( French : Division Navale du Levant ) under Rear Admiral Alfred Conrad on 27 May 1881 . Shortly afterward she bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . In early 1882 La Galissonnière was present in Alexandria shortly before the British bombarded it before the beginning of the 1882 Anglo @-@ Egyptian War . The ship remained in the Mediterranean through 1883 .
La Galissonnière relieved her half @-@ sister Victorieuse in April 1884 as the flagship of the Far East Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Amédée Courbet , just in time to participate in the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . The ship fought in the late stages of the Battle of Fuzhou in August 1884 when she tried to pass a Chinese fort ( known to the French as Fort Kimpaï ) defending the entrance to the Min River . La Galissonnière failed to destroy the fort and was lightly damaged by a shell that struck her bow . It damaged her steam capstan and killed one man . The ship supplied landing parties during the Battle of Tamsui in October 1884 , but they were forced to retreat by Chinese troops , although only nine men were killed . Nothing is known of any further participation by La Galissonnière in the war . She was ordered home in February 1886 and laid up for the last time in Cherbourg upon her return . The ship was condemned on 24 December 1894 .
= Beck 's Bolero =
" Beck 's Bolero " is a rock instrumental recorded by English guitarist Jeff Beck in 1966 . It is Beck 's first solo recording and has been described as " one of the great rock instrumentals , epic in scope , harmonically and rhythmically ambitious yet infused with primal energy " . " Beck 's Bolero " features a prominent melody with multiple guitar parts propelled by a rhythm inspired by Ravel 's Boléro .
The recording session brought together a group of musicians , including Jimmy Page , Keith Moon , John Paul Jones , and Nicky Hopkins , who later agreed that the line up was a first attempt at what became Led Zeppelin . However , there is an ongoing disagreement over the composer as well as producer credits . Despite being credited solely to Page , Beck claims that he made significant contributions to the composition . Likewise , Page and Simon Napier @-@ Bell each claim to have produced it , while Mickie Most received the credit .
" Beck 's Bolero " was not released until ten months after recording and then only as the B @-@ side to Beck 's first single . When it finally received greater exposure on Beck 's debut album Truth in the latter part of 1968 , it was still considered quite advanced even though it was over two years old . Beck continues to perform it and several renditions have been recorded by other musicians .
= = Background = =
The recording session for " Beck 's Bolero " was conceived of as a side project for Jeff Beck while he was a member of the Yardbirds . " It was decided that it would be a good idea for me to record some of my own stuff ... partly to stop me moaning about the Yardbirds " , Beck recalled . Also , the Yardbirds ' management was encouraging individual band members to bring attention to the band through success in solo projects . Studio time was booked for May 1966 at the IBC Studios in London . To prepare for the session , Beck called on long @-@ time friend and studio guitarist Jimmy Page , who had recommended Beck as Eric Clapton 's replacement in the Yardbirds , to work up some ideas for songs to record .
Although there is a disagreement over credits for the composition , both Beck and Page agree that Page began by playing some chords on a twelve @-@ string guitar using a rhythm based on Boléro . Boléro is a one @-@ movement orchestral piece composed by Maurice Ravel in 1928 and is " built on a persistent , repeating motif supported by a snare drum ... re @-@ creating the Spanish ' bolero ' dance pattern for full orchestra " , according to Beck biographer Martin Power . A melody line for guitar was developed along with a middle section to break up the rhythm , reminiscent of the Yardbirds ' arrangements for " For Your Love " and " Shapes of Things " .
With at least the outline of one song and Page on board to play guitar , Beck approached Keith Moon of the Who , whom he considered one of his favourite drummers . Moon was unhappy with the Who at the time and readily agreed to participate . To avoid a confrontation with Pete Townshend and Kit Lambert , the Who 's manager , Moon wished to do so incognito . He recommended bandmate John Entwistle , who was similarly discontented with the Who , to provide the bass .
= = Recording = =
The recording session took place at IBC Studios on 16 and 17 May 1966 ( although a date after Beck left the Yarbirds in November 1966 has also been suggested ) . Moon arrived at the studio disguised in sunglasses and a Russian cossack hat . When Entwistle did not show , studio musicians John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins were brought in at the last minute to provide bass and piano . Although there is an unsubstantiated account that Ritchie Blackmore may have been somehow involved at the studio , his participation has not been acknowledged by Beck , Page , or the others at the session . Napier @-@ Bell , the Yardbird 's producer who had originally promoted the idea , was present for the recording .
For the guitar parts , Beck used a Gibson Les Paul played through a Vox AC30 amplifier and Page played a Fender Electric XII twelve @-@ string electric guitar . Half way through the song , Moon smashed the drum microphone with his stick – " You can actually hear him screaming as he does it " , Beck remembered , " so all you can hear from then on is cymbals ! " After Moon and Napier @-@ Bell left , Beck and Page added overdubs and sound treatments to complete the track . According to Beck , two or three songs were recorded at the session , but " Beck 's Bolero " was the only track released .
= = Composition = =
" Beck 's Bolero " is roughly divided into three parts . The first begins with a reworking of Ravel 's two @-@ chord progression , transposed to the key of A. Power points out that by using a 12 @-@ string guitar , Page is able to take advantage of the instrument 's " rich chiming quality to emulate the distinct , orchestral ' bolero ' sound " . Beck then introduces the melody line on electric guitar with a fuzz @-@ tone effect producing indefinite sustain ; alternating between major and minor modes , it is described as " haunting " by Power and as a " distinctive piercing , sinister tone " by critic Richie Unterberger . In the second section , the piano , bass , and drums come in and the tension builds . Unterberger describes the third section as " suddenly set [ ting ] off from the main motif into a beautiful serene section highlighting slide @-@ glissando guitars " , with Beck 's echo @-@ laden slide sounding similar to a steel guitar . The fourth section returns to the main melody with overlaid drawn @-@ out descending slide . According to Beck , " the phasing was Jimmy 's idea ... I played a load of waffle and he reversed it " . The tension mounts as Moon adds drum flourishes , climaxing with a break .
The second part begins with Moon 's simultaneous drum break and scream and launches in different , hard rock direction . " It was my idea to cut off in the middle , Yardbirds @-@ style " , Beck commented , " Keith upped the tempo and gave it an extra kick . It 's like a bit of the Who , a bit of the Yardbirds and a bit of me " . The amply @-@ distorted guitar provides " a thick @-@ toned , descending riff " , according to Power . He also describes the break , inspired by the Yardbirds ' rave @-@ up technique , as " eerily presag [ ing ] the coming era of hard rock and heavy metal " . The third part returns to the main motif with added guitar fills . The melody line is abandoned in the second section and replaced with multiple interwoven takes of guitar effects , including phasing , echo , and controlled feedback . It concludes with a few bars of hard blues rock @-@ style lead guitar and an abrupt ending .
= = Releases = =
The record release of " Beck 's Bolero " was delayed for ten months , when Jeff Beck began his solo career after leaving the Yardbirds . It appeared as the B @-@ side of his first single , " Hi Ho Silver Lining " , which was released on 10 March 1967 in the UK ( Columbia DB 8151 ) and 3 April 1967 in the US ( Epic 5 – 10157 ) . The initial UK pressing of the single listed the title as " Bolero " with Jeff Beck as the composer , while later pressings showed " Beck 's Bolero " and " J. Page " . The single reached number fourteen in the UK Singles Chart , and number 123 in the US Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " Hi Ho Silver Lining " was ignored by American underground FM radio , but " Beck 's Bolero " became a staple of the new radio format .
In 1968 , the instrumental gained wider exposure when it was included on the Jeff Beck Group debut album , Truth . Released in the US in July , the album reached number 15 in the Billboard 200 album chart one month later . Truth was issued in October in the UK , but it did not appear in the album charts . On the British monaural releases , " Beck 's Bolero " has a fifteen @-@ second backwards guitar coda . This version is included as a bonus track on the 2006 remastered Truth CD and on the Sundazed Records reissue of the original mono vinyl album . The original album liner notes do not list the personnel for " Beck 's Bolero " – Jones ' and Hopkins ' contributions are noted for other songs along with " Timpani by ' You Know Who ' " , the " Who " being Moon .
" Beck 's Bolero " remains one of Beck 's favourites pieces and he has performed it numerous times , often as his opening number . A live version in 2008 appears on his Live at Ronnie Scott 's album and video . On 4 April 2009 , Page formally inducted Beck into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and together they performed " Beck 's Bolero " at the induction ceremony , with Page playing the original 1965 Fender XII electric twelve @-@ string guitar which he used for the 1966 recording session .
= = Disagreement over credits = =
= = = Production = = =
Beck 's later producer , Mickie Most , the Yardbirds ' producer , Simon Napier @-@ Bell , and Jimmy Page have each claimed to be the recording 's producer . At the time of the release of " Beck Bolero " , Beck was under contract to producer Most . Although he was not involved in the recording , under the terms of the contract , Most received a " mandated production credit " and it is his name that appears on the single and album credits . Napier @-@ Bell , who was at least present for the recording , has claimed that his involvement was substantial :
I produced it , but I was naive about ' Bolero ' . When Mickie Most took Jeff , he asked if there were any productions knocking around and I said ' Yes , we 've got ' Bolero ' . ' So it eventually came out as a Mickie Most production , which has always pissed me off because it was such a great record . My fault , no one else 's .
However , according to Jimmy Page , " the track was done and then the producer , Simon Napier @-@ Bell , just disappeared ... [ he ] just sort of left me and Jeff to do it . Jeff was playing and I was [ at the recording console ] . " Page asserts that he in fact was the instrumental 's actual producer .
= = = Composition = = =
The initial Columbia Records pressing of the single listed the title as " Bolero " and " Jeff Beck " as the composer . However , Jimmy Page filed for the composer credit for " Beck 's Bolero " and it is his name that appears on the credits for all but the initial release . Nonetheless , Beck has claimed credit for his contributions to the composition . Both Beck and Page agree that Page came up with the Boléro @-@ influenced chords and rhythm . However , Beck specifically claims that key features of the instrumental — the haunting melody line and the second part " hard @-@ rock " break — are his . Beck adds that the break contains " the first heavy metal riff ever written and I wrote it " . While not addressing the specifics , Page asserts " I wrote it , played on it , produced it ... and I don 't give a damn what [ Jeff ] says . That 's the truth " , but adds " the slide bits are his " . Beck later put it behind him , " No , I didn 't get a songwriting credit , but you win some and lose some down the years " . Over the years , he and Page have made several appearances together in concerts and for interviews .
= = Legacy = =
Beck , Page , Hopkins , Jones , and Moon were pleased with the outcome of the recording session and there was talk of forming a working group and additional recordings . This led to the famous quip , " Yeah , it 'll go down like a lead zeppelin " , which Page later used , with a slight spelling change , for his new group . Page ascribed it to Moon , while Beck 's and Led Zeppelin 's later manager Peter Grant claimed Moon used the phrase " go down like a lead balloon " , to which Entwistle added " more like a lead zeppelin " . Entwistle , on the other hand , insists that he came up with the name independently along with the idea of using an image of " a Zeppelin going down in flames " for an album cover . Led Zeppelin biographer Keith Shadwick notes that forming an actual group at the time " was never a realistic option " , due to existing contractual obligations .
For all their attempts at secrecy , Townshend learned of Moon 's move . Beck recalled , " I remember [ Pete ] Townshend looking daggers at me when he heard it ... because it was a bit near the mark . He didn 't want anybody meddling with that territory [ his band , the Who ] at all " . Townshend also took to referring to Beck and Page as " flashy little guitarists of very little brain " for their perceived subterfuge ( Page responded with " Townshend got into feedback because he couldn 't play single notes " ) . In a later interview , Townshend explained
The thing is when Keith did Beck 's ' Bolero ' , that wasn 't just a session , that was a political move . It was at a point when the group was very close to breaking up . Keith was very paranoid and going through a heavy pills thing . He wanted to make the group plead for him because he 'd joined Beck .
Differences with Moon were resolved and he returned to the Who shortly after the recording . One month later , Page joined the Yardbirds and together with Beck became one of the first dual @-@ lead guitar teams in popular rock . In 1968 , Hopkins became a member of the Jeff Beck Group and for performances of " Beck 's Bolero " during their first US tour in June , singer Rod Stewart played the rhythm guitar part . Also in 1968 , Page started Led Zeppelin with Jones . Page incorporated some of the melody line and bolero rhythm into the medley portion of " How Many More Times " for the Led Zeppelin debut album .
" Beck 's Bolero " appears on various " best of " lists and in Guitar Masters : Intimate Portraits , Alan di Perna describes it as " one of the great rock instrumentals , epic in scope , harmonically and rhythmically ambitious yet infused with primal energy " . The May 1966 recording pre @-@ dated other mid @-@ 1960s hard rock / psychedelic rock milestones , such as the formation of Cream , Jimi Hendrix 's arrival in England , the Beatles ' Revolver album , and the rise of the San Francisco Sound . Guitarist Mike Bloomfield recalled that " Beck 's Bolero " had a " significant impact on Jimi Hendrix , who named it among his favorite tracks " . Beck recalled performing a live version with Hendrix on lead guitar , but a recording has not been forthcoming .
According to Paul Hornsby , who played with Duane Allman in Hour Glass in 1967 – 1968 before the Allman Brothers Band , " Beck 's Bolero " inspired Allman to take up slide guitar . After hearing Beck 's record , Allman " loved that slide part and told me he was going to learn to play it " , Hornsby recalled . In 1970 , Joe Walsh adapted the slide @-@ guitar section of " Beck 's Bolero " for a James Gang song . Titled " The Bomber " , the multi @-@ part suite also includes a rendition of Ravel 's Boléro and appears on the James Gang Rides Again album . Several artists have recorded renditions of " Beck 's Bolero " , including SRC , the Posies , Les Fradkin , Eric Johnson , and Return to Forever .
= Operation Labrador =
Operation Labrador was a false flag operation carried out by the Yugoslav Air Force 's Counterintelligence Service ( KOS ) in the Croatian capital city of Zagreb during the early stages of the Croatian War of Independence . It was devised as a series of terrorist attacks intended to create an image of Croatia as a pro @-@ fascist state . Two bombings were carried out on 19 August 1991 , with one at the Jewish Community Centre and a second near Jewish graves at the Mirogoj Cemetery ; there were no casualties . Additional attacks targeted the national railway network and were designed to implicate the Croatian President . Operation Labrador was complemented by Operation Opera — a propaganda campaign devised by the KOS to feed disinformation to the media .
Further activities of Operation Labrador were abandoned in September , after Croatian authorities captured the Yugoslav Air Force regional headquarters in Zagreb , and confiscated documents related to the operation . The authorities took nearly a month to analyze the captured documents , allowing time for the principal agents involved in the bombings to flee . Fifteen others were arrested in connection with the attack , but
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@-@ four of them making the final setlist . The tour was divided into five segments : French Baroque @-@ Marie Antionette Revival , Military @-@ Army , Circus @-@ Cabaret , Acoustic and Scottish @-@ Tribal . The tour garnered positive reception from contemporary critics . The tour was chronicled in the documentary titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . Originally called The Re @-@ Invented Process in reference to the world tour it documents and the exhibition , it was filmed during Madonna 's visit to North America and Europe during May 24 to September 14 , 2004 , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund . Critical response towards the documentary was mixed , with one group of reviewers complimenting the live performances from the tour and the scenes involving her children and family , while others criticized the self @-@ indulgent nature of the documentary and the preaching nature of Madonna 's commentary in the film .
I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret the album was released on June 20 , 2006 , in a two @-@ disc format , a CD with 14 songs from the show and a DVD with the documentary film . The album includes the original demo version of " I Love New York " , a track later found on her 2005 album Confessions on a Dance Floor in a dance form . The track was originally recorded as a rock song before being re @-@ recorded . The documentary and the album was also released as digital download to the iTunes Store . Originally , Warner Bros. announced that the " American Life " director 's cut music video would be included as an extra with the documentary , with the press release also including this information . The music video was not included and no reason was given for the omission .
The DVD was shot in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 on a single sided , double layered disc , with the image being enhanced for 16 × 9 televisions . The black @-@ and @-@ white visuals had mixed a lot of visual styles according to Jacobson , and had grains and erratic focus . The non @-@ concert color sequences followed the same style , but the performance sequences were in high definition . Backgrounds were dark and Jacobson noted that the color black appeared taut and full , while the few low @-@ light bits came across well . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound was mostly utilized during the live performance sequences . The live CD consisted of two pre @-@ recorded tracks , " The Beast Within " and " Hollywood " . There are 12 deleted scenes , spanning a total of 15 minutes and 38 seconds ; scenes include Madonna on a bike , working with vocal coach Joan Leder , affinity for French and comical sequences featuring Price and musician Steve Sidelnyk . The cover was a shot of Madonna from her performance of " Frozen " on the show , and the packaging included a 20 page booklet .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the release debuted at number 33 on the Billboard 200 with 25 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It also debuted at number three on the Top Soundtracks chart , number 13 on the Top Internet Albums chart and debuted atop the Top Music Videos chart . The next week , the album slipped down to number 107 on the Billboard 200 , while holding atop the Top Music Videos chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 85 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of August 2010 . In Canada , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart .
The CD + DVD version of I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret was eligible to chart on both albums and DVD charts . However , in some countries , both versions were combined and appeared on just one chart , as in Australia , where all versions counted towards the DVD chart and the release was ineligible for the albums chart . On the Australian DVD Chart , the album debuted at the top of the chart for the issue dated June 26 , 2006 , and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the release . It held the top spot for another week . In New Zealand it debuted at number eight on the RIANZ Music DVD Chart , next week falling off .
In the United Kingdom , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret debuted at number 18 on the UK Albums Chart , with first week sales of 14 @,@ 449 copies . It was Madonna 's 17th release to chart there , all previous releases having achieved top @-@ five placement on the album chart . The release was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 25 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the release entered the French Albums Chart at its peak position of number eight . After three months , it was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 75 @,@ 000 copies of the album . The CD + DVD also reached a peak of eight on he German Albums Chart and has been certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for more than 25 @,@ 000 units shipped . Across Europe the album reached the top @-@ ten in Belgium , Denmark , Hungary , Portugal and Switzerland . On the Pan @-@ European Top 100 Albums chart , it reached a peak of number five , and also reached the top of the charts in Italy and Mexico .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt that the reworking of Madonna 's older hits like " Into the Groove " and " Holiday " gave them a campy , Eurotrash feel like the songs on Confessions on a Dance Floor ; he added that " [ the reworkings ] help give the disc a cohesive feel even if the live performance , like the album it 's hawking , is kind of humorless . That said , as Madonna 's first live CD , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret is strong and entertaining , and even if the excessive minutiae on the accompanying DVD means only hardcore fans will sit through its two hours , it 's also quite well done . " Sterdan from Jam ! complimented the CD section of the release , saying that " Thankfully , the CD takes up the slack , delivering more than an hour of newer fare like ' American Life ' and ' Music ' , peppered with oldies like ' Vogue ' , ' Holiday ' and ' Like a Prayer ' . Next time Madonna wants to share a secret , she should just leave the cameras at home . " Conversely , Sébastien Chicoine from Canoe.ca website preferred the DVD over the CD , saying that the disc was not " absolutely necessary " but could understand the business logic behind adding the CD to the release .
Barry Walters from Rolling Stone said that the live CD proved that Madonna is a better singer . A reviewer from The Buffalo News was impressed with the release , saying that " This is exactly what you 'd expect it to be – a live document of Madonna 's most recent tour , which means , essentially , a tour through the dance @-@ based pop music of the past 20 years . " Colin Jacobson from the DVD Movie Guide website explained that " though parts of I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret frustrate , it remains a reasonably entertaining program . It probably will be most interesting for Madonna 's most serious fans , though . Those in search of the broader titillation of Truth or Dare will leave disappointed . " He added that most of the shots in the DVD seemed accurate , time @-@ and @-@ again a softness crept up in the wide angle shots . Jacobson found the performance s shots to be compelling and gave the sound of the DVD a rating of B + . The album was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 49th ceremony in the category Best Long Form Music Video .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = = Formats = = =
CD / DVD – double disc digipak edition containing the live DVD and the live CD
DVD – DVD keep case packed with the DVD and the live CD
iTunes Digital download – The full 2 @-@ hour documentary in digital version
Additional notes :
Recorded live in Paris on September 4 – 5 , 2004 by Effanel Music .
Mixed by Stuart Price .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret information from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Coat of arms of Munich =
The coat of arms of Munich ( Münchner Wappen ) depicts a young monk dressed in black holding a red book . It has existed in a similar form since the 13th century , though at certain points in its history it has not depicted the central figure of the monk at all . As the German name for Munich , München , means of Monks , the monk in this case is a self @-@ explanatory symbol ( canting arms ) who represents the city of Munich .
Appearing on a document of May 28 , 1239 , the oldest seal of Munich has a picture of a monk wearing an open hood . While all seal impressions show the monk with the book in one hand and three outstretched fingers in the other , the monk has varied slightly , appearing in profile , then later full @-@ faced and bare @-@ headed . By the 19th century the figure was portrayed as youthful and became known as the Münchner Kindl or Munich Child . The coat of arms in its current form was created in 1957 and is still an important symbol of the Bavarian state capital .
= = The Monk = =
As the German name for Munich , i.e. München , means " of Monks " , the monk in this case is a self @-@ explanatory symbol who represents the city of Munich . The figure is portrayed wearing a golden trimmed black cowl with a black hood and red shoes . The right hand is raised and the left carries a red book .
The open right hand of the monk is interpreted as an oath @-@ making gesture , or a blessing gesture in Christian tradition . The red book in the left hand refers to the oath book of the city ( in accordance with the gesture of the right hand ) , or the municipal law book which is bounded in red and has been handed down since 1365 . Another interpretation is that it is a gospel book .
When the Munich town administration developed a constitution of its council , a seal was necessary for the purposes of asserting the authenticity of town @-@ council documents . Appearing on a document of May 28 , 1239 , the oldest seal of Munich has a picture of a monk wearing an open hood . While all seal impressions show the monk with the book in one hand and three outstretched fingers in the other , the monk has varied slightly , appearing in profile , then later full @-@ faced and bare @-@ headed . The monk as a sole heraldic figure can be found on a seal dating from the year 1304 , and on flags of the city since the middle of the 14th century . Colourful representations of the town 's coat of arms stem from the 15th century .
= = = Münchner Kindl = = =
In the course of the few centuries up until the current version of 1957 , the coat of arms has undergone some distinctly visible changes . While some 15th @-@ century portrayals already show a child figure instead of the monk , the monk in representations onwards began to lose its serious disposition , with curly hair and a more youthful @-@ looking face . By the 18th century and especially the 19th century , the monk had been minimised into the Münchner Kindl , Bavarian for Munich Child , a reference to the figure first documented in 1727 , although it is not clear when it appeared on the coat of arms for the first time or who coined the term . The transformation was brought about by artists such as sculptors and painters as well as copper and seal engravers , as opposed to a legal order .
In the second half of the nineteenth century , local artists also supplemented the figure with items such as radishes , pretzels , laurel wreaths and foaming beer steins . The symbol diversely appears in numerous places such as on manhole covers , beer steins and the top of the tower of the town hall . While the symbol as a man through being a monk was previously clear , its gender has become ambiguous since being designated the Kindl . One interpretation is that it is simply genderless , however in the 1920s a female inclination became apparent , and portrayals in person are to this day by young women .
= = History = =
The Munich coat of arms is verifiable from seals in 1239 and 1268 . These seals show a monk in a gate , above which is in eagle , referring to the Bishop of Freising . The city belonged to him and this was probably derived from his coat of arms . From 1313 , the city was in possession of the Wittelsbach Dukes and the eagle was replaced with a lion , a symbol of the old Bavarian and Palatine Wittelsbachs since the Fiefdom of Duke Ludwig in 1214 .
= = = Coat of arms after ratification by Max I. Joseph = = =
In 1808 , King Maximilian I Joseph granted the city a historicist city emblem depicting a classical portal , atop which the King 's crown lies . A golden lion sits in the gate 's threshold with a sword in one paw and a shield with the letter " M " in the other . As an enlightened monarch , Max I. Joseph wanted the city 's symbol to show its culture and at the same time dispel the stereotype of the " Mönchsbarbarei " , or the barbarianism of the monks . However , the township decided against the complete elimination of the historical reference to the monk and thus in 1818 the M was replaced with the previous monk 's head design .
= = = Coat of arms after ratification by Ludwig I = = =
In 1834 , King Ludwig I granted the city its old coat of arms again in the form of large and small crests . These embodied the small crest seal of 1304 and the large one of 1323 . The 1835 coat of arms had a blue background , though this was later corrected to argent under Ludwig II in 1865 . The background was rarely changed . One example of its occurrence , however , was when or was used in the 16th century instead .
= = = Coat of arms in the Third Reich = = =
From 1936 to 1945 , the lion was once again replaced by an eagle , only this time the one of the Nazi party , the Reichsadler . Deemed the Hauptstadt der Bewegung ( Capital of the Movement ) , Munich was a significant place in terms of the Nazi ideology . The city was home to the NSDAP headquarters , the Beer Hall Putsch and also saw the establishment of Dachau , the first Nazi concentration camp . Post @-@ war designs were not pursued until 1949 .
= = = New coat of arms = = =
Both a small and large coat of arms existed from 1949 until 1957 based on representations of them prior to 1936 . In 1957 both the large and small city coat of arms were newly arranged by the designer Eduard Ege . At the same time , the city council set the resolution on the December 17 , 1957 that the large one was no longer for official use but only for particular representative purposes .
= Geoffroy 's spider monkey =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey ( Ateles geoffroyi ) , also known as the black @-@ handed spider monkey , is a species of spider monkey , a type of New World monkey , from Central America , parts of Mexico and possibly a small portion of Colombia . There are at least five subspecies . Some primatologists classify the black @-@ headed spider monkey ( A. fusciceps ) , found in Panama , Colombia , and Ecuador as the same species as Geoffroy 's spider monkey .
It is one of the largest New World monkeys , often weighing as much as 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . Its arms are significantly longer than its legs , and its prehensile tail can support the entire weight of the monkey and is used as an extra limb . Its hands have only a vestigial thumb , but long , strong , hook @-@ like fingers . These adaptations allow the monkey to move by swinging by its arms beneath the tree branches .
Geoffroy 's spider monkey lives in fission – fusion societies that contain between 20 and 42 members . Its diet consists primarily of ripe fruit and it requires large tracts of forest to survive . As a result of habitat loss , hunting and capture for the pet trade , it is considered to be endangered by the IUCN .
= = Taxonomy = =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey belongs to the New World monkey family Atelidae , which contains the spider monkeys , woolly monkeys , muriquis and howler monkeys . It is a member of the subfamily Atelinae , which includes the spider monkeys , woolly monkeys and muriquis , and of the genus Ateles , which contains all the spider monkeys . The genus name Ateles means " imperfect " , a reference to the vestigial thumb . The species name geoffroyi is in honor of French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire .
Agreement over the number of spider monkey species is not universal . Kellogg and Goldman ( 1944 ) based their classification on fur color , and Groves ( 1989 ) based his on fur color and geographic distribution . Kellogg and Goldman differentiated Geoffroy 's spider monkey from other species by its dark black head , hands and wrists . Recent studies use mitochondrial DNA to help differentiate species . Such studies by Collins and Daubach ( 2000 , 2001 , 2006 ) indicate the Geoffroy 's spider monkey is more closely related to the white @-@ fronted spider monkey , A. belzebuth , and the brown spider monkey , A. hybridus , than it is to the red @-@ faced spider monkey , A. paniscus . According to these studies , A. paniscus branched off from the other spider monkeys approximately 3 @.@ 27 million years ago and the spider monkeys branched off from the woolly monkeys and muiriquis 3 @.@ 59 million years ago . Older studies by Porter , et al. indicate the howler monkeys are believed to have branched off from the other Atelides over 10 million years ago .
= = Subspecies = =
At least five subspecies of this monkey are recognized :
Nicaraguan spider monkey , Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi
Hooded spider monkey , A. g. grisescens
Ornate spider monkey , A. g. ornatus
Mexican spider monkey , A. g. vellerosus
Yucatan spider monkey , A. g. yucatanensis
Some authorities also recognize A. g. azuerensis and A. g. frontatus as valid subspecies . The black @-@ headed spider monkey , Ateles fusciceps , is considered by authorities such as Groves ( 1989 ) and Rylands et al . ( 2006 ) to be a separate species from Geoffroy 's spider monkey . Other authorities , including Froelich ( 1991 ) , Collins and Dubach ( 2001 ) and Nieves ( 2005 ) , condider A. fusciceps to be synonymous with A. geoffroyi . Under this treatment , the two subspecies of the black @-@ headed spider monkey represent additional subspecies of Geoffroy 's spider monkey , A. g. fusciceps and A. g. rufiventris .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of this species extends over much of Central America , encompassing Panama , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Guatemala , Honduras , El Salvador , Belize and the south and much of the eastern portion of Mexico . Observations by local people indicate the southernmost subspecies , the hooded spider monkey , A. g. grisescens , may also occur in the portion of Colombia near the Panama border . In western Colombia and northeast Panama , it is replaced by the black @-@ headed spider monkey , A. fusciceps , which is considered by some primatologists to be a subspecies of Geoffroy 's spider monkey .
Geoffroy 's spider monkey lives in various types of forest , including rains , semideciduous and mangrove forests . Higher densities of Geoffroy 's spider monkeys are generally found in areas containing evergreen forest .
= = Physical description = =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey is one of the largest New World monkeys . Its length measures between 30 and 63 cm ( 12 and 25 in ) and it weighs between 6 and 9 kg ( 13 and 20 lb ) . The tail is longer than the body at between 63 and 85 cm ( 25 and 33 in ) . Males and females are approximately the same size .
Its body color varies by subspecies and population , and can be buff , reddish , rust , brown or black . The hands and feet are dark or black . The face usually has a pale mask and bare skin around the eyes and muzzle .
Its arms and legs are long and slim . The arms are about 25 % longer than the legs . The thumb is only vestigial , but the fingers are long and strong , making the hands hook @-@ like . The long arms and hook @-@ like hands allow Geoffroy 's spider monkey to brachiate , that is , swing by its arms beneath the tree branches .
The prehensile tail is very strong and has a palm @-@ like pad at the end . The tail acts as an extra limb , and is used for locomotion , as well as to pick fruits and to scoop water from holes in trees . Geoffroy 's spider monkey can support its weight suspended by its tail and often does so when feeding .
The clitoris of female Geoffroy 's spider monkeys is large and protrudes , looking like a penis . This organ , called a pendulous clitoris because of the way it dangles externally , is actually larger than the male flaccid penis . As a result , females are sometimes mistaken for males by human observers . The enlarged clitoris is believed to aid males in determining sexual receptiveness , allowing them to touch the clitoris and smell their fingers to pick up chemical or olfactory cues to the female 's reproductive status .
= = Behavior = =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey is arboreal and diurnal , and mostly inhabits the upper portion of the forest . However , it comes to the ground more frequently than other spider monkey species . It lives in fission – fusion societies , large groups with a typical 20 to 42 members , which split into smaller subgroups to forage during the day . Subgroups typically number two to six members , and sometimes the subgroups remain separate from the main group even through the night .
Geoffroy 's spider monkey forages over large tracts of forest in search of food . Home ranges for groups can exceed 900 hectares ( 2 @,@ 200 acres ) . Monkeys can range about 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) each day . Males tend to cover a larger day range than females , and dominant individuals tend to have larger day ranges . Geoffroy 's spider monkey sometimes rubs a mixture of saliva and ground lime tree Citrus aurantifolia leaves on its fur . This is believed to act as an insect repellent . In some locations , Geoffroy 's spider monkey interacts with the white @-@ headed capuchin . These interactions can include mutual grooming .
In addition to walking or running on four limbs and climbing , Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses several forms of suspensory locomotion . Brachiation , or swinging from the arms with assistance from the prehensile tail , is the most common form of suspensory locomotion . Less common forms include swinging while suspended by the tail , and walking on four limbs under a branch . Studies have indicated the Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses suspensory locomotion less frequently than other spider monkey species .
The most common method used by spider monkeys to cross between trees is " bridging " , in which the monkey grasps for a branch from the new tree and pulls it towards itself so it can climb onto it . Airborne leaps are used when necessary , and certain populations of Geoffroy 's spider monkey , especially in Panama , are known to leap between trees more frequently than other populations .
When not moving , Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses not only supported postures , such as sitting or standing , but also suspended postures in which it hangs from a branch . Suspended postures always include support from the tail , and sometimes the monkey hangs by its tail alone . Other times it hangs by the tail and by one or more limbs simultaneously . Studies have indicated at least some Geoffroy 's spider monkey populations use suspended postures less frequently when feeding than other spider monkey species .
= = = Communication and intelligence = = =
Sounds produced by Geoffroy 's spider monkey include barks , whinnies , squeals , squeaks and screams . Barks are typically alarm calls . Whinnies and screams can be used as distress calls , and are also made at dawn and at dusk . Each monkey makes a unique sound , which may allow monkeys to recognize each other through vocal communication alone . Several researchers have investigated the use of whinnies , which consist of between two and 12 quick increases and decreases in pitch , in more detail . This research has indicated one additional purpose of whinnies is to call other group members to a food source . Other purposes of whinnies suggested by this research have included maintaining vocal contact with other group members while traveling and distinguishing between group members and members of other groups .
Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses several forms of nonvocal communication . A curled tail or arched back can be used as a threat display towards other spider monkeys . A head shake is used either as a threat or an invitation to play . Shaking branches or swaying arms is used as a warning of danger to the group .
Although they do not use tools , spider monkeys , including Geoffroy 's spider monkey , are regarded as intelligent primates . A study performed in 2007 concluded they were the third most intelligent nonhuman primate , behind only orangutans and chimpanzees , and ahead of gorillas and all other monkeys . This mental capacity may be an adaptation to spider monkeys ' frugivorous diets , which require them to be able to identify and memorize many different types of foods and their locations .
= = = Diet = = =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey eats mostly fruit – preferably ripe and fleshy – and spends 70 % to 80 % of its feeding time eating fruit . Leaves make up most of the rest of its diet . Young leaves are especially important to provide the protein that can be lacking in fruit . Other elements of its diet include flowers , bark , insects , honey , seeds and buds .
In addition to providing much of the monkey 's nutritional needs , fruit and leaves provide much of its water requirements . Like other spider monkeys , Geoffroy 's spider monkey drinks water from tree holes and bromeliads in trees , but unlike other spider monkeys , it also drinks from terrestrial water sources .
= = = Predators = = =
Large cats – jaguars and pumas – appear to be the only significant adult spider monkey predators , other than humans . Eagles and large snakes are also potential predators . However , predation of Geoffroy 's spider monkey has not been observed by researchers .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females bear young every two to four years . Among males , mating is not restricted to only dominant individuals . In one study at Barro Colorado Island , all males in the group were observed mating at least once over a one @-@ year period . However , dominant males appear to mate more often than low @-@ ranking males . It is unknown whether male dominance is correlated with greater success in fathering offspring .
Geoffroy 's spider monkeys mate in a sitting position , both facing the same direction , with the male seated behind the female and his arms wrapped around her chest and legs wrapped around her waist . This embrace can last between 8 and 22 minutes . Prior to mating , the male and female both separate themselves from the rest of the group , so they are alone except for any of the female 's juvenile offspring .
The gestational period is about 7 @.@ 5 months , after which a single young is typically born , although twins sometimes occur . The young are dark in color until they begin taking on the adult coloration at the age of five months . They are carried on their mothers ' chests for the first month and a half to two months , at which point they can ride on their backs . They nurse until they are about one year old , but begin eating solid foods and moving independently at about three months . Even when they move independently , they cannot always cross gaps in the canopy that adults can manage . To help them , an adult will stretch across the gap , forming a bridge over which the young can cross .
Females become sexually mature at about four years , and males at about five years . Upon reaching sexual maturity , females leave their natal group , but males do not . As a result , the males in the groups are typically related , while the females are not . This may help explain why male Geoffroy 's spider monkeys form strong bonds . Maximum life span in the wild is unknown . In captivity , Geoffroy 's spider monkey can live at least 33 years .
= = Conservation status = =
Geoffroy 's spider monkey is listed as " Endangered " by the IUCN , mostly due to habitat loss . It requires large tracts of primary forest to survive , so it is vulnerable to deforestation and is sometimes hunted by humans and captured for the pet trade . Because of its low reproductive turnover , it cannot quickly replenish its numbers when affected by these events . As a result , Geoffroy 's spider monkey has disappeared from some areas where it was once common . Three subspecies are critically endangered .
Geoffroy 's spider monkey was extirpated on Barro Colorado Island in Panama . Hunting had eliminated the native population there by 1912 . However , between 1959 and 1966 , an effort was made to reintroduce the species to Barro Colorado . At least 18 monkeys were reintroduced , but only five , one male and four females , survived the reintroduction . This small group has thrived , and the island population had grown to 28 monkeys by 2003 .
= Operation Epsom =
Operation Epsom , also known as the First Battle of the Odon , was a British Second World War offensive that took place between 26 and 30 June 1944 , during the Battle of Normandy . The offensive was intended to outflank and seize the German @-@ occupied city of Caen , an important Allied objective , in the early stages of the Allied invasion of north @-@ west Europe .
Preceded by Operation Martlet to secure the right flank of the advance , Operation Epsom began early on 26 June , with units of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division advancing behind a rolling artillery barrage . Air cover was sporadic for much of the operation , because poor weather in England forced the last @-@ minute cancellation of bomber support . Accompanied by the tanks of the 31st Tank Brigade , the 15th ( Scottish ) Division made steady progress and by the end of the first day had overrun much of the German outpost line , although some difficulties remained in securing the flanks . In mutually costly fighting over the following two days , a foothold was secured across the River Odon and efforts were made to expand this , by capturing strategic points around the salient and moving up the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division . In response to powerful German counter @-@ attacks , by 30 June some of the British forces across the river were withdrawn , bringing the operation to a close .
Interpretations of the intention and conduct of Operation Epsom differ widely but there is general agreement concerning its effect on the balance of forces in Normandy . The Germans contained the offensive but only by committing all their strength , including two panzer divisions newly arrived in Normandy , which had been intended for an offensive against British and American positions around Bayeux . Many casualties were suffered by both sides but unlike General Bernard Montgomery , the Allied commander in Normandy , Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel was unable to withdraw units into reserve after the battle , as they were needed to hold the front line . The British retained the initiative , attacked several more times over the following two weeks and captured Caen in Operation Charnwood in mid @-@ July .
= = Background = =
The Norman city of Caen was a D @-@ Day objective for the British 3rd Infantry Division that landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 . The capture of Caen , while " ambitious " , was described by the official historian , L. F. Ellis , as the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to Lieutenant @-@ General John Crocker and I Corps . Operation Overlord called for the British Second Army , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey , to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen , to acquire airfields and protect the left flank of the First US Army ( Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley ) , while it fought the Battle of Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give the Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River .
Hampered by congestion in the beachhead , which delayed the deployment of its armoured support and being forced to divert effort to attack strongly held German positions along the 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) route to the town , the 3rd Infantry Division was unable to assault Caen in force on D @-@ Day and was stopped short of its outskirts , by the 21st Panzer Division . Immediate follow @-@ up attacks failed as German resistance solidified . Abandoning the direct approach , Operation Perch — a pincer attack by I and XXX Corps — was launched on 7 June , to encircle Caen from the east and west . I Corps , striking south out of the Orne bridgehead , was halted by the 21st Panzer Division and the attack by XXX Corps was stopped west of Caen in front of Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles by the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division . To force Panzer @-@ Lehr to withdraw or surrender and to keep operations fluid , part of the 7th Armoured Division pushed through a gap in the German front line and captured Villers @-@ Bocage . The Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage led to the vanguard of the 7th Armoured Division withdrawing from the town but by 17 June , Panzer Lehr had also been forced back and XXX Corps had taken Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles .
Another attack by the 7th Armoured Division and other offensive operations were abandoned when a severe storm descended on the English Channel on 19 June . The storm lasted for three days and delayed the Allied build @-@ up . Most of the convoys of landing craft and ships already at sea were driven back to ports in Britain ; towed barges and other loads ( including 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of floating roadways for the Mulberry harbours ) were lost and 800 craft were left stranded on the Normandy beaches , until the spring tides in July . Planning began for a second offensive , codenamed Operation Dreadnought , to be launched out of the Orne bridgehead by the British VIII Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Richard O 'Connor ) , outflanking Caen from the east . Dreadnought was cancelled following objections from O 'Connor and an attack towards Évrecy was considered . This was also cancelled , either by Montgomery , the Allied ground forces commander in Normandy , or Dempsey , the Second Army commander . Dempsey , in a post @-@ war interview with Chester Wilmot , claimed that he told Montgomery that he was going to cancel the proposed operation on 18 June . The weather from 19 – 22 June grounded Allied aircraft and the Germans took advantage of the respite from air attacks , to improve their defences , strengthening infantry positions with minefields and posting c . 70 88 mm guns in hedgerows and woods , covering the approaches to Caen .
= = Plan = =
On 20 June Field Marshal Erwin Rommel , commanding German forces in Normandy , was ordered by Hitler to launch a counter @-@ offensive against the Allies between the towns of Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé ( Caumont ) and Saint @-@ Lô . The objective was to cut a corridor between the American and British armies by recapturing the city of Bayeux ( taken by the British on 7 June ) and the coast beyond . Four SS Panzer Divisions and one Heer Panzer Division were assigned to the task . Their assault was to be spearheaded by the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg of the II SS Panzer Corps , recently arrived from Ukraine . The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler , 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and 2nd Panzer Division would be supporting the attack . Most of the tanks used by these formations were Panzer IVs and Panthers , supplemented by sturmgeschütz ( assault guns ) and Tigers — the Panthers and Tigers being among the most lethal and well @-@ protected German armoured vehicles of the time .
On 18 June General Bernard Montgomery , commander of all Allied ground forces in Normandy , issued a directive to Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey to launch a new pincer attack with the aim of capturing Caen . The initial plan called for I and XXX Corps to attack west of Caen for four days before VIII Corps launched the main attack out of the Orne bridgehead , east of Caen , on 22 June . However , it was soon realised that VIII Corps would not be able to assemble within the small perimeter of the Orne bridgehead and the following day the plan was revised .
The revised plan called for a preliminary operation to take place three days before the main assault . I Corps with the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division was ordered to strike south from the Orne bridgehead , pinning elements of the 21st Panzer Division into place . Operation Martlet was to commence one day before Epsom with XXX Corps ' 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division and the 8th Armoured Brigade securing VIII Corps ' flank by capturing the high ground on the right of their axis of advance .
The main role in Operation Epsom was assigned to the newly arrived VIII Corps , consisting of 60 @,@ 244 men under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Richard O 'Connor . VIII Corps would launch their offensive from the beachhead gained by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division . Their operation was to take place in four phases with its ultimate objective the high ground near Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize , south of Caen . VIII Corps would be supported by fire from 736 guns , three cruisers and the monitor HMS Roberts . The Royal Air Force was to provide a preliminary bombardment by 250 bombers and close air support thereafter .
The 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division would lead the assault . During Phase I , codenamed Gout , they were to take the villages of Sainte Manvieu and Cheux . In Phase II , codenamed Hangover , the division would advance to capture several crossings over the Odon River and the villages of Mouen and Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon . Should resistance during the opening phase prove light , the 11th Armoured Division would seize the bridges over the Odon River by coup de main . During the first two phases the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division — to be reinforced on 28 June with the Guards Armoured Division 's infantry brigade — was to remain on the start line to provide a " firm base " .
In Epsom 's third phase , Impetigo , the 43rd Division would move forward to relieve all Scottish infantry north of the Odon . The 15th Division would then assemble across the river , expanding the bridgehead by capturing several important villages . In the operation 's final phase , codenamed Goitre , elements of the 43rd Division would cross the river to hold the area taken , while the 15th Division would continue to expand their bridgehead . The 11th Armoured Division would attempt to force a crossing over the River Orne and advance on their final objective of Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize . The 4th Armoured Brigade , although attached to the 11th Armoured Division , was restricted to operations between the Odon and Orne to protect the Corps flank and to be in a position to attack westwards , or towards Caen , as necessary .
Depending on the success of VIII Corps attack , I Corps would then launch two supporting operations codenamed Aberlour and Ottawa . In the former the 3rd Infantry Division , supported by a Canadian infantry brigade , would attack north of Caen ; the latter would be a move by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade to take the village and airfield of Carpiquet .
Originally planned for 22 June , Epsom was postponed until 26 June to make up deficiencies in manpower and materiel . The initial opposition the British would face was expected to come from the depleted 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend ( " Hitler Youth " ) , elements of the 21st Panzer Division and Panzer Lehr .
= = Operation Martlet = =
As planned , on 23 June , the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division attacked with the 152nd ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade . Before daybreak and without an artillery bombardment , the Highland infantry advanced towards the village of Sainte @-@ Honorine @-@ la @-@ Chardronette . They took the German garrison by surprise and had control of the village before sunrise . During the morning the Highlanders were counter @-@ attacked by Kampfgruppe von Luck of the 21st Panzer Division . Fighting lasted all morning but by midday the village was firmly in British hands . This success diverted German attention and resources away from VIII Corps front , as it prepared for further attacks out of the Orne bridgehead .
At 0415 on 25 June , the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division supported by the 8th Armoured Brigade and 250 guns , launched Operation Martlet against part of the Panzer Lehr and 12th SS Panzer divisions . The first objective , Fontenay @-@ le @-@ Pesnel was fought over all day but stubborn German resistance prevented its capture . One infantry battalion supported by tanks , advanced around the village to the west and took Tessel Wood but was subjected to a series of German counter @-@ attacks . These were blunted by British artillery fire and close air support but by the end of the day the 49th Division had failed to reach the village of Rauray , leaving the terrain dominating the right flank of VIII Corps ' intended advance in German hands . Martlet forced the I SS Panzer Corps to commit the remaining tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Division against the XXX Corps front , for a counter @-@ attack the following day . During the night the Germans in Fontenay @-@ le @-@ Pesnel withdrew to straighten the front line and infantry from the 49th Division secured the village before dawn .
= = Battle = =
= = = 26 June = = =
Poor weather hampered the start of Operation Epsom on 26 June , where rain over the battlefield had made the ground boggy ; over the United Kingdom in the early hours , there was a heavy mist resulting in aircraft being grounded and the bombing being called off . No. 83 Group RAF , based in Normandy , were able to provide air support throughout the operation .
The 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division resumed Operation Martlet at 0650 , although much of its artillery support from VIII Corps was diverted to the main operation . The Germans were able to slow the British advance and then launched an armoured riposte . This initially gained ground but was stalled when British armour moved up and the two sides duelled in the confined terrain . Informed during the afternoon that a big British offensive was under way further east , SS @-@ Standartenführer Kurt Meyer of 12th SS Panzer called off the counter @-@ attack and ordered his tank companies to return to their positions south of Rauray . During the rest of the day the 49th Division was able to make progress , eventually halting just north of Rauray .
At 0730 the 44th ( Lowland ) Infantry Brigade and the 46th ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division , supported by the 31st Tank Brigade moved off their start lines behind a rolling barrage fired from 344 guns . The 46th Brigade initially advanced without armoured support , because in bypassing the mine and booby trap @-@ ridden village of Le Mesnil @-@ Patry , its tanks were forced to negotiate minefields flanking the village . The 2nd Battalion , Glasgow Highlanders faced only light resistance , while the 9th Battalion The Cameronians , ran into the grenadiers of the 12th SS Panzer Division , who had allowed the barrage to pass over their positions before opening fire . Reuniting with their tanks at around 1000 , by midday the two battalions were fighting for control of their initial objectives ; Cheux and Le Haut du Bosq .
The 44th Brigade encountered little opposition until coming under machine gun fire at a small stream , following which German resistance was much heavier . Between 0830 and 0930 , the 6th Battalion , The Royal Scots Fusiliers and the 8th Battalion , The Royal Scots reached their initial objectives of Sainte Manvieu and La Gaule . After much hand to hand fighting they believed the villages to be captured just after midday , although they later found that some German remnants were holding out . Tanks and infantry from the 12th SS and the 21st Panzer divisions launched two counter @-@ attacks to regain Sainte Manvieu but were repulsed with the aid of intensive artillery fire . The main German opposition in this section of their outpost line , had been from part of the I Battalion , 26th Panzergrenadier Regiment , which had been mostly overrun and the divisional pioneer battalion . The Germans in Rauray , which had not been captured the previous day , were able to subject the British brigades to observed artillery and indirect tank fire , causing considerable casualties and destruction , especially within the village of Cheux .
At 1250 a squadron of the 11th Armoured Division reconnaissance regiment north of Cheux , was ordered to advance towards the Odon , preparatory to an attempt by the divisional armoured brigade to rush the bridges . Owing to minefields near the village , debris blocking its streets and German holdouts attacking the tanks , it was not until 1400 that the regiment was able to make progress . By 1430 the squadron arrived on a ridge south of Cheux where it was engaged by twenty Panzer IVs , sent by the 12th SS Panzer Division from the Rauray area , Tiger tanks from the 3rd Battalion 101st Heavy SS Panzer Battalion and armour from the 21st Panzer Division . More tanks from the 11th Armoured Division arrived but determined German resistance halted any further advance and by the end of the day the division had lost twenty @-@ one tanks . At 1800 the 227th ( Highland ) of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division , was committed to the battle . The Highlanders were delayed by fighting in support of the rest of the division and only two companies from the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders made much progress . They entered the northern outskirts of Colleville by 2100 but soon found themselves cut off by German counter @-@ attacks . After heavy and confused fighting one company was able to break out and rejoin the battalion . To stop the British offensive , that evening Field Marshal Rommel ordered assistance from all available units of II SS Panzer Corps .
= = = 27 June = = =
With no attacks during the night , the German command believed that the British offensive had been contained . During the early hours of 27 June , II SS Panzer Corps was ordered to resume preparations for its counter @-@ offensive towards Bayeux . On the right of the British advance , the I SS Panzer Corps launched a counter @-@ attack with 80 tanks , which was disorganised by artillery fire , before foundering on the anti @-@ tank guns of the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , who then resumed their attempt to secure VIII Corps flank . Rauray was taken by the 49th Division at 1600 on 27 June , after further heavy fighting against the 12th SS Panzer Division . German forces had been diverted from opposing VIII Corps advance and the fall of Rauray denied the Germans an important observation point , although they remained in control of an area of high ground to the south .
Epsom was resumed at 0445 by the 10th Battalion , Highland Light Infantry of the 227 ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade . With support from Churchill tanks ; the battalion intended to make a bid for the Odon crossing at Gavrus . The Highlanders immediately ran into stiff opposition from elements of the 12th SS Panzer Division and despite heavy artillery support were unable to advance all day . Casualties were heavy on both sides . At 0730 the 2nd Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , also of the 227th Highland Brigade , launched an attack aimed at capturing the Odon crossing at Tourmauville , north @-@ west of the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon . With the German forces engaged by the Highland Light Infantry , the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders supported by the 23rd Hussars , were able to advance to Colleville with relative ease . There the small German garrison supported by 88 mm guns , inflicted heavy casualties upon the British and denied them the village until the afternoon . The battalion seized the bridge at Tourmauville at around 1700 and a bridgehead was established . By 1900 , two depleted squadrons of the 23rd Hussars and a company of the 8th Battalion , Rifle Brigade ( Prince Consort 's Own ) had crossed the Odon into the bridgehead .
The remainder of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division around Cheux and Sainte Manvieu , was being relieved by the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division . When the 5th Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , of the 214th Infantry Brigade , moved into the outskirts of Cheux , they found that the Scottish infantry had moved on and the vacant position had been reoccupied by grenadiers of 12th SS Panzer Division . After battling to recapture the position , at 0930 the battalion was counter @-@ attacked by six Panthers of the 2nd Panzer Division . The attack penetrated Cheux and several British anti @-@ tank guns were destroyed before it was beaten off . Further attacks by the 2nd Panzer Division were halted but the entire front was " a mass of small engagements " . For the rest of the morning and afternoon , the Scottish infantry and the 4th and 29th Armoured brigades expanded the salient north of the Odon and secured the rear of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders . During late evening the men of the 159th Infantry Brigade ( 11th Armoured Division ) were transported in trucks through the narrow " Scottish Corridor " to Tourville , where they dismounted and crossed the Odon on foot to reinforce the bridgehead . During the night Kampfgruppe Weidinger , a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong battle group from the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrived at the front and was placed under the command of the Panzer Lehr Division .
= = = 28 June = = =
During the early hours of 28 June , a battle group of the 1st SS Panzer Division , Kampfgruppe Frey , arrived at the front and was placed under the command of the 12th SS Panzer Division . At 0810 , General Friedrich Dollmann , the 7th Army commander , ordered SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Paul Hausser to divert the II SS Panzer Corps , to counter @-@ attack south of Cheux . Hausser replied that no counter @-@ attack could be launched until the following day , as so many of his units had yet to reach the front . The German command was thrown into disarray by Dollmann 's sudden death , when Rommel and Gerd von Rundstedt ( OB West ) were en route to a conference with Hitler and out of touch with the situation . It was not until 1500 that Hausser was appointed commander of the 7th Army , with Willi Bittrich replacing him as commander of II SS Panzer Corps . ( Hausser was advised to retain control of the Corps until the following morning . ) Pending the return of Rommel to Normandy , Hausser was also to be supreme commander in the invasion area . At 1700 the command structure was changed again ; the 7th Army under Hausser would be responsible for the invasion front facing the American army , while the Panzer Group West ( General Geyr von Schweppenburg ) was to be responsible for the invasion front facing the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces .
At 0530 elements of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division with tank support , launched a new assault to capture the village of Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon . After shelling and close quarter street fighting , the Scots secured the village by 1300 hours ; German counter @-@ attacks followed but were repulsed . At 0600 the Germans began two strong flanking attacks , with the intention of pinching out the British salient . Kampfgruppe Frey on the eastern flank , launched an attack north of the Odon , supported by Panzer IVs of the 21st Panzer Division . This reached the villages of Mouen and Tourville but the British counter @-@ attacked from the direction of Cheux , resulting in confused heavy fighting throughout the day . Frey 's battle group managed to gain control of Mouen and British counter @-@ attacks supported by tanks halted any further advance but were unable to retake the village . British patrols found Marcelet partly empty , the German front line having been pulled back towards Carpiquet .
On the western flank , Kampfgruppe Weidinger supported by Panthers , tried to recapture Brettevillette , Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and ultimately Mondrainville . The British defenders ( Brettevillette and on Point 110 : the 1st Battalion Tyneside Scottish , 11th Battalion Durham Light Infantry ( 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division ) and 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards ( 8th Armoured Brigade ) . In Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and le Valtru : 7th Battalion Seaforth Highlanders , 9th Battalion Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) and 9th Royal Tank Regiment . ) held their positions , launching local counter @-@ attacks to retake lost ground and eventually the German offensive was stopped , within 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) of linking up with the lead elements of Kampfgruppe Frey .
South of the Odon , at 0900 the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders advanced out of the bridgehead , to capture a bridge north of the village of Gavrus . Heavy fighting took place into the afternoon before both village and bridge were in Scottish hands . Infantry from the 11th Armoured Division , expanded the bridgehead by taking the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon and the 23rd Hussars with infantry advanced on Hill 112 ( 49 ° 7 ′ 7 ″ N 0 ° 27 ′ 34 ″ W ) . Having secured its northern slope and dislodged the defenders from its crest , they were unable to advance further , due to the Germans dug in on the reverse slope . Several counter @-@ attacks were launched by 12th SS Panzer and the battered Hussars were relieved at 1500 by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment but neither side was able to take complete control of the hill . The 11th Armoured Division had lost nearly 40 tanks on its slopes by the end of the day and was surrounded on three sides but troops managed to reach and reinforce the position .
= = = 29 June = = =
With the weather improving over the United Kingdom and Normandy , Hausser 's preparations for his counter stroke came under continual harassment from Allied aircraft and artillery fire , delaying the start of the attack to the afternoon . From the number of German reinforcements arriving in the VIII Corps sector and aerial reconnaissance , O 'Connor suspected that the Germans were organising a counter @-@ stroke . XXX Corps was still some way to the north , leaving the VIII Corps right flank vulnerable , O 'Connor postponed attacks by I Corps and ordered VIII Corps onto the defensive . Dempsey , privy to ULTRA decrypts of intercepted German signal traffic , knew the counter @-@ attack was coming and approved O 'Connor 's precautions . VIII Corps began to reorganise to meet the attack . Supply echelons for Hausser 's divisions were located in the Évrecy – Noyers @-@ Bocage – Villers @-@ Bocage area and were the focus of RAF fighter @-@ bomber attention throughout the morning and early afternoon ; the RAF claimed the destruction of over 200 vehicles .
VIII Corps also launched spoiling attacks , at 0800 1st Battalion Worcestershire Regiment , from the 43rd Division , assaulted Mouen , without tanks behind an artillery barrage . By 1100 the battalion had forced the 1st SS Panzer Division panzergrenadiers back and the 7th Battalion Somerset Light Infantry moved up and dug in on the Caen – Villers @-@ Bocage road . The 129th Brigade of the 43rd Division , swept the woods and orchards around Tourville @-@ sur @-@ Odon , before crossing the river north of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon and clearing the south bank . An attempt by the 44th Brigade of the 15th Division to advance towards the Odon and link up with the force holding the Gavrus bridges failed , leaving this position isolated and in the salient the 44th Battalion Royal Tank Regiment failed to capture Hill 113 ( 49 ° 6 ′ 14 ″ N 0 ° 30 ′ 45 ″ W ) north of Évrecy , after clashing with 10th SS Panzer Division and losing six tanks . Elements of the 11th Armoured Division attacked Esquay @-@ Notre @-@ Dame west of Hill 112 but were repulsed and an attack by the 8th Rifle Brigade and the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment on the southern slope of the hill , drove the Germans from the position .
Hausser intended that the 9th SS Panzer Division , with Kampfgruppe Weidinger protecting its left flank , to cut across the British salient north of the Odon , while the 10th SS Panzer Division retook Gavrus and Hill 112 south of the river . The 9th SS Panzer attack began at 1400 , heavily supported by artillery . The 19th and 20th SS Panzergrenadier Regiments supported by Panthers , Panzer IV 's and assault guns attacked Grainville , le Haut du Bosq and le Valtru , aiming for Cheux . A British company was overrun and tanks and infantry penetrated le Valtru , where anti @-@ tank guns knocked out four German tanks in the village and artillery fire forced their supporting infantry to withdraw . Confused fighting , at times hand @-@ to @-@ hand , took place outside Grainville and the Panzergrenadiers captured a tactically important wood , before being forced back by a British counter @-@ attack . The Panzergrenadiers claimed they also captured Grainville but no British sources support this and by nightfall British infantry were in control of the village .
At around 1600 , the British captured an officer of the 9th SS Panzer Division who was conducting a reconnaissance . He was found to be carrying a map and notebook containing details of new attacks . Around 1830 , the Germans attacked the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division on the right flank . One unit was being relieved and in the confusion , German tanks and infantry slipped through the British defences , with some units advancing 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before running into heavy resistance . By 2300 , the attack by the 9th SS Panzer had been stopped . Supporting attacks against the British eastern flank had been planned but German tank concentrations assembling in the Carpiquet area , had been so severely disrupted by RAF fighter @-@ bombers during the afternoon , that the attacks never materialised .
The 10th SS Panzer Division launched its attack behind schedule at 1430 . Following clashes earlier in the day the British were waiting but after five hours of battle , the Scottish infantry defending Gavrus had been pushed back into a pocket around the bridge , north of the village . An artillery bombardment caused the Germans to withdraw but the British did not reoccupy the village . Moving towards Hill 113 , the 2nd Grenadier Battalion , Panzergrenadier Regiment 21 and 2nd Battalion , Panzer Regiment 10 of 10th SS Panzer ran into the 44th Battalion The Royal Tank Regiment and 2nd Battalion ( The King 's Royal Rifle Corps ) in Évrecy , who thwarted their attempt to occupy the hill . Dealing with this obstacle took the remainder of the day and the attack on Hill 112 was postponed . The Germans claimed the destruction of 28 tanks while the British recorded the loss of 12 .
Believing the German attacks on 29 June indicated more counter @-@ attacks for the following day , Dempsey reinforced the Odon bridgehead with a brigade of the 43rd division and pulled in its perimeter . The 159th Infantry Brigade of the 11th Armoured Division was placed under the command of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division and acceding to O ’ Connor ’ s wishes for additional infantry , Dempsey attached the newly arrived 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division to VIII Corps ; the lead brigade arrived near the Epsom start line during the night . To hold Hill 112 , it was necessary hold Évrecy and Hill 113 for which there were insufficient troops and Dempsey ordered the 29th Armoured Brigade to abandon the hill . To hold the area between Rauray and the Odon , Dempsey withdrew the 29th Armoured Brigade north across the river after dark , ready for the expected German offensive .
= = = 30 June = = =
Bittrich ordered a resumption of the offensive during the night of 29 – 30 June , hoping to avoid Allied air support . The 19th and 20th Regiments of the 9th SS Panzer Division , renewed their attacks against Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and le Valtru in the dark but little progress was made against the 11th Armoured Division north of the Odon and heavy British artillery bombardments . At 0120 , the 10th SS Panzer Division started to move towards Hill 112 and at dawn , covered by a heavy artillery barrage they assaulted the vacated British positions . Unaware that the British had pulled back , Panzergrenadiers and tanks of the 10th SS Panzer advanced on the hill from the south and south @-@ west and infantry from 12th SS Panzer attacked from the east and south @-@ east . Meeting no opposition , by noon the Germans had occupied the hill . A British counter @-@ attack and artillery fire broke up a follow @-@ up attack towards Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon .
Bittrich called off further offensive action against VIII Corps . In the evening Hausser , commanding the 7th Army , informed Rommel 's headquarters that his counter @-@ attacks had been temporarily suspended due to " tenacious enemy resistance " and intensive Allied artillery and naval gunfire . Unaware of this and believing that more German attacks would follow , Dempsey closed down Operation Epsom . The front gradually settled down save for skirmishing , although both sides spent the remainder of the day heavily shelling one another . The battleship HMS Rodney contributed by bombarding villages suspected of containing German headquarters ; one was later found to have housed the headquarters of the I SS Panzer Corps . With no further British offensive moves due , in the afternoon the Gavrus bridges were given up , the Scottish defenders being withdrawn across the Odon . At 2030 the town of Villers @-@ Bocage , a vital traffic centre for the German forces , was destroyed by 250 RAF heavy bombers . It had been intended to catch German troops by the bombing but only French civilians were present .
= = = 1 July = = =
The II SS Panzer Corps resumed its counter offensive on 1 July , after spending most of the preceding 24 hours regrouping . Unaware that the British had ended their operation and with overcast weather interfering with Allied air support , Bittrich believed he had an opportunity to prevent the 11th Armoured Division continuing its advance across the Orne . Before dawn the 10th SS Panzer Division advanced , supported by heavy mortar and artillery fire . The Germans took the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon quickly but a counter @-@ attack by the 31st Tank Brigade retook it by noon . Heavy shelling broke up other attacks by 10th SS Panzer from Hill 112 and British patrols later found c . 300 – 400 dead Panzergrenadiers on the northern slope of the hill .
The 9th SS Panzer Division spent the day attempting to force the British lines between Rauray and the Odon . Supplemented by Panzergrenadiers of the 2nd SS Panzer Division and following a preliminary bombardment , tanks and infantry of 9th SS Panzer advanced behind a smoke screen and broke through the outer British defences . The Germans were stopped by secondary positions in front of Rauray and on high ground to the south @-@ east , although some troops penetrated as far as Haut du Bosq . Further German attacks throughout the day , were met with intense artillery fire and made no progress , in the early evening a British counter @-@ attack with Sherman and flame @-@ throwing Churchill Crocodile tanks restored the original front line . The attacks were costly for both sides , thirty German tanks were claimed destroyed , mostly by the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , troops of the 12th SS Panzer Division had been repulsed during the morning and artillery fire halted attacks from other formations .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
Having had to commit his last
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1918 – 19 . Later , her crew joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of 1921 and she was renamed Marat after the rebellion was crushed .
Marat was reconstructed from 1928 to 1931 and represented the Soviet Union at the Coronation Naval Review at Spithead in 1937 . Two years later , she bombarded a Finnish coastal artillery position during the Winter War once before the Gulf of Finland iced up . Shortly afterwards , her anti @-@ aircraft armament was upgraded . When the Germans invaded on 22 June 1941 she was in Kronstadt and provided gunfire support to Soviet troops in September as the Germans approached Leningrad . Later that month she had her bow blown off and sank in shallow water after two hits by 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bombs that detonated her forward magazine . She was refloated several months later and became a stationary battery , providing gunfire support during the Siege of Leningrad . Plans were made to reconstruct her after the war , using the bow of her sister Frunze , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled in 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov , after the nearby river , in 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken in 1953 and broken up afterwards .
= = Design = =
Petropavlovsk was 180 meters ( 590 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft 6 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 ft 7 in ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 408 long tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 476 long tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ) .
Petropavlovsk 's machinery was built by the Baltic Works . Four Parsons @-@ type steam turbine sets drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving each of the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during her sister Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 711 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that superfiring turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire and believed that superfiring turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She was completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube .
= = Service = =
Petropavlovsk was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Her keel was laid down on 16 June 1909 and she was launched on 22 September 1911 . She entered service on 5 January 1915 , six months after the start of World War I , when she reached Helsingfors and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . Petropavlovsk and her sister Gangut provided distant cover for minelaying operations on 10 – 11 November and 6 December 1915 . She saw no action of any kind during 1916 . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have their ships interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Petropavlovsk and her sisters led the first group of ships on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the " Ice Voyage " .
Petropavlovsk was the only operable dreadnought belonging to the Soviets and provided cover to smaller ships on raiding missions . On 31 May 1919 she fired in support of the Russian destroyer Azard and several minesweepers that had taken the bait laid by the British forces supporting the White Russians . The British destroyer HMS Walker appeared to be operating alone and the Soviets sortied to attack her , but a number of other British destroyers were positioned to sweep in behind the Soviets . Azard retreated at full speed and Petropavlovsk opened fire on Walker at about 14 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 802 m ) . She hit Walker twice , inflicting only minor damage and wounding two sailors , and the British destroyers eventually disengaged when they got too close to Soviet coastal artillery and minefields . A few days later Petropavlovsk and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Andrei Pervozvanny bombarded Fort Krasnaya Gorka whose garrison had mutinied against the Bolsheviks . She fired no fewer than 568 12 @-@ inch shells and the garrison surrendered on 17 June when Leon Trotsky promised them their lives , only to subsequently order them machine @-@ gunned . On 17 August 1919 Petropavlovsk was claimed as torpedoed and put out of action by the British Coastal Motor Boat CMB 88 during a night attack in Kronstadt harbor , but was , in fact , not damaged at all . The crew of Petropavlovsk joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of March 1921 . After it was bloodily crushed she was renamed Marat to honor the French revolutionary leader Jean @-@ Paul Marat on 31 March 1921 . By 1922 her primary rangefinder had been moved to a platform on the foremast and she mounted three 3 @-@ inch " Lender " AA guns each on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets .
Marat was partially reconstructed between the fall of 1928 and 8 April 1931 at the Baltic Works . The most obvious external change was a much more elaborate forward superstructure needed to house new fire control instruments . A KDP @-@ 6 fire control director , with two 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) Zeiss rangefinders , was positioned at the top of the tubular foremast . An 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) Zeiss rangefinder was also added on the rear superstructure . The top of the forward funnel was lengthened by about 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) and angled backwards in an attempt to keep the exhaust gases away from the control and gunnery spaces . A derrick was added to the mainmast to handle a KR @-@ 1 flying boat imported from Germany that was stored above the third turret . No aircraft catapult was fitted so the aircraft had to take off and land on the water . A forecastle was added to the bow , which was also given much more sheer and flare to improve her sea @-@ keeping abilities . Her turrets were overhauled , her guns replaced and new 8 @-@ meter rangefinders were installed on every turret . Her boilers were converted to only burn fuel oil and the more powerful boilers allowed the forward three boilers to be removed . The space freed up was used for anti @-@ aircraft ammunition and various control spaces . The cruising turbines were also removed which simplified the ship 's machinery at a small cost in power . These changes increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 170 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 757 long tons ) at full load and her overall length to 184 meters ( 604 ft ) . Her metacentric height increased to 1 @.@ 93 meters ( 6 ft 4 in ) from her designed 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) mainly because she now carried much of her fuel in her double bottom rather than in coal bunkers high on the sides of the ship . More weight was added to her before World War II , including an increase in the thickness of her turret roofs to 152 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , that decreased her metacentric height to only 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) . This was unsatisfactory and plans were made to reconstruct her again , but they were cancelled when the Germans attacked in 1941 .
Marat took part in the 1937 Coronation Review in Britain . Her participation in the Winter War was minimal as she bombarded Finnish 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) coast defense guns one time at Saarenpää in the Beryozovye Islands with 133 high explosive shells before the Gulf of Finland iced over . In early 1940 her anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced . She exchanged her elderly 3 @-@ inch " Lender " guns for modern 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns and two twin 76 @.@ 2 mm 81 @-@ K mounts were mounted on her quarter deck . The magazines for these guns were situated in the rearmost casemates on each beam , which lost their 120 mm guns . At some point six automatic 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns were also added . These additions boosted her displacement to 26 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 278 long tons ) at full load . She sailed to Tallinn shortly after the Soviets occupied Estonia , although she returned to Kronstadt on 20 June 1941 , two days before the German invasion of Russia began . Marat opened fire on troop positions of the German 18th Army from the Leningrad Sea Canal on 8 September . She was lightly damaged by German 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on 16 September .
She was sunk at her moorings on 23 September 1941 by two near @-@ simultaneous hits by 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bombs near the forward superstructure . They caused the explosion of the forward magazine which heaved the turret up , blew the superstructure and forward funnel over to starboard and demolished the forward part of the hull from frames 20 to 57 . 326 men were killed and the ship gradually settled to the bottom in 11 meters ( 36 ft ) of water . Her sinking is commonly credited to the Stuka pilot Oberleutnant Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel of III . / StG 2 , but Rudel dropped only one of the two bombs . The rear part of the ship was later refloated and she was used as a floating battery although all of her 120 mm guns were removed . Initially only the two rearmost turrets were operable , but the second turret was repaired by the autumn of 1942 . She fired a total of 1 @,@ 971 twelve @-@ inch shells during the Siege of Leningrad . In December 1941 granite slabs 40 – 60 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick from the nearby harbor walls were laid on her decks to reinforce her deck protection . Another transverse bulkhead was built behind frame 57 and the space between them was filled with concrete to prevent her sinking if the original bulkhead was ruptured .
She resumed her original name on 31 May 1943 . After the war there were several plans to reconstruct her , using the bow of the Frunze , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled on 29 June 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov , after the nearby river , on 28 November 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken on 4 September 1953 . The ship was subsequently broken up .
= José María Caro Martínez =
José María Caro Martínez ( Spanish pronunciation : [ xoˈse maˈɾia ˈkaɾo maɾˈtineθ ] ; 1830 – 11 November 1916 ) was a Chilean politician and civil servant . In May 1894 , he was unanimously elected as the first mayor of the commune of Pichilemu , along with Pedro Nolasco de Mira , and Francisco Reyes , who were respectively elected as segundo and tercer alcalde ( second and third magistrate ) . Caro Martínez had previously served for several years as llavero ( administrator ) of the San Antonio de Petrel hacienda , and between 1891 and 1892 was the Subdelegate of the 13th Subdelegation of San Fernando Department , which comprised the district of Cáhuil .
The eleven @-@ year mayorship of Caro Martínez , which lasted from 1894 and 1905 , was qualified by journalist and local historian José Arraño Acevedo as " the most fruitful " in the history of the commune . In his four terms , Caro Martínez constructed roads that connected Pichilemu with San Fernando , capital of the department of the same name , and founded several schools in Pichilemu and parts of current Marchigüe .
He resigned in May 1905 and completed his fourth mayoral term as a segundo alcalde . As a mayor , he was succeeded by Francisco Javier Asalgado , who held the office for two non @-@ consecutive terms . Caro Martínez was the father of José María Caro Rodríguez , the first Chilean Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church , Francisco Adriano Caro Rodríguez , who was regidor of Pichilemu for several terms between 1906 and December 1925 , when he became the 8th Mayor of Pichilemu following the resignation of Luis Barahona Fornés , and Pedro Pablo Caro Rodríguez , a lawyer from the University of Chile , who served as acting judge in several Chilean cities .
= = Early life = =
José María Caro Martínez was born in San Antonio de Petrel , in current Pichilemu , Region of O 'Higgins , to Pedro Pascual Caro Gaete and Cayetana Martínez Ríos , in 1830 . The exact birth date is unknown , since all the books of the parish of Ciruelos with baptism records between 1830 and 1834 were burnt in a fire . The Caro Martínez family , of " devout Catholics " , is described as having a " profound Christian faith , " with their members " complying with unblemished devotion their Christian duties . " Since he was a child , Caro shaped his personality on the " fulfillment of his duties " ; according to a 1944 article from the Pichilemu newspaper , " his personality became even more robust in his youth as he faced an accident whose consequences stood by him until his death . "
Like his father , he dedicated his life to agricultural activities , and " managed to raise a small fortune . " Caro served for several years as administrator ( llavero ) of the hacienda of San Antonio de Petrel , property of José Vicente Ortúzar Formas . During his administration of San Antonio de Petrel , the hacienda was " rich " , as it " possessed 1 @,@ 500 cows , [ ... ] and produced yearly 15 thousand sacks of wheat , each of 100 kilograms . "
Caro Martínez and his family lived in the Petrel area until the 1880s , when they moved to nearby village Quebrada del Nuevo Reino ; he lived there until his death . Caro Martínez became an active member of the parish of Ciruelos . According to journalist José Arraño Acevedo , the archives of the Archiepiscopate of Santiago — which are published yearly — show he was elected as a steward of the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament for the years of 1888 , 1890 , 1892 , and 1900 .
= = Political career = =
Caro Martínez was a member of the Conservative Party of Chile , and was appointed by the party 's leaders as the perpetual president of the party 's seat in the commune of Pichilemu . In 1891 , he was appointed by President Jorge Montt Álvarez as subdelegate of the 13th Subdelegation of San Fernando Department , which comprised the district of Cáhuil , territory of the current commune of Pichilemu . He held the position until 1892 , and was succeeded by José Domingo Fuenzalida .
Also in 1891 , on 21 December , the commune of Pichilemu was created by the Autonomous Commune Law ( Spanish : Ley de Comuna Autónoma ) , written by Ministry of the Interior Manuel José Irarrázabal Larraín . The new commune comprised the districts of Cáhuil , Peñablanca , and Cocauquén . It was one of the most extensive communes of the department of San Fernando . However , the local government was yet to be established .
On 21 March 1894 , a preparatory meeting was held to create a Junta Calificadora de Poderes — an organisation that would be in charge of the elections . Caro Martínez was elected president of the Junta Calificadora in the meeting . Later that year , on 6 May , the first municipal meeting ( sesión municipal ) was held . During the meeting , Caro Martínez , aged 64 , was unanimously elected as the first Mayor of Pichilemu since its creation as a commune . Pedro Nolasco de Mira , and Francisco Reyes were elected as segundo , and tercer alcalde , respectively , and Francisco Cerón , José Leonardo Lizana , Ceferino Rosales , Benjamín Calderón , and Francisco León as regidores .
Immediately after his election , Caro Martínez created the local police force ( Cuerpo de Policía Local ) . He also constructed roads all over the commune of Pichilemu , with special attention to those that would connect Pichilemu with the central area of the department of San Fernando , specifically the commune of San Fernando , and Santiago , the capital of Chile . As part of this project , he constructed a bridge over the Petrel Lake , known as the Puente Negro ( Black Bridge ) , and another in Cáhuil , connecting that town with its saltworks . He also founded several schools in the Pichilemu area , which only had one , located in Ciruelos . Those include the schools of Yerbas Buenas , Las Garzas , Trinidad , Molineros , Peñablanca , all in the current territory of the commune of Marchigüe , and one in central Pichilemu .
Other works during Caro Martínez 's mayorship include the grant of 1 @,@ 300 Chilean pesos for the design of plans for the construction of the railway from Alcones to Pichilemu , and the installation of a water tank , located in the house of municipal secretary Albino Pulgar . Additionally , the government of Caro Martínez determined the urban limits of the commune of Pichilemu , gave help to victims of heavy rainstorms that hit the area in the time , brought Carabineros forces to " scare away " bandits from the local farms , and made repairs to the roads of Marchigüe , Trinidad , Molineros , and Peñablanca .
Caro Martínez was re @-@ elected mayor ( primer alcalde ) of Pichilemu in 1897 , 1900 , and 1903 . On 7 May 1905 , just one year before his fourth term expired , he decided to resign to the primer alcalde office , and took a position as segundo alcalde of Pichilemu until 1906 . Following his resignation , Francisco Javier Asalgado became the mayor , and held the office between that year and 1909 , and again in 1912 , but only for less than a month .
His mayorship was described by historian José Arraño Acevedo as " the most fruitful [ ... ] in the municipal life of Pichilemu . " Caro Martínez was described by Virgilio Figueroa , biographer of his son José María Caro Rodríguez , as " an individual with public spirit and leadership skills . " According to Washington Saldías in an article published in Pichilemu News , Caro Martínez 's mayorship has been the longest in the history of Pichilemu .
= = Later life , death , and legacy = =
According to José Arraño Acevedo 's 1980 article " José María Caro Martínez , Primer Alcalde de Pichilemu " , following his retirement from politics in 1906 , Caro Martínez " stayed watchful to everything that was being done in favour of the commune he led so aptly . " He appears as a subscriber of El Puerto , the first newspaper published in Pichilemu , which only printed three editions . In the first edition of the newspaper , dated 16 January 1908 , an article states that José María Caro Martínez and Exequiel Fernández were awarded 200 pesos in a raffle held on the previous day in the headquarters of the La Unión newspaper , in Santiago .
In late September – early October 1916 , he became ill with an unspecified disease , which forty days later , in the night of that 11 November , " won against his strong physique " and provoked his death at age 86 . Caro was subsequently cremated and is buried with his wife Rita , who died at age 97 on 7 August 1931 , in a mausoleum constructed by their son José María , located at the churchyard of Ciruelos .
Almost eighty years after his death , in December 1991 , the government of Mayor René Maturana Maldonado decreed , as part of the celebrations of the centennial of the commune 's creation , the renaming of several streets of the commune whose original names " caused confusion because they were repeated in other streets " , to new names of " relevant people of the [ local ] history . " As a result , J. M. Caro street ( Calle J. M. Caro ) in the Pavez Polanco neighborhood was renamed to Alcalde Caro Martínez street ( Calle Alcalde Caro Martínez ) in honour of the commune 's first mayor .
= = Family = =
Caro Martínez married Rita Rodríguez Cornejo ( 1833 – 1931 ) on 20 February 1860 at the chapel of San Antonio de Petrel . The couple had nine children , all born in San Antonio de Petrel : Rita , Cristina , Petronila , José María , Pedro Pascual , Francisco Adriano , Pedro Pablo , Cayetana , and Rosa .
José María ( 1866 – 1958 ) became a Catholic priest ; he served as Archbishop of Santiago from 1939 until his death , and in 1946 he became the first Chilean Cardinal of the Church . Francisco Adriano became , like his father , involved in politics , serving for several terms as regidor of the commune of Pichilemu between 1906 and 24 December 1925 , when he became the 8th Mayor of Pichilemu , following the resignation of Luis Antonio Barahona Fornés to run for a deputy seat . Francisco held the office until 22 May 1927 , when President Carlos Ibáñez del Campo appointed Evaristo Merino as mayor of Pichilemu . Pedro Pablo ( 1875 – 1959 ) was a University of Chile lawyer , who served as acting judge in Castro , Cachapoal ( Peumo ) , amid others ; Pedro Pablo also served as secretary and treasurer of the commune of Buin .
= The King and I =
The King and I is a musical , the fifth by the team of composer Richard Rodgers and dramatist Oscar Hammerstein II . It is based on the 1944 novel Anna and the King of Siam by Margaret Landon , which is in turn derived from the memoirs of Anna Leonowens , governess to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the early 1860s . The musical 's plot relates the experiences of Anna , a British schoolteacher hired as part of the King 's drive to modernize his country . The relationship between the King and Anna is marked by conflict through much of the piece , as well as by a love that neither can admit . The musical premiered on March 29 , 1951 , at Broadway 's St. James Theatre . It ran nearly three years , then the fourth longest @-@ running Broadway musical in history , and has had many tours and revivals .
In 1950 , theatrical attorney Fanny Holtzmann was looking for a part for her client , veteran leading lady Gertrude Lawrence . Holtzmann realized that Landon 's book would provide an ideal vehicle and contacted Rodgers and Hammerstein , who were initially reluctant but agreed to write the musical . The pair initially sought Rex Harrison to play the supporting part of the King , a role that he had played in the 1946 film made from Landon 's book , but he was unavailable . They settled on the young actor and television director Yul Brynner .
The musical was an immediate hit , winning Tony Awards for Best Musical , Best Actress ( for Lawrence ) and Best Featured Actor ( for Brynner ) . Lawrence died unexpectedly of cancer a year and a half after the opening , and the role of Anna was played by several actresses during the remainder of the Broadway run of 1 @,@ 246 performances . A hit London run and U.S. national tour followed , together with a 1956 film for which Brynner won an Academy Award , and the musical was recorded several times . In later revivals , Brynner came to dominate his role and the musical , starring in a four @-@ year national tour culminating in a 1985 Broadway run shortly before his death .
Christopher Renshaw directed major revivals on Broadway ( 1996 ) , winning the Tony Award for Best Revival , and in the West End ( 2000 ) . A 2015 Broadway revival won another Tony for Best Revival . Both professional and amateur revivals of The King and I continue to be staged regularly throughout the English @-@ speaking world .
= = Historical background = =
Mongkut , King of Siam , was about 57 years old in 1861 . He had lived half his life as a Buddhist monk and was an able scholar , founding a new order of Buddhism and a temple in Bangkok ( paid for by his half @-@ brother , King Nangklao ) . Through his decades of devotion , Mongkut acquired an ascetic lifestyle and a firm grasp of Western languages . When Nangklao died in 1850 , Mongkut became king . At that time , various European countries were striving for dominance , and American traders sought greater influence , in Southeast Asia . He ultimately succeeded in keeping Siam an independent nation , partly by familiarizing his heirs and harem with Western ways .
In 1861 , Mongkut wrote to his Singapore agent , Tan Kim Ching , asking him to find a British lady to be governess to the royal children . At the time , the British community in Singapore was small , and the choice fell on a recent arrival there , Anna Leonowens ( 1831 – 1915 ) , who was running a small nursery school in the colony . Leonowens was the Anglo @-@ Indian daughter of an Indian Army soldier and the widow of Thomas Owens , a clerk and hotel keeper . She had arrived in Singapore two years previously , claiming to be the genteel widow of an officer and explaining her dark complexion by stating that she was Welsh by birth . Her deception was not detected until long after her death , and had still not come to light when The King and I was written .
Upon receiving the King 's invitation , Leonowens sent her daughter , Avis , to school in England , to give Avis the social advantage of a prestigious British education , and traveled to Bangkok with her five @-@ year @-@ old son , Louis . King Mongkut had sought a Briton to teach his children and wives after trying local missionaries , who used the opportunity to proselytize . Leonowens initially asked for $ 150 in Singapore currency per month . Another request by Leonowens , that she live in or near the missionary community to ensure she was not deprived of Western company , aroused suspicion in Mongkut , who cautioned in a letter , " we need not have teacher of Christianity as they are abundant here " . King Mongkut and Leonowens came to an agreement : $ 100 per month and a residence near the royal palace . At a time when most transport in Bangkok was by boat , Mongkut did not wish to have to arrange for the teacher to get to work every day . Leonowens and Louis temporarily lived as guests of Mongkut 's prime minister , and after the first house offered was found to be unsuitable , the family moved into a brick residence ( wooden structures decayed quickly in Bangkok 's climate ) within walking distance of the palace .
In 1867 , Leonowens left Bangkok on a six @-@ month leave of absence to visit her daughter Avis in England , intending to deposit Louis at a school in Ireland and return to Siam with Avis . However , due to unexpected delays and opportunities for further travel , Leonowens was still abroad in late 1868 , when Mongkut fell ill and died . Leonowens did not return to Siam , although she continued to correspond with her former pupil , the new king Chulalongkorn .
= = Creation = =
In 1950 , British actress Gertrude Lawrence 's business manager and attorney , Fanny Holtzmann , was looking for a new vehicle for her client when the 1944 Margaret Landon novel Anna and the King of Siam ( a fictionalized version of Leonowens ' experiences ) was sent to her by Landon 's agent . According to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest , Holtzmann was worried that Lawrence 's career was fading . The 51 @-@ year @-@ old actress had appeared only in plays , not in musicals , since Lady in the Dark closed in 1943 . Holtzmann agreed that a musical based on Anna and the King of Siam would be ideal for her client , who purchased the rights to adapt the novel for the stage .
Holtzmann initially wanted Cole Porter to write the score , but he declined . She was going to approach Noël Coward next , but happened to meet Dorothy Hammerstein ( Oscar 's wife ) in Manhattan . Holtzmann told Dorothy Hammerstein that she wanted Rodgers and Hammerstein to create a show for Lawrence , and asked her to see that her husband read a book that Holtzmann would send over . In fact , both Dorothy Rodgers and Dorothy Hammerstein had read the novel in 1944 and had urged their husbands to consider it as a possible subject for a musical . Dorothy Hammerstein had known Gertrude Lawrence since 1925 , when they had both appeared in André Charlot 's London Revue of 1924 on Broadway and on tour in North America .
Rodgers and Hammerstein had disliked Landon 's novel as a basis for a musical when it was published , and their views still held . It consists of vignettes of life at the Siamese court , interspersed with descriptions of historical events unconnected with each other , except that the King creates most of the difficulties in the episodes , and Anna tries to resolve them . Rodgers and Hammerstein could see no coherent story from which a musical could be made until they saw the 1946 film adaptation , starring Irene Dunne and Rex Harrison , and how the screenplay united the episodes in the novel . Rodgers and Hammerstein were also concerned about writing a star vehicle . They had preferred to make stars rather than hire them , and engaging the legendary Gertrude Lawrence would be expensive . Lawrence 's voice was also a worry : her limited vocal range was diminishing with the years , while her tendency to sing flat was increasing . Lawrence 's temperament was another concern : though she could not sing like one , the star was known to be capable of diva @-@ like behavior . In spite of this , they admired her acting – what Hammerstein called her " magic light " , a compelling presence on stage – and agreed to write the show . For her part , Lawrence committed to remaining in the show until June 1 , 1953 , and waived the star 's usual veto rights over cast and director , leaving control in the hands of the two authors .
Hammerstein found his " door in " to the play in Landon 's account of a slave in Siam writing about Abraham Lincoln . This would eventually become the narrated dance , " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " . Since a frank expression of romantic feelings between the King and Anna would be inappropriate in view of both parties ' upbringing and prevailing social mores , Hammerstein wrote love scenes for a secondary couple , Tuptim , a junior wife of the King , and Lun Tha , a scholar . In the Landon work , the relationship is between Tuptim and a priest , and is not romantic . The musical 's most radical change from the novel was to have the King die at the end of the play . Also , since Lawrence was not primarily a singer , the secondary couple gave Rodgers a chance to write his usual " soaring " romantic melodies . In an interview for The New York Times , Hammerstein indicated that he wrote the first scene before leaving for London and the West End production of Carousel in mid @-@ 1950 ; he wrote a second scene while in the British capital .
The pair had to overcome the challenge of how to represent Thai speech and music . Rodgers , who had experimented with Asian music in his short @-@ lived 1928 musical with Lorenz Hart titled Chee @-@ chee , did not wish to use actual Thai music , which American audiences might not find accessible . Instead , he gave his music an exotic flavor , using open fifths and chords in unusual keys , in ways pleasant to Western ears . Hammerstein faced the problem of how to represent Thai speech ; he and Rodgers chose to convey it by musical sounds , made by the orchestra . For the King 's style of speech , Hammerstein developed an abrupt , emphatic way of talking , which was mostly free of articles , as are many East Asian languages . The forceful style reflected the King 's personality and was maintained even when he sang , especially in his one solo , " A Puzzlement " . Many of the King 's lines , including his first utterance , " Who ? Who ? Who ? " , and much of the initial scene between him and Anna , are drawn from Landon 's version . Nevertheless , the King is presented more sympathetically in the musical than in the novel or the 1946 film , as the musical omits the torture and burning at the stake of Lady Tuptim and her partner .
With Rodgers laid up with back trouble , Hammerstein completed most of the musical 's book before many songs were set to music . Early on , Hammerstein contacted set designer Jo Mielziner and costume designer Irene Sharaff and asked them to begin work in coordination with each other . Sharaff communicated with Jim Thompson , an American who had revived the Thai silk industry after World War II . Thompson sent Sharaff samples of silk cloth from Thailand and pictures of local dress from the mid @-@ 19th century . One such picture , of a Thai woman in western dress , inspired the song " Western People Funny " , sung by the King 's chief wife , Lady Thiang , while dressed in western garb .
Producer Leland Hayward , who had worked with the duo on South Pacific , approached Jerome Robbins to choreograph a ballet for " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " . Robbins was very enthusiastic about the project and asked to choreograph the other musical numbers as well , although Rodgers and Hammerstein had originally planned little other dancing . Robbins staged " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " as an intimate performance , rather than a large production number . His choreography for the parade of the King 's children to meet their teacher ( " March of the Royal Siamese Children " ) drew great acclaim . Robert Russell Bennett provided the orchestrations , and Trude Rittmann arranged the ballet music .
The pair discussed having an Act 1 musical scene involving Anna and the King 's wives . The lyrics for that scene proved to be very difficult for Hammerstein to write . He first thought that Anna would simply tell the wives something about her past , and wrote such lyrics as " I was dazzled by the splendor / Of Calcutta and Bombay " and " The celebrities were many / And the parties very gay / ( I recall a curry dinner / And a certain Major Grey ) . " Eventually , Hammerstein decided to write about how Anna felt , a song which would not only explain her past and her motivation for traveling with her son to the court of Siam , but also serve to establish a bond with Tuptim and lay the groundwork for the conflict that devastates Anna 's relationship with the King . " Hello , Young Lovers " , the resulting song , was the work of five exhausting weeks for Hammerstein . He finally sent the lyrics to Rodgers by messenger and awaited his reaction . Hammerstein considered the song his best work and was anxious to hear what Rodgers thought of it , but no comment came from Rodgers . Pride kept Hammerstein from asking . Finally , after four days , the two happened to be talking on the phone about other matters , and at the end of the conversation , Rodgers stated , very briefly , that the lyric was fine . Josh Logan , who had worked closely with Hammerstein on South Pacific , listened to the usually unflappable writer pour out his unhappy feelings . It was one of the few times that Hammerstein and Rodgers did not display a united front .
= = Casting and auditions = =
Although the part of the King was only a supporting role to Lawrence 's Anna , Hammerstein and Rodgers thought it essential that a well @-@ known theatrical actor play it . The obvious choice was Rex Harrison , who had played the King in the movie , but he was booked , as was Noël Coward . Alfred Drake , the original Curly in Oklahoma ! , made contractual demands which were deemed too high . With time running short before rehearsals , finding an actor to play the King became a major concern . Mary Martin , the original Nellie Forbush in South Pacific , suggested that her co @-@ star in a 1946 musical set in China , Lute Song , try for the role . Rodgers recounted the audition of the Russian @-@ American performer , Yul Brynner :
They told us the name of the first man and out he came with a bald head and sat cross @-@ legged on the stage . He had a guitar and he hit his guitar one whack and gave out with this unearthly yell and sang some heathenish sort of thing , and Oscar and I looked at each other and said , " Well , that 's it . "
Brynner termed Rodgers ' account " very picturesque , but totally inaccurate " . He recalled that as an established television director ( in CBS 's Starlight Theatre , for example ) , he was reluctant to go back on the stage . His wife , his agent , and Martin finally convinced him to read Hammerstein 's working script , and once he did , he was fascinated by the character of the King and was eager to do the project . In any case , Brynner 's fierce , mercurial , dangerous , yet surprisingly sensitive King was an ideal foil for Lawrence 's strong @-@ willed , yet vulnerable Anna , and when the two finally came together in " Shall We Dance ? " , where the King hesitantly touches Anna 's waist , the chemistry was palpable .
Pre @-@ rehearsal preparations began in late 1950 . Hammerstein had wanted Logan to direct and co @-@ write the book , as he had for South Pacific , but when Logan declined , Hammerstein decided to write the entire book himself . Instead of Logan , the duo hired as director John van Druten , who had worked with Lawrence years earlier . The costume designer , Sharaff , wryly pointed the press to the incongruity of a Victorian British governess in the midst of an exotic court : " The first @-@ act finale of The King and I will feature Miss Lawrence , Mr. Brynner , and a pink satin ball gown . " Mielziner 's set plan was the simplest of the four Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals he had worked on , with one main set ( the throne room ) , a number of front @-@ stage drops ( for the ship and Anna 's room , for example ) and the entire stage cleared for " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " .
The show was budgeted at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) making it the most expensive Rodgers and Hammerstein production to that point , and prompting some mockery that costs exceeded even their expensive flop Allegro . Investors included Hammerstein , Rodgers , Logan , Martin , Billy Rose and Hayward . The children who were cast as the young princes and princesses came from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds , including Puerto Rican or Italian , though none were Thai . Johnny Stewart was the original Prince Chulalongkorn but left the cast after only three months , replaced by Ronnie Lee . Sandy Kennedy was Louis , and Broadway veteran Larry Douglas played Lun Tha .
Shortly before rehearsals began in January 1951 , Rodgers had the first Tuptim , Doretta Morrow , sing the entire score to Lawrence , including Lawrence 's own songs . Lawrence listened calmly , but when she met Rodgers and Hammerstein the following day , she treated Rodgers coldly , apparently seeing the composer 's actions as flaunting her vocal deficiencies . Hammerstein and Rodgers ' doubts about whether Lawrence could handle the part were assuaged by the sheer force of her acting . James Poling , a writer for Collier 's who was allowed to attend the rehearsals , wrote of Lawrence preparing " Shall I Tell You What I Think of You ? " :
She took the center of the barren stage wearing , for practice , a dirty muslin hoop over her slacks , with an old jacket thrown over her shoulders for warmth . She began rather quietly on the note , " Your servant ! Your servant ! Indeed I 'm not your servant ! " Then she gradually built the scene , slowly but powerfully , until , in a great crescendo , she ended prone on the floor , pounding in fury , and screaming , " Toads ! Toads ! Toads ! All of your people are toads . " When she finished , the handful of professionals in the theatre burst into admiring applause .
At his first meeting with Sharaff , Brynner , who had only a fringe of hair , asked what he was to do about it . When told he was to shave it , Brynner was horror @-@ struck and refused , convinced he would look terrible . He finally gave in during tryouts and put dark makeup on his shaved head . The effect was so well @-@ received that it became Brynner 's trademark .
Lawrence 's health caused her to miss several rehearsals , though no one knew what was wrong with her . When the tryout opened in New Haven , Connecticut on February 27 , 1951 , the show was nearly four hours long . Lawrence , suffering from laryngitis , had missed the dress rehearsal , but managed to make it through the first public performance . The Variety critic noted that despite her recent illness she " slinks , acts , cavorts , and in general exhibits exceedingly well her several facets for entertaining " , but the Philadelphia Bulletin printed that her " already thin voice is now starting to wear a great deal thinner " . Leland Hayward came to see the show in New Haven and shocked Rodgers by advising him to close it before it went any further . Additionally , when the show left New Haven for Boston for more tryout performances , it was still at least 45 minutes too long . Gemze de Lappe , who was one of the dancers , recalled one cut that she regretted :
They took out a wonderful scene . Mrs. Anna 's first entrance into the palace comes with a song in which she sings , " Over half a year I have been waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting outside your door . " At the end she points her umbrella at him , or something like that , and the King says " Off with her head " or words to that effect , and the eunuchs pick her up and carry her off . The King says " Who , who , who ? " with great satisfaction , and finds out that he has just thrown out the English schoolteacher . So he says , " Bring her back ! " and she is ushered in ... we all loved it .
This song , " Waiting " , was a trio for Anna , the King , and the Kralahome ( the King 's prime minister ) . " Who Would Refuse ? " , the Kralahome 's only solo , was also dropped . Left without a note to sing , Mervyn Vye abandoned the show and was replaced by John Juliano . " Now You Leave " , a song for Lady Thiang ( played by Dorothy Sarnoff in the original production ) , was also cut . After the cuts , Rodgers and Hammerstein felt that the first act was lacking something . Lawrence suggested that they write a song for Anna and the children . Mary Martin reminded them of a song that had been cut from South Pacific , " Suddenly Lucky " . Hammerstein wrote a new lyric for the melody , and the resulting song became " Getting to Know You " . " Western People Funny " and " I Have Dreamed " were also added in Boston .
Brynner regretted that there were not more tryout performances , feeling that the schedule did not give him an adequate opportunity to develop the complex role of the King . When he told this to Hammerstein and Rodgers , they asked what sort of performance they would get from him , and he responded , " It will be good enough , it will get the reviews . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Act 1 = = =
In 1862 , a strong @-@ willed , widowed schoolteacher , Anna Leonowens , arrives in Bangkok , Siam ( later known as Thailand ) at the request of the King of Siam to tutor his many children . Anna 's young son , Louis , fears the severe countenance of the King 's prime minister , the Kralahome , but Anna refuses to be intimidated ( " I Whistle a Happy Tune " ) . The Kralahome has come to escort them to the palace , where they are expected to live – a violation of Anna 's contract , which calls for them to live in a separate house . She considers returning to Singapore aboard the vessel that brought them , but goes with her son and the Kralahome .
Several weeks pass , during which Anna and Louis are confined to their palace rooms . The King receives a gift from the king of Burma , a lovely slave girl named Tuptim , to be one of his many wives . She is escorted by Lun Tha , a scholar who has come to copy a design for a temple , and the two are secretly in love . Tuptim , left alone , declares that the King may own her , but not her heart ( " My Lord and Master " ) . The King gives Anna her first audience . The schoolteacher is a part of his plan for the modernization of Siam ; he is impressed when she already knows this . She raises the issue of her house with him , he dismisses her protests and orders her to talk with his wives . They are interested in her , and she tells them of her late husband , Tom ( " Hello , Young Lovers " ) . The King presents her new pupils ; Anna is to teach those of his children whose mothers are in favor with him – several dozen – and is to teach their mothers as well . The princes and princesses enter in procession ( " March of the Royal Siamese Children " ) . Anna is charmed by the children , and formality breaks down after the ceremony as they crowd around her .
Anna has not given up on the house , and teaches the children proverbs and songs extolling the virtues of home life , to the King 's irritation . The King has enough worries without battling the schoolteacher , and wonders why the world has become so complicated ( " A Puzzlement " ) . The children and wives are hard at work learning English ( " The Royal Bangkok Academy " ) . The children are surprised by a map showing how small Siam is compared with the rest of the world ( " Getting to Know You " ) . As the crown prince , Chulalongkorn , disputes the map , the King enters a chaotic schoolroom . He orders the pupils to believe the teacher but complains to Anna about her lessons about " home " . Anna stands her ground and insists on the letter of her contract , threatening to leave Siam , much to the dismay of wives and children . The King orders her to obey as " my servant " ; she repudiates the term and hurries away . The King dismisses school , then leaves , uncertain of his next action . Lun Tha comes upon Tuptim , and they muse about having to hide their relationship ( " We Kiss in a Shadow " ) .
In her room , Anna replays the confrontation in her mind , her anger building ( " Shall I Tell You What I Think of You ? " ) . Lady Thiang , the King 's head wife , tells Anna that the King is troubled by his portrayal in the West as a barbarian , as the British are being urged to take over Siam as a protectorate . Anna is shocked by the accusations – the King is a polygamist , but he is no barbarian – but she is reluctant to see him after their argument . Lady Thiang convinces her that the King is deserving of support ( " Something Wonderful " ) . Anna goes to him and finds him anxious for reconciliation . The King tells her that the British are sending an envoy to Bangkok to evaluate the situation . Anna " guesses " – the only guise in which the King will accept advice – that the King will receive the envoy in European style , and that the wives will be dressed in Western fashion . Tuptim has been writing a play based on a book that Anna has lent her , Uncle Tom 's Cabin , that can be presented to the guests . News is brought to the King that the British are arriving much earlier than thought , and so Anna and the wives are to stay up all night to prepare . The King assembles his family for a Buddhist prayer for the success of the venture and also promises before Buddha that Anna will receive her own house " as provided in agreement , etc . , etc . "
= = = Act 2 = = =
The wives are dressed in their new European @-@ style gowns , which they find confining ( " Western People Funny " ) . In the rush to prepare , the question of undergarments has been overlooked , and the wives have practically nothing on underneath their gowns . When the British envoy , Sir Edward Ramsay , arrives and gazes at them through a monocle , they are panicked by the " evil eye " and lift their skirts over their heads as they flee . Sir Edward is diplomatic about the incident . When the King is called away , it emerges that Sir Edward is an old flame of Anna 's , and they dance in remembrance of old times , as Edward urges her to return to British society . The King returns and irritably reminds them that dancing is for after dinner .
As final preparations for the play are made , Tuptim steals a moment to meet with Lun Tha . He tells her he has an escape plan , and she should be ready to leave after the performance ( " I Have Dreamed " ) . Anna encounters them , and they confide in her ( " Hello , Young Lovers " , reprise ) . The play ( " Small House of Uncle Thomas " , narrated ballet ) is presented in a Siamese ballet @-@ inspired dance . Tuptim is the narrator , and she tells her audience of the evil King Simon of Legree and his pursuit of the runaway slave Eliza . Eliza is saved by Buddha , who miraculously freezes a river and conceals her in snow . Buddha then causes the river to melt , drowning King Simon and his hunting party . The anti @-@ slavery message is blunt .
After the play , Sir Edward reveals that the British threat has receded , but the King is distracted by his displeasure at Tuptim 's rebellious message . After Sir Edward leaves , Anna and the King express their delight at how well the evening went , and he presents her with a ring . Secret police report that Tuptim is missing . The King realizes that Anna knows something ; she parries his inquiry by asking why he should care : Tuptim is just another woman to him . He is delighted ; she is at last understanding the Siamese perspective . Anna tries to explain to him the Western customs of courtship and tells him what it is like for a young woman at a formal dance ( " Shall We Dance ? " ) . He demands that she teach him the dance . She does , and in that dance they experience and express a love for each other that they can never speak aloud . They are interrupted by the Kralahome . Tuptim has been captured , and a search is on for Lun Tha . The King resolves to punish Tuptim , though she denies she and Lun Tha were lovers . Anna tries to dissuade him , but he is determined that her influence shall not rule , and he takes the whip himself . He turns to lash Tuptim , but under Anna 's gaze is unable to swing the whip , and hurries away . Lun Tha is found dead , and Tuptim is dragged off , swearing to kill herself ; nothing more is heard about her . Anna asks the Kralahome to give her ring back to the King ; both schoolteacher and minister state their wish that she had never come to Siam .
Several months pass with no contact between Anna and the King . Anna is packed and ready to board a ship leaving Siam . Chulalongkorn arrives with a letter from the King , who has been unable to resolve the conflicts within himself and is dying . Anna hurries to the King 's bedside and they reconcile . The King persuades her to take back the ring and to stay and assist the next king , Chulalongkorn . The dying man tells Anna to take dictation from the prince , and instructs the boy to give orders as if he were King . The prince orders the end of the custom of kowtowing that Anna hated . The King grudgingly accepts this decision . As Chulalongkorn continues , prescribing a less arduous bow to show respect for the king , his father dies . Anna kneels by the late King , holding his hand and kissing it , as the wives and children bow or curtsey , a gesture of respect to old king and new .
= = Principal roles and notable performers = =
= = Musical numbers = =
= = Productions = =
= = = Original productions = = =
The King and I opened on Broadway on March 29 , 1951 , with a wide expectation of a hit by the press and public . Both Hammerstein and Rodgers professed to be worried . The composer complained that most people were not concerned about whether the show was good , but whether it was better than South Pacific . Even the weather cooperated : heavy rain in New York stopped in time to allow the mostly wealthy or connected opening night audience to arrive dry at the St. James Theatre . Margaret Landon , author of the book on which the musical was based , was not invited to opening night .
Brynner turned in an outstanding performance that night , nearly stealing the show . Lawrence knew that the company was nervous because of her illnesses . The director , John van Druten , described how her opening night performance put all worries to rest : " She came on the stage with a new and dazzling quality , as if an extra power had been granted to the brilliance of her stage light . She was radiant and wonderful . " The rave reviews in the newspapers lifted Lawrence 's spirits , and she expected a lengthy run as Anna , first on Broadway , then in London 's West End , and finally on film . Lawrence won a Tony Award for her leading role , while Brynner won the award for best featured actor . The show won the Tony for best musical , and designers Mielziner and Sharaff received awards in their categories .
De Lappe remembered the contrast between Lawrence 's indifferent singing voice and the force of her performance :
I used to listen to Gertrude Lawrence on the public address system every night in our dressing rooms , and she 'd get onto a note and sag down off of it . The night after I left the show to go into Paint Your Wagon , Yul Brynner gave me house seats and I saw her from the front and I was so taken by her . She had such a star quality , you didn 't care if she sang off @-@ key . She more than dominated the stage . Boy , was that a lesson to me .
Lawrence had not yet discovered that she was dying from liver cancer , and her weakened condition was exacerbated by the demands of her role . At the age of 52 , she was required to wear dresses weighing 75 pounds ( 34 kg ) while walking or dancing a total of 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) during a 3 ½ hour performance eight times a week . Lawrence found it hard to bear the heat in the theatre during the summer months . Understudy Constance Carpenter began replacing her in matinee performances . Later in the year Lawrence 's strength returned , and she resumed her full schedule , but by Christmas she was battling pleurisy and suffering from exhaustion . She entered the hospital for a full week of tests . Just nine months before her death , the cancer still was not detected . In February 1952 , bronchitis felled her for another week , and her husband Richard Aldrich asked Rodgers and Hammerstein if they would consider closing the show for Easter week to give her a chance to recover fully . They denied his request , but agreed to replace her with the original Ado Annie from Oklahoma ! , Celeste Holm , for six weeks during the summer . Meanwhile , Lawrence 's performances were deteriorating , prompting audiences to become audibly restive . Rodgers and Hammerstein prepared a letter , never delivered , advising her that " eight times a week you are losing the respect of 1 @,@ 500 people " . In late August , Lawrence fainted following a matinee and was admitted to the NewYork – Presbyterian Hospital . She slipped into a coma and died on September 6 , 1952 , aged 54 . Her autopsy revealed liver cancer . On the day of her funeral , the performance of The King and I was cancelled . The lights of Broadway and the West End were dimmed ; she was buried in the ball gown she wore during Act 2 .
Carpenter assumed the role of Anna and went on to play it for 620 performances . Other Annas during the run included Holm , Annamary Dickey and Patricia Morison . Although Brynner later boasted of never missing a show , he missed several , once when stagehands at the St. James Theatre accidentally struck him in the nose with a piece of scenery , another time due to appendicitis . Also , for three months in 1952 ( and occasionally in 1953 ) , Alfred Drake replaced Brynner . One young actor , Sal Mineo , began as an extra , then became an understudy for a younger prince , then an understudy and later a replacement for Crown Prince Chulalongkorn . Mineo began a close friendship and working relationship with Brynner which would last for more than a decade . The last of the production 's 1 @,@ 246 performances was on March 20 , 1954 . The run was , at the time , the fourth longest ever for a Broadway musical . A U.S. national tour began on March 22 , 1954 , at the Community Theatre , Hershey , Pennsylvania , starring Brynner and Morison . The tour played in 30 cities , closing on December 17 , 1955 , at the Shubert Theatre , Philadelphia .
The original London production opened on October 8 , 1953 , at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , and was warmly received by both audiences and critics ; it ran for 946 performances . The show was restaged by Jerome Whyte . The cast featured Valerie Hobson , in her last role , as Anna ; Herbert Lom as the King ; and Muriel Smith as Lady Thiang . Martin Benson played the Kralahome , a role he reprised in the 1956 film . Eve Lister was a replacement for Hobson , and George Pastell replaced Lom during the long run . The New York Times theatre columnist Brooks Atkinson saw the production with Lister and Pastell , and thought the cast commonplace , except for Smith , whom he praised both for her acting and her voice . Atkinson commented , " The King and I is a beautifully written musical drama on a high plane of human thinking . It can survive in a mediocre performance . "
The musical was soon premiered in Australia , Japan , and throughout Europe .
= = = Early revivals = = =
The first revival of The King and I in New York was presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company in April and May 1956 for three weeks , starring Jan Clayton and Zachary Scott , directed by John Fearnley , with Robbins ' choreography recreated by June Graham . Muriel Smith reprised her London role of Lady Thiang , and Patrick Adiarte repeated his film role , Chulalongkorn . This company presented the musical again in May 1960 with Barbara Cook and Farley Granger , again directed by Fearnley , in another three @-@ week engagement . Atkinson admired the purity of Cook 's voice and thought that she portrayed Anna with " a cool dignity that gives a little more stature to the part than it has had before . " He noted that Granger brought " a fresh point of view – as well as a full head of hair " . Joy Clements played Tuptim , and Anita Darian was Lady Thiang . City Center again presented the show in June 1963 , starring Eileen Brennan and Manolo Fabregas , directed by Fearnley . Clements and Darian reprised Tuptim and Thiang . In the final City Center Light Opera production , Michael Kermoyan played the King opposite Constance Towers for three weeks in May 1968 . Darian again played Lady Thiang . For all of these 1960s productions , Robbins ' choreography was reproduced by Yuriko , who had played the role of Eliza in the original Broadway production and reprised the role in the City Center productions .
The Music Theatre of Lincoln Center , with Rodgers as producer , presented the musical in mid @-@ 1964 at the New York State Theater , starring Risë Stevens and Darren McGavin , with Michael Kermoyan as the Kralahome . Lun Tha , Tuptim and Thiang were played by Frank Porretta , Lee Venora and Patricia Neway . Costumes were by Irene Sharaff , the designer for the original productions and the film adaptation . The director was Edward Greenberg , with the Robbins choreography again reproduced by Yuriko . This was Music Theatre 's debut production , a five @-@ week limited engagement .
The King and I was revived at London 's Adelphi Theatre on October 10 , 1973 , running for 260 performances until May 25 , 1974 , starring Sally Ann Howes as Anna and Peter Wyngarde as the King . Roger Redfarn directed , and Sheila O 'Neill choreographed . The production , which began in June 1973 with a tour of the English provinces , earned mixed to warm reviews . Michael Billington in The Guardian called the revival " well played and well sung " . Although he was enthusiastic about Howes as Anna , Billington thought Wyngarde " too fragile to be capable of inspiring unholy terror " . He praised Redfarn 's production – " whipped along at a good pace and made a sumptuous eyeful out of the interpolated ballet on ' Uncle Tom 's Cabin ' . " Less favorably , Robert Cushman in The Observer thought the production " scenically and economically under @-@ nourished " . He liked Wyngarde 's King ( " a dignified clown " ) but thought Howes not formidable enough to stand up to him as Anna . He noted that " she sings beautifully and the songs are the evening 's real justification " .
= = = Brynner reprises the role = = =
In early 1976 , Brynner received an offer from impresarios Lee Gruber and Shelly Gross to star , in the role that he had created 25 years before , in a U.S. national tour and Broadway revival . The tour opened in Los Angeles on July 26 , 1976 , with Constance Towers reprising the role of Anna . On opening night , Brynner suffered so badly from laryngitis that he lip @-@ synched , with his son Rock singing and speaking the role from the orchestra pit . The production traveled across the United States , selling out every city it appeared in and finally opening in New York at the Uris Theatre ( today the Gershwin Theatre ) on May 2 , 1977 . The production featured Martin Vidnovic as Lun Tha , and Susan Kikuchi danced the part of Eliza , recreating the role that her mother , Yuriko , had originated . Yuriko both directed the production and recreated the Robbins choreography . Sharaff again designed costumes , and Michael Kermoyan reprised the role of the Kralahome , while June Angela was Tuptim . The run lasted 696 performances , almost two years , during which each of the stars took off three weeks , with Angela Lansbury replacing Towers and Kermoyan replacing Brynner . The production was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical .
Brynner insisted on renovations to the Uris before he would play there , stating that the theatre resembled " a public toilet " . He also insisted that dressing rooms on the tour and at the Uris be arranged to his satisfaction . According to his biographer Michelangelo Capua , for years afterwards , performers thanked Brynner for having backstage facilities across the country cleaned up . New York Times reviewer Clive Barnes said of the revival , " The cast is a good one . Mr. Brynner grinning fire and snorting charm is as near to the original as makes little difference " and called Towers " piquantly ladylike and sweet without being dangerously saccharine " . However , fellow Times critic Mel Gussow warned , later in the run , that " to a certain extent [ Brynner ] was coasting on his charisma " .
The tour was extended in 1979 , after the New York run , still starring Brynner and Towers . The production then opened in the West End , at the London Palladium , on June 12 , 1979 , and was reported to have the largest advance sale in English history . Brynner stated , " It is not a play , it is a happening . " Virginia McKenna starred in London as Anna , winning an Olivier Award for her performance . June Angela again played Tuptim , and John Bennett was the Kralahome . It ran until September 27 , 1980 .
Brynner took only a few months off after the London run ended , which contributed to his third divorce ; he returned to the road in early 1981 in an extended U.S. tour of the same production , which eventually ended on Broadway . Mitch Leigh produced and directed , and Robbins ' choreography was reproduced by Rebecca West , who also danced the role of Simon of Legree , which she had danced at the Uris in 1977 . Patricia Marand played Anna , Michael Kermoyan was again the Kralahome , Patricia Welch was Tuptim . During 1981 , Kate Hunter Brown took over as Anna , continuing in the role for at least a year and a half . By 1983 , Mary Beth Peil was playing Anna . On September 13 , 1983 , in Los Angeles , Brynner celebrated his 4,000th performance as the King ; on the same day he was privately diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer , and the tour had to shut down for a few months while he received painful radiation therapy to shrink the tumor . The Washington Post reviewer saw Brynner 's " absolutely last farewell tour " in December 1984 and wrote of the star :
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obviously think ' Oh of course they ’ re supposed to be together , of course , of course ! ' but the fact is , is that he ’ s a married man and Emma knows that ’ s wrong , and she doesn ’ t want to be a homewrecker . She doesn ’ t want to ruin a relationship . So I guess in a perfect world , she could find someone like Will , or maybe Ken Tanaka ( laughs ) can become a little bit more like Will . But maybe it ’ s all about respect . Maybe if she can respect Ken enough , that will develop into true love . " She also commented of her co @-@ star Matthew Morrison ( Will ) : " We were friends . We knew each other before we started this job . We worked together once before . So , that ’ s always helpful when you know the person that you ’ re working with , and you already feel comfortable around them . But yeah , he ’ s a really good friend , so that makes that stuff a little bit easier . "
= = Reception = =
Variety 's Brian Lowry deemed the adult cast of early Glee " over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons " , however opined that Emma offered " modest redemption " . The Los Angeles Times 's Denise Martin called Mays as Emma " just as funny " as Lynch 's Sue , and noted : " Emma doesn 't get the zingers Coach Sue gets , but she makes me laugh just as hard . " Harris commented that , " Despite the sad seriousness of [ Emma 's love for Will ] , the tightly wound Emma [ ... ] also is one of the funniest characters in Glee . Go figure . It 's funny , because everything is kind of heavy that 's going on in her life , with these phobias and this guy she loves who ’ s married , yet she still is a bit of the comic relief . " Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly noted of the episode " Vitamin D " that she had hoped Emma would decline Ken 's proposal : " I want Emma to be strong and know it ’ s better to be without someone for the right reason than to be with someone for the wrong one . " Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance in the episode . He noted : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . "
Critics commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship ; TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams wrote that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode . Flandez felt that the kiss made the " poignant moment " of the glee club 's final performance " even more dear " , and hoped that it would not be the last between them , while Aly Semigran of MTV praised the development and called the kiss " sweet [ and ] longing " . Goldman wrote : " Schue and Emma finally coming together was very hard to not feel good about , even though you know it just won 't be that easy when the show returns " . Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times opined that it was clear Ken and Emma would not marry , and added that when Will kissed Emma : " I died " . In discussing Will and Emma 's conversation about how she would have left Ken if Will had shown any interest in her , Pardue commented : " That 's maybe the sweetest and the saddest thing I 've ever heard . " She called the kiss between Will and Emma " romantic " commenting that it made her " heart happy " . Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson commented that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude with Will finding Emma 's office empty , or " before she smiled approvingly after their kiss " , questioning whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship , or " about freakin ' time " .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V Club was critical of Emma in the show 's second season . He said : " Emma is apparently married , but we haven ’ t seen her husband since October , and even when he was more of a “ fixture ” on the show ( which is difficult to say about a character who ’ s appeared as little as Carl Howell has ) , his relationship with Emma made no sense as anything other than a plot device . Now , as it turns out , Emma and Carl haven ’ t consummated their marriage at all , and this has something to do with the fact that the show has combined Emma ’ s germ @-@ phobia and virginity into some sort of terrifying psychosexual pathology that doesn ’ t make much sense and doesn ’ t resemble the somewhat levelheaded person she used to be . ( The plotting in Will Schuester ’ s love life is the one place where the show attempts to have even a modicum of continuity , for whatever reason . ) Anyway , Carl is necessarily upset about this , and he ’ s also upset when Holly Holliday gets Emma to admit that she still has confusing feelings for Will , so he resolves to let her stay in the condo while he stays in the Radisson where all of the good big @-@ name Glee guest stars go to hope their pilots for the fall are picked up . "
= = Musical performances = =
Mays performed a cover version of " I Could Have Danced All Night " from My Fair Lady in the episode " Mash @-@ Up " , a studio recording of which was included as a bonus @-@ track on copies of Glee : The Music , Volume 1 purchased from Target stores . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called the performance " lovely " , and Andrea Reiher for Zap2it similarly praised the piece : " wow , she has a nice voice ! She 's no Julie Andrews , but she 'll do . " Eric Goldman for IGN commented : " Seeing Emma sing " I Could Have Danced All Night " was sweet , though was it just me ( or my TV ) , or was the volume on her vocals a bit unusually loud ? I also could have done without Will 's line telling her she should sing to help her keep the beat as she danced – come on Glee , you 're a musical . Embrace it and just let her sing . "
Mays said that she " had fun singing , " but found the experience " terrifying , " as she had never given a musical performance on camera before . She derided her choreography skills , and elaborated : " I was so nervous that day . I had to keep eating bread and toast because my stomach was so sick . But it was an interesting experience . It was definitely a challenge for me . Of course if they ask me to do it again , I would do it again . But I ’ m not going to go begging them for it . "
In her first lead solo performance since the first season , Mays performed " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show during the themed episode " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " ; it was the song she 'd used when auditioning for the role of Emma . Anthony Benigno of the Daily News named it the best song of the episode , and graded it " A + " . Despite finding the episode " abrupt , uneven [ and ] sanitized " , Flandez felt that it was saved by this performance . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone remarked that having Emma in the role of Janet was " ideal " , but preferred the song visually to vocally . Slant Magazine 's Matt Zoller Seitz disliked the change in Emma 's characterization which brought about the number , and while he wrote that " Mays was so charming that she almost , almost saved it " , he ultimately found the " motivational contortions " insulting to the audience . The track was included on the EP Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show . It charted at number 72 in the UK , and 96 in Canada .
In season three , Mays performs " Wedding Bell Blues " in the episode " Yes / No " , which was described by Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle as " the perfect combination of a great song , plot relevance , and Princess Beatrice hat " . TV Guide 's Kate Stanhope agreed with him on all three points , and added that it was " a great pick for her vocals " . TVLine 's Michael Slezak described those vocals as " a breath of dewy spring air " and gave the song an " A " , but Joseph Brannigan Lynch of Entertainment Weekly thought Emma was not " much of a singer " and gave the number a " B − " , though he said " the curiosity of backup vocals from Coach Beiste and Sue Sylvester made this entirely worthwhile " .
In season four , Mays is one of eight singers featured in the performance of " The Scientist " by Coldplay in the episode " The Break @-@ Up " . She also performed the song " ( Not ) Getting Married Today " from the musical Company with Morrison and Amber Riley in the episode " I Do " and " You 're All The World to Me " from Royal Wedding in the following episode , again with Morrison .
= LaRouche criminal trials =
The LaRouche criminal trials in the mid @-@ 1980s stemmed from federal and state investigations into the activities of American political activist Lyndon LaRouche and members of his movement . They were charged with conspiring to commit fraud and soliciting loans they had no intention of repaying . LaRouche and his supporters disputed the charges , claiming the trials were politically motivated .
In 1986 , hundreds of state and federal officers raided LaRouche offices in Virginia and Massachusetts . A federal grand jury in Boston , Massachusetts , indicted LaRouche and 12 associates on credit card fraud and obstruction of justice . The subsequent trial , described as an " extravaganza " , was repeatedly delayed and ended in mistrial . Following the mistrial , a federal grand jury in Alexandria , Virginia , indicted LaRouche and six associates . After a short trial in 1988 , LaRouche was convicted of mail fraud , conspiracy to commit mail fraud , and tax evasion , and was sentenced to prison for fifteen years . He entered prison in 1989 and was paroled five years later . At the same trial , his associates received lesser sentences for mail fraud and conspiracy . In separate state trials in Virginia and New York , 13 associates received terms ranging from one month to 77 years . The Virginia state trials were described as the highest @-@ profile cases that the state Attorney General 's office had ever prosecuted . Fourteen states issued injunctions against LaRouche @-@ related organizations . Three LaRouche @-@ related organizations were forced into bankruptcy after failing to pay contempt of court fines .
Defense lawyers filed numerous unsuccessful appeals that challenged the conduct of the grand jury , the contempt fines , the execution of the search warrants and various trial procedures . At least ten appeals were heard by the United States court of appeals , and three were appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court . Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark joined the defense team for two appeals . Following the convictions , the LaRouche movement mounted failed attempts at exoneration .
= = Background = =
Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s , Lyndon LaRouche formed a variety of political organizations , including the U.S. Labor Party and the National Democratic Policy Committee . These organizations served as the platforms for presidential campaigns by LaRouche starting in 1976 , and by his followers in scores of local races . According to one candidate , supporters viewed LaRouche as " the greatest political leader and economist of the 20th century , and they 're proud to be associated with him . They feel he 's leading the battle to save Western civilization . " The Survey of Jewish Affairs , 1987 called the LaRouche movement one of the two most prominent " extremist political groups " of 1986 .
The movement 's greatest electoral success came in 1986 when two supporters , Janice Hart and Mark J. Fairchild , won the Democratic Party nominations for Illinois Secretary of State and Lieutenant Governor . Both lost in the general election . Also in 1986 , the " Prevent AIDS Now Initiative Committee " ( PANIC ) got an initiative on the California ballot , Proposition 64 ( also known as the " LaRouche Initiative " ) , which attracted widespread opposition and was defeated that November .
= = Investigations = =
= = = Early 1980s = = =
According to arguments made by LaRouche 's attorneys in later appeals , the government investigations were started under the FBI 's COINTELPRO in the 1960s . Edward Spannaus , a defendant in the trials , further notes that there was a memorandum written on January 12 , 1983 , by former FBI chief William Webster to Oliver " Buck " Revell , head of the Bureau 's General Investigative Division . It requested information on the funding of LaRouche and the U.S. Labor Party , including whether the U.S. Labor Party might be funded by hostile intelligence agencies . The LaRouche organization asserts that this formulation was specifically tailored to enable FBI " active measures " against LaRouche under Executive Order 12333 , which permits such measures if a political movement receives foreign funding . The memo was eventually obtained by LaRouche 's attorneys and submitted as an exhibit in the 1987 trial of LaRouche and co @-@ defendants in Boston .
In August 1982 , former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger sent a memo to Webster requesting an investigation of the LaRouche movement due to their " increasingly obnoxious " harassment of him , which was raised at a meeting that day of the President 's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board by senior member David Abshire . Revell replied to Kissinger that there was sufficient evidence to proceed with an investigation . The FBI conducted an investigation but did not find evidence of a violation of Kissinger 's civil rights . The investigation was closed in late 1983 .
= = = Mid @-@ 1980s = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , the U.S. government and eleven states began investigations into alleged financial improprieties by LaRouche groups . A federal grand jury reportedly began investigating " an extensive nationwide pattern of credit card fraud " by LaRouche organizations in November 1984 . That same year a New Jersey bank froze the accounts of LaRouche 's 1984 presidential campaign due to allegedly fraudulent credit @-@ card charges .
In January 1985 , the grand jury in Boston , Massachusetts , subpoenaed documents from the National Democratic Policy Committee ( NDPC ) , and three other LaRouche organizations : Caucus Distributors Inc . , Fusion Energy Foundation , and Campaigner Publications Inc . Seven weeks later , on March 29 , 1985 , a U.S. District Court Judge A. David Mazzone held them to be in contempt and fined them $ 45 @,@ 000 per day . The fines for all the organizations eventually totaled over $ 20 million . The same grand jury subpoenaed Elliot I. Greenspan , an official of Caucus Distributors Inc . , to appear but he pleaded the Fifth Amendment and refused to testify . He was granted immunity and compelled to testify but only did so after being jailed for contempt for two days . A spokesman for LaRouche called the investigation " a political terror operation " .
Investigations by a separate federal grand jury in Alexandria , Virginia , along with state agencies in New York , California , Minnesota , Illinois and Washington were also underway . The FBI , IRS , FEC and personnel of other federal agencies were conducting separate investigations . The Internal Revenue Service revoked the tax @-@ exempt status of the Fusion Energy Foundation in September 1985 , and a year later the State of New York sought to dissolve the corporation , alleging that it used " persistently fraudulent and illegal " means to solicit donations . U.S. Attorney William Weld announced in January 1986 , that he would convene a national conference " to coordinate a prosecutive and investigative effort " against LaRouche . The conference was held the following month in Boston . Three states , Alaska , Indiana and Maryland , banned fund raising by Caucus Distributors Inc. in May 1986 , due to the sale of unregistered promissory notes . The Illinois Secretary of State began civil proceedings against Caucus Distributors Inc. in June 1986 , seeking an injunction to bar deceptive business practices . Minnesota officials banned " Independent Democrats for LaRouche " from fund raising , an order that was affirmed on appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court .
LaRouche lawyers filed a series of related civil suits against individuals , agencies and businesses . They sued Weld and former Attorney General William French Smith to try to stop the FBI investigation of the credit card case . They sued the New Jersey bank that had frozen their credit card merchant accounts ; and they sued Chemical Bank in a similar suit . Edward Spannaus , a treasurer for LaRouche campaigns , filed complaints with the state bar and the U.S. Justice Department against one of the Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the case .
= = Raid and indictments = =
Beginning October 6 , 1986 , the Leesburg , Virginia , headquarters of the LaRouche organization was searched in a coordinated , two @-@ day raid by hundreds of officers of the FBI , IRS , other federal agencies , and Virginia state authorities , supported by armored cars and a helicopter . The agents also surrounded LaRouche 's heavily guarded estate for the duration of the search but did not enter it . While surrounded , LaRouche sent a telegram to President Ronald Reagan saying that an attempt to arrest him " would be an attempt to kill me . I will not submit passively to such an arrest , but ... I will defend myself " . He later assured that he would comply peaceably with any warrant . LaRouche offices in Quincy , Massachusetts were searched as well . US Attorney Henry E. Hudson held a press conference to say that the searches had recovered subpoenaed materials , including notebooks and index cards .
Warren J. Hamerman , Chair of the NDPC , said the searches " conducted by Donald Regan 's associate William Weld 's forces against presidential candidate Lyndon LaRouche 's headquarters coincides with Don Regan 's desperate attempts to maintain the cover @-@ up on AIDS " . LaRouche later said that the Soviet Premier had ordered the raid as part of an assassination attempt . " The man with the mark of the beast on his head , Mikhail Gorbachov , has demanded my elimination " , said LaRouche . In his 1987 autobiography , he wrote that the raid was ordered by Raisa Gorbachev , whom he described as outranking her husband in the nomenklatura due to her leadership of the Soviet Cultural Fund .
On the same day as the Leesburg search , the Boston grand jury handed down a 117 @-@ count indictment that named ten LaRouche associates , two corporations , and three campaign committees . Authorities charged them with making unauthorized credit charges that defrauded $ 1 million from over 1 @,@ 000 people . The charges also included a scheme to raise funds by soliciting loans with no intention of repaying them . The National Caucus of Labor Committees was charged , along with others , of conspiring to obstruct justice . Prosecutors charged that defendants had burned records , sent potential grand jury witnesses out of the country , and failed to provide subpoenaed evidence . The indictment quoted LaRouche telling an associate that , in reaction to legal problems , " we are going to stall , tie them up in the courts ... just keep stalling , stall and appeal , stall and appeal " . Three of the indicted associates remained at large for over a year , and investigators were allegedly given false information . On June 30 , 1987 , the U.S. grand jury in Boston indicted LaRouche on one count of conspiracy to obstruct justice .
Meanwhile , the state cases were progressing . On February 16 , 1987 , the Commonwealth of Virginia indicted 16 LaRouche associates on securities fraud and other felonies . On March 3 , 1987 , the State of New York indicted 15 LaRouche associates on charges of grand larceny and securities fraud .
= = Involuntary bankruptcy = =
In early April 1987 , the government charged in court that LaRouche organizations may have been trying to sell properties for cash to more easily conceal their assets and avoid paying $ 21 @.@ 4 million in contempt of court fines . The U.S. Department of Justice filed an involuntary bankruptcy petition on April 20 , 1987 , to collect the debt from Caucus Distributors Inc . , Fusion Energy Foundation , and Campaigner Publications Inc . In a rare procedure , the companies were seized before the bankruptcy came to trial . Assistant U.S. Attorney S. David Schiller wrote in a brief that the debtors had a " pattern of transferring or commingling substantial corporate assets to their members and other insiders for little or no consideration and for non @-@ business purposes " . The trustees later reported they were only able to locate about $ 86 @,@ 000 in assets .
The bankruptcy halted the publication of a weekly newspaper , New Solidarity , and a bi @-@ monthly science magazine , Fusion . At least one publication , Fusion , was reborn with a new name but the same editor and material .
The attorneys who represented the LaRouche entities in the bankruptcy trial filed a brief stating that the action was unprecedented and improper , alleging that it deviated from the standard rules of involuntary bankruptcy , and that members of the Alexandria prosecution team from the second criminal trial were involved in the planning and execution of the bankruptcy .
During the bankruptcy trial in September 1989 , an FBI agent destroyed evidence ( credit card receipts , cancelled checks , and FEC filings ) immediately after he had promised the court he would preserve them . On October 25 , 1989 , Judge Martin V.B. Bostetter dismissed the government 's involuntary bankruptcy petition , finding that two of the entities involved were nonprofit fund @-@ raisers and therefore not subject to involuntary bankruptcy actions . According to the LaRouche movement , Bostetter said the government 's actions amounted to bad faith regardless of whether government agents and attorneys had intended this outcome . He found that the government 's actions and representations in obtaining the bankruptcy had the effect of misleading the court as to the status of the organization , leading to a " constructive fraud on the court " . In 1993 , an appeals court decision said that Bostetter had specifically rejected that view , and said that the defendants had " greatly distorted the character of much of the evidence " . Appeals that went all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court found that the matter of the involuntary bankruptcy would not change the outcome of LaRouche 's conviction .
The LaRouche organization asserts that it has proof , obtained under the Freedom of Information Act , which shows that the purpose of the bankruptcy was simply to shut down the affected entities rather than to collect fines . The U.S. Attorney said , " Essentially the court holds that we did not abuse the bankruptcy filing , just that we should have filed differently . " He also noted that only a minimal amount of money had been collected .
= = Boston trials = =
= = = Trial of Frankhouser = = =
United States District Judge Robert Keeton presided in Boston . Jury selection was completed in September 1987 . Before the trial could begin , Keeton granted a motion to sever the case of Roy Frankhouser , whose case was tried first in front of a different jury . Frankhouser had been an informant for the ATF and other law enforcement agencies , in addition to being a neo @-@ Nazi and a former Pennsylvania Ku Klux Klan grand dragon . Frankhouser became a security consultant for LaRouche after convincing him that he was actively connected to U.S. intelligence agencies .
In U.S. v. Frankhauser , Frankhouser testified that he and LaRouche security employee Forrest Lee Fick had invented a connection to the CIA in order to justify his $ 700 a week salary . They persuaded a friend to play a former top CIA official ( " Mr. Ed " ) in meetings with LaRouche associates who , according to LaRouche group lawyers , came to believe that they had a direct line of communication to the White House and Kremlin through Mr. Ed and — as " a national resource in security matters " — were immune from prosecution . When LaRouche found out about the grand jury investigation , he reportedly told Frankhouser to get the CIA to quash it . Frankhouser told LaRouche that the CIA wanted him to destroy evidence and hide witnesses . Frankhouser claimed that on another occasion LaRouche sent him to Boston to check on the grand jury investigation . Instead of going to Boston he went to a Star Trek convention in Scranton , Pennsylvania and called to warn LaRouche that the FBI had wiretapped his phones . LaRouche was called as a defense witness in Frankhouser 's trial but he refused to testify , exercising his Fifth Amendment right to avoid self @-@ incrimination .
Frankhouser was found guilty of obstruction of the federal investigation into credit @-@ card fraud . He was sentenced to three years and a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine . After his conviction , he was granted immunity against further prosecution and compelled to testify against LaRouche in the Boston trial . Frankhouser appealed his conviction on April 3 , 1989 , arguing that his case should not have been severed from the main case , that his counsel had inadequate time to prepare , and that he was not provided with allegedly exculpatory evidence . The appeal was rejected in July .
= = = Trial of LaRouche , et al . = = =
The trial of LaRouche and his six co @-@ defendants , U.S. v. LaRouche Campaign , began on December 17 , 1987 , with the jury that had been picked in September , before the Frankhouser trial . The 12 defense lawyers made 400 pretrial motions .
The prosecution argued that pressure to fill fund raising quotas had led to 2 @,@ 000 instances of credit card fraud , and that organization members had sought to obstruct the investigation . The defense presented the case that the prosecution was the culmination of a 20 @-@ year campaign of harassment by the FBI and CIA , and that the prosecution was acting on the orders of the CIA when they destroyed evidence and hid witnesses .
During the trial , a search of the personal files of Oliver North was ordered by Judge Keeton to look for evidence that North had led an effort to harass and infiltrate the LaRouche movement , causing an additional delay in the trial . The search produced a May 1986 telex from Iran @-@ Contra defendant General Richard Secord to North , discussing the gathering of information against LaRouche . After this memo surfaced , Judge Keeton ordered a search of Vice President George Bush 's office for documents relating to LaRouche . Another delay came when the trial was halted to give time for the FBI to search their files for exculpatory documents . The trial was delayed again when federal agents seized LaRouche properties as part of the involuntary bankruptcy procedure in 1988 .
Originally expected to last from three to six months , the trial stretched out much longer . One local reporter called the Boston trial a " long , complex and costly multidefendant extravaganza " . After several jurors asked to be excused due to the length of the trial , the defense refused to proceed with fewer than 12 jurors , forcing the judge to declare a mistrial on May 4 , 1988 . According to one of the jurors , all defendants , including LaRouche , would have been found not guilty . He told a reporter " it seemed some of the government 's people caused the problem " , and that people working on behalf of the government " may have been involved in some of this fraud to discredit the campaign . " At the time of the mistrial , a spokesperson said that the Constitutional Defense Fund , a LaRouche organization , had spent over $ 2 million on legal and administrative expenses . Defense attorneys said they would appeal if the government sought a new trial .
A retrial in Boston was scheduled for January 3 , 1989 , but the charges were dismissed after the Alexandria convictions ; this was over the objections of the LaRouche lawyers who said they were seeking vindication . The Assistant U.S. Attorney who handled both the Boston and Alexandria cases said after the dismissal , " It was the Boston prosecuting effort which led to the evidence which allowed the indictment and convictions in Alexandria , and I think justice was served by the substantial sentences received . "
Throughout the trial , three of the indicted individuals were fugitives : Michael Gelber , Charles Park , and Richard Sanders . According to Roy Frankhouser , they had been sent to Europe . They surrendered to the court in 1990 and were sentenced by Judge Keeton to one year each for obstructing the investigation .
= = = Related appeals = = =
On July 3 , 1986 , the First Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the contempt of court fines from the Boston grand jury . That decision was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which let it stand . The First Circuit Court heard an appeal on September 11 , 1987 , alleging abuse of the grand jury and denied it six days later . On November 3 , 1987 , six organizations affiliated with LaRouche argued that their documents were seized improperly during the October 1986 search . The court denied the appeal the following January . Jeffrey Steinberg said on December 11 , 1987 , that 100 notebooks compiled by himself and his wife should not have been included in the grand jury subpoena or the search . He lost that appeal the following January . The court heard an appeal from NBC on January 5 , 1988 , over a lower court subpoena of NBC outtakes of a videotaped interview with a witness , Forrest Lee Fick . The lower court ruled the subpoenaed outtakes were to be placed under seal and subject to in camera review only , giving the court discretion whether to release any portion to the defendants . LaRouche had asserted the outtakes could be used to impeach Fick 's testimony . The court affirmed the lower court 's ruling in March .
Following the mistrial in Boston , the prosecution moved to schedule a new trial . LaRouche and the other defendants appealed that effort on October 5 , 1988 , saying that a new trial would create double jeopardy . The appeal was denied four months later . The contempt of court fines were appealed again on January 9 , 1989 , and affirmed again on March 29 . Following the convictions in the Alexandria court , prosecutors moved to dismiss the charges from the Boston court , canceling the retrial . The LaRouche lawyers appealed that decision on March 13 , 1989 , arguing that they needed the trial to exonerate LaRouche .
= = Alexandria trial = =
Judge Albert V. Bryan Jr. presided over U.S. v. LaRouche in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia , where LaRouche resided . That court was known as a " rocket docket " for its speed in disposing of cases . LaRouche and six associates were indicted on October 14 , 1988 on charges of mail fraud and conspiracy to commit mail fraud . Trial was scheduled for six weeks after the indictment . Defense lawyers made an unusual appeal asking for a delay , which was rejected .
Judge Bryan granted a prosecution motion in limine , ruling that the defense would not be permitted to discuss , or even allude to , the fact that the indebted entities had been placed in involuntary bankruptcy . It also excluded claims of vindictive prosecution and political harassment by the government . Bryan wrote , " the court will not allow a delving into any details of alleged infiltration ... for the reason that ... this would divert the jury from the issues raised in the indictment . "
The prosecution , led by Assistant U.S. Attorney Kent Robinson , presented evidence that LaRouche and his staff solicited US $ 34 million in loans since 1983 with false assurances to potential lenders and showed " reckless disregard for the truth " . In his opening statement to the trial , Robinson said , " Members of the jury , this case is about money . It 's about how the defendants got money , and to a lesser extent , what they did with that money when they got it ... The defendants , all seven of them , are charged in engaging in a scheme to defraud . That is , to obtain those loans by making false promises , false pretences , saying things to potential lenders which they knew weren 't true . "
The most important evidence was the testimony of lenders , many of them elderly retirees , who had loaned a total of $ 661 @,@ 300 to help LaRouche fight the " war on drugs " but only received $ 10 @,@ 000 in repayment . One of the prosecutors , John Markham , said those loans represented " just a very small portion of unrepaid borrowing " . Other testimony asserted that , as of 1987 , half of the $ 4 million borrowed by the 1984 presidential campaign was unpaid , and that only $ 5 million had been repaid out of $ 30 million in non @-@ campaign loans . LaRouche supporters claim the unrepaid amount was $ 294 @,@ 000 but , according to testimony at trial , the amount owed by 1987 topped $ 25 million .
Several witnesses were LaRouche followers who testified under immunity from prosecution . A former fundraiser testified that he was told , " No matter what the person you are talking to says , get the money . [ ... ] If you are talking to an unemployed worker who says he has got to feed ... a dozen children , forget it . Get the money . Most of these people are immoral anyway . This is the most moral thing they have ever done is to give you money . "
None of the defendants testified . Outside of court , LaRouche denied all the charges , calling them " an all @-@ out frame @-@ up by a state and federal task force , " and said that the federal government was trying to kill him . " The purpose of this frame @-@ up is not to send me to prison . It 's to kill me , " LaRouche said . " In prison it 's fairly easy to kill me ... If this sentence goes through , I 'm dead . "
= = = Income tax = = =
One of the charges against LaRouche was that he had conspired to avoid paying income tax , not having filed a return in ten years . LaRouche claimed to have had no income . LaRouche lived on a 172 @-@ acre ( 700 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate near Leesburg , Virginia , with a pond and horse ring . It was purchased for his use by Oklahoma oilman David Nick Anderson for $ 1 @.@ 3 million , with LaRouche organizations paying rent to cover the $ 9 @,@ 605 mortgage . LaRouche had named the property " Ibykus Farm " after a work by Friedrich Schiller . His wife , Helga LaRouche , is reported to have overseen hundreds of thousands of dollars in renovations to the property . In all , the LaRouche group spent over US $ 4 million on Virginia real estate during this period , according to trial testimony . The LaRouche defense argued that Ibykus Farm was a " safehouse " needed for the security of LaRouche and others . The government argued that security expenditures were " misplaced priorities . "
In 1985 , a judge in a separate case had described LaRouche 's testimony about being almost penniless as " completely lacking in credibility " . In 1986 , in the same case , LaRouche said that he did not know who had paid the rent on the estate , or for his food , lodging , clothing , transportation , bodyguards , or lawyers since 1973 . The judge fined him for failing to answer .
= = = Conviction and imprisonment = = =
On December 16 , 1988 , LaRouche was convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud involving more than $ 30 million in defaulted loans ; 11 counts of actual mail fraud involving $ 294 @,@ 000 in defaulted loans ; and one count of conspiring to defraud the U.S. Internal Revenue Service . The judge said that the claim of a vendetta was " arrant nonsense " , and that , " the idea that this organization is a sufficient threat to anything that would warrant the government bringing a prosecution to silence them just defies human experience . " Jury foreman Buster Horton told The Washington Post that it was the failure of LaRouche aides to repay loans which swayed the jury in the Virginia case . He said that the jury " all agreed [ LaRouche ] was not on trial for his political beliefs . We did not convict him for that . He was convicted for those 13 counts he was on trial for . "
As part of the trial in Alexandria , six of LaRouche 's associates were also found guilty . His chief fund @-@ raiser , William Wertz , was convicted on ten mail fraud counts . LaRouche 's legal adviser and treasurer , Edward Spannaus , along with fund raising operatives Dennis Small , Paul Greenberg , Michael Billington , and Joyce Rubinstein , were convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud . Wertz and Spannaus were sentenced to five years imprisonment each , with Spannaus serving a total of two and a
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by Wilson in a rematch . Sable 's final appearance in WWE was on SmackDown ! when she , Dawn Marie , and Wilson accompanied Eddie Guerrero to the ring in his lowrider . On August 10 , 2004 , WWE 's official website announced that Sable and WWE had parted ways , this time on good terms . Lesnar claimed that she left the company to spend more time with her family .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
She made her debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling on January 4 , 2006 at a NJPW show , along with Brock Lesnar as special guests , and continued to accompany Lesnar until late June 2007 . Sable and Lesnar later departed from the company after Lesnar battled WWE in a lawsuit .
= = Other media = =
Sable made her video game debut in the WWE game WWF Attitude , and appears in the games WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain and WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw .
= = Personal life = =
Rena Greek married Wayne W. Richardson in 1986 . The couple had a daughter named Mariah in 1988 . The two remained married until Richardson died in a drunk driving accident in 1991 . She met her second husband , professional wrestler and former boxer Marc Mero , in 1993 . She had breast implants that same year . After marrying Mero in 1994 , she broke into the wrestling business through what was then known as the World Wrestling Federation .
After Rena and Marc Mero divorced in 2004 , she began dating Brock Lesnar , whom she became engaged to later on that year . The engagement was called off in early 2005 , but they were engaged again in January 2006 . They were married on May 6 , 2006 . The couple has two sons together , Turk ( born June 2009 ) and Duke ( born July 2010 ) . She 's also stepmother to Mya ( born April 2002 ) , the daughter of Brock 's ex @-@ fiancée , Nicole . In September 2012 , Rena became a grandmother , as her daughter Mariah gave birth to a baby girl .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Sable Bomb ( Powerbomb )
TKO – Total Knock Out - adopted from Marc Mero
Signature moves
Hair pull whip
Multiple kick variations
Repeated shoot , to a bent over or cornered opponent
Super , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
Running clothesline , sometimes done repeatedly in succession
Slap
Sable @-@ canrana ( Super frankensteiner )
Managers
Tori
Nicole Bass
Wrestlers managed
A @-@ Train
Hunter Hearst Helmsley
Marc Mero
Mr. McMahon
The Oddities
Entrance themes
" Wild Cat " by Jim Johnston ( 1997 – 1999 , 2003 – 2004 )
" No Chance in Hell " performed by Peter Bursuker and composed by Jim Johnston ( 2003 ; used while managing Mr. McMahon )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Award ( 2 time )
Dressed to Kill ( 1997 )
Diva of The Year ( 1997 )
= History of York City F.C. ( 1980 – present ) =
York City Football Club is a professional association football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Its history from the 1980 – 81 to the current season saw fluctuating fortunes in the 1980s and 1990s , and relegation from and return to the Football League .
York made their seventh re @-@ election bid after 1980 – 81 , before the club won its first and only league title after finishing first in the Fourth Division in 1983 – 84 with 101 points . They were the first team to score this many points in a Football League season . After four seasons in the Third Division in 1987 – 88 , York were relegated . They beat Crewe Alexandra on penalties at Wembley Stadium in the play @-@ off final in 1992 – 93 , winning promotion back into the third tier of English football , now renamed as the Second Division . The following season , York competed in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , when they were beaten by Stockport County . Later in the 1990s , they knocked Premier League clubs Manchester United and Everton out of the League Cup in successive seasons . After six seasons , York were relegated into the Third Division in 1998 – 99 .
In the following years , the club experienced financial troubles ; chairman Douglas Craig offered the club and its ground for sale in December 2001 . The club was bought by John Batchelor in March 2002 , but the following December they went into administration . In March 2003 , York were taken over by the club 's Supporters ' Trust , and were relegated into the Conference National in 2003 – 04 , ending seventy @-@ five years of Football League membership . The team were unsuccessful in the play @-@ offs in the 2006 – 07 and 2009 – 10 seasons , and were beaten in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at the newly rebuilt Wembley Stadium . In 2011 – 12 , York defeated Newport County in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley , and shortly after returned to the Football League with a 2 – 1 win over Luton Town in the play @-@ off final . In their second season in League Two , the club reached the play @-@ offs but were knocked out in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town .
= = 1980 – 98 : Fourth Division championship and first play @-@ off success = =
The 1980 – 81 season started comfortably for York City , and the team were fourteenth in the table by mid @-@ January 1981 . However , three wins from the last eighteen matches saw them finish in bottom place . York 's seventh application for re @-@ election was successful with forty @-@ six votes . Poor form at home contributed to York occupying the bottom half of the table for most of 1981 – 82 , and a club record of twelve successive matches without a home win . Barry Lyons was sacked as manager in December 1981 , and under caretaker manager Kevin Randall the club dropped into the bottom four . Former York player and club director Barry Swallow took over as caretaker manager in March 1982 , and several convincing home wins toward the end of the season helped the team to seventeenth place . Denis Smith , who had played on loan from Stoke City the previous season , was appointed player @-@ manager in May 1982 , with Viv Busby as his assistant player @-@ coach . York finished 1982 – 83 in seventh place ; their inconsistent away form in the last half of the season led to them missing out on promotion . The club occupied one of the top two places in 1983 – 84 from the second week of the season onwards , and won the Fourth Division championship with 101 points . They became the first team to achieve a three @-@ figure points total in a Football League season . The Yorkshire Evening Press billed them the " Team of the Century " . York set new club records for most wins ( thirty @-@ one ) , most away wins ( thirteen ) and most goals ( ninety @-@ one ) . For the first time since 1954 – 55 , York had two players score over twenty league goals in a season ; these were John Byrne and Keith Walwyn . A profit of almost £ 15 @,@ 000 was posted and the club aspired to further progress and promotion .
Winning six of their first eight matches in 1984 – 85 , York were top of the Third Division by early @-@ October 1984 . After a run of two wins from eleven matches they slipped to eleventh place in mid @-@ December 1984 , though they continued to occupy a top half position before finishing the season in eighth place . In January 1985 , York beat First Division side Arsenal 1 – 0 at home in the FA Cup fourth round , courtesty of a late penalty scored by Keith Houchen . They reached the fifth round for the third time and drew 1 – 1 at home to European Cup holders Liverpool . They lost 7 – 0 in the replay at Anfield — the club 's record cup defeat . York started 1985 – 86 well and were second in the table by late @-@ November 1985 , before a poor mid @-@ season spell saw them drop into mid @-@ table . After being unbeaten in the last nine matches , they finished seventh in the table , marking the fifth consecutive season in which York 's end @-@ of @-@ season league placing improved . They reached the FA Cup fifth round for the second consecutive season , again drawing 1 – 1 at home to Liverpool , before losing 3 – 1 after extra time at Anfield . York made a strong start to 1986 – 87 , and in late @-@ September 1986 they were in second place . They won only seven of their remaining thirty @-@ eight matches and needed a point from their last match to avoid the danger of relegation , which they achieved with a 1 – 1 draw against Notts County . York finished 1986 – 87 in twentieth place .
Smith left to take over at Sunderland in May 1987 , and former Blackburn Rovers manager Bobby Saxton was appointed in June . Only two players were under contract at the time of Saxton 's arrival ; his hastily arranged squad struggled from the start of 1987 – 88 , and only won their first match in late @-@ October 1987 . York were bottom of the table for most of the season , and were relegated after finishing in twenty @-@ third place . The season was statistically the club 's worst in the Football League , with the fewest wins ( eight ) , most defeats ( twenty @-@ nine ) and the fewest points since the three points for a win system was introduced ( thirty @-@ three ) . York made a poor start to 1988 – 89 , and Saxton resigned with the club bottom of the Fourth Division in mid @-@ September 1988 . Swallow took over on a caretaker basis before the former Hartlepool United manager John Bird was appointed in October 1988 . York 's away form improved in the second half of the season , and in the last week they had a slim chance of reaching the play @-@ offs . They missed out on a play @-@ off place and finished the season in eleventh place . A record loss of £ 190 @,@ 000 was posted for the season , but the club carried no overdraft because of interest @-@ free loans from directors and a £ 100 @,@ 000 share issue . York started 1989 – 90 strongly and were in third place by mid @-@ December 1989 . Successive home defeats in late @-@ December 1989 marked the start of a decline that saw them finish the season thirteenth in the table .
In September 1990 , York player David Longhurst collapsed and died after suffering heart failure during a home match against Lincoln City . A few months later , a newly built , covered stand at the Shipton Street End of Bootham Crescent was named after him . York were the Fourth Division 's second lowest scorers in 1990 – 91 , as they finished twenty @-@ first in the table . Douglas Craig , who had been on the board since 1978 , succeeded Michael Sinclair as chairman in June 1991 . York had won two of eleven matches by mid @-@ October 1991 ; Bird was sacked and was replaced in November by Aston Villa assistant manager John Ward . York continued to be placed in lower mid @-@ table , and finished fourth from bottom for the second year running in 1991 – 92 . They started 1992 – 93 with a club @-@ record start of four wins , and led the table until late @-@ December 1992 . Ward left for Bristol Rovers in March 1993 , shortly after a mid @-@ season slump in which York won only one of thirteen matches . Ward 's assistant Alan Little took over and York finished the season in fourth place . They played Bury in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , drawing the first leg 0 – 0 at Gigg Lane before winning the second leg 1 – 0 at home with a goal from Gary Swann . In the final at Wembley Stadium , York beat Crewe Alexandra 5 – 3 on penalties , after the score had finished 1 – 1 after extra time . Wayne Hall scored the decisive penalty as York won promotion into the third tier , now named the Second Division after the formation of the Premier League in 1992 .
York made a good start to 1993 – 94 , before a series of poor results saw them slip to seventeenth place in late @-@ November 1993 . They only lost five of their last thirty fixtures to finish the season fifth in the Second Division table — their highest league placing since 1976 . They lost to Stockport County in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , being beaten 1 – 0 in the second leg at Edgeley Park after drawing 0 – 0 at home in the first leg . York were in lower mid @-@ table for the first half of 1994 – 95 , but improving form saw them move up the table , before finishing in ninth place . They struggled through most of 1995 – 96 , and only avoided relegation by winning their last match away to Brighton & Hove Albion ; they finished in twentieth place . This season saw York record a 4 – 3 aggregate victory over Manchester United in the League Cup second round . York defeated a strong United side including some younger players 3 – 0 at Old Trafford in the first leg ; in the second leg United fielded some more experienced players , but York defeated them 3 – 1 to progress on aggregate . United went on to win the Premier League and FA Cup double . York finished twentieth in 1996 – 97 , only securing safety in the penultimate match with an away win over Rotherham United . For the second consecutive season , they eliminated Premier League opponents from the League Cup in the second round , with a 4 – 3 aggregate win over Everton . After drawing the first leg 1 – 1 at Goodison Park , York progressed after winning the second leg 3 – 2 at home . In mid @-@ December 1997 , York were fourth in the table , but declining form after New Year saw them finish 1997 – 98 in sixteenth place .
= = 1998 – 2010 : Financial problems and relegation from Football League = =
By mid @-@ October 1998 , York were placed eighth in the Second Division . They slipped to the bottom third of the table after winning one point from a possible twenty @-@ one . Despite improved results over Christmas , York played eleven consecutive matches without a win . In mid @-@ March 1999 , the club was just above the bottom four places , when Little was sacked and player @-@ coach Neil Thompson appointed caretaker manager . A flurry of transfers , including the departure of leading scorer Richard Cresswell to Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday for a club @-@ record fee of £ 950 @,@ 000 , followed . After losing away to Manchester City on the last day of 1998 – 99 , York dropped into the bottom four for the first time that season , and were relegated in twenty @-@ first place . The club 's trading loss for the season was £ 483 @,@ 096 , despite a record profit of £ 1 @,@ 274 @,@ 202 from lucrative transfers . Club historian David Batters said , " the stark reality was that the club had to sell to survive " . In July 1999 , the club and its real property assets , including the ground , were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings ( BCH ) for £ 165 @,@ 000 . Thompson was sacked in February 2000 after a run of one win from twelve matches during the middle of 1999 – 2000 . Former Hull City manager Terry Dolan took over , and York finished the season in twentieth place after conceding only five goals in the last twelve matches . Losses for the season were £ 667 @,@ 255 , and the wage bill of £ 1 @,@ 635 @,@ 736 was twice that of 1995 .
By mid @-@ February 2001 , York were bottom of the Third Division table , but after losing only two of their last sixteen matches they finished 2000 – 01 in seventeenth . They reached the FA Cup third round for the second time since 1986 , but were beaten 3 – 0 by Premier League side Leicester City at Filbert Street . Record losses of £ 1 @,@ 261 @,@ 038 were reported in November 2001 , before Craig announced in December that the club and the ground had been put up for sale for £ 4 @.@ 5 million . Craig later said Bootham Crescent would close by June 2002 , and the club would resign from the Football League if a buyer was not found . The club was taken over by motor racing driver John Batchelor in March 2002 . He pledged to give the Supporters ' Trust ( ST ) two seats on the board and announced a sponsorship deal with Persimmon that would see an undisclosed amount split between the club and his racing team . By late @-@ March 2002 , York were second from bottom , before a run of five wins from the last eight matches saw them finish 2001 – 02 in fourteenth place . They reached the FA Cup fourth round for the first time since 1986 , losing 2 – 0 at home to Premier League team Fulham .
In May 2002 , the club was rebranded York City Soccer Club as part of Batchelor 's plan to market it in the United States . Persimmon , which had bought ten percent of the shares in BCH , submitted planning applications for ninety @-@ three homes on the site of Bootham Crescent , and Batchelor spoke of building York a new stadium at Clifton Moor . The club entered a creditors ' voluntary agreement in November 2002 , and the York Evening Press said York had been " plunged into the darkest , coldest days of its history " . The club went into administration in December 2002 , and was given five weeks to find a buyer or face bankruptcy . The ST donated £ 92 @,@ 000 to give the club a temporary reprieve . The ST took control over the club in March 2003 after the Inland Revenue accepted an offer of £ 100 @,@ 000 as payment for £ 160 @,@ 000 owed in tax . Steve Beck became the new chairman . Batchelor had diverted almost all of the £ 400 @,@ 000 Persimmon sponsorship money away from York to his racing team , and his promise of having ST members on the board never materialised . He left the club with a profit of £ 120 @,@ 000 and admitted to asset stripping during his time as owner . Despite the off @-@ field problems , York pushed for promotion in 2002 – 03 and were in an automatic promotion place by late @-@ March 2003 . They won none of their last six games and finished the season in tenth place .
Dolan was sacked in May 2003 , the new board citing financial reasons for his departure . At twenty @-@ seven years , York player Chris Brass was appointed player @-@ manager in June 2003 , which made him the youngest Football League managerial appointment since 1946 . The club 's lease of Bootham Crescent was extended to May 2004 , and plans proceeded to develop Huntington Stadium ahead of a possible move , but problems bringing the ground to Football League standards were encountered . The board preferred to stay at Bootham Crescent , and they bought the site in February 2004 after six months of negotiations . The deal came after York were lent £ 2 million by The Football Stadia Improvement Fund ( FSIF ) , with which they bought 75 @.@ 89 % of BCH shares and all of the 20 @,@ 000 shares owned by Persimmon . Once plans for a new stadium were settled , the loan would be converted a grant to help fund the move . York equalled a club record by winning the first four matches of 2003 – 04 , and by mid @-@ January 2004 were tenth in the table . They won none of their final twenty fixtures , garnering only five more points as they finished bottom of the Third Division . York were relegated into the Conference National after seventy @-@ five years of Football League membership . Beck renounced his title of chairman in September 2004 because he favoured a more democratic approach for a fan @-@ owned club . The board was restructured and Jason McGill became the managing director .
In November 2004 , Brass was sacked after a home defeat to Forest Green Rovers , which left York fourth from the bottom of the table . His assistant Viv Busby took over as caretaker manager before former Derby County coach Billy McEwan was appointed in February 2005 . Under McEwan , York avoided relegation into the Conference North , with a seventeenth @-@ place finish in 2004 – 05 . One @-@ third into 2005 – 06 , York were in second place but poor mid @-@ season results saw them slide down the table . They pushed for the play @-@ offs after six consecutive wins but finished in eighth place after faltering in the run @-@ in . With twenty @-@ two goals , Andy Bishop was the Conference National top scorer in 2005 – 06 . Financial problems arose again ; a loss of £ 150 @,@ 000 was reported for the season , and there were problems meeting the first annual payment of £ 100 @,@ 000 to the FSIF . McGill 's company JM Packaging made a proposal to the ST to become majority shareholders , and would lend the club £ 650 @,@ 000 to cover the current losses and meet the loan repayments for the next five years . ST members approved the proposal in June 2006 , and JM Packaging became seventy @-@ five percent shareholders , reducing the ST 's previous eighty @-@ five percent ownership to twenty @-@ five percent . York made a good start to 2006 – 07 , and were never out of the top five from early @-@ November 2006 . They finished the season in fourth place and played Morecambe in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final ; after drawing 0 – 0 at home in the first leg they were beaten 2 – 1 at Christie Park in the second leg .
York started 2007 – 08 by losing seven of their first ten matches . Despite improving form , their home results remained poor , leading to McEwan 's sacking in November 2007 . He was succeeded by his assistant Colin Walker , after the team won five of his six matches as caretaker manager . York finished the season in fourteenth place , and reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Trophy , losing 2 – 1 on aggregate to Torquay United . In May 2008 , City of York Council announced its commitment to build a community stadium , to be used by York and the city 's rugby league club , York City Knights . An agreement with the FSIF was reached in September 2008 ; the club would stop making loan repayments and would repay the outstanding amount once Bootham Crescent was sold . At the start of 2008 – 09 , York won only five of their nineteen league matches , resulting in Walker 's sacking in November 2008 . Under his replacement , former Port Vale manager Martin Foyle , the team avoided relegation in the penultimate game of the season against Weymouth , and they finished seventeenth in the table . York participated in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at the new Wembley Stadium , where they were beaten 2 – 0 by Stevenage Borough . After starting 2009 – 10 with only one win from five matches , York won eight successive matches in a bid for promotion . They finished in fifth place and faced Luton Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , winning each leg 1 – 0 , but were beaten 3 – 1 by Oxford United in the final at Wembley . They reached the FA Cup third round that season , and were beaten 3 – 1 by Premier League Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium . Richard Brodie was the Conference Premier joint top scorer in 2009 – 10 , with twenty @-@ six goals .
= = 2010 – present : Return into Football League = =
After winning only three of their first ten matches of 2010 – 11 , Foyle resigned as manager in September 2010 , and was replaced with Tamworth manager Gary Mills the following month . Improving form saw York challenge for the play @-@ offs , and by mid @-@ March 2011 they were sixth in the table — one place away from a play @-@ off spot . They won only three of ten matches in the run @-@ in and missed out on the play @-@ offs to finish the season in eighth place . York reached the FA Cup third round for the second consecutive year , and lost 2 – 0 to Premier League club Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium . York won three of the opening seven matches in 2011 – 12 and were only once below a play @-@ off place from early @-@ October 2011 , finishing the season in fourth place . Playing a passing style of football but producing results when needed , they earned eighty @-@ three points that season — the second highest in the club 's history . York drew 1 – 1 at home to Mansfield Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg and won the second leg 1 – 0 after extra time at Field Mill . They then beat Newport County 2 – 0 at Wembley in the 2012 FA Trophy Final , which was the first time the club had won a national knockout competition . A week later they returned to Wembley for the play @-@ off final , where they beat Luton Town 2 – 1 , with goals from Ashley Chambers and Matty Blair . The club was promoted into League Two , returning to the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence . In between the two matches at Wembley , City of York Council granted planning permission for a new community stadium to be built at Monks Cross .
York started 2012 – 13 by winning five of fourteen matches , and by late @-@ October 2012 were ninth in the table . They dropped down the table in the following months , but were still in contention for a play @-@ off place after beating Burton Albion 3 – 0 in the New Year . After this match , York failed to win eleven consecutive matches , and Mills was sacked in March 2013 after a 2 – 0 home defeat to Bradford City . Under his replacement , former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington , York avoided relegation by winning four of their last five matches . They finished their first League Two season in seventeenth place . York won four of their first twenty @-@ three matches of 2013 – 14 , and by late @-@ December 2013 were third from the bottom of the table . A number of influential signings in January 2014 helped York improve their form , and from early @-@ February they were unbeaten in seventeen consecutive matches , conceding no goals from open play . York finished in seventh place and played Fleetwood Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . After losing the first leg 1 – 0 at home , they drew 0 – 0 at Highbury Stadium in the second leg . Worthington resigned as manager in October 2014 after York won only one of their opening fourteen matches of 2014 – 15 . He was succeeded by former Scunthorpe United manager Russ Wilcox . York remained in the lower reaches of the table . They avoided relegation with a late @-@ season run of four wins from five matches , and they finished the season in eighteenth place .
With York twenty @-@ first in the table after a nine @-@ match run without a league win , Wilcox was sacked in October 2015 . He was succeeded in November 2015 by the former Dundee United manager Jackie McNamara .
= 1939 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1939 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 12 , 1939 , and lasted until November 7 , 1939 . These dates mark the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1939 season had below normal activity , with only six tropical storms , of which two became hurricanes and one became a major hurricane , equivalent to Category 3 status or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The first tropical cyclone formed on June 12 , and the last dissipated on November 6 .
All of the storms affected land to some extent . The first two cyclones of the season made landfall along the coast of the United States , collectively causing only minor damage . Hurricane Five , the strongest of the year , took a northeastern path through the western Atlantic , striking Bermuda on October 16 . The fifth and final storm was a minimal hurricane that wrought damage throughout the western Caribbean Sea , most notably in Jamaica and Cuba . The weakest known storm was Tropical Storm Four , with winds of only 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 003 millibars ( 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first tropical storm of the season developed in the extreme western Caribbean Sea on June 12 . Reports of the storm first came from the Mexican Weather Service office in Chetumal , Quintana Roo , and during the afternoon of June 12 , vessels just offshore recorded squally conditions and choppy seas . The cyclone moved northward , parallel to the coast of Belize , before moving over the northeastern corner of the Yucatán Peninsula . It continued steadily northward through the Gulf of Mexico , slowly strengthening to a peak of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) on June 14 with a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . An area of high pressure to the north caused the storm to execute a counter @-@ clockwise loop . A trough of low pressure turned it back to the north , and the cyclone made landfall near Mobile , Alabama , as a minimal tropical storm on June 16 . Turning to the northwest , it quickly weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated on June 17 over Mississippi .
In advance of the system , officials issued storm warnings for coastal areas of Alabama and western Florida , and residents in low @-@ lying areas were advised to seek higher ground . Damage associated with the cyclone was generally minor , and only one life was lost when a boy fell into the swollen waters of a river and drowned .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
On August 7 , a tropical storm formed north of the Leeward Islands , likely from a tropical wave . It tracked to the west @-@ northwest , slowly strengthening to a hurricane as it moved through the Bahamas on August 11 . Later that day , it met the east coast of Florida , and crossed the state in around 15 hours . After weakening to a tropical storm , it quickly re @-@ strengthened upon emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , and made another landfall near Apalachicola , Florida , on August 13 . Over land , the cyclone slowed considerably and quickly deteriorated . By August 14 , the storm had weakened to a tropical depression as it drifted through Alabama . The depression turned to the northeast , and remained a tropical depression until it dissipated over New York on August 20 . Due to timely reports and warnings , the storm was reportedly forecast with " exceptional accuracy " .
In Florida , damage was minor , amounting to uprooted trees , broken windows , moderate crop damage , and downed power lines . A few flimsy structures and small watercraft also sustained damage . Along the Florida Panhandle , the storm 's winds impacted power , telephone , and telegraph lines , and inflicted $ 2 @,@ 000 worth of damage to a dock warehouse . A man in Cedar Key , Florida , drowned after rough surf overturned his rowboat , and at least two other people suffered minor storm @-@ related injuries . Torrential rain fell in Alabama as a result of the storm 's slow forward movement , leading to severe flooding . Further inland , the storm spawned a tornado in North Carolina which caused one death . As the depression continued heading inland , it dropped heavy precipitation throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , exceeding 14 inches ( 36 cm ) in Tuckerton , New Jersey , and 18 inches ( 460 mm ) in Manahawkin , New Jersey .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
An operationally unnoticed tropical storm developed on August 15 . At its peak , sustained winds were 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and the minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . By August 19 , the storm dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
An area of disturbed weather over Central America organized into a tropical storm in the Bay of Campeche on September 23 . Uneventfully , it moved generally north @-@ northeastward through the Gulf of Mexico and its winds strengthened to a peak of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The storm made landfall on south @-@ central Louisiana on September 26 , and dissipated later that day . The Weather Bureau office in New Orleans posted numerous advisories , although the effects from the storm were minimal .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
On the afternoon of October 9 , reports from the Leeward Islands of low pressures and unsettled weather indicated that a storm was forming in the vicinity . The disturbance strengthened into a tropical storm on October 12 to the northeast of Puerto Rico . The quickly escalating storm tracked northwestward before turning towards the northeast , away from a high pressure area building in from the west . Early on October 15 , the storm attained hurricane intensity and continued to mature until October 16 , when it reached its peak at a strength corresponding to Category 4 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . That same day it passed just east of Bermuda . It weakened as it accelerated to the northeast , and became extratropical near Newfoundland a couple of days later .
Numerous ships encountered the hurricane along its course . On the President Harding , en route to New York , one crew member drowned due to the rough conditions and 73 crew and passengers suffered injury , of various severity , requiring a call for emergency medical supplies . The ship itself sustained a bit of damage . As the storm passed near the island of Bermuda , it generated strong winds — gusting to 131 miles per hour ( 211 km / h ) — and heavy precipitation . Damage was fairly significant ; the winds uprooted trees , shattered windows , and disrupted public utilities .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On October 29 , the fifth and final known tropical cyclone of the season developed in the western Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave . It initially moved northwestward , but turned toward the east shortly thereafter . Drifting due eastward , the storm grew into a minimal hurricane on October 31 while passing over the Cayman Islands . The hurricane 's center passed just north of the island of Jamaica later that day as it weakened back into a tropical storm . Eventually , the storm turned abruptly northeastward and crossed the eastern tip of Cuba . By November 3 , it had emerged into the Atlantic and entered the southern Bahamas . Beginning to accelerate , the tropical storm passed to the west of Bermuda before becoming extratropical on November 6 .
At Grand Cayman , winds from the storm reached 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) with a minimum pressure of 990 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) . According to press reports , the hurricane inflicted considerable damage on the Cayman Islands . In northern Jamaica , property damage was also widespread . The hurricane brought heavy rainfall , high winds , and pounding surf to the island , leaving one dead . Another death was reported in Cuba , where the torrential rains also caused extensive flooding and losses to livestock and crops .
= The Boat Race 1849 ( December ) =
The 10th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 15 December 1849 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The race was won by Oxford who triumphed over Cambridge after they were disqualified . It is the only time the Boat Race has been held twice in a calendar year , and as of 2015 remains the only time the event has been decided as a result of a disqualification .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London .
Cambridge had beaten Oxford " easily " in the race earlier that year . It was as a result of the manner of the defeat , and with doubts over the construction of the Oxford boat that they issued a challenge to Cambridge University Boat Club in October to race again in December . The invitation to race was " immediately accepted . " Cambridge held the overall lead , with seven victories to Oxford 's two .
= = Crews = =
Oxford 's crew contained four rowers who had featured in the previous race in March , with Chitty , Steward , Sykes and Rich returning for the Dark Blues . Cambridge welcomed back five rowers and the cox , George Booth . The difference in weight between the crews was marginal , Oxford 's rowers weighing an average of just under 11 st 6 lb ( 72 @.@ 4 kg ) were 0 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 06 kg ) per man heavier than Cambridge .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , leaving Cambridge with Surrey . Weather conditions were poor : rain and a strong wind provided a " pitiless pelting " to spectators and the crews alike . Although pre @-@ race betting indicated no clear favourite , the high winds were thought to provide Cambridge with a slight advantage " as their style of rowing was deemed to be more suitable to stormy weather " and so the Light Blues went into the race as marginal favourites .
Both crews were on the river before 3pm in boats constructed by Searle and Sons , described as " masterpieces of art " , complete with splashboards to reduce the amount of water taken on board . Cambridge made the better start and were clear by the Searles boathouse . They increased the lead by a further half @-@ a @-@ length and held it for another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , at which point Oxford produced a " marked improvement in speed " and began to reduce the deficit . As Cambridge had already moved in front of Oxford , they steered back towards the Surrey shore in preparation for shooting Hammersmith Bridge . In doing so , a collision ensued , causing Oxford to come to halt . Although Cambridge made a three @-@ to @-@ four length headstart , Oxford 's subsequent pace combined with Cambridge 's wayward steering reduced the gap and by the end of the race , the boats were nearly level .
Immediately upon the conclusion , the race umpire , Thomas Howard Fellows of Leander Club declared the result in favour of Oxford , disqualifying Cambridge for the foul . Cambridge , although believing the foul was against them , did not object to the decision . The Cambridge University Boat Club secretary Charles Bagot wrote : " It is much to be regretted that a foul should have taken place , as , besides rendering the race an imperfect test of the merits of the respective crews , it very much disturbed the harmony and good feeling which should exist between members of the rival Universities in such contests . " As of 2015 , it remains the only time that the Boat Race has been decided by a disqualification .
= Ludlow Castle =
Ludlow Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the town of the same name in the English county of Shropshire , standing on a promontory overlooking the River Teme . The castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy after the Norman conquest and was one of the first stone castles to be built in England . During the civil war of the 12th century the castle changed hands several times between the de Lacy 's and rival claimants , and was further fortified with a Great Tower and a large outer bailey . In the mid @-@ 13th century , Ludlow was passed on to Geoffrey de Geneville who rebuilt part of the inner bailey , and the castle played a part in the Second Barons ' War . Roger Mortimer acquired the castle in 1301 , further extending the internal complex of buildings , and the Mortimer family went on to hold Ludlow for over a century .
Richard , the Duke of York , inherited the castle in 1425 , and it became an important symbol of Yorkist authority during the Wars of the Roses . When Richard 's son , Edward IV , seized the throne in 1461 it passed into the ownership of the Crown . Ludlow Castle was chosen as the seat of the Council in the Marches of Wales , effectively acting as the capital of Wales , and it was extensively renovated during throughout the 16th century . By the 17th century the castle was luxuriously appointed , hosting cultural events such as the first performance of John Milton 's masque Comus . Ludlow Castle was held by the Royalists during the English Civil War of the 1640s , until it was besieged and taken by a Parliamentarian army in 1646 . The contents of the castle were sold off and a garrison was retained there for much of the interregnum .
With the Restoration of 1660 , the Council was reestablished and the castle repaired , but Ludlow never recovered from the civil war years and when the Council was finally abolished in 1689 it fell into neglect . Henry Herbert , the Earl of Powis , leased the property from the Crown in 1772 , extensively landscaping the ruins , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Clive , bought the castle outright in 1811 . A mansion was constructed in the outer bailey but the remainder of the castle was left largely untouched , attracting an increasing number of visitors and becoming a popular location for artists . After 1900 , Ludlow Castle was cleared of vegetation and over the course of the century it was extensively repaired by the Powis Estate and government bodies . In the 21st century it is still owned by the Earl of Powis and operated as a tourist attraction .
The architecture of Ludlow reflects its long history , retaining a blend of several styles of building . The castle is approximately 500 by 435 feet ( 152 by 133 m ) in size , covering almost 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) . The outer bailey includes the Castle House building , now used by the Powis Estate as offices and accommodation , while the inner bailey , separated by a trench cut out of the stone , houses the Great Tower , Solar block , Great Hall and Great Chamber block , along with later 16th century additions , as well as a rare , circular chapel , modelled on the shrine in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . English Heritage notes that the ruins represent " a remarkably complete multi @-@ phase complex " and considers Ludlow to be " one of England 's finest castle sites " .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
Ludlow Castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy around 1075 . Walter had arrived in England in 1066 as part of William fitzOsbern 's household during the Norman conquest of England . FitzOsbern was made the Earl of Hereford and tasked with settling the area ; at the same time , several castles were founded in the west of the county , securing its border with Wales . Walter de Lacy was the earl 's second in command , and was rewarded with 163 manors spread across seven counties , with 91 in Herefordshire alone .
Walter began building a castle within the manor of Stanton Lacy ; the fortification was originally called Dinham Castle , before it acquired its later name of Ludlow . Ludlow was the most important of Walter 's castles : as well as being at the heart of his new estates , the site also lay at a strategic crossroads over the Teme River , on a strong defensive promontory . Walter died in a construction accident at Hereford in 1085 and was succeeded by his son , Roger de Lacy .
The castle 's Norman stone fortifications were added possibly as early as the 1080s onwards , and were finished before 1115 , based around what is now the inner bailey of the castle , forming a stone version of a ringwork . It had four towers and a gatehouse tower along the walls , with a ditch dug out of the rock along two sides , the excavated stone being reused for the building works , and would have been one of the very first masonry castles in England . With its circular design and grand entrance tower , it has been likened to the earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon burgheat designs . In 1096 , Roger was stripped of his lands after rebelling against William II and they were reassigned to Roger 's brother , Hugh .
= = = 12th century = = =
Hugh de Lacy died childless around 1115 , and Henry I gave Ludlow Castle and most of the surrounding estates to Hugh 's niece , Sybil , marrying her to Pain fitzJohn , one of his household staff . Pain used Ludlow as his caput , the main castle in his estates , using the surrounding estates and knight 's fees to support the castle and its defences . Pain died in 1137 fighting the Welsh , triggering a struggle for the inheritance of the castle . Robert fitzMiles , who had been planning to marry Pain 's daughter , laid claim to it , as did Gilbert de Lacy , Roger de Lacy 's son . By now , King Stephen had seized the English throne , but his position was insecure and he therefore gave Ludlow to fitzMiles in 1137 , in exchange for promises of future political support .
A civil war between Stephen and the Empress Matilda soon broke out and Gilbert took his chance to rise up against Stephen , seizing Ludlow Castle . Stephen responded by taking an army into the Welsh Marches , where he attempted to garner local support by marrying one of his knights , Joce de Dinan , to Sybil and granting the future ownership of the castle to them . Stephen took the castle after several attempts in 1139 , famously rescuing his ally Prince Henry of Scotland when the latter was caught on a hook thrown over the walls by the garrison . Gilbert still maintained that he was the rightful owner of Ludlow , however , and a private war ensued between Joce and himself . Gilbert was ultimately successful and retook the castle around a few years before the end of the civil war in 1153 . He ultimately left for the Levant , leaving Ludlow in the hands of firstly , his eldest son , Robert , and then , after Robert 's death , his younger son , Hugh de Lacy .
During this period , the Great Tower , a form of keep , was constructed by converting the entrance tower , probably either around the time of the siege of 1139 , or during the war between Gilbert and Joce . The old Norman castle had also begun to become too small for a growing household and , probably between 1140 and 1177 , an outer bailey was built to the south and east of the original castle , creating a large open space . In the process , the entrance to the castle shifted from the south to the east , to face the growing town of Ludlow . Gilbert probably built the circular chapel in the inner bailey , resembling the churches of the Templar order which he later joined .
Hugh took part in the Norman invasion of Ireland and in 1172 was made Lord of Meath ; he spent much time away from Ludlow , and Henry II confiscated the castle in his absence , probably to ensure that Hugh stayed loyal while in Ireland . Hugh died in Ireland in 1186 and the castle passed to his son , Walter , who was a minor and did not take charge of the property until 1194 . During Prince John 's rebellion against Richard I in 1194 , Walter joined in the attacks against the prince ; Richard did not approve of this and confiscated Ludlow and Walter 's other properties . Walter de Lacy offered to buy back his land for 1 @,@ 000 marks , but the offer was rejected until in 1198 the vast sum of 3 @,@ 100 marks was finally agreed .
= = = 13th century = = =
Walter de Lacy travelled to Ireland in 1201 and the following year his properties , including Ludlow Castle , were once again confiscated to ensure his loyalty and placed under the control of William de Braose , his father @-@ in @-@ law . Walter 's lands were returned to him , subject to the payment of a fine of 400 marks , but in 1207 his disagreements with royal officials in Ireland led to King John seizing the castle and putting it under the control of William again . Walter reconciled himself with John the following year , but meanwhile William himself had fallen out with the King ; violence broke out and both Walter and William took refuge in Ireland , with John taking control of Ludlow yet again . It was not until 1215 that their relationship recovered and John agreed to give Ludlow back to Walter . At some point during the early 13th century , the innermost bailey was constructed in the castle , creating an additional private space within the inner bailey .
In 1223 , King Henry III met with the Welsh prince Llywelyn ab Iorwerth at Ludlow Castle for peace talks , but the negotiations were unsuccessful . The same year Henry became suspicious of Walter 's activities in Ireland and , among other measures to secure his loyalty , Ludlow Castle was taken over by the Crown for a period of two years . This was cut short in May 1225 when Walter carried out a campaign against Henry 's enemies in Ireland and paid the King 3 @,@ 000 marks for the return of his castles and lands . During the 1230s , however , Walter had accumulated a thousand pounds of debt to Henry and private moneylenders which he was unable to repay . As a result , in 1238 he gave Ludlow Castle as collateral to the King , although the fortification was returned to him sometime before his death in 1241 .
Walter 's granddaughters Maud and Margaret were due to inherit Walter 's remaining estates on his death , but they were still unmarried , making it hard for them to hold property in their own right . Henry informally divided the lands up between them , giving Ludlow to Maud and marrying her to one of his royal favourites , Peter de Geneva , cancelling many of the debts they had inherited from Walter at the same time . Peter died in 1249 and Maud married a second time , this time to Geoffrey de Geneville , a friend of the Prince Edward , the future king . In 1260 , Henry officially split up Walter 's estate , allowing Geoffrey to retain the castle .
Henry lost control of power in the 1260s , resulting in the Second Barons ' War across England . Following the Royalist defeat in 1264 , the rebel leader Simon de Montfort seized Ludlow Castle , but it was recaptured shortly afterwards by Henry 's supporters , probably led by Geoffrey de Geneville . Prince Edward escaped from captivity in 1265 and met up with his supporters at the castle , before commencing his campaign to retake the throne , culminating in de Montfort 's defeat at Evesham later that year . Geoffrey continued to occupy the castle for the rest of the century under Edward I 's rule , prospering until his death in 1314 . Geoffrey built the Great Hall and the Solar block during his tenure of the castle , either between 1250 and 1280 , or later , in the 1280s and 1290s . The town walls of Ludlow also began to be constructed in the 13th century , probably from 1260 onwards , and these were linked to the castle to form a continuous ring of defences around the town .
= = = 14th century = = =
Geoffrey and Maud 's oldest granddaughter , Joan , married Roger Mortimer in 1301 , giving Mortimer control of Ludlow Castle . Around 1320 , Roger built the Great Chamber block alongside the existing Great Hall and Solar complex , copying what was becoming a popular tripartite design for domestic castle buildings in the 14th century ; an additional building was also constructed by Roger on the location of the later Tudor Lodgings , and the Guardrobe Tower was added to the curtain wall . Between 1321 and 1322 Mortimer found himself on the losing side of the Despenser War and , after being imprisoned by Edward II , he escaped from the Tower of London in 1323 into exile .
While in France , Mortimer formed an alliance with Queen Isabella , Edward 's estranged wife , and together in 1327 they seized power in England . Mortimer was made the Earl of March and became extremely wealthy , possibly entertaining Edward III at the castle in 1329 . The earl built a new chapel in the Outer Bailey , named after Saint Peter , honouring the saint 's day on which he had escaped from the Tower . Mortimer 's work at Ludlow was probably intended to produce what the historian David Whitehead has termed a " show castle " with chivalric and Arthurian overtones , echoing the now archaic Norman styles of building . Mortimer fell from power the following year but his widow Joan was permitted to retain Ludlow .
Ludlow Castle gradually became the Mortimer family 's most important property , but for much of the rest of the century its owners were too young to control the castle personally . The castle was first briefly inherited by Mortimer 's son , Edmund , and then in 1331 Mortimer 's young grandson , Roger , who eventually became a prominent soldier in the Hundred Years War . Roger 's young son , Edmund , inherited the castle in 1358 , and also grew up to become involved in the war with France . Both Roger and Edmund used a legal device called " the use " , effectively giving Ludlow Castle to trustees during their lifetimes in exchange for annual payments ; this reduced their tax liabilities and gave them more control over the distribution of the estates on their deaths . Edmund 's son , another Roger , inherited the castle in 1381 , but King Richard II took the opportunity of Roger 's minority to exploit the Mortimer estates until they were put into the control of a committee of major nobles . When Roger died in 1398 , Richard again took wardship of the castle on behalf of the young heir , Edmund , until he was deposed from power in 1399 .
= = = 15th century = = =
Ludlow Castle was in the wardship of King Henry IV , when the Owain Glyndŵr revolt broke out across Wales . Military captains were appointed to the castle to protect it from the rebel threat , in the first instance John Lovel and then Henry 's half @-@ brother , Sir Thomas Beaufort . Roger Mortimer 's younger brother , Edmund , set out from the castle with an army against the rebels in 1402 , but was captured at the Battle of Bryn Glas . Henry refused to ransom him , and he eventually married one of Glyndŵr 's daughters , before dying during the siege of Harlech Castle in 1409 .
Henry placed the young heir to Ludlow , another Edmund Mortimer , under house arrest in the south of England , and kept a firm grip on Ludlow Castle himself . This persisted until Henry V finally granted Edmund his estates in 1413 , with Edmund going on to serve the Crown overseas . As a result , the Mortimers rarely visited the castle during the first part of the century , despite the surrounding town having become prosperous in the wool and cloth trades . Edmund fell heavily into debt and having sold his rights to his Welsh estates to a consortium of nobles , before dying childless in 1425 .
The castle was inherited by Edmund 's sister 's young son , Richard the Duke of York , who took possession in 1432 . Richard took a keen interest in the castle , which formed the administrative base for his estates around the region , possibly living there in the late 1440s and definitely residing there for much of the 1450s . Richard also established his sons , including the future Edward IV , and their household at the castle in the 1450s , and was possibly responsible for rebuilding the northern part of the Great Tower during this period .
The Wars of the Roses broke out between the Lancastrians and Richard 's Yorkist faction in the 1450s . Ludlow Castle did not find itself in the front @-@ line of most of the conflict , instead acting as a safe retreat away from the main fighting . An exception to this was the Battle of Ludford Bridge which took place just outside the town of Ludlow in 1459 , resulting in a largely bloodless victory for the Lancastrian Henry VI . After the battle , in a bid to break Richard 's power over the region , Edmund de la Mare was placed in charge of the castle as constable , with John Talbot , the Earl of Shrewsbury , being given the wider lordship . Richard was killed in battle in 1460 , and his son Edward seized the throne the following year , retaking control of Ludlow Castle and merging it with the property of the Crown .
The new Edward IV visited the castle regularly and established a council there to govern his estates in Wales . He probably conducted only modest work on the property , although he may could have been responsible for the remodelling of the Great Tower . In 1473 , possibly influenced by his own childhood experiences at Ludlow , Edward sent his eldest son , the future Edward V , and his brother Prince Richard to live at the castle , which was also made the seat of the newly created Council in the Marches of Wales . By now Ludlow had become primarily residential , rather than military , but was still rich in chivalric connotations and a valuable symbol of the Yorkist authority and their claim to the throne . Edward died in 1483 , but after Henry VII took the throne in 1485 he continued to use Ludlow Castle as a regional base , granting it to his son , Prince Arthur , in 1493 , and reestablishing the dormant Council in the Marches at the property .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1501 , Prince Arthur arrived in Ludlow for his honeymoon with his bride Catherine of Aragon , before dying the following year . The Council in the Marches of Wales continued to operate , however , under the guidance of its president , Bishop William Smyth . The council evolved into a combination of a governmental body and a court of law , settling a range of disputes across Wales and charged with maintaining general order , and Ludlow Castle became effectively the capital of Wales .
Mary Tudor , daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII , spent 19 months at Ludlow overseeing the Council of the Marches between 1525 and 1528 , along with her entourage of servants , advisors , and guardians . The relatively small sum of £ 5 was spent restoring the castle before her arrival . The council 's wide ranging role was reinforced in legislation in 1534 , and its purpose was further elaborated in the Act of Union of 1543 ; some presidents , such as Bishop Rowland Lee , used its harsher powers extensively to execute local criminals , but later presidents typically preferred to punish with the pillory , whipping or imprisonment in the castle . The Great Chamber itself was used as the council 's meeting room .
The establishment of the Council in Ludlow Castle gave it a new lease of life , during a period in which many similar fortifications were falling into decay . By the 1530s , the castle needed considerable renovation ; Lee began work in 1534 , borrowing money to do so , but Sir Thomas Engleford complained the following year that the castle was still unfit for habitation . Lee repaired the castle roofs , probably using lead from the Carmelite friary in the town , and using the fines imposed and the goods confiscated by the court . He later claimed that the work on the castle would have cost around £ 500 , had the Crown had to pay for it all directly . The porter 's lodge and prison were built in the outer bailey around 1552 . The woods around the castle were gradually cut down during the 16th century .
Elizabeth I , influenced by her royal favourite Robert Dudley , appointed Sir Henry Sidney as President of the Council in 1560 , and he took up residence at Ludlow Castle . Henry was a keen antiquarian with an interest in chivalry , and used his post to restore much of the castle in a late @-@ perpendicular style . He extended the castle by building family apartments between the Great Hall and Mortimer 's Tower , and used the former royal apartments as a guest wing , starting a tradition of decorating the Great Hall with the coats of arms of council officers . The larger windows in the castle were glazed , a clock installed and water piped into the castle . The judicial facilities were improved with a new courthouse converted out of the 14th @-@ century chapel , facilities for prisoners and storage facilities for the court records , Mortimer 's Tower in the outer bailey being turned into a record depository . The restoration was generally sympathetic and , although it included a fountain , a real tennis court , walks and viewing
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Support Company were both awarded the US Distinguished Unit Citation .
That afternoon US 3 / 187 RCT returned to Sukchon . The Middlesex battalion was subsequently ordered to push on to Sukchon , and after successfully relieving the Americans in place by nightfall , the battalion occupied a defensive position 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) north . US 187 RCT returned to Pyongyang by road on 23 October , moving through Sunchon . Shortly after they went back into theatre reserve . Meanwhile , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and US 24th Division continued their advance up the highway . Intending to defeat the North Koreans and bring the war to a close , the UN forces pushed towards the Yalu River , on the Chinese border . However , resistance continued to be met as the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade crossed the Chongchon River , and they now moved towards Pakchon . On 24 October , MacArthur had removed all restrictions on the movement of his forces south of the Yalu River and prepared for the final phase of the UN advance , defying a directive of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and risking Chinese intervention on behalf of North Korea . An intense period of fighting followed and the Australians were involved in a number of major battles over the coming days .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On the afternoon of 25 October a platoon from 3 RAR was fired on by two companies of North Koreans as they crossed the Taeryong River to conduct a reconnaissance of the west bank , and although they were subsequently forced to withdraw , the Australians took 10 prisoners with them . Acting as the forward elements of the brigade , that evening Green sent two companies across the river to establish defensive positions , and they subsequently broke up a frontal assault on their positions with mortars while the North Koreans were in the process of forming up . Sixty North Koreans supported by a T @-@ 34 tank then attacked the forward Australian companies at Kujin early the following morning , resulting in Australian losses of eight killed and 22 wounded . However , the North Koreans suffered heavy casualties including over 100 killed and 350 captured , and the Australians subsequently succeeded in defending the bridgehead after the North Koreans withdrew . Intelligence indicated that the British and Australians were facing the North Korean 17th Tank Brigade , which was preparing a last line of defence at Chongju , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . With the war considered all but over the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade continued to pursue the North Koreans towards Chongju ; however , the advance increasingly encountered strong resistance as they approached the Manchurian border .
3 RAR took over as lead battalion of the brigade on 29 October , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Chongju . That morning a spotter aircraft reported a large North Korean formation consisting of a battalion @-@ sized force of 500 – 600 infantry supported by several tanks and at least two self @-@ propelled guns , positioned on a thickly wooded ridgeline around Chongju . The Battle of Chongju ensued as the Australians dislodged the strong North Korean armoured force and then defended their positions against North Korean counter @-@ attacks during the evening . The following day the Australians advanced to the high ground overlooking Chongju , killing and capturing a number of North Koreans in skirmishes . That afternoon the town itself was cleared by the remaining elements of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade without opposition . The fighting around Chongju was the heaviest undertaken by the Australians since entering the war . North Korean casualties included 162 killed and 10 captured , while Australian losses were nine killed and 30 wounded , including Green , who was wounded in the stomach by artillery fire after the battle , dying two days later on 1 November after succumbing to his wounds .
Following the capture of Chongju the US 21st Infantry Regiment had set off rapidly along the road to Sonchon to the west . Encountering only one strong North Korean position which they quickly turned , by noon on 1 November the lead battalion had reached Chonggodong , just 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the Yalu River where the Americans clashed with another North Korean armoured force . To the north meanwhile , the US 5th and 9th Infantry Regiments of the US 24th Infantry Division secured Taechon and Kusong , before advancing to within 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of the Manchurian border . However , during the last weeks of October the Chinese had moved 18 divisions of the People 's Volunteer Army across the Yalu River under the overall command of Marshal Peng Dehuai in order to reinforce the remnants of the KPA . Undetected by US and South Korean intelligence , the 13th Army Group crossed the border on 16 October and penetrated up to 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into North Korea , and were reinforced in early November by 12 divisions from the 9th Army Group ; in total 30 divisions composed of 380 @,@ 000 men . The Chinese subsequently ambushed MacArthur 's forces which were now widely dispersed , decimating ROK II Corps at Onjong and encircling and overrunning the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at Unsan . With the US 24th Infantry Division ordered back to the Chongchon River as a result , the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade also began moving south as part of the UN general withdrawal in the face of the Chinese First Phase Offensive .
= Lambeosaurus =
Lambeosaurus ( / ˌlæmbioʊˈsɔːrəs / LAM @-@ bee @-@ o @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ; meaning " Lambe 's lizard " ) is a genus of hadrosaurid dinosaur that lived about 75 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous period ( Campanian ) of North America . This bipedal / quadrupedal , herbivorous dinosaur is known for its distinctive hollow cranial crest , which in the best @-@ known species resembled a hatchet . Several possible species have been named , from Canada , the United States , and Mexico , but only the two Canadian species are currently recognized as valid .
Lambeosaurus was belatedly described in 1923 by William Parks , over twenty years after the first material was studied by Lawrence Lambe . The genus has a complicated taxonomic history , in part because small @-@ bodied crested hadrosaurids now recognized as juveniles were once thought to belong to their own genera and species . Currently , the various skulls assigned to the type species L. lambei are interpreted as showing age differences and sexual dimorphism . Lambeosaurus was closely related to the better known Corythosaurus , which is found in slightly older rocks , as well as the less well @-@ known genera Hypacrosaurus and Olorotitan . All had unusual crests , which are now generally assumed to have served social functions like noisemaking and recognition .
= = Description = =
Lambeosaurus , best known through L. lambei , was quite similar to Corythosaurus in everything but the form of the head adornment . Compared to Corythosaurus , the crest of Lambeosaurus was shifted forward , and the hollow nasal passages within were at the front of the crest and stacked vertically . It also can be differentiated from Corythosaurus by its lack of forking nasal processes making up part of the sides of the crest , which is the only way to tell juveniles of the two genera apart , as the crests took on their distinctive forms as the animals aged .
Lambeosaurus was like other hadrosaurids , and could move on both two legs and all fours , as shown by footprints of related animals . It had a long tail stiffened by ossified tendons that prevented it from drooping . The hands had four fingers , lacking the innermost finger of the generalized five @-@ fingered tetrapod hand , while the second , third , and fourth fingers were bunched together and bore hooves , suggesting the animal could have used the hands for support . The fifth finger was free and could be used to manipulate objects . Each foot had only the three central toes .
The most distinctive feature , the crest , was different in the two well @-@ known species . In L. lambei , it had a hatchet @-@ like shape when the dinosaur was full @-@ grown , and was somewhat shorter and more rounded in specimens interpreted as females . The " hatchet blade " projected in front of the eyes , and the " handle " was a solid bony rod that jutted out over the back of the skull . The " hatchet blade " had two sections : the uppermost portion was a thin bony " coxcomb " that grew out relatively late in life , when an individual neared adulthood ; and the lower portion held hollow spaces that were continuations of the nasal passages . In L. magnicristatus , the " handle " was greatly reduced , and the " blade " expanded , forming a tall , exaggerated pompadour @-@ like crest . This crest is damaged in the best overall specimen , and only the front half remains .
The Canadian species of Lambeosaurus appear to have been similar in size to Corythosaurus , and thus around 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) long . Impressions of the scales are known for several specimens ; a specimen now assigned to L. lambei had a thin skin with uniform , polygonal scutes distributed in no particular order on the neck , torso , and tail . Similar scalation is known from the neck , forelimb , and foot of a specimen of L. magnicristatus .
= = Classification = =
Lambeosaurus is the type genus of the Lambeosaurinae , the subfamily of hadrosaurids that had hollow skull crests . Among the lambeosaurines , it is closely related to similar dinosaurs such as Corythosaurus and Hypacrosaurus , with little separating them but crest form . The relationships among these dinosaur genera are difficult to pick out . Some early classifications placed these genera in the tribe Corythosaurini , which was found by David Evans and Robert Reisz to include Lambeosaurus as the sister taxon to a clade made up of Corythosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , and the Russian genus Olorotitan ; these lambeosaurines , with Nipponosaurus . However , later researchers pointed out that due to the rules of priority set forth by the ICZN , any tribe containing Lambeosaurus is properly named Lambeosaurini , and that therefore the name " Corythosaurini " is a junior synonym . The following cladogram illustrating the relationships of Lambeosaurus and its close relatives was recovered in a 2012 phylogenetic analysis by Albert Prieto @-@ Márquez , Luis M. Chiappe and Shantanu H. Joshi .
= = Discovery and history = =
Lambeosaurus has a complicated taxonomic history , beginning in 1902 with Lawrence Lambe 's naming of hadrosaurid limb material and other bones ( originally GSC 419 ) from Alberta as Trachodon marginatus . Paleontologists began finding better remains of hadrosaurids from the same rocks in the 1910s , in what is now known as the late Campanian @-@ age ( Upper Cretaceous ) Dinosaur Park Formation . Lambe assigned two new skulls to T. marginatus , and based on the new information , coined the genus Stephanosaurus for the species in 1914 . Unfortunately , there was very little to associate the skulls with the scrappy earlier marginatus material , so in 1923 William Parks proposed a new genus and species for the skulls , with both generic and specific names honoring Lambe : Lambeosaurus lambei ( type specimen NMC 2869 , originally GSC 2869 ) .
= = = New species and procheneosaurs = = =
Although the early workers in Alberta did not recognize it at the time , they were finding the remains of juvenile Lambeosaurus as well . These fossils of small @-@ bodied crested duckbills were interpreted as adults of a distinct lineage of hadrosaurids , the subfamily Cheneosaurinae . The first such animal to be named was Trachodon altidens , a left upper jaw ( GSC 1092 ) from the Dinosaur Park Formation described by Lawrence Lambe in 1902 . In the same volume , Henry Fairfield Osborn suggested T. altidens could belong to a new genus , which he labelled Didanodon without further discussion . In 2006 , Lund and Gates stated that Didanodon altidens was a nomen nudum , without further discussion .
In 1920 , William Diller Matthew used the name Procheneosaurus ( no species name ) in a caption for a photograph of a skeleton at the American Museum of Natural History , from the Dinosaur Park Formation ( AMNH 5340 ) . Parks believed that the procedure and description were inadequate for the name to be considered valid , and to address the situation , he coined the genus Tetragonosaurus . Into this genus he placed the type species T. praeceps ( based on ROM 3577 ) and a second species T. erectofrons ( based on ROM 3578 ) for small skulls from the Dinosaur Park Formation , and assigned Matthew 's Procheneosaurus skeleton to T. praeceps . Charles M. Sternberg followed in 1935 by adding the slightly larger T. cranibrevis , based on GSC ( now NMC ) 8633 . The use of Tetragonosaurus was rejected by Richard Swann Lull in favor of Procheneosaurus . Lull requested that the name Tetragonosaurus be suppressed in favor of Procheneosaurus , which was granted , and Procheneosaurus received official approval from the ICZN as a conserved name . In 1942 he and Wright transferred the Tetragonosaurus species and , tentatively , Trachodon altidens , to Procheneosaurus , with P. praeceps serving as the type species . This usage was generally followed until 1975 , when Peter Dodson showed that the " cheneosaurs " were actually juveniles of other dinosaurs . Procheneosaurus praeceps and altidens are considered probable synonyms of Lambeosaurus lambei .
P. cranibrevis , from the Dinosaur Park Formation and named as a species of Tetragonosaurus in 1935 by Charles M. Sternberg , was slightly larger than the other species , and was interpreted by Dodson as a juvenile Corythosaurus . Further study has shown that the type specimen is a Lambeosaurus juvenile , based on how the skull bones articulate , and that several other specimens assigned to it are Corythosaurus . P. erectofrons , named by Parks as a species of Tetragonosaurus , is based on a skull from the Dinosaur Park Formation . Dodson found it to be a juvenile Corythosaurus casuarius , although one distinct skeleton from the late Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation of Montana , USA , appears to belong to a young Hypacrosaurus stebingeri .
" P. " convincens , from the Late Cretaceous of Kazakhstan , is known from a nearly complete skeleton missing only the snout and end of the tail . It was named by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1968 . It has at times been considered synonymous with Jaxartosaurus aralensis , or deserving of its own genus . Bell and Brink ( 2013 ) made " P. " convincens the type species of the new genus Kazaklambia .
The " procheneosaurs " weren 't the only crested duckbills being studied and named in the early 1900s . It was then the accepted practice to name genera and species for what is now seen as more likely individual variation , variation due to age or sex , or distortion from fossilization . Three more species were named during this period that relate to Lambeosaurus , all in 1935 . Sternberg , in the same paper as T. cranibrevis , named a skull and partial skeleton ( GSC — now NMC — 8705 ) L. magnicristatum ( corrected to magnicristatus ) , and a smaller skull ( GSC — now NMC — 8703 ) L. clavinitialis , with a less prominent crest and reduced spine pointing from the back . Parks contributed Corythosaurus frontalis , based on skull GSC 5853 ( now ROM 869 ) , which differed from the well @-@ known tall , straight , rounded crest of other specimens of Corythosaurus by having a low crest cocked forward .
= = = Reconsideration and consolidation = = =
New specimens were not described for many years following the activity of the early 1900s . In 1964 John Ostrom noted that an old species named by Othniel Charles Marsh , Hadrosaurus paucidens , based on USNM 5457 , a partial maxilla and squamosal from the Judith River Formation of Fergus County , Montana , was probably a specimen of Lambeosaurus .
In 1975 , Peter Dodson , examining why there should be so many species and genera of lambeosaurine duckbills within such a short geological time frame and small area , published the results of a morphometric study in which he measured dozens of skulls . He found that many of the species had been based on remains that were better interpreted as juveniles or different sexes . For Lambeosaurus , he found that L. clavinitialis was probably the female of L. lambei , and Corythosaurus frontalis and Procheneosaurus praeceps were probably its juveniles . L. magnicristatus was different enough to warrant its own species . He interpreted Procheneosaurus cranibrevis and P. erectofrons as juvenile corythosaurs . However , restudy of the Procheneosaurus / Tetragonosaurus remains indicates that within species , assignments had become confused , and the type specimen of P. cranibrevis was a Lambeosaurus juvenile , whereas others were Corythosaurus , based on the distinctive form of the contact of the nasal bone with the premaxilla .
Also during the 1970s , Bill Morris was studying giant lambeosaurine remains from Baja California . He named them ? L. laticaudus in 1981 ( type specimen LACM 17715 ) . Morris used a question mark in his work because no complete crest had been found for his species , and without it a definitive assignment could not be made . From what was known of the skull , he considered it to be most like Lambeosaurus . He interpreted this species as water @-@ bound , due to features like its size , its tall and narrow tail ( interpreted as a swimming adaptation ) , and weak hip articulations , as well as a healed broken thigh bone that he thought would have been too much of a handicap for a terrestrial animal to have survived long enough to heal . This species was later ( 2012 ) assigned to the new genus Magnapaulia .
= = Species = =
Two species of Lambeosaurus are currently confirmed valid , with a third sometimes accepted . L. lambei ( Parks , 1923 ) is known from at least 17 individuals , with seven skulls and partial skeletons and around ten isolated skulls . L. clavinitialis ( C.M. Sternberg , 1935 ) , Corythosaurus frontalis ( Parks , 1935 ) , and Procheneosaurus praeceps ( Parks , 1931 ) are all regarded as synonyms of L. lambei in the most recent review . It is possible that L. clavinitialis skulls without the backward spine may represent L. magnicristatus individuals instead , although this was rejected in the 2007 redescription of L. magnicristatus . L. magnicristatus ( C.M. Sternberg , 1935 ) is only definitely known from two specimens , both with skulls . Unfortunately , the majority of the articulated skeleton of the type specimen has been lost . Many of the bones were extensively damaged by water while in storage and were discarded before description ; other portions of this skeleton have also been lost . Its remains come from slightly younger rocks than L. lambei . The specific name is derived from the Latin magnus " large " and cristatus " crested " , referring to its bony crest . Additionally , Jack Horner has identified fragmentary lambeosaurine jaws from the Bearpaw Formation of Montana as possibly belonging to L. magnicristatus ; these represent the first lambeosaurine remains from marine rocks . As noted above , the large " L. " laticaudus ( Morris , 1981 ) was assigned to Magnapaulia .
L. paucidens ( Marsh , 1889 ) is regarded as a dubious name and is listed as Hadrosaurus paucidens in the latest review , although at least one author , Donald F. Glut , accepts it as a species of Lambeosaurus . In this case , the specific epithet is derived from the Latin pauci- " few " and dens " tooth " . The irregularities of Procheneosaurus cranibrevis , and the identity of the type as a juvenile lambeosaur , were recognized in 2005 , and thus have not yet entered wide circulation . Finally , Didanodon altidens has been assigned without comment to Lambeosaurus in two 21st Century reviews .
= = Paleoecology = =
Lambeosaurus lambei and L. magnicristatus , from the Dinosaur Park Formation , were members of a diverse and well @-@ documented fauna of prehistoric animals that included such well @-@ known dinosaurs as the horned Centrosaurus , Styracosaurus , and Chasmosaurus , fellow duckbills Prosaurolophus , Gryposaurus , Corythosaurus , and Parasaurolophus , tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus , and armored Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus . The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and angiosperms . The anatomically similar L. lambei , L. magnicristatus , and Corythosaurus were separated by time within the formation , based on stratigraphy . Corythosaurus fossils are known from the lower two @-@ thirds of the Formation , L. lambei fossils are present in the upper third , and L. magnicristatus remains are rare and present only at the very top , where the marine influence was greater .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
As a hadrosaurid , Lambeosaurus was a large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to mammalian chewing . Its teeth were continually replaced and were packed into dental batteries that each contained over 100 teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . It used its beak to crop plant material , which was held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Feeding would have been from the ground up to around 4 meters ( 13 feet ) above . As noted by Bob Bakker , lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines , implying that Lambeosaurus and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad @-@ beaked , crestless counterparts .
= = = Cranial crest = = =
Like other lambeosaurines such as Parasaurolophus and Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus had a distinctive crest on the top of its head . Its nasal cavity ran back through this crest , making it mostly hollow . Many suggestions have been made for the function or functions of the crest , including housing salt glands , improving the sense of smell , use as a snorkel or air trap , acting as a resonating chamber for making sounds , or being a method for different species or different sexes of the same species to recognize each other . Social functions such as noisemaking and recognition have become the most widely accepted of the various hypotheses .
The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits , evidence that sight was important to these animals . The hadrosaurid sense of hearing also appears to be strong . There is at least one example , in the related Corythosaurus , of a slender stapes ( reptilian ear bone ) in place , which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear , and the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian 's . This indicates that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well @-@ developed . If used as a noisemaker , the crest could also have provided recognizable differences for different species or sexes , because the differing layouts of the nasal passages corresponding to the different crest shapes would have produced intrinsically different sounds .
= The Beacon Street Collection =
The Beacon Street Collection is the second studio album by American rock band No Doubt , released in March 1993 . It was released independently by the band under their own record label , Beacon Street Records . It was produced by No Doubt themselves and recorded in a homemade recording studio in the garage of their house on Beacon Avenue in Anaheim , California , from which the album takes its name . Additional recording and mixing were done at Clear Lake Audio in North Hollywood , California with engineer Colin " Dog " Mitchell .
The album was released during a time in which the band were receiving little attention from their record label , Interscope Records , and were not getting a chance to record a second album . Interscope were disillusioned with the band after the commercial failure of their first album , No Doubt . No Doubt had written large numbers of songs and knew that they would not make it onto any Interscope album , so they built their own studio and recorded the album there . Two singles were released from it : " Squeal " and " Doghouse " on 7 @-@ inch vinyl .
The album sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in 1993 , over three times as many as their first album sold . This success ensured that Interscope financed the band 's third album , Tragic Kingdom , which was a massive success , selling 16 million copies worldwide and attracting extensive interest in the band . The Beacon Street Collection was re @-@ released in 1997 as part of the band 's back catalog .
= = Background = =
No Doubt released their self @-@ titled debut album in 1992 , a year after being signed to Interscope . The group 's blend of upbeat brass @-@ dominated songs and funk @-@ style bass riffs came at a time when most of the United States was in the thrall of grunge music , a genre whose angst @-@ ridden lyrics and dirty sound could not have contrasted more with the atmosphere of most of the songs on No Doubt 's pop @-@ oriented album . Not surprisingly , the band lost out to the now @-@ ubiquitous grunge music and the album was a commercial failure , with only 30 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the words of the program director of KROQ , a Los Angeles radio station on which it was one of the band 's driving ambitions to be played : " It would take an act of God for this band to get on the radio . "
The band started to work on its second album in 1993 but Interscope , having lost faith in the band , rejected most of its material and so it was paired with producer Matthew Wilder . Kanal then ended his seven @-@ year relationship with Gwen , saying that he needed " space " .
= = Music = =
A large number of songs on The Beacon Street Collection were written by Eric Stefani , who left the group before their third album was recorded . This gave the album a similar sound to their first album , No Doubt , in which Eric Stefani had collaborated in the writing of all the songs . Because the lyrics in Tragic Kingdom were written mainly by Gwen Stefani about her experiences in life , the style of music changed from what No Doubt had previously produced . Tom Dumont explained the change in sound in an interview for Backstage Online :
" Well , there is a reason that the sound of our music has changed and it 's not because we 've sold out , easy for me to say . Eric , our keyboard player used to write most of our songs . He was the main creative force in the band for many years . And at a certain point after that first album came out , he had this personal thing , like he didn 't like touring , he didn 't like all that stuff . He just liked to sit down and write songs . That 's him . He 's the artistic side , the total Mr. Creative .
Well what happened is when Eric decided to leave the band it left the song writing to us , me , Gwen , Tony , the rest of us and it 's a really natural thing for our song writing style to be different than Eric 's . Just we 're different people . I mean we 've learned a lot from him and he taught us a lot of things about song writing , but we write simpler music . We have a simpler style . We 're not quite Genius like him I think . This album was our first attempt. it was Gwen 's first time really writing all the lyrics herself so to me , it went the opposie from selling out we have done something that is even more personal . In the past , Eric was writing songs about his life and having Gwen sing them . Now we have Gwen singing and writing about her own experiences . "
= = = Production = = =
No Doubt became frustrated at the lack of progress they were making with Interscope , who were proving unreliable in their support of the band . Instead , they built their own studio in their garage on Beacon Avenue in Anaheim , California Although the band had knowledge that they didn 't want any songs to be released in an Interscope @-@ distributed album , they recorded The Beacon Street Collection in their studio and Clear Lake Audio in one long weekend . Their independence shocked their company representative , Tony Ferguson , who had assumed they were recording a third single .
= = = Singles = = =
In 1994 , before recording of the album had even begun , No Doubt released two seven @-@ inch singles for their fans . The first was " Squeal " , a song written by Eric Stefani , detailing a criminal 's reaction to her partner 's betrayal to the police . They had agreed to be " in this together " but , after he " squeals " , she resolves to " kill the narc who wrote it and said it [ that she was guilty of a crime ] " . The single 's B @-@ side was " My Room Is Still Clean " , written by Tony Kanal and recorded live at the Icehouse in Fullerton , California on February 13 , 1993 .
The second single was " Doghouse " , written by Eric Stefani . It is about a man who is bullied and dominated by his girlfriend and is unwilling to force the situation to change . The song uses the metaphor of a dog and its master to illustrate the nature of the relationship , saying that she had got him " by the reins " and he has been " conditioned " by her . The single 's B @-@ side was " You Can 't Teach an Ol ' Dog New Tricks " , written by Eric Stefani .
= = Reception = =
= = = Significance = = =
On its original release in March 1995 , The Beacon Street Collection was only available in local record stores in Orange County , California and at No Doubt 's shows . Its rawer sound proved popular with the band 's fans and the band 's first batch of one thousand copies sold out within only a few months after its release . Interscope realized the band 's potential and allowed them to record their third album , Tragic Kingdom in various Los Angeles studios , " wherever they could get a deal on a studio " . During a recording session , the band was introduced to Paul Palmer , who was interested in mixing the new album . He owned his own record label Trauma Records , which was associated with Interscope . Interscope willingly sublicensed the project to Trauma Records in 1995 and Tragic Kingdom got the personal focus that comes from a small company .
By the end of the year , 100 @,@ 000 copies of The Beacon Street Collection had been sold , over three times as many as their first album , No Doubt . These sales were mostly due to the release of Tragic Kingdom , which was released seven months after The Beacon Street Collection in October 1995 . Tragic Kingdom was a massive commercial success , reaching sales of over 10 million in the United States and 16 million worldwide , peaking at number one on several charts and being certified " diamond " ( 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units = Diamond album ) in the US and Canada and " platinum " in the UK and Australia . This success created an extensive interest in the band 's back catalog so , in October 1997 , The Beacon Street Collection was re @-@ released on Interscope .
In an interview with Axcess Magazine in April 1996 , Gwen Stefani described the release of The Beacon Street Collection as " one of the best things [ they ] ever did because [ they ] were able to take some songs that would have probably gotten lost and document them " .
= = = Critical = = =
Allmusic called the album " finer than the [ band 's ] debut " , and described it as containing more of a " raw sound inspired [ ... ] by punk " than the style of No Doubt 's first album , which was heavily " synth and new wave " . Entertainment Weekly , in 1997 , called it " more focused than Tragic Kingdom " with " reggae frat @-@ house grooves and perky horns " , and complimented " Gwen 's feisty Kewpie @-@ doll wail " and the " swaying ballads " , attributing it to " the band 's willing spirit " . Rock on the Net retrospectively called the album " a raw expression of their sound " and describing it as " 80s punk with 90s grunge .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
= = = Personnel = = =
Gwen Stefani - vocals
Tom Dumont - guitar
Tony Kanal - bass
Adrian Young - percussion , drums
Eric Stefani - keyboard
Phil Jordan - trumpet
Eric Carpenter - saxophone
Additional personnel
Bradley Nowell - vocals
Gabrial McNair - percussion , trombone
Gerard Boisse- baritone , tenor , soprano saxophones
= = = Production = = =
Producer : No Doubt
Engineers : Ray Blair , Tom Dumont , Colin " Dog " Mitchell
Mixing : Tom Dumont , Nicholas Hexum , Colin " Dog " Mitchell , No Doubt , Scott Ralston , Adrian Young
Mixing assistants : Nick Hexum , Scott Ralston , Adrian Young
Mastering : Robert Vosgien
Advisor : Albhy Galuten
Design : Gwen Stefani
Layout design : Matt Wignall
Liner notes : No Doubt
= = Release history = =
All information is from the Allmusic page and No Doubt 's official website discography .
= George Armitage Miller =
George Armitage Miller ( February 3 , 1920 – July 22 , 2012 ) was one of the founders of the cognitive psychology field . He also contributed to the birth of psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general . Miller wrote several books and directed the development of WordNet , an online word @-@ linkage database usable by computer programs . He authored the paper , " The Magical Number Seven , Plus or Minus Two , " in which he insightfully observed that many different experimental findings considered together reveal the presence of an average limit of seven for human short @-@ term memory capacity . This paper is frequently cited in both psychology and the wider culture . He also won awards , such as the National Medal of Science .
Miller started his education focusing on speech and language and published papers on these topics , focusing on mathematical , computational and psychological aspects of the field . He started his career at a time when the reigning theory in psychology was behaviorism , which eschewed any attempt to study mental processes and focused only on observable behavior . Working mostly at Harvard University , MIT and Princeton University , Miller introduced experimental techniques to study the psychology of mental processes . He went on to be one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was then one of the key figures in founding the broader new field of cognitive science , circa 1978 .. He collaborated and co @-@ authored work with other figures in cognitive science and psycholinguistics , such as Noam Chomsky . For moving psychology into the realm of mental processes and for aligning that move with information theory , computation theory , and linguistics , Miller is considered one of the great twentieth @-@ century psychologists . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Miller as the 20th most cited psychologist of that era .
= = Biography = =
Miller was born on February 3 , 1920 , in Charleston , West Virginia , the son of an executive at a steel company , George E. Miller , and Florence ( Armitage ) Miller . Soon after , his parents divorced . He grew up with only his mother during the Great Depression , attended public school , and graduated from Charleston High School in 1937 . He relocated with his mother and stepfather to Washington D.C. , and was at George Washington University for a year . His family practiced Christian Science , which required turning to prayer , rather than medical science , for healing . After his stepfather was transferred to Birmingham , Alabama , Miller transferred to the University of Alabama .
He received his bachelor 's degree in history and speech in 1940 , and a master 's in speech in 1941 from the University of Alabama . He had taken courses in phonetics , voice science , and speech pathology . Membership in the Drama club fostered his interest in courses in the Speech Department . He was also influenced by Professor Donald Ramsdell , who introduced him both to psychology , and , indirectly through a seminar , to his future wife Katherine James . They married on November 29 , 1939 . Katherine died in January , 1996 . He married Margaret Ferguson Skutch Page in 2008 .
Miller taught the course " Introduction to Psychology " at Alabama for two years . He enrolled in the Ph.D. program in psychology at Harvard University in 1943 , after coming to the university in 1942 . He received his doctorate in 1946 from Harvard 's Psycho @-@ Acoustic Laboratory , under the supervision of Stanley Smith Stevens , researching military voice communications for the Army Signal Corps during World War II . His doctorate thesis , " The Optimal Design of Jamming Signals , " was classified top secret by the US Army .
= = = Career = = =
After receiving his doctorate , Miller stayed as a research fellow at Harvard , to continue his research on speech and hearing . He was appointed assistant professor of psychology in 1948 . The course he developed on language and communication would eventually lead to his first major book , Language and communication ( 1951 ) . He took a sabbatical in 1950 , and spent a year as a visiting fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton , to pursue his interest in mathematics . Miller befriended J. Robert Oppenheimer , with whom he played squash . In 1951 , Miller joined MIT as an associate professor of psychology . He led the psychology group at MIT Lincoln Lab . He worked on voice communication and human engineering , whereupon he identified the minimal voice features of speech required for it to be intelligible . Based on this work , in 1955 , he was invited to a talk at the Eastern Psychological Association . That presentation , " The magical number seven , plus or minus two " , was later published as a paper which went on to be a legendary one in cognitive psychology .
Miller moved back to Harvard as a tenured associate professor in 1955 and became a full professor in 1958 , expanding his research into how language affects human cognition . At the university he met a young Noam Chomsky , another of the founders of cognitive science . They spent a summer together at Stanford training the faculty , and their two families shared a house . In 1958 – 59 , Miller took leave to join the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Palo Alto , California , ( now at Stanford University ) . There he collaborated with Eugene Galanter and Karl Pribram on the book Plans and the Structure of Behavior . In 1960 , along with Jerome S. Bruner , he co @-@ founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard . The cognitive term was a break from the then @-@ dominant school of behaviorism , which insisted cognition was not fit for scientific study . The center attracted such notable visitors as Jean Piaget , Alexander Luria and Chomsky . Miller then became the chair of the psychology department . Miller was instrumental at the time for recruiting Timothy Leary to teach at Harvard . Miller knew Leary from the University of Alabama , where Miller was teaching psychology and Leary graduated with an undergraduate degree from the department .
In 1967 , Miller taught at Rockefeller University for a year , as a visiting professor , From 1968 to 1979 , he was Professor at the Rockefeller University and continued as Adjunct Professor there from 1979 @-@ 1982 . A new president 's selection at Rockefeller made him leave .
He moved to Princeton University in 1979 as the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Psychology .
In 1986 , he helped in founding the Cognitive Science Laboratory at Princeton . Eventually he became a professor emeritus and senior research psychologist at Princeton . He also directed the McDonnell @-@ Pew Program in Cognitive Science .
Miller had honorary doctorates from the University of Sussex ( 1984 ) , Columbia University ( 1980 ) , Yale University ( 1979 ) , Catholic University of Louvain ( 1978 ) , Carnegie Mellon University ( in humane letters , 2003 ) , and an honorary DSC from Williams College ( 2000 ) . He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957 , the National Academy of Sciences in 1962 , the presidency of the Eastern Psychological Association in 1962 , the presidency of the American Psychological Association in 1969 , and to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1985 . Miller was the keynote speaker at the first convention of the Association for Psychological Science in 1989 . He was a Fulbright research fellow at Oxford University in 1964 – 65 , and in 1991 , received the National Medal of Science .
= = = Death = = =
In his later years , Miller enjoyed playing golf . He died in 2012 at his home in Plainsboro , New Jersey of complications of pneumonia and dementia . At the time of his death , he was survived by his wife Margaret ; the children from his first marriage : son Donnally James and daughter Nancy Saunders ; two stepsons , David Skutch and Christopher Skutch ; and three grandchildren : Gavin Murray @-@ Miller , Morgan Murray @-@ Miller and Nathaniel James Miller .
= = Major contributions = =
Miller 's career started during the reign of behaviorism in psychology . Behaviorists questioned whether mental thought processes were fit for scientific study , not being observable . They focused on working with responses to stimuli , particularly among other animals . Miller disagreed . He , Jerome Bruner , and Noam Chomsky are considered the founders of the field of Cognitive Psychology that replaced behaviorism as the framework for analyzing the mind .
= = = Working memory = = =
From the days of William James , psychologists had the idea memory consisted of short @-@ term and long @-@ term memory . While short @-@ term memory was expected to be limited , its exact limits were not known . In 1956 , Miller would quantify its capacity limit in the paper " The magical number seven , plus or minus two " . He tested immediate memory via tasks such as asking a person to repeat a set of digits presented ; absolute judgment by presenting a stimulus and a label , and asking them to recall the label later ; and span of attention by asking them to count things in a group of more than a few items quickly . For all three cases , Miller found the average limit to be seven items . He had mixed feelings about the focus on his work on the exact number seven for quantifying short @-@ term memory , and felt it had been misquoted often . He stated , introducing the paper on the research for the first time , that he was being persecuted by an integer . Miller invented the term chunk to characterize the highly variable units to which the limit on memory applied . A chunk might be a single letter or a familiar word or even a larger familiar unit . Miller himself saw no relationship among the disparate tasks of immediate memory and absolute judgment , but lumped them to fill a one @-@ hour presentation . The results influenced the budding field of cognitive psychology .
= = = WordNet = = =
For many years starting from 1986 , Miller directed the development of WordNet , a large computer @-@ readable electronic reference usable in applications such as search engines . Wordnet is a large lexical database representing human semantic memory in English . Its fundamental building block is a synset , which is a collection of synonyms representing a concept or idea . Words can be in multiple synsets . The entire class of synsets is grouped into nouns , verbs , adjectives and adverbs separately , with links existing only within these four major groups but not between them . Going beyond a thesaurus , WordNet also includes inter @-@ word relationships such as part / whole relationships and hierarchies of inclusion.Although not intended to be a dictionary , Wordnet did have many short definitions added to it as time went on . Miller and colleagues had planned the tool to test psycholinguistic theories on how humans use and understand words . Miller also later worked closely with the developers at Simpli.com Inc . , on a meaning @-@ based keyword search engine based on WordNet . Wordnet has proved to be extremely influential on an international scale . It has now been emulated by wordnets in many different languages .
= = = Language psychology and computation = = =
Miller is considered one of the founders of psycholinguistics , which links language and cognition in psychology , to analyze how people use and create language . His 1951 book Language and Communication is considered seminal in the field . His later book , The Science of Words ( 1991 ) also focused on language psychology . He published papers along with Noam Chomsky on the mathematics and computational aspects of language and its syntax , two new areas of study . Miller also researched how people understood words and sentences , the same problem faced by artificial speech @-@ recognition technology . The book Plans and the Structure of Behavior ( 1960 ) , written with Eugene Galanter and Karl H. Pribram , explored how humans plan and act , trying to extrapolate this to how a robot could be programmed to plan and do things . Miller is also known for coining Miller 's Law : " In order to understand what another person is saying , you must assume it is true and try to imagine what it could be true of " .
= = Books = =
Miller authored several books , many considered the first major works in their respective fields .
= = = Language and Communication , 1951 = = =
Miller 's Language and Communication was one of the first significant texts in the study of language behavior . The book was a scientific study of language , emphasizing quantitative data , and was based on the mathematical model of Claude Shannon 's information theory . It used a probabilistic model imposed on a learning @-@ by @-@ association scheme borrowed from behaviorism , with Miller not yet attached to a pure cognitive perspective . The first part of the book reviewed information theory , the physiology and acoustics of phonetics , speech recognition and comprehension , and statistical techniques to analyze language . The focus was more on speech generation than recognition . The second part had the psychology : idiosyncratic differences across people in language use ; developmental linguistics ; the structure of word associations in people ; use of symbolism in language ; and social aspects of language use .
Reviewing the book , Charles E. Osgood classified the book as a graduate @-@ level text based more on objective facts than on theoretical constructs . He thought the book was verbose on some topics and too brief on others not directly related to the author 's expertise area . He was also critical of Miller 's use of simple , Skinnerian single @-@ stage stimulus @-@ response learning to explain human language acquisition and use . This approach , per Osgood , made it impossible to analyze the concept of meaning , and the idea of language consisting of representational signs . He did find the book objective in its emphasis on facts over theory , and depicting clearly application of information theory to psychology .
= = = Plans and the Structure of Behavior , 1960 = = =
In Plans and the Structure of Behavior , Miller and his co @-@ authors tried to explain through an artificial @-@ intelligence computational perspective how animals plan and act . This was a radical break from behaviorism which explained behavior as a set or sequence of stimulus @-@ response actions . The authors introduced a planning element controlling such actions . They saw all plans as being executed based on input using a stored or inherited information of the environment ( called the image ) , and using a strategy called test @-@ operate @-@ test @-@ exit ( TOTE ) . The image was essentially a stored memory of all past context , akin to Tolman 's cognitive map . The TOTE strategy , in its initial test phase , compared the input against the image ; if there was incongruity the operate function attempted to reduce it . This cycle would be repeated till the incongruity vanished , and then the exit function would be invoked , passing control to another TOTE unit in a hierarchically arranged scheme .
Peter Milner , in a review in the Canadian Journal of Psychology , noted the book was short on concrete details on implementing the TOTE strategy . He also critically viewed the book as not being able to tie its model to details from neurophysiology at a molecular level . Per him , the book covered only the brain at the gross level of lesion studies , showing that some of its regions could possibly implement some TOTE strategies , without giving a reader an indication as to how the region could implement the strategy .
= = = The Psychology of Communication , 1967 = = =
Miller 's 1967 work , The Psychology of Communication , was a collection of seven previously published articles . The first " Information and Memory " dealt with chunking , presenting the idea of separating physical length ( the number of items presented to be learned ) and psychological length ( the number of ideas the recipient manages to categorize and summarize the items with ) . Capacity of short @-@ term memory was measured in units of psychological length , arguing against a pure behaviorist interpretation since meaning of items , beyond reinforcement and punishment , was central to psychological length .
The second essay was the paper on magical number seven . The third , ' The human link in communication systems , ' used information theory and its idea of channel capacity to analyze human perception bandwidth . The essay concluded how much of what impinges on us we can absorb as knowledge was limited , for each property of the stimulus , to a handful of items . The paper on " Psycholinguists " described how effort in both speaking or understanding a sentence was related to how much of self @-@ reference to similar @-@ structures @-@ present @-@ inside was there when the sentence was broken down into clauses and phrases . The book , in general , used the Chomskian view of seeing language rules of grammar as having a biological basis — disproving the simple behaviorist idea that language performance improved with reinforcement — and using the tools of information and computation to place hypotheses on a sound theoretical framework and to analyze data practically and efficiently . Miller specifically addressed experimental data refuting the behaviorist framework at concept level in the field of language and cognition . He noted this only qualified behaviorism at the level of cognition , and did not overthrow it in other spheres of psychology .
= = Legacy = =
The Cognitive Neuroscience Society established a George A. Miller Prize in 1995 for contributions to the field . The American Psychological Association established a George A. Miller Award in 1995 for an outstanding article on general psychology . From 1987 the department of psychology at Princeton University has presented the George A. Miller prize annually to the best interdisciplinary senior thesis in cognitive science . The paper on the magical number seven continues to be cited by both the popular press to explain the liking for seven @-@ digit phone numbers and to argue against nine @-@ digit zip codes , and by academia , especially modern psychology , to highlight its break with the behaviorist paradigm .
Miller was considered the 20th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century in a list republished by , among others , the American Psychological Association .
= = Awards = =
Distinguished Scientific Contribution award from the American Psychological Association ( APA ) in 1963 .
Distinguished Service award from the
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, and adequate numbers of engineer depot units , the allocation and distribution of the meager supplies on hand were difficult tasks . The worst problem was spare parts . Equipment was operated around the clock under harsh conditions and soon wore out or broke . A large proportion of equipment became unserviceable for lack of spare parts . Requisitions sent to the United States took months to arrive , so recourse was made to the limited sources of supply in Australia .
In September 1942 , MacArthur decided to outflank Japanese troops on the Kokoda Trail by sending an American regimental combat team over the Owen Stanley Range . Two alternate means of crossing the mountains seemed possible . One , the Kapa Kapa Trail was known to climb to elevations above 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and present formidable obstacles . Casey and Sverdrup took charge of investigating the Abau Trail . They reached Abau on 18 September . Casey explored the harbor , taking depth soundings from a native canoe . Sverdrup set out for Jaure with a party of one American , two Australians from the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit , ten native police from the Royal Papuan Constabulary and 26 native carriers . After eight days on the trail , scaling heights of 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , Sverdrup concluded that it would not be practical for troops to traverse the route and turned back . Meanwhile , Casey had concluded that the harbor was too shallow even for lighters . However , the trip was not a total loss , for Sverdrup had sighted a plateau north of the Owen Stanley Range suitable for airstrips , allowing troops to be flown across the Owen Stanley Range . Casey was awarded the Silver Star .
In New Guinea , logistics and construction activities were coordinated by task force engineer staffs . These were often hastily assembled and had not always been able to meet the demands imposed by base development in such a challenging theater of operations . The scale of operations in the Philippines was much greater , so for this purpose the Army Service Command ( ASCOM ) was formed in Brisbane on 23 July 1944 . Casey was appointed to command ASCOM . In his absence , Sverdrup became MacArthur 's chief engineer . Although part of USASOS , ASCOM operated under the control of Sixth Army , moving as far forward as combat operations allowed , developed new bases , and operated them until USASOS was ready to take over , at which point the units under ASCOM simply reverted to USASOS , allowing a seamless transfer of command . For the Battle of Leyte Casey 's ASCOM had 43 @,@ 000 men , of whom 21 @,@ 000 were engineers .
Casey and some members of his staff came ashore on A @-@ Day ; the advance echelon of his ASCOM headquarters arrived two days later . Work began immediately on the airfield at Tacloban , and commenced on airfields in central Leyte soon after they were captured . Heavy seasonal rains thwarted attempts to develop the airbases in central Leyte and it was decided to abandon their development and construct a new airbase on the coast at a site occupied by Sixth Army headquarters . The need to get aircraft based on Leyte to stop the Japanese from reinforcing the island was so pressing that Lieutenant General Walter Krueger agreed to move his headquarters .
Casey had intended to come ashore on the first day of the landing at Lingayen Gulf in January 1945 but was delayed a day because the destroyer he was traveling on had to escort a crippled transport . Despite enormous difficulties ASCOM was able to finish numerous projects on time and some ahead of schedule . On 13 February 1945 , ASCOM was transferred to USASOS and redesignated the Luzon Base Section ( LUBSEC ) . Casey then resumed his old post , now renamed Chief Engineer , US Army Forces Pacific . For his services as commander of ASCOM , he was awarded the Legion of Merit . He was subsequently awarded a bronze oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his services as Chief Engineer , US Army Forces Pacific .
Casey hoped to become Chief of Engineers when Lieutenant General Raymond A. Wheeler retired in 1948 , but President Harry S. Truman passed him over in favor of the Missouri River Division Engineer , Major General Lewis A. Pick . Instead , Casey remained in Japan as MacArthur 's Chief Engineer until Casey 's retirement on 31 December 1949 . He edited Engineers of the Southwest Pacific , a seven @-@ volume series about their wartime service . He received a number of foreign awards for his service , including the Distinguished Service Star from the Philippines , the Commander of the Order of the British Empire from Australia , the Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau from the Netherlands , and the Officer of Légion d 'honneur from France .
= = Later life = =
Casey was Chairman of the New York City Transit Authority from 1953 to 1955 , and served in various positions with Schenley Industries from 1951 until his retirement in 1965 . He was a member of a number of professional societies , and civic organizations . He died of a heart attack on 30 August 1981 at the Veterans Administration Hospital at White River Junction , Vermont , survived by his wife Dorothy and his son Keith . His other son , Hugh , had been killed in an air crash during the Korean War . Father and son were buried adjacent to each other in Arlington National Cemetery . His daughter Patricia , who married Major General Frank Butner Clay , the son of Lucius Clay , had died on 1 January 1973 , and is also buried in Arlington National Cemetery . In August 1982 , a new building at the Humphreys Engineer Center at Fort Belvoir was dedicated in his honor by Dorothy and the Chief of Engineers , Lieutenant General Joseph K. Bratton .
= Three Men and a Comic Book =
" Three Men and a Comic Book " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 9 , 1991 . In the episode , Bart catches a glimpse of the original issue of Radioactive Man for sale at a comic book convention , so he , Martin , and Milhouse combine their money to buy the valuable comic book , only to lose it due to their selfishness and inability to share .
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . It features cultural references to comic book characters such as Casper the Friendly Ghost and Richie Rich . Several new characters make their first appearance on the show in the episode , including Comic Book Guy , Radioactive Man , and Mrs. Glick . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from television critics for its use of parodies and cultural references . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When Bart attends a comic book convention dressed as his superhero alter ego Bartman , he finds the first issue of Radioactive Man for $ 100 at Comic Book Guy 's Android 's Dungeon . However , he does not have enough money to buy it , and Homer refuses to give him extra money , so he decides to get a job . Bart turns to Mrs. Glick , who gives him fifty cents for his hard work . Bart then goes to the Android 's Dungeon , with only a few cents extra , where he runs into Milhouse Van Houten and Martin . He talks them into pooling their money and buying the comic book . Since none of them want to let the comic book out of their sights , they decide to spend the night together in Bart 's treehouse . The three get progressively more paranoid and Bart becomes convinced that the other two are conspiring against him .
Eventually , the tension is at a breaking point . When Martin gets up in the middle of the night to use the bathroom , Bart thinks he plans on stealing the comic and subsequently ties him up . Meanwhile , a thunderstorm approaches . Milhouse tries to alert Marge that Bart has gone crazy , but Bart thinks he is making a move for the comic and tackles him . Milhouse rolls over the side of the treehouse , but Bart catches him precariously by his sleeve . When a gale of wind takes hold of the comic so that it flies towards the treehouse 's entrance , Bart is forced to decide between it and Milhouse . After mulling over his options , Bart chooses Milhouse and pulls him up into the treehouse . The comic flies out the entrance and is shredded by Santa 's Little Helper on the ground , hit by lightning , and completely destroyed . The next morning , the three boys reflect on how their inability to share led to the destruction of the comic , although Bart , has forgotten the experience .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Wes Archer . Characters making their first appearance on the show in the episode are Comic Book Guy , Mrs. Glick , Radioactive Man , Fallout Boy , and Bartman . Although many suggestions state that Comic Book Guy was inspired by the show 's creator Matt Groening , Comic Book Guy was partly inspired by a clerk at the Los Angeles Amok book shop who , according to Simpsons writer George Meyer , often " [ sat ] on the high stool , kind of lording over the store with that supercilious attitude and eating behind the counter a big Styrofoam container full of fried clams with a lot of tartar sauce . " Matt Groening noted : " I can 't tell you how many times people have come up to me and said , ' I know who you based that comic book guy on . It 's that comic @-@ book guy right down the block . ' And I have to tell them , ' No , it 's every comic @-@ bookstore guy in America . ' " Cast member Hank Azaria based Comic Book Guy 's voice on a student who went by the name " F " and lived in the room next door at his college . Mrs. Glick was based on an old lady Martin and his brother used to do chores for when they were kids . Martin said they got to " pull weeds until [ their ] hands would bleed " , and yet they were only paid two quarters for several hours of work . American actress Cloris Leachman provided the voice of Mrs. Glick in the episode .
The episode features a parody of The Wonder Years , in which Bart stares into the distance after realizing that he has to get his first job , and an older version of Bart 's voice is heard saying " I didn 't realize it at the time , but a little piece of my childhood had slipped away forever . " Daniel Stern guest starred as the voice of the adult Bart , just like he did for the adult voice of the character Kevin in the television show The Wonder Years ( he had also featured with Yeardley Smith in the movie City Slickers around the time this episode was produced ) . According to Simpsons writer Mike Reiss , Stern was a " pleasure " to work with and it only took him a few minutes to record his lines . Stern 's younger brother David M. Stern worked as a writer on both The Simpsons and The Wonder Years , so he helped the writers get the idioms and the wording of the parody right . When it originally aired , the song played during this sequence was " Turn , Turn , Turn " by The Byrds . This was replaced in the DVD release with soundalike music , likely to avoid paying royalties for using the song .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , Lisa reveals that she collects Casper the Friendly Ghost and Richie Rich comics , and Homer makes reference to Wonder Woman . Radioactive Man 's origin is nearly identical to the Marvel Comics character The Incredible Hulk , as they both gained their superpowers from absorbing massive amounts of radiation during an experimental detonation of a gamma bomb . The warning from the convention MC not to ask questions about the death of Radioactive Man 's actor Dirk Richter is a reference to the mysterious death of Superman 's actor George Reeves , although the addition of bordello could also be a reference to the unsolved 1978 murder of Bob Crane . When Bart asks Homer for money to buy the comic book , Homer replies : " One hundred bucks ? For a comic book ? ! Who drew it , Micha @-@ ma @-@ langelo ? " This is a reference to the Italian painter and sculptor Michelangelo , whose name Homer cannot pronounce .
Milhouse initially goes into the comic store to buy a 1973 Topps card of the former Boston Red Sox player , Carl Yastrzemski , " when he had the big sideburns " . When the boys first unwrap the comic book , Martin describes it as " [ T ] he stuff dreams are made of " , which is how Bogart 's character describes the Maltese Falcon at the end of the movie , The Maltese Falcon .
The Radioactive Man commercial for Laramie cigarettes that Bart and Lisa watch at the convention is a takeoff of The Flintstones starring in Winston cigarette television commercials which aired during the 1960s . When Bart begs Mrs. Glick not to apply iodine to his wounded arm , she grabs his arm and the scene shifts to their silhouettes as Bart screams , mirroring a scene in the 1939 film Gone with the Wind . The accusation and suspicion that grows between the boys is similar to the plot of the film The Treasure of the Sierra Madre . When Martin makes a squealing noise while falling in the treehouse , Bart calls him " Piggy " and threatens to stuff an apple into his mouth , resembling a similar quote from the 1954 book The Lord of the Flies by William Golding . Bart trying to save Milhouse from falling from the treehouse is a reference to a scene in the 1942 Alfred Hitchcock film Saboteur .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Three Men and a Comic Book " finished twenty @-@ third in the ratings for the week of May 6 – 12 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , equivalent to twelve million viewing households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . It was the first time The Simpsons beat The Cosby Show in the ratings . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson lauded it for its use of new characters , commenting that " of all season two ’ s Bart @-@ focused episodes , only ' Bart the Daredevil ' offers competition with ' Comic ' as the best of the bunch . It ’ s a tough call , but I ’ ll take ' Comic ' in a squeaker . The show melds the series ’ deft satirical tone with exceptional character development . Bart seems to grow especially strongly , and his psychological meltdown in the third act is hilarious . " " Three Men and a Comic Book " was named the best episode of the season by IGN . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , commented that unless you have a " passing understanding of comic books and their buyers ' behaviour , some of the jokes will pass you by . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , criticized the episode for not being inspired enough , and added that the Wonder Years parody " seems pointless " .
" Three Men and a Comic Book " is Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend 's favorite episode of the season . Wilson praised the episode for its cultural references , calling them " true greatness " . Surrey Now 's Michael Roberds praised the Treasure of the Sierra Madre parody , saying that it is " one of the more clever film parodies hidden within a typical Simpsons plot . " Colin Kennedy of Empire called the Treasure of the Sierra Madre parody the ninth best film parody of the show , commenting that " Bart turns [ into ] a perfect Bogart – grizzled , paranoid and sleep @-@ deprived . With lighting and camera angles half @-@ inched from Huston , this priceless gag is joyfully pitched over the heads of 90 percent of the audience . " The episode 's reference to Saboteur was named the 25th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
= Caroline Lacroix =
Blanche Zélia Joséphine Delacroix , better known as Caroline Lacroix ( 13 May 1883 – 12 February 1948 ) was the most prominent and notorious of Leopold II of Belgium 's mistresses .
Delacroix , who was of French origin , met the king in Paris as a young girl , when she was only 16 and he was 65 . At that time , she earned her living as a prostitute . They soon embarked upon a relationship that was to last until his death in 1909 . Leopold lavished upon her large sums of money , estates , gifts , and a noble title , Baroness Vaughan . Because of these presents , Caroline was deeply unpopular both among the Belgian people and internationally , as Leopold became increasingly criticized for his greed @-@ induced actions in the Congo Free State , his own personal colony . As Caroline largely profited off the income from the colony , she became known as La reine du Congo ( “ the Queen of Congo ” ) .
She and Leopold married in a religious ceremony five days before his death , though their failure to perform a civil ceremony rendered the marriage illegitimate under Belgian law . After the king 's death , it was soon discovered that he had left Caroline numerous properties , items of high material value , Congolese bonds , and other valuable sources of income – all of which turned her into a multimillionaire . For years the Belgian government and Leopold 's three estranged daughters attempted to seize some of this wealth , with their success varying depending on the case . Caroline died on 12 February 1948 in Cambo @-@ les @-@ Bains , France .
= = Early life = =
There remains a small degree of mystery concerning Caroline 's early life . One account states that her father , Jules Delacroix , was a janitor of the French Legation at Bucharest . Another states that her father lived in Bucharest to seek his fortune , and she was born there as the thirteenth child of her parents . In her youth , Caroline worked as a barmaid .
Various sources assert that Caroline was a prostitute living in Paris . As a young woman , she was the mistress of Antoine @-@ Emmanuel Durrieux , a former officer in the French army . According to Adam Hochschild , Durrieux liked to support the two of them by betting on horse races ; when his luck soured , he became a form of pimp , prostituting Caroline to well @-@ born clients . They undertook their schemes at the Élysée Palace , but frequently left debts unpaid . One day in 1900 , while residing in Paris , Leopold II of Belgium heard of her " attractions " and felt interested in her modest beginnings . A woman sent by Leopold informed Caroline , " Madame , I am sent to you by a gentleman who has noticed you . He is a very high personage , but his exalted position obliges me to withhold his name " .
A meeting was arranged for the following day ; Caroline went to a secluded room , where Leopold arrived with two aides . As Leopold II was unknown to her , Caroline was so flustered with the encounter that she mixed up Belgium and Sweden in the king 's presence , referring to him as His Majesty Oscar , to his surprise and amusement . The two aides ' purpose soon became clear : one sat on each side of her and began asking questions that required her to " turn my head first to the right , then to the left ... their only aim , as I learned later , being to show off my two profiles to the mute personage " , according to her memoirs . Leopold confessed himself pleased and invited Caroline to Austria with him ; a large sum of money duly arrived the next day , along with some empty trunks , as Leopold was aware that she loved to buy clothes .
= = Relationship with Leopold II = =
= = = Reaction in the press = = =
As a mere sixteen @-@ year @-@ old ( compared with Leopold 's age of 65 ) , Caroline 's relationship with the old king quickly became public knowledge , causing Leopold to be labeled lecherous and besotted . Though Leopold had previously embarked upon affairs with other mistresses ( earning him the nickname le roi des Belges et des Belles ) , his affair with Caroline was unique , and the Belgian press in particular enjoyed publishing their affair for countless years . Her habit of accompanying Leopold to fashionable spas in Europe provoked further disbelief and outrage , with some speculating that she perversely pleasured the old king with the use of strategically placed mirrors and " special " equipment . The young mistress became known as la reine du Congo because the great wealth she accumulated from Leopold came from his colony . She became his companion for the last years of his life , as his estranged wife Queen Marie Henriette died in 1902 . Their relationship coincided with Leopold 's worsening international reputation , which was the result of his actions and orders concerning the Congo Free State . Hochschild writes that their affair ironically lost Leopold more popularity in Belgium than any of his crimes in the Congo ; consequently , few of his former allies were willing to defend him once he became the target of the international protest movement led by the Congo Reform Association . Belgian socialists in particular used the affair to prove that because Leopold was in his " dotage " and under the control of a " rapacious and ambitious woman " , he was unfit to govern .
= = = A wealthy mistress = = =
After Marie Henriette 's death , Leopold 's relationship with Caroline became flagrantly open , and he placed her across from his Laeken mansion , in the Villa Vanderborght , even building a pedestrian bridge so he could see her at will . The bridge reveals the king 's jealousy , although this may have been justified , as her former love Durrieux had been caught with her on several occasions . Caroline tried to pass him off as her brother when Leopold caught the two together ; one publication reported that she and Durrieux had placed secret electric bells in all her residences so that servants could warn her when the king was approaching .
Leopold spent vast sums of money on gifts and estates for his young mistress , presenting for instance the Villa Leopolda to Caroline in 1902 . She frequently traveled to Paris to visit her dress- and hat @-@ maker , once bragging that she spent three million francs on dresses at a single store on one occasion . Caroline once complained to Leopold that the evening express train back to Brussels gave her little time to shop , causing Leopold to arrange it so that the train would leave an hour later . When pregnant with their first child , the king and the French government even split the cost of constructing a new road close to her villa so that her ride would not be uncomfortable . Taking Caroline with him everywhere , the king spent much of his time outside Belgium on his various properties throughout Western Europe , and was much resented by the Belgian people as a result . Much of this time was spent with Caroline and their two sons at his estate at Cap Ferrat in southern France . Caroline also stayed at Chateau de Larmoy , which Leopold had rented for her ; he acquired the French Chateau de Balaincourt as well as a villa in Brussels , where Caroline had no scruples in appearing in public . Though typically traveling incognito , she accompanied Leopold to the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901 , causing a great scandal . Her unpopularity in Belgium increased dramatically once it began to be realized that all of Leopold 's riches from the Congo were not benefiting his country , but rather himself and his young mistress .
As the years went by and the king became increasingly prone to outbursts of anger , breaking with all his old relationships , it was said that only in Caroline and their sons ' company did Leopold " recapture some of his vitality and Germanic humour " . Caroline was described as having been above average in height , " plump but graceful , with a beautiful complexion and skin " , with masses of chestnut hair ; in character , she was " haughty , sharp , irritable " and ill @-@ educated , and insisted on being treated with respect or else one would have to face the king 's displeasure . She was also said to be in possession of " vivid conversational powers " and " dazzling youthfulness " . Caroline was well @-@ used to Leopold 's " quirks " , such as his extreme hypochondria ; for instance , when she needed free time for herself , she coughed and pretended to have a cold ; she used this " weapon " to keep scheming female rivals from gaining favor with the king as well , telling Leopold that they had colds . Rather than ignore their age difference , Caroline and Leopold seemed to enjoy it , she calling him Tres Vieux and he calling her Tres Belle .
= = = Marriage = = =
The king became ill from an " intestinal blockage " at his home at Laeken , and his mistress and two sons rushed to his side . Five days before his death , on 12 December 1909 , King Leopold married Caroline in a religious ceremony performed by his personal chaplain . The marriage had no legal authority under Belgian law , as it was performed religiously , not civilly . It was recognized by the Vatican , as their wedding was solemnized in accordance with the Catholic Church 's religious rites . The marriage caused a great scandal in Belgium , as its citizens were shocked that the Church had not only sanctioned it , but also allowed Caroline to remain at his bedside , even when the priest was present . Despite their marriage , Caroline had to hide out of sight whenever a visitor arrived to see the king , though she stayed by his side otherwise .
Leopold died in the presence of Caroline and two nurses ; his youngest legitimate child Princess Clémentine , who had been barred from entering his palace before , was still not allowed to go into his room despite his weakening condition . Princesses Louise and Stéphanie also traveled to Brussels for a hoped @-@ for reconciliation with their father and changes to the king 's will , but Leopold turned them away . Caroline claimed that right before his passing , Leopold turned to his aide Baron Auguste Goffinet and said " I present you my widow . I place her under your protection during the few days she 'll spend in Belgium after my death " . Hochschild speculates that it is likely the king said this or something similar , as he was well @-@ aware how much his daughters and the public loathed her , particularly when they discovered just how much he had left her and their sons .
= = = Issue = = =
Caroline and Leopold had two sons together :
Lucien Philippe Marie Antoine ( 9 February 1906 – 1984 ) , Duke of Tervuren ; he married Lucie Gracieuse Mundutey on 1 March 1927 .
Philippe Henri Marie François ( 16 October 1907 – 21 August 1914 ) , Count of Ravenstein ; died young .
Like Caroline herself ( who was created Baroness Vaughan upon the birth of their first son ) , the two boys were granted courtesy titles , but no official royal decrees were ever issued by Leopold , the Belgian government , or any other foreign state , causing them to be merely honorary . Because of their parents ' legally invalid marriage , their two sons were still deemed illegitimate . Upon each of their births , they had been registered in France under Caroline 's name ; no mention of Leopold or another potential father was made . Despite these facts , there were fears in Belgium that Leopold would recognize his eldest son as heir to the throne . Had Leopold married in a legal civil ceremony , the boy could have indeed inherited the throne , because all classes were equal under the Belgian constitution , and thus their marriage would not have been considered morganatic . In 1910 , the two boys were adopted by Antoine Durrieux , whom Caroline married soon after Leopold 's death .
Leopold was devoted to his sons , and much of the wealth Caroline inherited went to the two ; she once reportedly boasted that because she was able to marry the king , her sons were in better standings than Charles Beauclerk , 1st Duke of St Albans , the illegitimate son of Nell Gwyn and Charles II of England . Because of these gifts , Caroline was loathed by the Belgian public ; on one occasion , her carriage was stoned on the streets of Brussels .
Their second son was born with a deformed hand , leading a cartoon to depict Leopold holding the child surrounded by Congolese corpses with their hands sliced off : the caption said Vengeance from on high .
= = Later years = =
Leopold gave his mistress vast sums of money by investing large sums in her name or confiding in trustees for her benefit . He also arranged for his two sons to be well provided for after his death . Under Belgian law , his three remaining legitimate children were entitled to a considerable portion of his estate , regardless of the contents of his will . However , this applied only in Belgium and not abroad ; consequently , much of the wealth he distributed for safekeeping was in foreign investments or in the shape of paintings , bric @-@ a @-@ brac , and art treasures that could be easily converted into cash . Leopold transferred Caroline a fortune in Congo securities , which were added to the already vast sum of six million francs he had previously presented her . Princess Louise soon went after these securities , but with the help of men loyal to the king , Caroline was able to safely spirit away the majority of her wealth to Paris ; two of her estates ( in Brussels and in France ) were boarded up however , disallowing her from entering them .
The exact degree of Caroline 's wealth was always problematic to trace , as the king had placed so much of it in different sources often difficult to locate and measure both during his lifetime and after his death . One 1912 source for instance reported that out of the king 's estimated estate of $ 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , Caroline received $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , while others stressed still higher numbers , and that the majority of it came from Congo shares .
= = = Legal suits = = =
The old king 's estrangement from his three daughters from his first marriage ( Princesses Louise , Stéphanie , and Clémentine ) spurred Leopold to keep or give as much wealth away as possible in order to disinherit the girls . An Austrian newspaper claimed that right before he died , Leopold personally gave Caroline his large collection of personal letters as well as documents detailing information about various European royal figures , which greatly worried his eldest daughter . After his death , the three princesses sued his estate for several million francs , although this was only a very small portion compared with the fortune he accumulated . The fortune was so large that the princesses were still attempting to recover some of Caroline 's wealth four years after their father 's death , claiming that Caroline and Durrieux had speedily ransacked one of Leopold 's properties in Paris and seized important financial documents before the Belgian envoy to France appeared . A trust of $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 the king had placed in Caroline and their two sons ' names became a target of the princesses ; they and the Belgian government argued that the trust formed part of Leopold 's private estate , and thus all three girls and the government had a right to their share , as its funds had derived from the Congo Free State . The Belgian government 's lawsuit succeeded , allowing them to collect the entire trust , but it also diminished the share the princesses received ( as each collected a comparatively meager $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . Belgian statesman Emile Vandervelde later charged in an open letter that Leopold had given Caroline $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of Congo bonds which had been found to be previously missing when Belgium annexed the colony .
= = = Second marriage , divorce and death = = =
An extremely rich widow ( Leopold 's gifts left her a multimillionaire ) , Caroline continued to appear in newspapers long after Leopold 's death . She married Antoine Durrieux , her former love and longtime friend , in 1910 , seven months after the king 's death . He was formerly a non @-@ commissioned officer in the French army , and served as her chief agent at the time of Leopold 's death , helping her collect the necessary papers to secure her inherited fortune . Because of Durrieux 's earlier role in prostituting Caroline off for money , Adam Hochschild speculates that if she had shared some of her riches with him , their arrangement was " surely one of the most successful feats of pimpery of all time " . Though Durrieux recognized her two sons as his own offspring , giving them his surname , he disliked how Caroline insisted he acknowledge their noble ranks when in their presence .
Caroline and her second husband divorced soon after , and she was able to keep the bulk of her wealth intact ( though she settled on Durrieux a sum of one million dollars in order to retain custody of her two sons ) . Various suitors often in her entourage , such as Count Boni de Castellane and Gaston Bonnefoy , were reported to be engaged or interested in her , particularly after her divorce . She never remarried . Caroline 's younger son died in 1914 , but the elder lived a long , quiet life on his inherited wealth , dying in 1984 .
In 1937 , Caroline published her memoirs , A commoner married a king : As told by Baroness de Vaughan to Paul Faure ; in it , she stated she had loved and was faithful to the king , and that he had loved her and their two sons . Caroline died on 12 February 1948 at Cambo , Pyrénées @-@ Atlantiques in France .
= The Vote That Counted =
The Vote That Counted is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a state senator who disappears from a train and detective Violet Gray investigates the case . Gray manages to find that he was kidnapped and that it was done because he opposed a powerful lobby . She manages to free the state senator in time for him to cast the deciding vote to defeat the lobby . The film was released on January 13 , 1911 , it was the second of four films in the " Violet Gray , Detective " series . The film received favorable reviews from Billboard and The New York Dramatic Mirror . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The Moving Picture World synopsis states , " State Senator Jack Dare , one of the reform members of the legislature , starts to the state capitol to attend an important session of that body . That he took the midnight train from his home city is clearly proven , for his aged mother was a passenger on it , and besides the conductor and porter are certain that he retired for the night . In the morning , however , his berth is empty , although some of his garments are found there . The case puzzles the railroad officials and the police , and Violet Gray is given a chance to distinguish herself . She learns from the conductor and porter , who had happened to spend the night awake at opposite ends of the car , that the senator did not go by them . Consequently this leaves only the window as his means of egress , and she knows that he must have gone that way . Violet discovers that Dare is a hearty supporter of a bill that a powerful lobby is trying to defeat . The fight is so close that his is the deciding vote . Dare cannot be bribed , so his opponents spirited him away in a novel fashion . But the girl finds where he is hidden and brings him back , although he is much injured . He reaches his seat in time to cast the needed vote , and to astound and defeat the lobby . "
= = Cast and production = =
The only known credit in the cast is Julia M. Taylor as Violet Gray . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not cite any scenario or directorial credits . At this time the Thanhouser company operated out of their studio in New Rochelle , New York . In October 1910 , an article in The Moving Picture World described the improvements to the studio as having permanently installed a lighting arrangement that was previously experimental in nature . The studio had amassed a collection of props for the productions and dressing rooms had been constructed for the actors . The studio had installed new equipment in the laboratories to improve the quality of the films . By 1911 , the Thanhouser company was recognized as one of leading Independent film makers , but Carl Laemmle 's Independent Moving Picture Company ( IMP ) captured most of the publicity . Two production companies were maintained by the company , the first under Barry O 'Neil and the second under Lucius J. Henderson and John Noble , an assistant director to Henderson . Though the company had at least two Bianchi cameras from Columbia Phonograph Company , it is believed that imported cameras were also used . The Bianchi cameras were unreliable and inferior to competitors , but it was believed to be a non @-@ infringing camera , though with " rare fortune " it could shoot up to 200 feet of film before requiring repairs .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 13 , 1911 . This would be billed as the second in the series following the successful Love And Law film . The two later releases would be The Norwood Necklace and The Court 's Decree would conclude the " Violet Gray , Detective " series . Apparently the film series made an impact because the Lubin Manufacturing Company released a film under the title Violet Dare , Detective in June 1913 . The film received a positive review from The Billboard for its interest plot , good acting and photography . The New York Dramatic Mirror found the film to be a good melodrama , but found fault in that a woman detective was used to resolve the case when the part would have had more dignity and realism if the case was resolved by a man . The film would be shown in Pennsylvania and be advertised by theaters even a year after its release .
= M.I.A. ( rapper ) =
Mathangi " Maya " Arulpragasam ( born 18 July 1975 ) , better known by her stage name M.I.A. , is an English hip hop recording artist , director , visual artist , activist , record producer , photographer , fashion designer and model . " M.I.A. " is a play on her own name and a reference to the acronym of Missing in Action . Her compositions combine elements of alternative , dance , electronic , hip hop and world music . M.I.A. began her career in 2000 as a visual artist , filmmaker and designer in west London before beginning her recording career in 2002 . Since rising to prominence in early 2004 for her singles " Sunshowers " and " Galang " , charting in Canada and the UK and reaching number 11 on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales in the US , she has been nominated for an Academy Award , three Grammy Awards and the Mercury Prize .
She released her debut album Arular in 2005 and second album Kala in 2007 both to universal critical acclaim . Arular charted in Norway , Belgium , Sweden , Japan and the US , where it reached number 16 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and number three on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . Kala was certified silver in the UK and gold in Canada and the US , where it topped the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . It also charted in several countries across Europe , in Japan and Australia . The album 's first single " Boyz " reached the Top 10 in Canada and on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales in 2007 , becoming her first Top 10 charting single . The single " Paper Planes " peaked in the Top 20 worldwide and reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Paper Planes " was certified gold in New Zealand and three times platinum in Canada and the US where , as of November 2011 , it is ranked the seventh best @-@ selling song by a British artist in the digital era . It has become XL Recordings ' second best @-@ selling single to date . M.I.A. ' s third album Maya was released in 2010 soon after the controversial song @-@ film short " Born Free " . This became her highest @-@ charting album in the UK and the US , reaching number nine on the Billboard 200 , topping the Dance / Electronic Albums chart and debuting in the Top 10 in Finland , Norway , Greece and Canada . The single " XXXO " reached the Top 40 in Belgium , Spain and the UK . M.I.A. has embarked on five global headlining tours and is the founder of her own multimedia label , N.E.E.T .. Her fourth studio album , Matangi , was released in 2013 .
Arulpragasam 's early compositions relied heavily on the Roland MC @-@ 505 music sequencer and drum machine . Her later work marked an evolution in her sound with rare instruments , electronics and unusual sound samples . Critics have acclaimed a distinctive style to her music . Lyrically incorporating a range of political , social , philosophical and cultural references that have defied existing pop music conventions , Arulpragasam was one of the first acts to come to public attention through the internet . She posted many of her songs and videos from 2002 onwards on platforms such as MySpace .
In 2001 , she received an " Alternative " Turner Prize nomination for her visual art . In 2005 and 2008 , M.I.A. was artist of the year by Spin and URB and Arulpragasam is named as one of the defining artists of the 2000s decade by Rolling Stone in its " Best of the Decade " list in December 2009 . Time magazine named her one of the world 's 100 most influential people in 2009 . Esquire magazine ranked M.I.A. on its list of the 75 most influential people of the 21st century in January 2010 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1975 – 1999 : Early life and education = = =
Arulpragasam was born on 18 July 1975 , in Hounslow , West London , to Arul Pragasam , an engineer , writer and activist , and his wife , Kala , a seamstress . When Maya was six months old , her family moved to Jaffna , the cultural , political , and economic capital of the predominantly Tamil northern Sri Lanka , where her brother Sugu was born . There , her father adopted the name Arular and became a political activist and founding member of the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students ( EROS ) , a political Tamil group affiliated with the LTTE . The first eleven years of Arulpragasam 's life were marked by displacement caused by the Sri Lankan Civil War . Her family went into hiding from the Sri Lankan army , and Arulpragasam had little contact with her father during this period . She has described her family as living in " big @-@ time " poverty during her childhood but also recalls some of her happiest memories from growing up in Jaffna . Maya attended Catholic convent schools such as the Holy Family Convent , Jaffna where she developed her art skills – painting in particular – to work her way up her class . During the civil war , soldiers would put guns through holes in the windows and shoot at the school , what she notes as " bullying exploitation . " Her classmates were trained to dive under the table or run next door to English @-@ language schools that , according to her , " wouldn ’ t get shot . " Arulpragasam lived on a road alongside much of her extended family and played inside temples and churches in the town .
Due to safety concerns , Arulpragasam 's mother , Kala , relocated herself and her children to Madras in Tamil Nadu , India , where they lived in a derelict house and received sporadic visits from their father , Arular , who was introduced to the children as their " uncle " in order to protect them . The family minus Arular then resettled in Jaffna temporarily , only to see the war escalate further in the northeast . During this time 9 @-@ year @-@ old Arulpragasam 's primary school was destroyed in a government raid . Kala then moved with her children back to London in 1986 a week before Arulpragasam 's eleventh birthday where they were housed as refugees . Arular remained on the island and became an independent peace mediator between the two sides of the civil war in the late 1980s – 2010 . Arulpragasam spent the rest of her childhood and teenage years living on the Phipps Bridge Estate in the Mitcham district of southwest London , where she learned to speak English , whilst Kala brought the children up on a modest income . Arulpragasam entered the final year of primary school in the autumn of 1986 and quickly mastered the English language . Despite being the only Sri Lankan family in the area , the family were made welcome and faced no racial abuse during their time on the estate .
While living in the United Kingdom and raising her children , her mother became a practising Christian in 1990 and worked as a commissioned seamstress for the Royal Family for much of her career . She worked from her home in Tooting , which is at the south of London . Arulpragasam has had a difficult relationship with her father , due to his political activities in the 1980s and complete absence during much of her life . Prior to the release of the first album , which Arulpragasam had named after her father , Arular emailed her : " This is Dad . Change the title of your album . I 'm really proud . Just read about you in the Sri Lanka Times . Dad . " Maya chose not to change the album title . Arulpragasam attended the Ricards Lodge High School in Wimbledon . After leaving school , she completed a degree in fine art , film , and video in June 2000 from London 's Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design . Her initial application to the school was rejected , but she was finally admitted and received a scholarship , being told that she " had chutzpah " .
= = = 2000 – 02 : Visual art and film = = =
While attending Central St Martins College , Arulpragasam wanted to make films and art depicting realism that would be accessible to everyone , something that she felt was missing from her classmates ' ethics and the course criteria . At college , she found the fashion courses " disposable " and more current than the film texts that she studied . Maya told Arthur magazine " [ Students there were ] exploring apathy , dressing up in some pigeon outfit , or running around conceptualising ... It missed the whole point of art representing society . Social reality didn ’ t really exist there ; it just stopped at theory . " She cited " radical cinema " including Harmony Korine , Dogme 95 and Spike Jonze as some of her cinematic inspirations during film school . As a student , she was approached by director John Singleton to work on a film in Los Angeles after he had read a script she had written , though she decided not to take up the offer . For her degree , M.I.A. prepared her departmental honours thesis on the film CB4 .
Arulpragasam befriended students in the college 's fashion , advertising and graphics departments . She met Justine Frischmann , front woman of the British band Elastica , through her friend Damon Albarn at an Air concert in 1999 , and Frischmann commissioned Arulpragasama to create the cover art for the band 's 2000 album , The Menace , and video document their American tour . Arulpragasam returned to Jaffna in 2001 to film a documentary on Tamil youth , but was unable to complete the project because she encountered harassment . In 2001 , Arulpragasam 's first public exhibition of paintings after graduating took place at the Euphoria Shop on London 's Portobello Road . It featured graffiti art and spray @-@ paint canvasses mixing Tamil political street art with images of London life and consumerist culture . The show was nominated for an Alternative Turner Prize and a monograph book of the collection was published in 2002 , [ 9 ] titled M.I.A .. Actor Jude Law was among early buyers of her art .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Musical beginnings and Arular = = =
Arulpragasam cites the radio broadcasts she heard emanating from her neighbours ' flats in the late 1980s as some of her first exposures to her earliest musical influences . From there , she developed an interest in hip @-@ hop and dancehall , identifying with " the starkness of the sound " in records by Public Enemy , MC Shan and Ultramagnetic MCs ; and the " weird , distinct style " of acts such as Silver Bullet and London Posse . In college she developed an affinity for punk and the emerging sounds of Britpop and electroclash . M.I.A. cites The Slits , Malcolm McLaren and The Clash as major influences .
By 2001 , Arulpragasam designed the cover for Elastica 's last single " The Bitch Don 't Work " , and went on the road with the band to video document their tour . The tour 's supporting act , electroclash artist Peaches , introduced Arulpragasam to the Roland MC @-@ 505 and encouraged her to make music , a medium in which Arulpragasam lacked confidence . While holidaying together in Bequia in the Caribbean , Arulpragasam began experimenting with Frischmann 's MC @-@ 505 . She adopted her stage name , " M.I.A. " , standing for " Missing In Acton " during this time . In her 2012 book Arulpragasam writes , " M.I.A. came to be because of my missing cousin . I wanted to make a film about where he was since he was M.I.A. ( Missing in Action ) in Sri Lanka . We were the same age , went to the same schools growing up . I was also living in Acton at the time . So I was living in Acton looking for my cousin missing in action . " Of her time in Bequia , she told " I started going out to this chicken shed with a sound system . You buy rum through a hatch and dance in the street . They convinced me to come to church where people sing so amazingly . But I couldn ’ t clap along to hallelujah . I was out of rhythm . Someone said
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, ‘ What happened to Jesus ? I saw you dancing last night and you were totally fine . ’ They stopped the service and taught me to clap in time . It was embarrassing " . Returning to West London , where she shared an apartment with Frischmann , she began working with a simple set @-@ up ( a second @-@ hand 4 @-@ track tape machine , the MC @-@ 505 , and a radio microphone ) , composing and recording a six song demo tape that included " Lady Killa " , " M.I.A. " , and " Galang " .
In 2003 , the independent label Showbiz Records pressed 500 vinyl singles of " Galang " , a mix of dancehall , electro , jungle , and world music , with Seattle Weekly praising its a cappella coda as a " lift @-@ up @-@ and @-@ over moment " evoking " clear skies beyond the council flats . " File sharing , college radio airplay , and the rise in popularity of " Galang " and " Sunshowers " in dance clubs and fashion shows made M.I.A. an underground sensation . M.I.A. has been heralded as one of the first artists to build a large fanbase exclusively via these channels and as someone who could be studied to reexamine the internet 's impact on how listeners are exposed to new music . She began uploading her music onto her MySpace account in June 2004 . Major record labels caught on to the popularity of the second song she has written , " Galang " , and M.I.A. was eventually signed to XL Recordings in mid @-@ 2004 . Her debut album , to be titled Arular was finalized by borrowing studio time .
M.I.A. ' s next single , " Sunshowers " , released on 5 July 2004 , and its B @-@ side ( " Fire Fire " ) described guerrilla warfare and asylum seeking , merging ambiguous references to violence and religious persecution with black and white forms of dissidence . These themes inspired her treatment for the music video , the first she wrote . It was filmed in the jungles of South India , which she has described as her favourite . " Galang " was re @-@ released in 2004 . In September 2004 , M.I.A was first featured on the cover of the publication The FADER , in its 24th issue . The music video for " Galang " made in November of that year showed multiple M.I.A.s against a backdrop of militaristic animated graffiti , and depicted scenes of urban Britain and war that influenced her art direction for it . Both singles appeared on international publications ' " Best of the Year " lists and subsequently " Best of the Decade " lists . The songs " Pull Up the People " , " Bucky Done Gun " and " " were released as 12 @-@ inch singles and CDs by XL Recordings , which along with the non @-@ label mashup mixtape of Arular tracks , Piracy Funds Terrorism , were distributed in 2004 to positive critical acclaim .
M.I.A. made her North American live debut in February 2005 in Toronto where concertgoers already knew many of her songs . In March 2005 , M.I.A. ' s debut album Arular was released worldwide to critical acclaim after several months delay . The album title is the nom de guerre that M.I.A. ' s father took when he joined the Tamil independence movement , and many of the songs acknowledge her and her father 's experiences in Jaffna . While making Arular in her bedroom in west London , she built tracks off her demos , using beats she programmed on the Roland MC @-@ 505 . The album experiments with bold , jarring and ambient sounds , and its lyrics address the Iraq War and daily life in London as well as M.I.A. ' s past .
" Galang " , " Sunshowers " , " Hombre " and the funk carioca @-@ inspired co @-@ composition " Bucky Done Gun " were released as singles from Arular . The release of the latter marked the first time that a funk carioca @-@ inspired song was played on mainstream radio and music television in Brazil , its country of origin . M.I.A. worked with one of her musical influences Missy Elliott , contributing to the track " Bad Man " on her 2005 album The Cookbook . Despite initial fears that her dyslexia might pose problems while touring , M.I.A. supported the album through a series of festival and club shows , including the Bue Festival in Buenos Aires , a free headlining show at Central Park Summerstage , the Summer Sonic Fest and the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , where she played an encore in response to crowd enthusiasm , a rare occurrence for the festival generally and the first encore following a tent performance at Coachella . She also toured with Roots Manuva and LCD Soundsystem , and ended 2005 briefly touring with Gwen Stefani and performing at the Big Day Out festival . On 19 July 2005 , M.I.A. was shortlisted for the Mercury Music Prize for Arular . According to the music review aggregation Metacritic , it garnered an average score of 88 out of 100 , described as " universal acclaim " . They reported in 2010 that Arular was the seventh best reviewed album of 2005 and the ninth Best @-@ Reviewed Electronic / Dance Album on Metacritic of the 2000 – 09 decade . Arular became the second most featured album in music critics ’ Year @-@ End Top 10 lists for 2005 and was named best of the year by publications such as Blender , Stylus and Musikbyrån .
= = = 2006 – 08 : Kala and world recognition = = =
In 2006 , M.I.A. recorded her second studio album Kala , this time named after her mother . Due to censorship and visa complications in the United States , the album was recorded in a variety of locations — India , Trinidad , Liberia , Jamaica , Australia , Japan , and the UK . Eventually the album was completed in the US .
Kala featured live instrumentation and layers of traditional dance and folk styles such as soca and the urumee drum of gaana , rave music and bootleg soundtracks of Tamil film music , incorporating new styles into her avant @-@ garde electronic dance music . The songs , artwork and fashion of Kala have been characterized as simultaneously celebratory and infused with raw , " darker , outsider " themes , such as immigration politics , personal relationships and war . In February 2007 , the first track from the album to be made available to the public was " Bird Flu " , which was posted with an accompanying music video to her MySpace . Later that year , M.I.A. featured in the song " Come Around " , a bonus track on Timbaland 's 2007 album Shock Value and a track on Kala . The album 's first official single " Boyz " was released in June 2007 , accompanied by a music video co @-@ directed by Jay Will and M.I.A. , becoming M.I.A. ' s first top ten charting song . The single " Jimmy " , written about an invitation to tour genocide @-@ affected regions in Rwanda that the singer received from a journalist while staying in Liberia , was released next . The single " Paper Planes " , described a " satire on immigrant stereotypes " , and the EP Paper Planes - Homeland Security Remixes EP were released digitally in February 2008 , the single eventually selling three times platinum in the US and Canada , certified Gold in New Zealand , and becoming the 29th most downloaded song in the digital era in the US and earning a Grammy nomination for Record of the Year . " Paper Planes " is to date XL Recordings ' second best selling single , and by November 2011 it had sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies in the US , currently the seventh best @-@ selling song by a British artist in the digital era . In 2007 , M.I.A. also released the How Many Votes Fix Mix EP which included a remix of " Boyz " featuring Jay @-@ Z. " Paper Planes " is one of M.I.A. ' s most popular songs . On this song she collaborated with Florida @-@ based DJ Diplo . Their work on this song landed him a Grammy nomination for Record of the year and got number three in the U.S. Charts.They also worked together on her first album " Arular " Like its predecessor , universal acclaim met Kala 's release in August 2007 and the album earned a normalised rating of 87 out of 100 on the review aggregator MetaCritic . Kala was a greater commercial success than Arular . To support Kala , M.I.A. performed at a series of music festivals on the Kala Tour featuring performances in Europe , America and Asia . She performed three dates opening for Björk in the US and France . In 2008 , M.I.A. provided guest vocals on Buraka Som Sistema 's kuduro song " Sound of Kuduro " , recorded in Angola with an accompanying video . The same year , M.I.A. and director Spike Jonze filmed a documentary in Woolwich , South London , in which they both appeared with Afrikan Boy , a Nigerian immigrant rapper and she disclosed plans to launch her own record label , Zig @-@ Zag . She ended the year with concerts in the United Kingdom . By year end , Kala was named the best album of 2007 by publications including Rolling Stone and Blender . MetaCritic reported in 2010 that Kala was the tenth Best @-@ Reviewed Electronic / Dance Album on Metacritic of the 2000 – 09 decade , one position below her debut album Arular . M.I.A. performed on the People vs. Money Tour during the first half of 2008 . She cancelled the final leg of her tour in Europe through June and July after revealing her intentions to take a career break and work on other art projects , go back to college and make a film .
In 2008 , M.I.A. started her independent record label N.E.E.T. Recordings . The first artist signed to the label was Baltimore rapper Rye Rye , who performed with M.I.A. at the Diesel XXX party at Pier 3 in Brooklyn in October 2008 where it was revealed that M.I.A. was pregnant with her first child . M.I.A. contributed songs for A. R. Rahman 's score of the film Slumdog Millionaire , which included the collaboration " O … Saya " ; she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a World Soundtrack Award for Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film for the song . M.I.A. was due to perform at the Oscars ceremony two weeks after her Grammy Award performance , but could not as she had just given birth to her son . M.I.A. is the first person of Asian descent to be nominated for an Oscar and Grammy award in the same year .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Maya = = =
At the 2009 BRIT Awards in February , M.I.A. was a nominee for Best British Female Artist . Seeking to promote new , underground music with N.E.E.T. , M.I.A. signed more bands including Baltimore musician Blaqstarr , indie rock band Sleigh Bells and visual artist Jaime Martinez by late 2009 . 3D photographic images of M.I.A. by Martinez were commissioned in April of that year . In August 2009 , M.I.A. began composing and recording her third studio album in a home studio section in her Los Angeles house . In January 2010 , M.I.A. posted her video for the song " Space " . While composing it , she helped write a song with Christina Aguilera called " Elastic Love " for Aguilera 's album Bionic . By April 2010 , the song and music video / short film " Born Free " were leaked online . The video @-@ film short was directed by Romain Gavras and written by M.I.A. , depicting genocide against red @-@ haired adolescents being forced to run across a minefield and caused controversy due to its graphically violent content . The video was removed from YouTube the same day it was released , then reinstated with an age restriction , then removed once more . Although not an official single , the song charted in Sweden and the United Kingdom . M.I.A. ' s third album , Maya — stylised as / \ / \ / \ Y / \ — was released on 23 June 2010 in Japan with bonus tracks before its release in other countries . Maya became M.I.A. ' s highest charting album globally . Its release in the US was delayed by two weeks . The album garnered a generally favourable , although divided , reception from critics . A more internet @-@ inspired album illustrating how a multimedia artist worked within the music industry , elements of industrial music were incorporated into M.I.A. ' s sound for the first time . She described the album in an interview with Dazed & Confused as a mix of " babies , death , destruction and powerlessness " .
On 11 May 2010 , the first official single from Maya , " XXXO " , was released and reached the top forty in Belgium , Spain and the UK . " Steppin ' Up " , " Teqkilla " , and " Tell Me Why " were also released as promotional singles exclusively on iTunes in the days leading to the release of Maya , with " Teqkilla " reaching the top 100 in Canada on digital downloads alone .
The video for " XXXO " was released online in August . M.I.A. hinted in an interview to Blitz that a music video is being made with director Spike Jonze for the single " Teqkilla . " She completed her live tour dates on the Maya Tour in summer of 2011 .
From 2000 until 2010 , she directed the video for Elastica single " Mad Dog God Dam " and videos for her songs " Bird Flu " , " Boyz " , " S.U.S. ( Save Ur Soul ) " , " Space " and " XXXO " as well as personally choosing the directors for the videos of her songs Galang , Sunshowers , which she described in 2005 and again in 2011 as being her favorite video experience and favorite video adaptation of a song of hers , in her words as of 2011 , " If you watch only one of my videos , please try Sunshowers " , " Jimmy , " " Born Free , " and " Bad Girls . " , a video inspired by YouTube videos of car stunts and photographs , including one of an Arab female trucker , from the Middle East , which she described as her second favorite music video . She directed a video for Rye Rye 's " Bang " . She judged in the Music Video category at the inaugural Vimeo Festival & Awards in New York in October 2010 .
M.I.A. released her second mixtape , Vicki Leekx , on 31 December 2010 , and followed this with Internet Connection : The Remixes , an EP to a bonus track from Maya in January 2011 . M.I.A. performed on the song " C.T.F.O. " on SebastiAn 's album Total . On 21 April 2011 , it was reported that M.I.A. had been in the studio with Chris Brown , the Cataracs , Swizz Beatz and Polow da Don .
= = = 2012 – 14 : Matangi = = =
M.I.A. co @-@ wrote the song " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " with Madonna and Nicki Minaj for the album MDNA and performed it at the Super Bowl XLVI Halftime Show . Controversially , instead of singing the lyric " shit " in the song , M.I.A. extended the middle finger to the camera . The N.F.L. responded by filing a lawsuit suing M.I.A. for million in damages and demanding a public apology from M.I.A. Maya and her legal team also responded by saying that the league 's claim of " wholesomeness " in the lawsuit is hypocritical since the N.F.L. itself has had multiple situations of their own players and coaches behaving badly as well as health problems within the league , particularly concussions . In September 2013 Maya released a video statement regarding the lawsuit . In her statement Arulpragasam said , " They 're basically [ saying ] it 's OK for me to promote being sexually exploited as a female , than to display empowerment , female empowerment , through being punk rock . That 's what it boils down to , and I 'm being sued for it . " The lawsuit was settled in August 2014 ; the terms of the settlement remain private .
She 's also featured in " B @-@ Day Song " , another song included on MDNA .
The first buzz track of her fourth album , " Bad Girls " , taken from her Vicki Leekx mixtape , premiered on 30 January 2012 , was released globally the day after , and was followed by a music video directed by Romain Gavras on 3 February 2012 . This received nominations for Video of the Year at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards and at the 55th Grammy Awards . The song become one of M.I.A. ' s most successful singles , charting in the United Kingdom , Australia , France , Canada , United States , Switzerland , South Korea and Belgium . On 29 April 2012 she posted a preview of a new song to YouTube , titled " Come Walk With Me " . The full version of Come Walk With Me was shared one and a half year later , on September 2013 .
M.I.A. officially signed to Jay @-@ Z 's Roc Nation management in May 2012 . Rihanna welcomed her to the family , tweeting , " welcome home MIA . " She guested during Jay @-@ Z 's set at the Radio 1 Festival in Hackney on 23 June 2012 .
In October 2012 , M.I.A. released an autobiographical book titled M.I.A. documenting " the five years of M.I.A. art that spans across three LPs : Arular , Kala , and Maya . " The book contains artwork as well as a foreword by frequent collaborator Steve Loveridge and various essays by M.I.A. On 3 March 2013 , she released an 8 @-@ minute mix recording as part of a Kenzo fashion show in Paris .
Matangi , was recorded across the world with different collaborators . In relation to her previous albums , she described her fourth as " basically all of them together " , akin to an anthology . The album was released on Interscope and M.I.A. ' s label N.E.E.T. Recordings . Release dates of 31 January 2013 and later , 15 April 2013 were announced , but the album remained unreleased . M.I.A. later revealed that the original project for Matangi was not accepted by Interscope , which claimed that the record was " too positive " . " Bring the Noize " , produced by French producer Surkin and Switch , was announced as the second single and was released on 17 June 2013 . Soon after the single was released , the official video for " Bring the Noize " premiered on 25 June via Noisey . On 9 August 2013 , the album received an official release date of 5 November 2013 after M.I.A. threatened to leak the album due to the numerous delays by Interscope .
Matangi received generally positive reviews from music critics . In its first week of release , the album sold 15 @,@ 000 copies and peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 , falling to number 90 in its second week . Overall , Matangi is M.I.A. ' s lowest charting album worldwide .
On 31 December 2013 M.I.A. announced that she 's leaving Roc Nation .
= = = 2015 – present : A.I.M. = = =
On 13 July 2015 , M.I.A. released a five @-@ minute video titled " Matahdatah Scroll 01 Broader Than a Border " which features two of her tracks : Matangi 's " Warrior " and a new track " Swords " . The video was filmed in India and West Africa and shows different forms of dancing in those regions . On 27 November 2015 , M.I.A. released " Borders " as her new single on iTunes , prior to that her new single was announced via her Instagram account . The track mocks first world problems and touches on some serious issues happening in the world . She introduced a music video with it which was also socially and politically motivated . In January 2016 , the French football club Paris Saint @-@ Germain sued M.I.A. for wearing a modified version of their club ’ s T @-@ shirt in her Borders video and changing the words " Fly Emirates " to " Fly Pirates " on it .
In late February 2016 , she released " Boom ADD " , an expanded version of the " Boom Skit " , which appeared on M.I.A. ' s fourth studio album Matangi ; it is a diss @-@ track to the NFL 's lawsuit of her performance at the 2012 Superbowl .
On June 1 , 2016 , she released " Poc That Still A Ryda " , a lyrical mix of songs on her upcoming album .
On 12 July , 2016 , she announced the title of her upcoming fifth studio album was A.I.M. , and on July 15 , 2016 , she released " Go Off " as the first single . The song was produced by Skrillex and Blaqstarr .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and influences = = =
M.I.A. ' s music features styles such as electro , reggae , rhythm and blues , alternative rock , hip hop , grime , rap ballads and Asian folk and references to her musical influences such as Missy Elliott , Tamil film music , Lou Reed , Pixies , Timbaland , Beastie Boys and London Posse . She was a childhood fan of Boney M , composer A. R. Rahman and pop artists Michael Jackson and Madonna , also she has cited Björk as an inspiration and has been influenced by The Slits , Public Enemy , Malcolm McLaren and The Clash . Noting her early inspirations , she said " When I would go to bed , I ’ d listen to the radio and dream about dancing and Paula Abdul and Whitney Houston , and that ’ s how I fell asleep . When my radio was burgled , I started listening to hip hop " . She has revealed her ideal karaoke song would be " Germ @-@ Free Adolescents " by X @-@ Ray Spex . M.I.A. describes her music as dance music or club music for the " other " , and has been described as an " anti @-@ popstar " for refusing to conform to certain recording industry expectations of solo artists . M.I.A. possesses the vocal range of a mezzo @-@ soprano , spanning one octave in the western music scale , from the lower note of F3 to the higher note of F4 . M.I.A. ' s early compositions relied heavily on the Roland MC @-@ 505 , while later M.I.A. experimented further with her established sound and drew from a range of genres , creating layered textures of instruments , electronics and sounds outside the traditional studio environment . Artists including Nas , Chuck D and Krist Novoselic of Nirvana have praised her work .
She has also stated she is a fan of Beyoncé Knowles , stating " she 's like harder , faster , stronger . In our lifetime , she will be a classic , like how people talk about Aretha Franklin . "
Jimmy Iovine , the chairman of M.I.A. ' s American distribution label Interscope , compares M.I.A. to Reed and punk rock songwriter Patti Smith , and recalled , " She 's gonna do what she 's gonna do , I can 't tell her shit . " " The really left @-@ of @-@ center artists , you really wonder about them . Can the world catch up ? Can the culture meet them in the middle ? That ’ s what the adventure is . It doesn ’ t always happen , but it should and it could . " Richard Russell , head of XL Recordings , states , " You 've got to bend culture around to suit you , and I think M.I.A has done that " adding that M.I.A. ' s composition and production skills were a major attraction for him . As a vocalist , M.I.A. is recognisable by her distinctive whooping , chanting voice , which has been described as having an " indelible , nursery @-@ rhyme swing . " She has adopted different singing styles on her songs , from aggressive raps , to semi @-@ spoken and melodic vocals . She has said of the sometimes " unaffected " vocals and delivery of her lyrics , " It is what it is . Most people would just put it down to me being lazy . But at the same time , I don ’ t want [ that perfection ] , " saying some of the " raw and difficult " vocal styles she used reflected what was happening to her during recording .
= = = Image and stage = = =
Sasha Frere @-@ Jones , critic of The New Yorker praised the self made " unpretentious , stuck together with Scotch tape " style that M.I.A. achieves with her Roland MC @-@ 505 drum machine and keyboard unit , noting that many people had tried to copy the style since . Her considerable influence on American hip hop music as an international artist is described by Adam Bradley and Andrew DuBois in The Anthology of Rap as making her an " unlikely hip hop " celebrity , given that the genre was one of several influences behind M.I.A. ' s " eccentric and energizing " music and that the musician 's unclassifiable sound was one example of how hip hop was changing as it came into contact with other cultures . Similarly , Jeffrey H. Wallenfeldt writes in The Black experience in America : from civil rights to the present that no single artist may have personified hip hop in the 21st century better than M.I.A. , in her " politically radical lyrics drawing from widely diverse sources around the world " . The Guardian critic Hattie Collins commented of M.I.A. ' s influence , " A new raver before it was old . A baile funk / pop pioneer before CSS and Bonde do Rolê emerged . A quirky female singer / rapper before the Mini Allens had worked out how to log on to MySpace . Missing In Action ( or Acton , as she sometimes calls herself ) has always been several miles ahead of the pack . " The twisting of western modalities in her music style using multilingual , multiethnic soundscapes to make electroclash @-@ pop albums is noted by Derek Beres in Global beat fusion : the history of the future of music ( 2005 ) to defy world music categorization . In the book Downloading Music ( 2007 ) , Linda Aksomitis notes the various aspects of peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing of music in the rise in popularity of M.I.A. , including the advantages and disadvantages of the internet and platforms such as MySpace in the launch of her career . Andy Bennett and Jon Stratton highlight in Britpop and the English Music Tradition ( 2010 ) how M.I.A. alongside musicians such as Sway and Dizzee Rascal created music that explored new soundscapes with new technologies , with lyrics expressing anger at Britain 's " racialized subordination of minority groups " and that the innovation that generates new musical forms like grime and dubstep are , inevitably , politically engaged . The chart success of grime @-@ influenced artists like M.I.A. is heralded as a signal in the way that white Britons adapted to a new multicultural and plural musical mix in contrast to bands of the Britpop genre . Furthermore , her work being used as a global resource for the articulation of differently located themes and its connections to many music traditions is noted by Brian Longhurst in Popular music and society ( 2007 ) to illustrate such processes of interracial dialogue . Gary Shteyngart writing in GQ notes that " M.I.A. is perhaps the preeminent global musical artist of the 2000s , a truly kick @-@ ass singer and New York @-@ Londony fashion icon , not to mention a vocal supporter of Sri Lanka 's embattled Tamil minority , of which she 's a member . "
M.I.A. ' s stage performances are described as " highly energetic " and multimedia showcases , often with scenes of what Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield describes as " jovial chaos , with dancers and toasters and random characters roaming the stage , " bringing various crowds with interests in art , music and fashion . Camille Dodero , writing in The Village Voice opined that M.I.A. " works hard to manifest the chaos of her music in an actual environment , and , more than that , to actively create discomfort , energy , and anger through sensory overload . " Her role as an artist in and voice lender to the subaltern is appreciated by theorists as having brought such ideas to first world view . USA Today included her on its list of the 100 Most Interesting People of 2007 and she was named one of Time Out ' s 40th Birthday London Heroes in 2008 . The same year , Esquire listed M.I.A. as one of the 75 Most Influential People of the 21st century , describing her as the first and only major artist in world music , and in 2009 she was cited in Time magazine 's Time 100 as one of the world 's most influential people for her global influence across many genres . In December 2010 , USA Today listed M.I.A. at number 63 on its list of the " 100 People of 2010 " . M.I.A. placed number 14 on Rolling Stone 's Decade @-@ End Readers ' Poll of " Top Artists Of The Decade . " Rolling Stone named her one of eight artists who defined the 2000s decade .
= = = Themes and artwork = = =
M.I.A. has become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos and her cover art . Her politically inspired art became recognized while she exhibited and published several of her brightly coloured stencils and paintings portraying the tiger , a symbol of Tamil nationalism , ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and urban Britain in the early 2000s . Lyrics on Arular regarding her experiences of identity politics , poverty , revolution , gender and sexual stereotypes , war , and the conditions of working class in London were hailed as new and unorthodox , setting her apart from previous artists . The album references the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Tamil independence movements and features culture jamming , multi @-@ lingual slang , strident and subtle imagery . Her albums ' social commentary and storytelling have incited debate on the " invigoratingly complex " politics of the issues she highlighted in the album , breaking taboos while the West was engaged in the 2003 Iraq War in the Middle East during the Presidency of George W. Bush . Government visits to her official website following her debut album 's release in 2005 , and a US refusal to grant M.I.A. a travel visa coupled with her brief presence on the US Homeland Security Risk List in 2006 due to her politically charged lyrics led to her second album Kala being recorded in a variety of locations around the world . The American Civil Liberties Union described the actions as part of a trend of ideological exclusion by the state which was detrimental to democracy by " censoring and manipulating debate " .
On Kala , M.I.A. ' s songs explored immigration politics and her personal relationships . Many related her experiences during recording sessions in Madras , Angola , Trinidad shantytowns , Liberia and London , and were well acclaimed . The album 's artwork was inspired by African art , " from dictator fashion to old stickers on the back of cars , " which like her clothing range , she hoped would capture " a 3 @-@ D sense , the shapes , the prints , the sound , film , technology , politics , economics " of a certain time . I @-@ D magazine described the " bleeding cacophany of graphics " on her website during this time as evoking the " noisy amateurism " of the early web , but also embodying a rejection of today 's " glossy , professional site design " which was felt to " efface the medium rather than celebrate it . " Jeff Chang , writing for The Nation , described a " Kala for the Nation " and the album 's music , lyrics and imagery as encompassing " everywhere – or , to be specific , everywhere but the First World 's self @-@ regarding ' here ' , " stating that against a media flow that suppresses the " ugliness " of reality and fixes beauty to consumption , M.I.A. forces a conversation about how the majority live , closing the distance " between ' here ' and everywhere else " . He felt that Kala explored poverty , violence and globalization through the eyes of " children left behind . "
Her third album , Maya , tackled information politics in the digital age , loaded with technological references and love songs , and deemed by Kitty Empire writing in The Observer to be her most melancholic and mainstream effort . Her genocide @-@ depicting 2010 video for the single " Born Free " was deemed by Ann Powers writing in the Los Angeles Times to be " concentrating fully " on the physical horror of gun butts and bullets hitting flesh , with the scenes giving added poignancy to the lyrical themes of the song . Interpreted as a comment on the Arizona immigration law , America 's military might and desensitised attitudes towards violence , others found that the video stressed that genocide still exists and violent repression remains commonplace . Some critics described the film as " sensationalist " . Neda Ulaby of NPR described the video as intended for " shock value " in the service of nudging people into considering real issues that can be hard to talk about . M.I.A. revealed that she felt " disconnected " during the writing process , and spoke of the Internet inspiration and themes of information politics that could be found in the songs and the artwork .
M.I.A. views her work as reflective , pieced together in one piece " so you can acquire it and hear it . " She states , " All that information floats around where we are – the images , the opinions , the discussions , the feelings – they all exist , and I felt someone had to do something about it because I can 't live in this world where we pretend nothing really matters . " On the political nature of her songs she has said , " Nobody wants to be dancing to political songs . Every bit of music out there that ’ s making it into the mainstream is really about nothing . I wanted to see if I could write songs about something important and make it sound like nothing . And it kind of worked . " Censorship on MTV of " Sunshowers " proved controversial and was again criticised following Kala release " Paper Planes " . YouTube 's block and subsequent age gating / obscuring of the video for " Born Free " from Maya due to its graphic violence / political subtext was criticized by M.I.A. as hypocritical , citing the Internet channel 's streaming of real @-@ life killings . She went on to state , " It 's just fake blood and ketchup and people are more offended by that than the execution videos " , referring to clips of Sri Lankan troops extrajudicially shooting unarmed , blindfolded , naked men that she had previously tweeted . Despite the block , the video remained on her website and Vimeo , and has been viewed 30 million times on the internet . Lisa Weems writes in the book Postcolonial challenges in education how M.I.A. pointed out in her music how immigrants , refugees and persons of the third world can and do resist through economic , political and cultural discursive practices . In light of her influence in modern culture and the historical and political significance embedded in both the instrumental music and lyrics of her songs , J. Gentry of Brown University instructs a course from summer 2012 titled " Music & Politics : From Mozart to M.I.A. " , with the objective of academically exploring and examining the political messages and contexts of music and the way " music has consistently participated in and reflected the political debates of its time " .
= = = Fashion and style = = =
M.I.A. cites guerrilla art and fashion as major influences . Her mother works as a seamstress in London . An early interest in fashion and textiles – designing confections of " bright fluorescent fishnet fabrics " — was a hallmark of her time at Central Saint Martins College . M.I.A. was a roommate of fashion designer Luella Bartley and is a long @-@ time friend of designer Carri Mundane . Clothes from her limited @-@ edition " Okley Run " line — Mexican and Afrika line jackets and leggings , Islamic @-@ inspired and water melon @-@ print hoodies , and tour @-@ inspired designs – were sold in 2008 during New York fashion week . She commented , " I wanted to tie all my work together . When I make an album , I make a number of artworks that go with it , and now I make some clothes that go with it too . So this Okley run was an extension of my Kala album and artwork . " Spin described her designs as " 1000 watt Malcolm McLaren @-@ meets @-@ Basquiat " , that complimented her personal style that could " run from futurist aerobic instructor to new wave pirate to queenly candy raver " .
Contrary to her present style , M.I.A. ' s Arular era style has been described as " tattered hand me downs and patched T @-@ shirts of indigents " , embodying the " uniform of the refugee " but modified with cuts , alterations and colours to fashion a distinctly new style and apparel line . M.I.A. built on this during the Kala era with a " playful " combination of baggy T @-@ shirts , leggings and short @-@ shorts . She incorporated eccentric accessories in bold patterns , sparkle and " over @-@ saturated " neon colour to fashion her signature style which inspired flocks of " garishly @-@ clothed all @-@ too @-@ sassy " new @-@ rave girls with bright red tights , cheetah @-@ skin smock and faded 1980s T- shirts . Her commodifying and performance of this refugee image has been noted to " reposition " perceptions of it in the wider public . Hailed as presenting a challenge to the mainstream with her ironic style , M.I.A. has been praised for dictating such a subcultural trend worldwide , combining " adolescent " frustrations of race and class with a strong desire to dance . Eddy Lawrence of Time Out commented how her multi genre style contributed to her being beloved of the broadsheet fashionistas yet simultaneously patron saint and pin @-@ up for the Day @-@ Glo nu @-@ rave kids . Similarly , Mary Beth Ray , in the book Rock Brands : Selling Sound in a Media Saturated Culture writes that M.I.A. ' s hybrid style addressed a number of social and political issues including power , violence , identity and survival in a globalized world , while using avenues that challenged " traditional " definitions of what it meant to be a contemporary pop artist .
M.I.A. was once denied entry into a Marc Jacobs party , but subsequently DJed at the designer 's 2008 fashion show afterparty , and modelled for " Marc by Marc Jacobs " in Spring / Summer 2008 . M.I.A. ' s fashion and style landed her on Vogue 's 10 Best Dressed of 2008 . She turned down her inclusion on People magazine 's list of the " 50 Most Beautiful People in the World " the same year . M.I.A. ' s status as a style icon , trendsetter and trailblazer is globally affirmed , with her distinct identity , style , and music illuminating social issues of gender , the third world , and popular music . Critics point out that such facets of her public persona underline the importance of authenticity , challenging the globalized popular music market , and demonstrating music 's strive to be political . Her albums have been met with acclaim , often heralded as " eclectic " for possessing a genre all their own , " packaging inherent politics in the form of pleasurable dance music . " M.I.A. ' s artistic efforts to connect this " extreme eclecticism " with issues of exile , war , violence and terrorism are both commended and criticized . Commentators laud M.I.A. ' s use and subversion of her refugee and migrant experiences , through the weaving of musical creativity , artwork and fashion with her personal life as having dispelled stereotypical notions of the immigrant experience . This gives her a unique place in popular music , while demanding new responses within popular music , media and fashion culture . M.I.A. has been the muse of designers Donatella Versace and Bartley and photographers Rankin and David Bailey , whose spread documents the British musicians who defined the sound and style of rock ' n ' roll . On 1 July 2012 Maya attended the Atelier Versace Show in Paris , wearing clothing inspired from the designer 's 1992 collection . In 2013 she released her own Versace Collection .
= = Accolades = =
M.I.A. ' s albums have generated widespread acclaim . PopMatters writer Rob Wheaton felt M.I.A. subverted the " abstract , organized , refined " distilling of violence in Western popular music and imagination and made her work represent much of the developing world 's decades @-@ long experiences of " arbitrary , unannounced , and spectacular " slaughter , deeming her work an " assault " with realism . Some detractors criticized M.I.A. early in her music career for " using radical chic " and for her attendance of an art school . Critic Simon Reynolds , writing in The Village Voice in 2005 saw this as a lack of authenticity and felt M.I.A. was " a veritable vortex of discourse , around most likely irresolvable questions concerning authenticity , postcolonialism , and dilettantism " . He continued that while swayed by her chutzpah and ability to deliver live , he " was also turned off by the stencil @-@ sprayed projection imagery of grenades , tanks , and so forth ( redolent of the Clash with their strife @-@ torn Belfast stage backdrops and Sandinista cred by association ) " while the " 99 percent white audience punched the air " , admonishing what he perceived as a " lack of local character " to her debut album .
Critic Robert Christgau described Reynolds ' argument as " cheap tack " in another article written in the publication , stating M.I.A 's experiences connected her to world poverty in a way " few Western whites can grasp " . He questioned why M.I.A. ' s 2001 Alternative Turner Prize nominated images of pastel @-@ washed tigers , soldiers , guns , armored vehicles , and fleeing civilians that bedeck M.I.A. ' s albums and videos were now assumed or analyzed as being incendiary propaganda , suggesting that unlike art buyers , rock and roll fans were " assumed to be stupid " . Reynolds later argued that M.I.A. was the " Artist of the Decade " in a 2009 issue of The Guardian . Music culture writer Michael Meyer opined that M.I.A. ' s record imagery , lyrical booklets , homepages and videos supported the " image of provocation yet also avoidance of , or inability to use consistent images and messages . " Instead of catering to stereotypes , he felt that M.I.A. " played with them " creating an uncategorizable and hence unsettling result . Critic Zach Baron felt that it had been
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structure , amongst the largest and most complete in Europe , protected the freedom and safety of a " civilised " and " sophisticated " republic that flourished in peace and prosperity for some five centuries . The walls were reinforced by three circular and 14 quadrangular towers , five bastions ( bulwarks ) , two angular fortifications and the large St. John 's Fortress . Land walls were additionally reinforced by one larger bastion and nine smaller semicircular ones , like the casemate Fort Bokar , the oldest preserved fort of that kind in Europe . The moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls , which were armed by more than 120 cannons , provided superb city defense capabilities .
= = Former city walls = =
The construction of the first limestone forts around the city began in the Early Middle Ages , towards the end of the 8th century . But , the " old chronicles " say that some sort of castle reliably existed on the Lave peninsula quite a long time prior to that . It is certain that the early town on Laus Island was also surrounded by defensive walls , probably mainly by wooden palisades . The fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long invasion by the Saracens in the 9th century proves how well the city was fortified .
The city first spread towards the uninhabited eastern part of the islet , which explains why the current name for the southeast part of the city , near St. John 's Fortress , is called Pustijerna . The name " Pustijerna " comes from the Latin statement " post terra " , which means " outside the town " . In the 9th and 10th centuries , the defensive wall enclosed the eastern portion of the city . When the sea channel separating the city from mainland was filled with earth in the 11th century , the city merged with the settlement on land , and soon , a single wall was built around the area of the present @-@ day city core .
During this same time period , Dubrovnik and the surrounding area were described as a part of the Croatian ( Grwasiah ) entity , in one of the works by the famous Arab geographer Muhammad al @-@ Idrisi . In his book Nuzhat al @-@ Mushataq fi ikhtiraq al @-@ afaq ( English : Joy for those who wish to sail over the world ) from 1154 , he mentioned Dubrovnik as the southernmost city of " the country of Croatia and Dalmatia " .
The basic city plan dates from 1292 , when the port was rebuilt following a fire . The whole city was entirely enclosed in the 13th century , except for the Dominican monastery , which came under its protection later on , during the 14th century .
= = Modern @-@ day city walls = =
The city walls have been preserved to the present day , not only because of the knowledge of the skilled construction workers and the constant care provided by city dwellers that maintained and rebuilt the structures as needed , but also because of the brilliantly reputed diplomacy in Ragusa , which managed on many occasions to avoid dangerous measures taken by enemies against the Republic of Ragusa .
The present shape of the walls was defined in the 14th century after the city gained its full independence from Venetian suzerainty , but the peak of its construction lasted from the beginning of the 15th century until the latter half of the 16th century . Being constructed very solidly , the walls were generally unaffected by a strong earthquake occurring in 1667 . The largest stimulus for continued development and emergency repairs and works of the Ragusan fortresses came as a result of the danger of unexpected attack by Turkish military forces , especially after they conquered Constantinople in 1453 . The city was also under latent danger of attack by the Venetians . For centuries the people of Dubrovnik were able to preserve their city @-@ republic by skillful maneuvering between East and West . A strategic treaty with Turkey protracted Ragusa ’ s liberty and maintained the opportunity for a major trading role between the Ottoman Empire and Europe .
The irregular parallelogram surrounding Dubrovnik consists of four strong fortresses at its most significant points . To the north is the strong circular Minčeta Tower , and to the east side of the city port is the Revelin Fortress . The western city entrance is protected by the strong and nicely @-@ shaped Fort Bokar , and the strong , freestanding , St. Lawrence Fortress ( also known as Lovrijenac ) , protects the western side of the city from possible land and sea assaults . The large and complex St. John Fortress is located on the southeast side of the city .
= = = Land Walls = = =
The main wall on the landside is 4 metres ( 13 ft ) to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) thick , and , at certain locations , the walls reach up to 25 meters ( 80 feet ) in height . The land walls stretch from Fort Bokar in the west to the detached Revelin Fortress in the east . On the landside , the wall is protected with an additional range of slanted supporting walls as defense against artillery fire , especially against possible Ottoman attacks .
= = = = Gates = = = =
The town has four city gates : two that lead to the harbor and two ( with drawbridges ) that lead to the mainland . During the time period when the Austrian Empire controlled the city , two more gates were opened in the wall .
Communication with the outside world on the land side was maintained with the city through two main well @-@ protected city gates , one placed on the western side of the city and the other placed on the eastern side . These entrances were constructed so that communications with the city could not be carried out directly ; the messenger had to enter through multiple doors and walk down a winding passageway , which is evidence of the security measures taken as a last defense against the possibility of a surprise breach or entrance of unexpected visitors .
= = = = = Gate of Pile = = = = =
The Pile Gates are a well @-@ fortified complex with multiple doors , defended by Fort Bokar and the moat that ran around the outside section of the city walls . At the entrance gate to the Old Town , on the western side of the land walls , there is a stone bridge between two Gothic arches , which were designed by the esteemed architect Paskoje Miličević in 1471 . That bridge connects to another bridge , a wooden drawbridge which can be pulled up . During the republican era , the wooden drawbridge to the Pile Gate was hoisted each night with considerable pomp in a ceremony which delivered the city 's keys to the Ragusan rector . Today , it spans a dry moat whose garden offers respite from crowds . Above the bridges , over the arch of town 's principal gateway , there is a statue of city patron Saint Blaise ( Croatian : Sveti Vlaho ) , with a model of the Renaissance city . After passing the Pile Gate 's original Gothic inner gateway , it is possible to reach one of a three access points to the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ploče = = = = =
On the eastern side of the land walls stands the second major entrance to the city , the Gate of Ploče . This gate is protected by the freestanding Revelin Fortress , which are connected by a wooden drawbridge and a twin @-@ spanned stone bridge spanning a protective ditch . The Outer Gate of Ploče was designed and constructed by architect Mihajlo Hranjac in 1628 , while the two bridges to the Revelin Fortress were built in the 15th century by Paskoje Miličević . Miličević was also designed the Pile Gate bridges , which explains the similarities between the bridges . Over the bridge , just like with the Gate of Pile , there is the statue of Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik .
= = = = = Gate of Buža = = = = =
The Gate of Buža ( meaning " hole " ) is located on the northern side of the land walls . This gate is relatively new compared to the other gates , as it was constructed during the early 1900s .
= = = Sea Walls = = =
The main wall on the sea @-@ facing side of Dubrovnik stretches from Fort Bokar in the west to St. John Fortress in the south , and to the Revelin Fortress on the land @-@ side . These walls are 1 @.@ 5 to 5 meters ( 5 – 16 feet ) thick , depending on their location and its strategic importance . The purpose of these walls were to help defend the city from sea @-@ based attacks , particularly from the Republic of Venice , which was often considered a threat to Dubrovnik 's safety .
= = = = City Harbour = = = =
One of the oldest sectors of Dubrovnik was constructed around a Late Antique castle by the sea , which stretched landwards a bit more than it does today . It was constructed on the site of the Pre @-@ Romanesque cathedral and the Rector 's Palace , thus encircling the city 's harbour . The harbour was designed and constructed by engineer Paskoje Miličević in the late 15th century . Notably , the harbour was noticeably painted on the palm of St. Blaise in a triptych painted by the artist Nikola Božidarević around 1500 .
The most prominent portion of the harbour is the three enormous arches ( the fourth original arch was walled in ) of a large arsenal built in the late 12th century and enlarged in the latter part 15th century . The harbour is also the oldest shipyard within the city and is still in use today .
Porporela was built in 1873 , next to St. John Fortress . The Kase jetty ( Kaše Breakwater ) was built in 1485 , according to the design of Paskoje Miličević , in order to defend the harbour and protect it from south @-@ eastern winds and waves . The breakwater thus shortened the harbour 's bulky chain stretched in the night from the St. John Fortress to St. Luke 's tower . It was constructed of huge stone blocks laid over wooden foundations without binder .
Today , the arsenal hosts the City Café and a movie theatre , whereas both the harbour and Porporela have become pleasant promenades and tourist attractions .
= = = = Gates = = = =
In the city port area , one of the most significant areas of the maritime trade city , there were two entrances : the Gate of Ponte ( port ) and the Fishmarket Gate . The entire layout of the Dubrovnik streets , as well as a range of expansions , was intended for fast and effective communication with the forts of the city walls .
= = = = = Gate of Ponte = = = = =
Constructed in 1476 , the Gate of Ponte is situated westwards from the Great Arsenal . The city wall , built at the same period , leads from the Gate to St. John Fortress . The present @-@ day street of Damjan Juda was formed in the 15th century when the sewage system was completed , and building houses against the western city wall was no longer allowed .
= = = = = The Fishmarket Gate = = = = =
The Fishmarket Gate , built in 1381 , stands eastward from the Great Arsenal . The three arches of the 15th century Small Arsenal , where small boats were repaired , are situated a bit further . The old tower of St. Luke 's protects the harbour in the east , and the harbour entrance is encircled and guarded by the Revelin Fortress .
= = Forts = =
= = = Forts within walls = = =
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottomans was a clear sign to the cautious citizens of Dubrovnik that ample defensive measures were quickly needed , the strengthening of its defensive structures the foremost of the issues . The fall of Bosnia , which followed soon in 1463 , only hastened the works . As a result , the Republic invited the architect Michelozzo di Bartolomeo of Florence to direct the improvement of the city 's defenses . His work in Dubrovnik resulted in the construction and expansion of numerous buildings of key importance for the defense of Dubrovnik .
= = = = Minčeta Tower = = = =
The Minčeta Tower was built by a local builder named Nicifor Ranjina and Italian engineers sent by Pope Pius II in 1463 , at the height of the Turkish threat . Originally as a strong four @-@ sided fort , it is the most prominent point in the defensive system towards the land . The tower 's name derives from the name of the Menčetić family , who owned the ground upon which the tower was built . By its height and impressive volume , the tower dominates the northwestern high part of the city and its walls . In the middle of the 15th century , around the earlier quadrilateral fort , Michelozzo built a new round tower using new warfare technique and joined it to the new system of low scarp walls . The full six @-@ meter ( 20 feet ) thick walls of the new tower had a series of protected gun ports . The architect and sculptor Giorgio da Sebenico of Zadar continued the work on the Minčeta tower . He designed and built the high narrow round tower while the battlements are a later addition . The tower was completed in 1464 and became the symbol of the unconquerable city of Dubrovnik .
After a long excavation , a 16th @-@ century cannon foundry was discovered under Minčeta Tower in Gornji ugao ( Upper Tower ) . It is now a museum .
Since Minčeta Tower is the highest point of the wall , it is considered to offer a seemingly " unforgettable " view on the city .
= = = = Fort Bokar = = = =
The Fort Bokar , often called " Zvjezdan " , is considered to be amongst the most beautiful instances of harmonious and functional fortification architecture . Built as a two @-@ story casemate fortress by Michelozzo from 1461 to 1463 , while the city walls were being reconstructed , it stands in front of the medieval wall face protruding into space almost with its whole cylindrical volume . It was conceived as the key point in the defense of the Pila Gate , the western fortified entrance of the city ; and after the Minčeta Tower , it is the second key point in the defense of the western land approach to the city . It is said to be the oldest casemented fortress in Europe , which contains a small lapidary collection and numerous cannons .
= = = = St. John Fortress = = = =
The St. John Fortress ( Croatian : Sveti Ivan ) , often called Mulo Tower , is a complex monumental building on the southeastern side of the old city port , controlling and protecting its entrance . The first fort was built in the mid 14th century , but it was modified on several occasions in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries , which can be seen in the triptych made by the painter Nikola Božidarević in the Dominican monastery . The painting shows Saint Blaise , the patron saint of Dubrovnik . Dominant in the port ambiance , the St. John Fortress prevented access of pirates and other enemy ships . Always cautious at the first sign of danger , the inhabitants of Dubrovnik used to close the entry into the port with heavy chains stretched between the St. John Fortress and the Kase jetty , and they also used to wall up all the port entries to the Great Arsenal .
Today , the fortress houses an aquarium on the ground floor , stocked with fishes from various parts of the Adriatic Sea . On the upper floors there is an ethnographic and a maritime museum devoted to the Republic Maritime Period , the Age of Steam , the Second World War , and the section of techniques of sailing and navigation .
= = = Detached forts = = =
= = = = Revelin Fortress = = = =
In the period of unmistakable Turkish danger and the fall of Bosnia under Turkish rule , a detached fortress providing additional protection to the land approach to the eastern Ploče Gate was built to the east of the city in 1462 . The name Revelin derives from rivelino ( ravelin ) , a term in military architecture which refers to work built opposite the city gate in order to afford better protection from enemy attack . Danger of Venetian assault suddenly increased in the times of the First Holy League , and it was necessary to strengthen this vulnerable point of the city fortifications . The Senate hired Antonio Ferramolino , an experienced builder of fortresses in the service of the Spanish admiral Doria , a trusted friend of the Republic . In 1538 the Senate approved his drawings of the new , much stronger Revelin Fortress . It took 11 years to build it , and during that time all other construction work in the city had stopped in order to finish this fortress as soon as possible .
The new Revelin became the strongest of the city fortresses , safeguarding the eastern land approach to the city . Shaped in the form of an irregular quadrilateral with one of its sides descending towards the sea , it is protected by a deep ditch on the other . One bridge crosses the protective ditch and connects it to the Ploče Gate , while another bridge connects it to the eastern suburb . The construction work was executed so perfectly so that the devastating earthquake of 1667 did not damage Revelin . Divided into three large vaulted rooms in its interior , Revelin became the administrative center of the Republic .
= = = = St. Lawrence Fortress = = = =
St. Lawrence Fortress ( Croatian : Lovrijenac ) , often called Dubrovnik 's Gibraltar , is located outside the western city walls , 37 metres ( 121 ft ) above sea level . The fortress has a quadrilateral court with mighty arches and , as its height is uneven , it has 3 terraces with powerful parapets with the broadest one looking south towards the sea . Lovrijenac was defended with 10 large cannons , being the largest and most famous called " Lizard " ( Croatian : Gušter ) . The walls exposed to enemy fire are almost 12 meters ( 39 feet ) thick , but the large wall surface facing the city does not exceed 60 centimetres ( 2 feet ) . Two drawbridges lead to the fort , there being the inscription " Non Bene Pro Toto Libertas Venditur Auro " – " Freedom is not to be sold for all the treasures in the world . " above the gate . To ensure loyalty , the troops in St. Lawrence Fortress were rotated every 30 days . And to ensure complete loyalty , they were given only 30 days of rations when they went into the fort . According to old scripts it was built in only three months .
Today its interior is one of the most dignified stages in Europe , and a well @-@ known place for William Shakespeare 's Hamlet performances .
= = Fortifications around Dubrovnik = =
= = = Walls of Ston = = =
The Walls of Ston are originally a series of defensive stone walls of more than 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long . Despite its small size , the well protected Republic of Ragusa decided to use Pelješac to build another line of defense . At Pelješac 's narrowest point , just before joining the mainland , a wall from Ston to Mali Ston was built .
Today 's 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long wall that links these two small communities has the shape of a pentagon . It was completed in the 15th century along with other 40 towers and 5 fortresses . The " wall " meant protection to the precious salt pans that greatly contributed to Dubrovnik 's wealth , which are still being worked today . It is the second longest wall in Europe , surpassed only by the Hadrian 's Wall between Scotland and England .
= = = Falcon Fortress = = =
The Falcon Fortress ( Croatian : Soko Grad ) was one of the largest and most important fortresses on the territory of the Republic of Ragusa , due to its position in the mountainous region near the Bosnian inland . It was built at the location of earlier Illyrian and later Roman fortifications , evident from the remains of ceramics and Roman bricks in its walls . In 1391 , the Sanković brothers , at that time the rulers of Konavle , gave to the Republic of Rag full authority over the Falcon Fortress , while it came under republic 's final possession only in 1423 .
Due to its strategic importance , the Republic of Ragusa constantly invested in the maintenance of the fortress , which contained a cistern , a powder storage , wine and food cellars , sentry @-@ boxes , military barracks , and sanctuary buildings to accommodate refugees from nearby villages in the event of war .
= = = Imperial Fortress = = =
The Fortress is placed at the top of the mountain Srđ , just above the city of Dubrovnik . It was built in 1806 by Marshal Marmont , called the Imperial , in honor of emperor Napoleon . The fortress was strategically important to defend the northern side of the city .
= = = Prevlaka Fortress = = =
This fortress is placed at Ponta Oštro , at the very end of Prevlaka peninsula . It was built in the mid @-@ 19th century , between 1856 and 1862 , as part of the fortification system of the Bay of Kotor at the time of the Austrian Empire . By its monumentality and unique structure , it presents an exceptional example of military architecture of its time . Today , the fortress is out of use and badly damaged by various destructions during history .
= = City walls during sieges = =
= = = Saracen siege in 866 – 867 = = =
In 866 , a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor , and then laid siege to Dubrovnik in 867 . The city appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian , who responded by sending over one hundred ships . Finally , the 866 – 867 Saracens ' siege of Dubrovnik , which lasted fifteen months , was raised due to the intervention of Basil I , who sent a fleet under the command of Niketas Oryphas in relief of the city . After this successful intervention , the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities . The damage done by Saracens is not known , but the fact that Dubrovnik managed to survive a fifteen @-@ month @-@ long siege , proves how well the city was fortified .
= = = Venetian siege in 948 = = =
With the weakening of Byzantium , Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival who needed to be brought under her control , but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed . The citizens of the city attributed this to Saint Blaise , whom they adopted as the patron saint of the city .
= = = Nemanja 's siege in 1185 = = =
After some territorial disputes , war broke out between Stefan Nemanja , Grand prince of Raška , and the city of Dubrovnik , at that time under Norman suzerainty . In 1185 , Nemanja attacked the city and laid siege to it , but a Ragusan counter @-@ attack drove Nemanja 's forces back . According to chronicles from Dubrovnik , which are accepted by most historians , the siege ultimately failed . How much help Dubrovnik received from the Normans while repelling the siege is also not known exactly .
= = = Venetian and Fourth Crusades siege in 1205 = = =
In 1205 , the Republic of Venice invaded Dalmatia with the forces of the Fourth Crusade . Ragusa was forced to pay a tribute , eventually becoming a source of supplies for Venice , thus saving itself from being sacked like Zadar in the Siege of Zara , used as Venice 's naval base in the southern Adriatic Sea . In the 14th century , after liberation from Venetian supremacy , extensive work was done on the walls to ensure the republic 's liberty .
= = = Siege by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača in 1451 = = =
In 1451 , the very powerful Bosnian regional lord Herzeg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača attacked Dubrovnik , and laid siege to the city . He had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman and , consequently , the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor . A reward of 15 @,@ 000 ducats , a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2 @,@ 000 ducats , and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him , along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed . Stjepan was so scared by the threat that he finally raised the siege .
= = = Russian siege in 1806 = = =
By 1800 , the Republic had a highly organized network of consulates and consular offices in more than eighty cities and ports around the world . In 1806 , the Republic surrendered to the forces of the First French Empire to end a months @-@ long siege by the Russian and Montenegrin fleet during which 3 @,@ 000 cannonballs fell on the city . The French lifted the siege and Ragusa was saved . The French army , led by Napoleon Bonaparte , entered Dubrovnik in 1806 . In 1808 , Marshal Auguste de Marmont abolished the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamated its territory into the French Illyrian Provinces , himself becoming the " Duke of Ragusa " ( Duc de Raguse ) .
= = = Anglo @-@ Austrian siege in 1814 = = =
Austria declared war on France in August 1813 and by the Autumn the Royal Navy enjoyed unopposed domination over the Adriatic sea . Working in conjunction with the Austrian armies now invading the Illyrian Provinces and Northern Italy Rear Admiral Thomas Fremantle 's ships were able to rapidly transport British and Austrian troops from one point to another , forcing the surrender of the strategic ports one after another December . Captain William Hoste with his ship HMS Bacchante ( 38 guns ) along with HMS Saracen an 18 gun brig , arrived at Ragusa already blockaded by Pro Austrian Croat forces led by Todor Milutinović . The British with the Austrians were able to take the Imperial fortress and positions on Lokrum island . By hauling cannon up to Srđ hill they bombarded the city until the French General Joseph de Montrichard decided it was best to surrender . British and Croat troops entered the city via the Pile gates shutting the Ragusan rebels out .
= = = Yugoslav army siege in 1991 – 1992 = = =
The Siege of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Opsada Dubrovnika ) is a term marking the battle and siege of the city of Dubrovnik and the surrounding area in Croatia as part of the Croatian War of Independence . Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked by forces of the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in late 1991 , with the major fighting ending in early 1992 , and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid @-@ 1992 . At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , the prosecution alleged that , " It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro . "
In 1991 , the American Institute of Architects condemned the bombardment of the city 's buildings . The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments , in conjunction with UNESCO , found that , of the 824 buildings in the Old Town , 563 ( or 68 @.@ 33 percent ) had been hit by projectiles during the siege . Of these 563 , nine buildings had been completely destroyed by one of several major fires that occurred during the siege . In 1993 , the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public , private , and religious buildings , streets , squares , fountains , ramparts , gates , and bridges at $ 9 @,@ 657 @,@ 578 . By the end of 1999 , over $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 had been spent on restoration . It is a testament to the resilience of the ancient walls that more buildings in the old town were not destroyed during the bombardment ; the ancient walls in fact were more effective at resisting modern weaponry than contemporary structures in the city 's periphery .
= = Main sources = =
= Cubeb =
Cubeb ( Piper cubeba ) , or tailed pepper is a plant in genus Piper , cultivated for its fruit and essential oil . It is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra , hence sometimes called Java pepper . The fruits are gathered before they are ripe , and carefully dried . Commercial cubebs consist of the dried berries , similar in appearance to black pepper , but with stalks attached – the " tails " in " tailed pepper " . The dried pericarp is wrinkled , and its color ranges from grayish @-@ brown to black . The seed is hard , white and oily . The odor of cubebs is described as agreeable and aromatic and the taste as pungent , acrid , slightly bitter and persistent . It has been described as tasting like allspice , or like a cross between allspice and black pepper .
Cubeb came to Europe via India through the trade with the Arabs . The name cubeb comes from Arabic kabāba ( كبابة ) , which is of unknown origin , by way of Old French quibibes . Cubeb is mentioned in alchemical writings by its Arabic name . In his Theatrum Botanicum , John Parkinson tells that the king of Portugal prohibited the sale of cubeb to promote black pepper ( Piper nigrum ) around 1640 . It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th @-@ century Europe for medicinal uses , but has practically vanished from the European market since . It continues to be used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West , and as a seasoning for food in Indonesia .
= = History = =
In the fourth century BC , Theophrastus mentioned komakon , including it with cinnamon and cassia as an ingredient in aromatic confections . Guillaume Budé and Claudius Salmasius have identified komakon with cubeb , probably due to the resemblance which the word bears to the Javanese name of cubeb , kumukus . This is seen as a curious evidence of Greek trade with Java in a time earlier than that of Theophrastus . It is unlikely Greeks acquired them from somewhere else , since Javanese growers protected their monopoly of the trade by sterilizing the berries by scalding , ensuring that the vines were unable to be cultivated elsewhere .
In the Tang Dynasty , cubeb was brought to China from Srivijaya . In India , the spice came to be called kabab chini , that is , " Chinese cubeb " , possibly because the Chinese had a hand in its trade , but more likely because it was an important item in the trade with China . In China this pepper was called both vilenga , and vidanga , the cognate Sanskrit word . Li Hsun thought it grew on the same tree as black pepper . Tang physicians administered it to restore appetite , cure " demon vapors " , darken the hair , and perfume the body . However , there is no evidence showing that cubeb was used as a condiment in China .
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights , compiled in the 9th century , mentions cubeb as a remedy for infertility , showing it was already used by Arabs for medicinal purposes . Cubeb was introduced to Arabic cuisine around the 10th century . The Travels of Marco Polo , written in late 13th century , describes Java as a producer of cubeb , along with other valuable spices . In the 14th century , cubeb was imported into Europe from the Grain Coast , under the name of pepper , by merchants of Rouen and Lippe . A 14th @-@ century morality tale exemplifying gluttony by the Franciscan writer Francesc Eiximenis describes the eating habits of a worldly cleric who consumes a bizarre concoction of egg yolks with cinnamon and cubeb after his baths , probably as an aphrodisiac .
Cubeb was thought by the people of Europe to be repulsive to demons , just as it was by the people of China . Ludovico Maria Sinistrari , a Catholic priest who wrote about methods of exorcism in the late 17th century , includes cubeb as an ingredient in an incense to ward off incubus . Even today , his formula for the incense is quoted by neopagan authors , some of whom also claim that cubeb can be used in love sachets and spells .
After the prohibition of sale , culinary use of cubeb decreased dramatically in Europe , and only its medicinal application continued to the 19th century . In the early 20th century , cubeb was regularly shipped from Indonesia to Europe and the United States . The trade gradually diminished to an average of 135 t ( 133 long tons ; 149 short tons ) annually , and practically ceased after 1940 .
= = Chemistry = =
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting monoterpenes ( sabinene 50 % , α @-@ thujene , and carene ) and sesquiterpenes ( caryophyllene , copaene , α- and β @-@ cubebene , δ @-@ cadinene , germacrene ) , the oxides 1,4- and 1 @,@ 8 @-@ cineole and the alcohol cubebol .
About 15 % of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water . Cubebene , the liquid portion , has the formula C15H24 . It is a pale green or blue @-@ yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody , slightly camphoraceous odor . After rectification with water , or on keeping , this deposits rhombic crystals of camphor of cubebs .
Cubebin ( C20H20O6 ) is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs , discovered by Eugène Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839 . It may be prepared from cubebene , or from the pulp left after the distillation of the oil . The drug , along with gum , fatty oils , and malates of magnesium and calcium , contains also about 1 % of cubebic acid , and about 6 % of a resin . The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains , and the British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture with a dose of 4 to 1 dram .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medicinal = = =
In India , the ancient texts of Ayurveda ( Sanskrit आयुर ् वेद ) include cubeb in various remedies . Charaka and Sushruta prescribe a cubeb paste as a mouthwash , and the use of dried cubebs internally for oral and dental diseases , loss of voice , halitosis , fevers , and cough . Unani physicians use a paste of the cubeb berries externally on male and female genitals to intensify sexual pleasure during coitus . Due to this attributed property , cubeb was called " Habb @-@ ul @-@ Uruus " .
In traditional Chinese medicine cubeb is used for its alleged warming property . In Tibetan medicine , cubeb ( ka ko la in Tibetan ) is one of bzang po drug , six fine herbs beneficial to specific organs in the body , with cubeb assigned to the spleen .
Arab physicians of the Middle Ages were usually versed in alchemy , and cubeb was used , under the name kababa , when preparing the water of al butm . The Book of One Thousand and One Nights mentions cubeb as a main ingredient in making an aphrodisiac remedy for infertility :
The mixture , called " seed @-@ thickener " , is given to Shams @-@ al @-@ Din , a wealthy merchant who had no child , with the instruction that he must eat the paste two hours before having intercourse with his wife . According to the story , the merchant did get the child he desired after following these instructions . Other Arab authors wrote that cubeb rendered the breath fragrant , cured affections of the bladder , and that eating it " enhances the delight of coitus " .
In 1654 , Nicholas Culpeper wrote in the London Dispensatorie that cubebs were " hot and dry in the third degree ... ( snip ) they cleanse the head of flegm and strengthen the brain , they heat the stomach and provoke lust " . A later edition in 1826 informed the reader that " the Arabs call them Quabebe , and Quabebe Chine : they grow plentifully in Java , they stir up venery . ( snip ) ... and are very profitable for cold griefs of the womb " .
The modern use of cubeb in England as a drug dates from 1815 . There were various preparations , including oleum cubebae ( oil of cubeb ) , tinctures , fluid extracts , oleo @-@ resin compounds , and vapors , which were used for throat complaints . A small percentage of cubeb was commonly included in lozenges designed to alleviate bronchitis , in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful . The most important therapeutic application of this drug , however , was in treating gonorrhea , where its antiseptic action was of much value . William Wyatt Squire wrote in 1908 that cubebs " act specifically on the genito @-@ urinary mucous membrane . ( They are ) given in all stages of gonorrhea " . As compared with copaiba in this connection cubeb has the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged administration .
The volatile oil , oleum cubebae , was the form in which cubeb is most commonly used as a drug , the dose being 5 to 20 minims , which may be suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a wafer . The drug exhibited the typical actions of a volatile oil , but exerted some of these to an exceptional degree . As such , it was liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its excretion by the skin , had a marked diuretic action , and was a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages . Its administration caused the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic acid which was precipitated by heat or nitric acid , and was therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin , when these two most common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria were applied .
The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia printed in 1921 tells that cubeb was " an excellent remedy for flour albus or whites . "
= = = Culinary = = =
In Europe , cubeb was one of the valuable spices during the Middle Ages . It was ground as a seasoning for meat or used in sauces . A medieval recipe includes cubeb in making sauce sarcenes , which consists of almond milk and several spices . As an aromatic confectionery , cubeb was often candied and eaten whole . Ocet Kubebowy , a vinegar infused with cubeb , cumin and garlic , was used for meat marinades in Poland during the 14th century . Cubeb can still be used to enhance the flavor of savory soups .
Cubeb reached Africa by way of the Arabs . In Moroccan cuisine , cubeb is used in savory dishes and in pastries like markouts , little diamonds of semolina with honey and dates . It also appears occasionally in the list of ingredients for the famed spice mixture Ras el hanout . In Indonesian cuisine , especially in Indonesian gulés ( curries ) , cubeb is frequently used .
= = = Cigarettes and spirits = = =
Cubeb was frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma , chronic pharyngitis and hay fever . Edgar Rice Burroughs , being fond of smoking cubeb cigarettes , humorously stated that if he had not smoked so many cubebs , there might never have been Tarzan . " Marshall 's Prepared Cubeb Cigarettes " was a popular brand , with enough sales to still be made during World War II . Occasionally , marijuana users claimed that smoking marijuana is no more harmful than smoking cubeb . In the musical The Music Man , set in rural Iowa in 1912 , the character Harold Hill alarms parents by telling this that their sons are trying out cubeb cigarettes at the notorious pool hall in the song " Trouble " .
In 2000 cubeb oil was included in the list of ingredients found in cigarettes , published by the Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch of North Carolina 's Department of Health and Human Services .
Bombay Sapphire gin is flavored with botanicals including cubeb and grains of paradise . The brand was launched in 1987 , but its maker claims that it is based on a secret recipe dating to 1761 . Pertsovka , a dark brown Russian pepper vodka with a burning taste , is prepared from infusion of cubeb and capsicum peppers .
= = = Other = = =
Cubeb is sometimes used to adulterate the essential oil of Patchouli , which requires caution for Patchouli users . In turn , cubeb is adulterated by Piper baccatum ( also known as the " climbing pepper of Java " ) and Piper caninum .
Cubeb berries are used in love @-@ drawing magic spells by practitioners of hoodoo , an African @-@ American form of folk magic .
In 2000 , Shiseido , a well @-@ known Japanese cosmetics company , patented a line of anti @-@ aging products containing formulas made from several herbs , including cubeb .
In 2001 , the Swiss company Firmenich patented cubebol , a compound found in cubeb oil , as a cooling and refreshing agent . The patent describes application of cubebol as a refreshing agent in various products , ranging from chewing gum to sorbets , drinks , toothpaste , and gelatin @-@ based confectioneries .
= Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield =
" Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield " is the 14th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 4 , 1996 . In the episode , Marge buys a Chanel suit and is invited to join the Springfield Country Club . Marge becomes obsessed with trying to fit in , but realizes that it has changed her personality and that she was happier being her old self . She decides she would rather go back to the way things were than continue to pursue high social ambitions .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Susie Dietter . It was the first time a female writer and director were credited in the same episode . Tom Kite guest starred in the episode , and he " really enjoyed " recording his parts for it . The episode 's title is a parody of the 1989 film Scenes from the Class Struggle in Beverly Hills . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When Grampa tries to " fix " the family 's television , it breaks irreparably , so the family travels to the Ogdenville outlet mall . Marge and Lisa wander off to a discounted store and Marge locates a fancy Chanel suit , which has been marked from $ 2 @,@ 800 and is now $ 90 . Marge is first reluctant to buy the suit , but after Lisa 's convincing that it 's a great buy , Marge purchases the suit , so she becomes infatuated with it and wears it constantly , begging Homer to take her somewhere fancy so the suit can be put to good use . However , one day when Marge wears it to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , she runs into an old classmate , Evelyn , who is impressed by Marge 's fashion sense and invites her to come to the Springfield Country Club ( even though Marge has married Homer , as Evelyn originally assumed it was a rumor ) . Marge , intimidated by the wealthy club members , works hard to fit in with their snobbish ways . Along the way , Marge loses interest in her family and becomes obsessed with both impressing the club members and altering her suit so she comes off as wealthy .
Meanwhile , the rest of the family is uncomfortable at the country club until Lisa finds the stables and Homer begins playing golf . Homer is revealed to have a knack for golf , and Mr. Burns , having seen Homer 's skill in the bathroom at work , challenges him to a match . Mr. Burns believes that he is the best golfer in Springfield , and is determined to take down Homer . However , once they begin playing , Homer , who is in disbelief at one of Mr. Burns ' shots , runs over to the green and finds Mr. Smithers replacing the ball Mr. Burns hit with a new one that is close to the hole . Homer , who breaks out in a sing @-@ songy over Mr. Burns ' cheating , threatens to tell everyone about how Mr. Burns is not the best golfer he says he is . Mr. Smithers then offers Homer a chance to be sponsored for membership if he keeps quiet about the decades of Mr. Burns ' cheating , since Mr. Burns holds a lot of influence at the club . Homer is unswayed , as he does not care about joining the club . However , Mr. Burns reminds Homer that the family being allowed to join the club is important to Marge .
In the meantime , Marge is offended by a crack made by one of the snobby club members and is eager to change the suit even more to impress at a party . However , due to Lisa 's annoyingly inquisitive nature , Marge accidentally destroys the suit on the sewing machine . Marge rushes back to the Ogdenville outlet mall , but there are no suitable clothes for the party . Marge , having nowhere left to turn , goes to the actual Chanel store and purchases a $ 3 @,@ 300 dress . When she and the rest of the Simpsons arrive at the party , Marge criticizes the behavior of everyone in her family , including Maggie . Homer tells Marge that he and the kids have realized what awful people they are compared to the changed Marge . Marge realizes that she has changed for the worse , and goes to Krusty Burger with her family instead of the party . However , it is later revealed that the party was actually supposed to be an initiation party , as Evelyn Peters , Mr. Burns , and the rest of the club has decided to sponsor their membership . The snobby club member who frequently bashed and insulted Marge remarks that she hopes that Marge didn 't take her " attempt to destroy her too seriously . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Susie Dietter . It was the first time a female writer and director were credited in the same episode . The episode 's title is a parody of the film Scenes from the Class Struggle in Beverly Hills . The first script of the episode was too long and it had to be cut down . Dietter remembered that it " took on a more serious tone " because they had to keep the parts that were essential to the story and cut the many " throwaway gags " . Bill Oakley , the show runner of The Simpsons at the time , praised the episode for having a " terrific " story that " really comes together well " . Oakley said that he and his partner Josh Weinstein wanted to have more " emotionally " based episodes this season that still had humor in them . He thought Crittenden did a " good job " at that and he thought the episode " came out well " .
Marge 's dress was modeled on an actual Chanel dress , and also the type of dresses that former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis used to wear . The show 's creator , Matt Groening , was worried that such a detailed dress would look " weird " on a Simpsons character because they are " simply designed " and their clothing is " very generic " . He ended up liking the design , though , and Dietter thought it looked " good " on Marge . Oakley also liked the design and thought the cut on Marge was " flattering " . The country club women 's clothes were changed in every scene , something Dietter thought was hard to do because the animators had to come up with new designs .
Tom Kite guest starred in the episode as himself . He said that he " really enjoyed " recording his parts for it . " It was a lot of fun trying to imagine exactly what Homer 's golf swing is going to look like . My number one fear is that Homer will end up having a better golf swing than I do — heaven forbid ! " , he added .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Scenes from the Class Struggle in Springfield " finished 64th in the ratings for the week of January 29 to February 4 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , My Cousin Vinny , and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , summed it up as follows : " Marge looks great in her Chanel , the golf scenes between Homer and Mr. Burns are brilliant , and there are many true , touching moments as Marge struggles valiantly to improve herself . Yet again , it 's tempting for the viewer to urge Marge on and get the hell away from the family . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that he does not know if he " accepts " the episode as being " in character " for Marge . He said that it borrows liberally from The Flintstones , but he " likes it anyway " . Jacobson added that the episode " jabs the idle rich nicely " , and he enjoys the golf scenes with Homer . The program succeeds despite a few problems . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be Mr. Burns 's demand for his tires to be revulcanized at the gas station . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B. The authors of the book Homer Simpson Goes to Washington , Joseph Foy and Stanley Schultz , wrote that in the episode , " the tension of trying to demonstrate a family 's achievement of the American Dream is satirically and expertly played out by Marge Simpson " .
= Charles II of England =
Charles II ( 29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685 ) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland .
Charles II 's father , Charles I , was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649 , at the climax of the English Civil War . Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed Charles II King on 5 February 1649 , England entered the period known as the English Interregnum or the English Commonwealth , and the country was a de facto republic , led by Oliver Cromwell . Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 , and Charles fled to mainland Europe . Cromwell became virtual dictator of England , Scotland and Ireland , and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France , the Dutch Republic , and the Spanish Netherlands .
A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy , and Charles was invited to return to Britain . On 29 May 1660 , his 30th birthday , he was received in London to public acclaim . After 1660 , all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649 .
Charles 's English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code , designed to shore up the position of the re @-@ established Church of England . Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance . The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . In 1670 , he entered into the secret treaty of Dover , an alliance with his first cousin King Louis XIV of France . Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War and pay him a pension , and Charles secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date . Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence , but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it . In 1679 , Titus Oates 's revelations of a supposed " Popish Plot " sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charles 's brother and heir ( James , Duke of York ) was a Catholic . The crisis saw the birth of the pro @-@ exclusion Whig and anti @-@ exclusion Tory parties . Charles sided with the Tories , and , following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683 , some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile . Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 , and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685 . He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed .
Charles was popularly known as the Merry Monarch , in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans . Charles 's wife , Catherine of Braganza , bore no live children , but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses . He was succeeded by his brother James .
= = Early life , civil war , and exile = =
Charles was born in St James 's Palace on 29 May 1630 . His parents were Charles I ( who ruled the three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland ) and Henrietta Maria ( the sister of the French king Louis XIII ) . Charles was their second son and child . Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day . England , Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican , Presbyterian and Roman Catholic . Charles was baptised in the Chapel Royal on 27 June by the Anglican Bishop of London , William Laud , and brought up in the care of the Protestant Countess of Dorset , though his godparents included his maternal uncle and grandmother , Marie de ' Medici , both of whom were Catholics . At birth , Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , along with several other associated titles . At or around his eighth birthday , he was designated Prince of Wales , though he was never formally invested with the Honours of the Principality of Wales .
During the 1640s , when Charles was still young , his father fought Parliamentary and Puritan forces in the English Civil War . Charles accompanied his father during the Battle of Edgehill and , at the age of fourteen , participated in the campaigns of 1645 , when he was made titular commander of the English forces in the West Country . By Spring 1646 , his father was losing the war , and Charles left England due to fears for his safety , setting off from Falmouth after staying at Pendennis Castle , going first to the Isles of Scilly , then to Jersey , and finally to France , where his mother was already living in exile and his first cousin , eight @-@ year @-@ old Louis XIV , was king .
In 1648 , during the Second English Civil War , Charles moved to The Hague , where his sister Mary and his brother @-@ in @-@ law William II , Prince of Orange , seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the royalist cause than the Queen 's French relations . However , the royalist fleet that came under Charles 's control was not used to any advantage , and did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the royalist Engagers army of the Duke of Hamilton , before it was defeated at the Battle of Preston by the Parliamentarians .
At The Hague , Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter , who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married . Her son , James Crofts ( afterwards Duke of Monmouth and Duke of Buccleuch ) , was one of Charles 's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society .
Charles I surrendered in 1646 . He escaped and was recaptured in 1648 . Despite his son 's diplomatic efforts to save him , Charles I was beheaded in January 1649 , and England became a republic . On 5 February , the Covenanter Parliament of Scotland had proclaimed Charles II " King of Great Britain , France and Ireland " at the Mercat Cross , Edinburgh , but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he accepted Presbyterianism throughout Britain and Ireland .
When negotiations stalled , Charles authorised General Montrose to land in the Orkney Islands with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion , in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking . Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise , and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway . He was captured and executed . Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament at Breda , and support the Solemn League and Covenant , which authorised Presbyterian church governance across Britain . Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650 , he formally agreed to the Covenant ; his abandonment of Episcopal church governance , although winning him support in Scotland , left him unpopular in England . Charles himself soon came to despise the " villainy " and " hypocrisy " of the Covenanters .
On 3 September 1650 , the Covenanters were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar by a much smaller force led by Oliver Cromwell . The Scots forces were divided into royalist Engagers and Presbyterian Covenanters , who even fought each other . Disillusioned by the Covenanters , in October Charles attempted to escape from them and rode north to join with an Engager force , an event which became known as " the Start " , but within two days the Presbyterians had caught up with and recovered him . Nevertheless , the Scots remained Charles 's best hope of restoration , and he was crowned King of Scotland at Scone Abbey on 1 January 1651 . With Cromwell 's forces threatening Charles 's position in Scotland , it was decided to mount an attack on England . With many of the Scots ( including Lord Argyll and other leading Covenanters ) refusing to participate , and with few English royalists joining the force as it moved south into England , the invasion ended in defeat at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 , after which Charles eluded capture by hiding in the Royal Oak at Boscobel House . Through six weeks of narrow escapes Charles managed to flee England in disguise , landing in Normandy on 16 October , despite a reward of £ 1 @,@ 000 on his head , risk of death for anyone caught helping him and the difficulty in disguising Charles , who , at over 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , was unusually tall .
Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector of England , Scotland and Ireland , effectively placing the British Isles under military rule . Impoverished , Charles could not obtain sufficient support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell 's government . Despite the Stuart family connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange , France and the Dutch Republic allied themselves with Cromwell 's government from 1654 , forcing Charles to turn for aid to Spain , which at that time ruled the Southern Netherlands . Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects ; this small , underpaid , poorly equipped , and ill @-@ disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post @-@ Restoration army .
= = Restoration = =
After the death of Cromwell in 1658 , Charles 's chances of regaining the Crown at first seemed slim as Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son , Richard . However , the new Lord Protector had no power base in either Parliament or the New Model Army . He was forced to abdicate in 1659 and the Protectorate was abolished . During the civil and military unrest which followed , George Monck , the Governor of Scotland , was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy . Monck and his army marched into the City of London and forced the Rump Parliament to re @-@ admit members of the Long Parliament excluded in December 1648 during Pride 's Purge . The Long Parliament dissolved itself and for the first time in almost 20 years , there was a general election . The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications so as to ensure , as they thought , the return of a Presbyterian majority .
The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored , and the elections resulted in a House of Commons which was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between Anglicans and Presbyterians . The new so @-@ called Convention Parliament assembled on 25 April 1660 , and soon afterwards received news of the Declaration of Breda , in which Charles agreed , amongst other things , to pardon many of his father 's enemies . The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return , a message that reached Charles at Breda on 8 May 1660 . In Ireland , a convention had been called earlier in the year , and on 14 May it declared for Charles as King .
He set out for England from Scheveningen , arrived in Dover on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May , his 30th birthday . Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to Cromwell 's supporters in the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion , 50 people were specifically excluded . In the end nine of the regicides were executed : they were hanged , drawn and quartered ; others were given life imprisonment or simply excluded from office for life . The bodies of Oliver Cromwell , Henry Ireton , and John Bradshaw were subjected to the indignity of posthumous decapitations .
Charles agreed to the abolition of feudal dues ; in return , the English Parliament granted him an annual income to run the government of £ 1 @.@ 2 million , generated largely from customs and excise duties . The grant , however , proved to be insufficient for most of Charles 's reign . The sum was only an indication of the maximum the King was allowed to withdraw from the Treasury each year ; for the most part , the actual revenue was much lower , which led to mounting debts , and further attempts to raise money through poll taxes , land taxes and hearth taxes .
In the later half of 1660 , Charles 's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his youngest brother , Henry , and sister , Mary , of smallpox . At around the same time , Anne Hyde , the daughter of the Lord Chancellor , Edward Hyde , revealed that she was pregnant by Charles 's brother , James , whom she had secretly married . Edward Hyde , who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy , was created Earl of Clarendon and his position as Charles 's favourite minister was strengthened .
= = = Clarendon Code = = =
The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660 , and , shortly after the coronation , the second English Parliament of the reign assembled . Dubbed the Cavalier Parliament , it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican . It sought to discourage non @-@ conformity to the Church of England , and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance . The Corporation Act 1661 required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance ; the Act of Uniformity 1662 made the use of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer compulsory ; the Conventicle Act 1664 prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people , except under the auspices of the Church of England ; and the Five Mile Act 1665 prohibited expelled non @-@ conforming clergymen from coming within five miles ( 8 km ) of a parish from which they had been banished . The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles 's reign . The Acts became known as the " Clarendon Code " , after Lord Clarendon , even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act .
The Restoration was accompanied by social change . Puritanism lost its momentum . Theatres reopened after having been closed during the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell , and bawdy " Restoration comedy " became a recognisable genre . Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by " their natural performers " , rather than by boys as was often the practice before ; and Restoration literature celebrated or reacted to the restored court , which included libertines like John Wilmot , 2nd Earl of Rochester . Of Charles II , Wilmot supposedly said :
We have a pretty witty king ,
Whose word no man relies on ,
He never said a foolish thing ,
And never did a wise one "
to which Charles supposedly riposted , " That 's true , for my words are my own , but
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usion . If the concentration gets too high , it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues . When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension of the bubble @-@ liquid interface , the bubbles grow , and this growth can damage tissue .
If the dissolved inert gases come out of solution within the tissues of the body and form bubbles , they may cause the condition known as decompression sickness , or DCS , also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease . However , not all bubbles result in symptoms , and doppler bubble detection shows that venous bubbles are present in a significant number of asymptomatic divers after relatively mild hyperbaric exposures .
Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description .
The risk of decompression sickness after diving can be managed through effective decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon , though it remains to some degree unpredictable . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use decompression tables or dive computers to limit or monitor their exposure and to control their ascent speed and decompression procedures . If DCS is contracted , it is usually treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .
A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free @-@ diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress but it is possible to get decompression sickness , or taravana , from repetitive deep free @-@ diving with short surface intervals .
= = = Decompression models = = =
Actual rates of diffusion and perfusion , and solubility of gases in specific physiological tissues are not generally known , and vary considerably . However mathematical models have been proposed that approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent . These models predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given dive profile . Algorithms based on these models produce decompression tables . In personal dive computers , they produce a real @-@ time estimate of decompression status and display it for the diver .
Two different concepts have been used for decompression modelling . The first assumes that dissolved gas is eliminated while in the dissolved phase , and that bubbles are not formed during asymptomatic decompression . The second , which is supported by experimental observation , assumes that bubbles are formed during most asymptomatic decompressions , and that gas elimination must consider both dissolved and bubble phases .
Early decompression models tended to use the dissolved phase models , and adjusted them by factors derived from experimental observations to reduce the risk of symptomatic bubble formation .
There are two main groups of dissolved phase models :
In parallel compartment models , several compartments with varying rates of gas absorption ( half time ) , are considered to exist independently of each other , and the limiting condition is controlled by the compartment that shows the worst case for a specific exposure profile . These compartments represent conceptual tissues and don 't represent specific organic tissues . They merely represent the range of possibilities for the organic tissues . The second group uses serial compartments , which assumes that gas diffuses through one compartment before it reaches the next .
More recent models attempt to model bubble dynamics , also usually by simplified models , to facilitate the computation of tables , and later to allow real time predictions during a dive . Models that approximate bubble dynamics are varied . They range from those that are not much more complex than the dissolved phase models , to those that require considerably greater computational power .
= = Decompression practice = =
The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model , the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive , and the procedures authorized for the equipment and profile to be used . There is a large range of options in all of these aspects . In many cases decompression practice takes place in a framework or " decompression system " which imposes extra constraints on diver behaviour . Such constraints may include : limiting the ascent rate ; making stops during the ascent additional to any decompression stops ; limiting the number of dives performed in a day ; limiting the number of days of diving within a week ; avoiding dive profiles that have large numbers of ascents and descents ; avoiding heavy work immediately after a dive ; not diving prior to flying or ascending to altitude ; and organizational requirements .
= = = Procedures = = =
Decompression may be continuous or staged , where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals , but the entire ascent is part of the decompression , and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . What is commonly known as no @-@ decompression diving , or more accurately no @-@ stop decompression , relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation .
The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving , the available equipment , the site and environment and the actual dive profile . Standardized procedures have been developed that provide an acceptable level of risk in appropriate circumstances . Different sets of procedures are used by commercial , military , scientific and recreational divers , though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used , and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures .
Normal diving decompression procedures range from continuous ascent for no @-@ stop dives , where the necessary decompression occurs during the ascent , which is kept to a controlled rate for this purpose , through staged decompression in open water or in a bell , to decompression from saturation , which generally occurs in a decompression chamber that is part of a saturation system . Decompression may be accelerated by the use of breathing gases that provide an increased concentration differential of the inert gas components of the breathing mixture by maximizing the acceptable oxygen content .
Therapeutic recompression is a medical procedure for treatment of decompression sickness , and is followed by decompression , usually to a relatively conservative schedule .
= = = Equipment = = =
Equipment directly associated with decompression includes :
The decompression tables or software used to plan the dive ,
The equipment used to control and monitor depth and dive time , such as :
personal dive computers , depth gauges , and timers ,
Shot lines , surface marker buoys , and decompression trapezes
diving stages ( baskets ) , wet and dry bells ,
deck and saturation decompression chambers , and
hyperbaric treatment chambers .
The supply of decompression gases , which may be :
carried by the diver ,
supplied from the surface via the diver 's umbilical or bell umbilical , or
supplied in the chamber at the surface .
= = History of decompression research and development = =
The symptoms of decompression sickness are caused by damage from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage .
The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested , and used , and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable . Decompression remains a procedure with some risk , but this has been reduced and is generally considered acceptable for dives within the well @-@ tested range of commercial , military and recreational diving .
= = = Early developments = = =
The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle , who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump . In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation , but in later experiments signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed .
Later , when technological advances allowed the use of pressurization of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress , miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease , compressed air illness , the bends , and decompression sickness .
Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles , and that re @-@ compression could relieve the symptoms , Paul Bert showed in 1878 that decompression sickness is caused by nitrogen bubbles released from tissues and blood during or after decompression , and showed the advantages of breathing oxygen after developing decompression sickness .
Further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression , and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict safe decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness .
= = = Start of systematic work on decompression models = = =
In 1908 John Scott Haldane prepared the first recognized decompression table for the British Admiralty , based on extensive experiments on goats using an end point of symptomatic DCS .
George D. Stillson of the United States Navy tested and refined Haldane 's tables in 1912 , and this research led to the first publication of the United States Navy Diving Manual and the establishment of a Navy Diving School in Newport , Rhode Island . At about the same time Leonard Erskine Hill was working on a system of continuous uniform decompression
The Naval School , Diving and Salvage was re @-@ established at the Washington Navy Yard in 1927 , and the Navy Experimental Diving Unit ( NEDU ) was moved to the same venue . In the following years , the Experimental Diving Unit developed the US Navy Air Decompression Tables , which became the accepted world standard for diving with compressed air .
During the 1930s , Hawkins , Schilling and Hansen conducted extensive experimental dives to determine allowable supersaturation ratios for different tissue compartments for Haldanean model , Albert R. Behnke and others experimented with oxygen for re @-@ compression therapy , and the US Navy 1937 tables were published .
In 1941 , Altitude decompression sickness was first treated with hyperbaric oxygen. and the revised US Navy Decompression Tables were published in 1956 .
= = = Beginnings of alternative models = = =
In 1965 LeMessurier and Hills published A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques , which suggests that decompression by conventional models forms bubbles that are then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops — which is slower than elimination while still in solution . This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for efficient gas elimination , Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines published the French Navy MN65 decompression tables , and Goodman and Workman introduced re @-@ compression tables using oxygen to accelerate elimination of inert gas .
The Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory published tables based on Hempleman 's tissue slab diffusion model in 1972 , isobaric counterdiffusion in subjects who breathed one inert gas mixture while being surrounded by another was first described by Graves , Idicula , Lambertsen , and Quinn in 1973 , and the French government published the MT74 Tables du Ministère du Travail in 1974 .
From 1976 , decompression sickness testing sensitivity was improved by ultrasonic methods that can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS become apparent .
= = = Several more approaches were developed = = =
Paul K Weathersby , Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduced survival analysis into the study of decompression sickness in 1982 .
Albert A. Bühlmann published Decompression – Decompression sickness in 1984 . Bühlmann recognized the problems associated with altitude diving , and proposed a method that calculated maximum nitrogen loading in the tissues at a particular ambient pressure by modifying Haldane 's allowable supersaturation ratios to increase linearly with depth . In 1984 DCIEM ( Defence and Civil Institution of Environmental Medicine , Canada ) released No @-@ Decompression and Decompression Tables based on the Kidd / Stubbs serial compartment model and extensive ultrasonic testing , and Edward D. Thalmann published the USN E @-@ L algorithm and tables for constant PO2 Nitrox closed circuit rebreather applications , and extended use of the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 Heliox CCR in 1985 . The E @-@ L model may be interpreted as a bubble model . The 1986 Swiss Sport Diving Tables were based on the Haldanean Bühlmann model , as were the 1987 SAA Bühlmann tables in the UK .
= = = Bubble models started to become prevalent = = =
D. E. Yount and D. C. Hoffman proposed a bubble model in 1986 , and the BSAC ' 88 tables were based on Hennessy 's bubble model .
The 1990 DCIEM sport diving tables were based on fitting experimental data , rather than a physiological model , and the 1990 French Navy Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables were a development of the earlier Haldanean model of the MN65 tables .
In 1991 D.E. Yount described a development of his earlier bubble model , the Varied Permeability Model , and the 1992 French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail ( MT92 ) also have a bubble model interpretation .
NAUI published Trimix and Nitrox tables based on the Wienke reduced gradient bubble model ( RGBM ) model in 1999 , followed by recreational air tables based on the RGBM model in 2001 .
In 2007 , Wayne Gerth and David Doolette published VVal 18 and VVal 18M parameter sets for tables and programs based on the Thalmann E @-@ L algorithm , and produce an internally compatible set of decompression tables for open circuit and CCR on air and Nitrox , including in water air / oxygen decompression and surface decompression on oxygen . In 2008 , the US Navy Diving Manual Revision 6 included a version of the 2007 tables developed by Gerth and Doolette .
= Angus Paton =
Sir Thomas Angus Lyall Paton CMG FRS FREng FICE FIStructE ( 10 May 1905 – 7 April 1999 ) was a British civil engineer from Jersey . Paton was born into a family that had founded the civil engineering firms of Easton , Gibb & Son and Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners and he would spend his entire professional career working for the latter . Following his graduation from University College London one of his first jobs was the construction of a dam in Maentwrog in Wales . Paton later became an expert on dams and much of his career was devoted to their construction . In 1931 he undertook an economic survey of Canada which recommended a programme of works for its port system . This report was still being used into the 1970s . During the Second World War Paton was involved with the construction of gun emplacements in the Dardanelles , Turkey and of caissons for the Mulberry Harbours used after the Invasion of Normandy .
After the Second World War , Paton undertook an economic survey of Syria , which made recommendations for port , water infrastructure , irrigation and hydroelectric improvements . This was followed by a similar report on Lebanon and one on the possibility of extending railways from Northern Rhodesia to neighbouring countries . From 1946 , Paton worked almost exclusively on hydroelectric projects , beginning with the Owen Falls Hydroelectric Scheme in Uganda . He also worked on the Kariba Dam in Zambia and Zimbabwe , which was the largest dam in the world when built and for which he was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George . He was also involved with the Indus Basin Project , the Aswan High Dam , the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam , the P.K. Le Roux Dam , the Spioenkop Dam and the Tarbela Dam . Paton was knighted in 1973 and retired in 1977 , remaining a senior consultant to Gibb and Partners . He spent his retirement in Jersey , where he died at St Helier on 7 April 1999 . Paton was dedicated to his professional career and served as President of both the Institution of Civil Engineers ( November 1970 - November 1971 ) and the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers .
= = Early life = =
Angus , the name he preferred , was born on the island of Jersey in the Channel Islands on the 10 May 1905 . His father , Thomas Lyall Paton , was a journalist and author . His mother , Janet , was the daughter of Easton Gibb , founder of Easton , Gibb & Son , a firm of civil engineering contractors . His uncle on his mother 's side , Alexander Gibb , was also a civil engineer ; and had founded Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners , where Paton would spend his professional career . Paton left Jersey with his family in 1909 and spent a year in England before being sent to school in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer in France then Lausanne in Switzerland . He returned to England at the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 . He spent the next six years living in St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea in Sussex where he lived next door to his future wife , Joan Delme @-@ Murray .
Paton spent four years at Brunswick preparatory school in Haywards Heath , Sussex before studying at Cheltenham College . He was a good student , which he put down to an excellent maths teacher , a good memory and being " not much good at games " . On Alexander Gibb 's advice Paton read for a degree in civil engineering at University College London ( UCL ) , where he had won a scholarship at the age of 17 . Whilst at UCL Paton earned half @-@ colours for long distance running and became the only student to graduate with a first class honours Bachelor of Science degree in engineering in 1925 .
= = Work = =
= = = Post @-@ graduation = = =
Upon graduation Paton joined Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners , which had been founded in 1922 . One of his first jobs there was to assist with the design of a new jetty for Barking Power Station . In 1927 he worked on a dam at Maentwrog in North Wales and between 1932 and 1933 was resident engineer on the Glenlee portion of the Galloway hydro @-@ electric power scheme . Paton was seconded to the Rangoon Port Trust in 1930 to construct a wharf for the export of Lead from Burma . This wharf survived a serious earthquake on 5 May 1930 and was opened on 20 February 1931 . On 10 April 1931 Paton sailed to Canada to undertake a survey of its ports and outline the additional facilities that would be required in the next 25 – 50 years . He was assisted in this for six weeks by Ralph Freeman who had designed the Sydney Harbour Bridge . The report was issued on 15 January 1932 but was not implemented until 1935 with the election of William Lyon Mackenzie King as Prime Minister of Canada . The report 's findings continued to be in use until the 1970s . Paton was responsible for the construction of a new brewery for Guinness in Park Royal , London from October 1933 to October 1936 . This was the biggest job of his career thus far and involved the construction of seven steel framed buildings , a power station , a storage silo , roads and railway sidings . Paton also built industrial and trading estates in Wales , West Cumberland and London . He was made a partner in the firm in 1938 .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the Second World War the running of Gibb and Partners fell largely to Paton and James Guthrie Brown . Gibb and Partners gained a large number of government contracts and within a few weeks of the start of the war in September 1939 the workforce increased by 2000 . Paton designed and sited several Royal Ordnance Factories ; and in March 1940 travelled to Turkey to construct an iron and steel works there . Whilst in Turkey he was contracted to build emplacements to contain guns from mothballed battleships in the Dardanelles . The construction of the emplacements was completed but the guns would later be prevented from reaching the site by the Axis occupation of Greece . Paton made his way back to Britain via Greece , Italy and France and arrived home two days prior to the Italian declaration of war against the Allies on 10 June 1940 . He also constructed a plant at Barry in South Wales for the extraction of Magnesium Hydroxide from the sea , a turbine factory for British Thomson @-@ Houston Company and a £ 7 million underground aircraft engine factory . From 1943 @-@ 44 Paton supervised the construction , in London Docks , of the precast concrete caissons required for the construction of Mulberry Harbours following the Normandy Landings . From 1944 @-@ 45 he was in charge of the rebuilding of houses damaged by V @-@ 2 rockets in the London districts of Wanstead and Woodford .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In 1945 Paton began construction of a wool factory at Darlington and a Rayon factory at Carrickfergus , both jobs were completed in 1951 . In 1946 Paton was put in charge of an economic survey of Syria which required him to traverse the country by aircraft and car . The report , issued in 1947 , recommended port , water infrastructure and irrigation improvements and the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the Euphrates River . Paton undertook a similar survey in Lebanon from 1947 to 1948 . He was also involved in a report on the possibility of running a railroad from Northern Rhodesia to Dar es Salaam , Mtwara and Nyasaland .
Paton worked extensively in the field of hydroelectric power and became regarded as a world authority on the matter . From 1946 to 1955 he worked on the Owen Falls Hydroelectric Scheme in Uganda which resulted in the complete stoppage of the White Nile for the first time in history . Following the completion of Owen Falls Dam , Paton worked on the first stage of the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River , of which he said that it was the " highlight of [ his ] professional career " . Paton made 22 visits to the site , of a total duration of 267 days . The project itself was , at 420 ft high , the largest dam built until then and , despite some of the worst floods on record hitting the project , was completed in 1960 at £ 5 million under budget . In recognition of his work on the Kariba project Paton was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1960 . As a result of the success of the Kariba project Gibb and Partners became involved with many of the biggest dam projects of the next two decades including works in Sudan , Argentina , South Africa and Pakistan .
Paton was later involved in the second stage of the Kariba Project and in the Aswan High Dam project . In 1955 he became a senior partner in Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners upon the death of Alistair Gibb in a polo accident . From 1960 until 1977 , when he retired , Paton was the responsible partner for the firm 's involvement in the supervision of the $ 1 @.@ 2 billion World Bank Indus Basin Project . This included the construction of the Mangla Dam between 1962 and 1968 .
In 1962 Gibb & Partners was one of two firms chosen ( with Coyne et Bellier ) by the South African government to build two dams on the Orange River . The first to be constructed was the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam which was officially opened in March 1972 . The second , the P.K. Le Roux Dam , was finished in 1977 . Following the success of this project Paton was retained to build a third , smaller dam , the Spioenkop Dam , which was finished in 1972 . Paton was also involved with the tunnelling and underground powerhouse for the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme . Paton was retained by the World Bank once more in 1967 to supervise the construction of the Tarbela Dam in Pakistan , which was completed in 1976 . He also worked on the modernisation of the Royal Mint which involved the move from its 600 @-@ year home at Tower Hill to Llantrisant in Wales in time for decimalisation in 1971 .
= = Retirement = =
Paton retired from the firm in 1977 but worked for them again as a senior consultant between 1979 and 1985 . During this time he worked on the James Bay Project , a large hydroelectric and infrastructure development in Quebec , Canada . Paton spent the last twenty years of his life in retirement in Jersey in the Channel Islands . In his working life he had visited 48 countries and spent 3152 days abroad . During his career with Gibb and Partners he had grown the company from a 400 employee , home @-@ based company to one which employed more than 1500 engineers working in 63 countries . He was also largely responsible for leading the trend of exporting British technical expertise around the world .
Paton made an endowment to the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1986 , as a result the Academy awards the Sir Angus Paton Bursary of £ 7000 annually to a masters student . Paton married on 7 June 1933 to Joan with whom he raised two daughters and two sons . Joan died on 7 January 1964 , an event which spurred him to become more involved in his profession . Paton died at St Helier in Jersey on 7 April 1999 .
= = Professional recognition = =
= = = Institutional and committee memberships = = =
In addition to his busy work schedule Paton served his profession on numerous councils and committees . The first of these was as chairman of the Association of Consulting Engineers between 1949 and 1950 , an association of which he was made an honorary member in 1984 . Paton served on the council of the Institution of Civil Engineers from 1954 to 1959 and again from 1961 to 1966 . He was elected vice president of that institution , a position he filled from 1966 to 1970 when he was elected president . Whilst serving as president he started New Civil Engineer magazine to keep members up to date with civil engineering news .
From 1960 to 1965 Paton was a board member of the Hydraulics Research Station of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and from 1964 to 1975 he served on the council of the Construction Industry Research and Information Association . Paton was also the British representative on the committee of the International Commission on Large Dams between 1966 and 1973 . From 1968 to 1970 he was chairman of the National Economic Development Council 's working party on large industrial construction sites and from 1969 to 1974 was a member of the Natural Environment Research Council . Paton was vice @-@ chairman of the Council of Engineering Institutions from 1971 to 1972 and chairman for 1972 to1973 . From 1974 to 1979 he was chairman of the Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food flood protection research committee . Paton was also a member emeritus of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers and served as their president in 1980 .
= = = Other honours = = =
Paton was awarded many honours for his contributions to civil engineering . In 1952 he was made an honorary fellow of University College London and he was also a fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers and the American Society of Civil Engineers . Paton was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1969 and served as one of its vice @-@ presidents for the 1977 @-@ 78 session . Paton became one of the few practising engineers to have held that post .
He was created a knight bachelor in the Queen 's Birthday Honours of 1973 in recognition of his services to the construction industry . This knighthood was personally conferred upon him by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 November 1973 . In 1976 Paton became a founding member of the Fellowship of Engineering and received an honorary Doctorate of Science ( DSc ) in engineering from the University of London in 1977 . In 1978 he was made an honorary fellow of Imperial College London and received another honorary DSc in engineering from Bristol University .
= Patrick Star =
Patrick Star is a fictional character in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . He is voiced by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also voices numerous other characters on the show . Created and designed by marine biologist and cartoonist Stephen Hillenburg , the series creator , Patrick first appeared on television in the show 's pilot episode " Help Wanted " on May 1 , 1999 .
Depicted as an overweight , dimwitted pink starfish , Patrick lives under a rock in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom next door to Squidward Tentacles ' moai . His most significant character trait is his lack of common sense , which sometimes leads him and his best friend , main character SpongeBob SquarePants , into trouble . Patrick is unemployed and a self @-@ proclaimed expert in the " art of doing nothing " .
The character has received positive reactions from critics and fans alike ; however , he has been involved in a public controversy that centered on speculation over his relationship with SpongeBob . Patrick has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related merchandise , including trading cards , video games , plush toys , and comic books . He appears in the 2004 full @-@ length feature film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and in its 2015 sequel .
= = Role in SpongeBob SquarePants = =
Patrick is the ignorant but humorous best friend of main character SpongeBob SquarePants . He is portrayed as being an overweight , dimwitted , pink starfish residing in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . Patrick has been shown to make many ludicrous mistakes ; despite this , he has occasionally been portrayed as a savant , with articulate observance to certain subjects in specific detail . However , he always reverts quickly back to his usual , unintelligent self after displaying a moment of wisdom . He holds no form of occupation except for several very brief stints working at the Krusty Krab and at the Chum Bucket in a variety of positions , and mostly spends his time either clowning around with SpongeBob , catching jellyfish with him , or lounging beneath the rock under which he resides .
At home , Patrick is typically depicted either sleeping , watching TV , or engaged in the " art of doing nothing " , at which he is an expert . All the furnishings in the space under his rock are made of sand , and Patrick can simply opt to quickly build up furniture as needed ; even so , his living space is sparse and contains only the barest essentials . Aside from his best friend SpongeBob , who is often impressed by Patrick 's capacity to come up with naïve yet genius plans or solutions , Patrick frequently irritates those around him and is confounded by the simplest of questions or subjects . The characters of Mr. Krabs and Squidward have no patience for Patrick 's stupidity , and the former does not pay him much regard ; Clancy Brown , who provides Mr. Krabs ' voice , said , " The only person that he [ Mr. Krabs ] doesn 't hire is Patrick because Patrick is just too stupid to work for nothing . " Sandy often gets annoyed by Patrick , but still sees him as a friend .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child . During college , he majored in marine biology and minored in art . He planned to return to college eventually to pursue a master 's degree in art . After graduating in 1984 , he joined the Ocean Institute , an organization dedicated to educating the public about marine science and maritime history . While he was there , he initially had the idea that would lead to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants : a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone . In 1987 , Hillenburg left the institute to pursue a career in animation .
A few years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts , Hillenburg met Joe Murray , creator of the Nickelodeon series Rocko 's Modern Life , at an animation festival , and was offered a job as a director of the show . Martin Olson , one of the writers for Rocko 's Modern Life , read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept . At that point , Hillenburg had not even considered creating his own series . However , he realized that if he ever did , this would be the best approach . Production on Rocko 's Modern Life ended in 1996 . Shortly afterwards , Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants .
For the show 's characters , Hillenburg started to draw and used character designs from his comic book — including starfish , crab , and sponge . He described Patrick as " probably the dumbest guy in town " . The character was conceived as a starfish to embody the animal 's nature ; according to Hillenburg , starfish look " dumb and slow " , but they are " very active and aggressive " in reality , like Patrick . Hillenburg incorporated character comedy rather than topical humor on the show to emphasize " things that are more about humorous situations and about characters and their flaws . " He designed Patrick and SpongeBob as such because " they 're whipping themselves up into situations — that 's always where the humor comes from . The rule is : Follow the innocence and avoid topical [ humor ] . "
In spite of being depicted as having a good temperament or state of mind , Patrick has been shown in some episodes to have a tantrum . Patrick 's emotional outbreak was originally written only for the first season episode " Valentine 's Day " , where SpongeBob and Sandy try to give Patrick a Valentine 's Day gift , and " was supposed to be a one @-@ time thing " . However , according to episode writer Jay Lender , " when that show came back it felt so right that his dark side started popping up everywhere . You can plan ahead all you want , but the characters eventually tell you who they are . "
Every main character in the show has its own unique footstep sound . The sound of Patrick 's footsteps is recorded by the show 's Foley crew , with a Foley talent wearing a slip @-@ on shoe . Jeff Hutchins , show 's sound designer said , " [ Going ] barefoot makes it tough to have much presence , so we decided that Patrick would be performed with shoes on . "
= = = Voice = = =
Patrick 's voice is provided by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also does the voices of numerous other characters on SpongeBob SquarePants . While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997 , Hillenburg and Derek Drymon , the show 's then @-@ creative director , were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show 's characters . Fagerbakke auditioned for the role of Patrick after Tom Kenny , SpongeBob 's voice actor , had been cast . Fagerbakke said , " Steve is such a lovely guy , and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever . " He described his experience in the audition , saying " I was just going in for another audition , and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child @-@ like humanity in the show . I couldn 't pick that up from the audition material at all . I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted . "
Steve Hillenburg actually played for me a portion of Tom [ Kenny ] ' s performance as the character , and they were looking for a counterpoint . And I do the big dumb stuff . That 's my deal ... that 's what I do [ sic ] . It was such a neat experience . Typically , when you audition for any kind of voiceover stuff , you 're in a studio , but as I remember it , this was , like , in a weird conference room somewhere , and he had one of those little old cassette decks that ’ s about half the size of a shoebox , and there was something so endearing about it .
Fagerbakke referred Patrick as " AquaDauber " ( a reference to his role as Michael " Dauber " Dybinski on the 1990s sitcom Coach ) in the first few years of working on the show . Patrick is " enormously entertaining to portray " because , according to Fagerbakke , " when I 'm performing Patrick , there are many secrets that I could never divulge " . Fagerbakke 's approach in voicing Patrick is " much the same way I would do [ to ] any kind of character . " " I 'm always looking for opportunities to explore that freewheeling imagination and insanity of children . To be able to plug in to that and let that carry you in to a performance is such a gas , I have so much fun with that . I love kids ; I raised two girls and I love being a parent , " he said . The cast members record as a whole cast . Fagerbakke says that the situation improves his performance as a voice actor because " there is something remarkable that happens when people are working together that is unique to that . " Fagerbakke modeled his performance whenever Patrick is angry after that of American actress Shelley Winters .
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lost his job in 1930 and the family relied on government aid until he was re @-@ hired by the railway around 1936 .
Richard received his first pair of ice skates when he was four , and grew up skating on local rivers and a small backyard ice surface his father created . Richard did not play organized hockey until he was 14 . Instead , he developed his skills playing shinny and " hog " – a game that required the puck carrier to keep the puck away from others for as long as possible . While he also played baseball and was a boxer , hockey was his passion . After he began playing in organized leagues , Richard joined several teams and used pseudonyms such as " Maurice Rochon " to circumvent rules that restricted players to one team . In one league , he led his team to three consecutive championships and scored 133 of his team 's 144 goals in the 1938 – 39 season .
At 16 , Richard dropped out of school to work with his father as a machinist . He enrolled in a technical school , intent on earning a trade certificate . At 18 , Richard joined the Verdun Juniors , though as a rookie he saw little ice time in the regular season . He scored four goals in ten regular season games , and added six goals in four playoff games as Verdun won the provincial championship . He was promoted to the Montreal Canadiens ' affiliate in the Quebec Senior Hockey League in 1940 , but suffered a broken ankle in his first game after crashing into the boards and missed the remainder of the season . The injury also aborted his hopes of joining the Canadian military : he was called to a recruitment centre in mid 1941 , but was deemed unfit for combat .
Off the ice , Richard was a quiet , unassuming youth who spoke little . He met his future wife Lucille when he was seventeen , and she nearly fourteen . She was the younger sister of one of his teammates at Bordeaux , and her bright , outgoing personality complemented Richard 's reserved nature . Lucille proved adept at guiding him through trials and disappointments he experienced in both hockey and life . They were engaged when he was 20 , and though her parents felt she was too young , married on September 12 , 1942 , when she was seventeen .
= = Playing career = =
= = = First Stanley Cup = = =
Having recovered from his broken ankle in time for the 1941 – 42 season , Richard returned to the QSHL Canadiens , with whom he played 31 games and recorded 17 points before he was again injured . He suffered a broken wrist after becoming entangled with a defenceman and crashed into the net . Richard rejoined the team for the playoffs . The skills he demonstrated in the QSHL , combined with the NHL parent club 's loss of players to the war and struggles to draw fans due to its poor record and a lack of francophone players , earned Richard a tryout with the Canadiens for the 1942 – 43 season . He signed a contract worth $ 3 @,@ 500 for the year and , wearing sweater number 15 , made his NHL debut with the team . Richard 's first goal was against the New York Rangers on November 8 , 1942 .
Injury again sidelined Richard as his rookie season ended after only 16 games when he suffered a broken leg . The string of broken bones so early in his career left observers wondering if Richard was too fragile to play at the highest levels . He made a second attempt to enlist with the military but was again turned down after x @-@ rays revealed that his bones had not healed properly ; Richard 's ankle was left permanently deformed , forcing him to alter his skating style . Humiliated by the rejection , he intensified his training and reported to Montreal 's training camp for the 1943 – 44 season fully healthy . The arrival of his daughter , Huguette , prompted Richard to change his uniform to number 9 to match his daughter 's birth weight of nine pounds .
Remaining healthy throughout the season , Richard appeared in 46 of Montreal 's 50 games . He led the Canadiens with 32 goals and tallied 54 points , third @-@ best in his team . Richard 's season not only ended the criticism about his ability to play in the league , but established him as one of the best young players in the NHL . Coach Dick Irvin shifted Richard from the left wing to right and placed him on a forward line with Toe Blake and Elmer Lach . The trio , known as the " Punch line " , formed a dominant scoring unit throughout the 1940s . The Canadiens lost only six games after October , and went on to win the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship in 13 years . Richard led the league with 12 playoff goals , including a five @-@ goal effort against the Toronto Maple Leafs in a semi @-@ final game . He tied Newsy Lalonde 's NHL record for goals in one playoff game ( equalled by three players since ) , which resulted in his being named first , second and third star of the game . Richard was named a second team All @-@ Star following the season . It was the first of 14 consecutive years he was named a league all @-@ star .
= = = 50 goals in 50 games = = =
The 1944 – 45 NHL season was a record @-@ setting one for Richard . He first set a new mark for points in one game when he made five goals and three assists in a 9 – 1 victory over the Detroit Red Wings on December 28 , 1944 ; his eight points broke the previous record of seven held by three players , and stood for 32 years until surpassed in 1976 by Darryl Sittler . Richard achieved the feat despite arriving for the game exhausted from moving into his new home that afternoon . He continued scoring at an unprecedented rate , and by February 1945 was approaching Joe Malone 's NHL record of 44 goals in one season . Richard broke the record on February 25 , 1945 , in a 5 – 2 victory over Toronto . Malone was on hand to present Richard with the puck used to score the 45th goal .
As Richard approached 50 goals for the season , opposition players resorted to increasingly violent efforts to prevent him from scoring . He had to fight past slashes , hooks , and even players who draped themselves across his back . Richard went eight games without scoring and began Montreal 's final regular season game , March 18 , on the road against the Boston Bruins with 49 goals . He finally reached the milestone by scoring with 2 : 15 remaining in the game , a 4 – 2 Montreal win . He became the first to score 50 goals in 50 games , a standard that remains one of the most celebrated achievements in NHL history . Richard finished the season with 73 points , seven behind Lach and six ahead of Blake , as the Punch line finished first , second and third in league scoring .
Richard 's critics argued that his scoring record was the result of talent dilution brought about by the war ; when many players returned in 1945 – 46 , he won his second Stanley Cup with Montreal , but his goal output was nearly halved to 27 . Richard again reached lofty scoring totals in 1946 – 47 , leading the league with 45 goals in a 60 @-@ game season and winning the Hart Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . Opponents continued their attempts to drive Richard to anger or frustration , as they had learned he could be goaded into taking himself out of the game by violently retaliating and fighting . One such incident occurred in the 1947 Stanley Cup Final when Richard received a match penalty for striking Toronto 's Bill Ezinicki over the head with his stick in a game two loss . Richard was suspended for the third game of the series , which the Maple Leafs won .
As the reigning most valuable player , Richard sought a pay raise prior to the 1947 – 48 season . General manager Frank Selke refused , even after Richard and team captain Émile Bouchard both sat out the Canadiens ' preseason before capitulating and returning to the team when the season began . The Punch line was broken up after Blake suffered a career @-@ ending leg injury . Richard 's season also ended early as he missed the final games of the season due to a knee injury . He finished second in team scoring with 53 points in 53 games , but Montreal missed the playoffs . After recording only 38 points in 1948 – 49 , Richard posted a 65 @-@ point campaign the next season and his 43 goals led the NHL for the third time . In 1950 – 51 , Richard scored 42 goals , including his 271st career goal , making him Montreal 's all @-@ time goal leader and one of the best hockey players of all time .
= = = All @-@ time scoring leader = = =
Richard missed over 20 games of the 1951 – 52 season due to injury , but overcame another ailment in the playoffs . In the seventh and deciding game of the semi @-@ final against Boston , Richard was checked by Leo Labine and briefly knocked unconscious after he fell and struck his head on Bill Quackenbush 's knee . Though clearly dazed , Richard returned to the game late in the third period after a large cut above his eye was stitched up . Canadiens coach Dick Irvin sent Richard back onto the ice in the final minutes of the contest , despite knowing Richard had suffered a concussion . Richard scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory that sent Montreal to the 1952 Stanley Cup Final . Following the game , a bloodied and still disoriented Richard was photographed shaking the hand of Boston goaltender Jim Henry , who was also showing symptoms of injuries from the series and who appeared to be bowing to Richard following the Montreal player 's " unconscious goal " . The photograph by Roger St. Jean is among the most famous images of Richard . In the final , Montreal lost to Detroit in four straight games .
The 1952 – 53 season began with Richard in close pursuit of Nels Stewart 's all @-@ time NHL record of 324 goals . Richard tied the record in Toronto on October 29 , 1952 , by scoring two goals against the Maple Leafs ; his achievement earned a rousing ovation from Montreal 's rival fans . He failed to score in his following three games as frenzied fans followed each contest in anticipation of the record @-@ breaking marker . In his fourth try , a November 8 game against Chicago , Richard scored his 325th goal at the 10 : 01 mark of the second period . According to the Montreal Gazette , the ovation Richard received from his fans " shook the rafters " of the Montreal Forum . He finished the season with team @-@ leading totals of 61 points and 28 goals – becoming the first player in NHL history to score at least 20 goals in his first ten full seasons . Aided by Richard 's 7 goals in 12 playoff games , the Canadiens defeated Boston in the 1953 Stanley Cup Final to capture Montreal 's first Stanley Cup championship since 1946 .
Richard led the league in goals for the fourth time in his career with 37 in 1953 – 54 , then for a fifth time in 1954 – 55 with 38 ( shared with Bernie Geoffrion ) . He scored his 400th career goal on December 18 , 1954 , against Chicago .
= = = Richard Riot = = =
Opposition players continued to try to stop Richard through physical intimidation , and he often retaliated with equal force . The situation led to a running feud with NHL President Clarence Campbell . Richard had been fined numerous times by Campbell for on @-@ ice incidents and at one point was forced to post a $ 1 @,@ 000 " good @-@ behaviour bond " after he criticized Campbell in a weekly column he helped author for Samedi @-@ Dimanche . Richard was among many in Quebec who believed that Campbell treated French Canadian players more harshly than their English counterparts . The simmering dispute erupted after an incident in the Canadiens ' March 13 , 1955 , game against Boston , when Hal Laycoe struck Richard in the head with his stick . Richard retaliated by slashing viciously at Laycoe 's head , then punched linesman Cliff Thompson when the official attempted to intervene . Boston police attempted to arrest Richard for assault following the incident , but Bruins officials persuaded them to withdraw on the promise that the NHL would handle the situation .
Following two days of deliberation , Campbell announced that he had suspended Richard – who was leading the NHL 's overall scoring race at the time – for the remainder of the regular season and the playoffs . In English Canada , Campbell was praised for doing what he could to control the erratic Richard . Unknown to most at the time , Campbell had long wanted to impose a lengthy suspension on Richard over his previous outbursts . As NHL president however , Campbell ultimately answered to the league 's owners and they were typically reluctant to see such severe discipline imposed against any of the league 's star players on account of their value in increasing game attendance . In French Quebec the suspension was viewed as an injustice , an unfair punishment given to a Francophone hero by the Anglophone establishment . Richard 's supporters reacted angrily to Campbell : he received several death threats and , upon taking his customary seat at the next Canadiens game , unruly fans pelted him with vegetables , eggs and other debris . One fan threw a tear gas bomb at Campbell , which resulted in the Forum 's evacuation and the game 's forfeiture in Detroit 's favour . Fans fleeing the arena were met by a large group of demonstrators who had massed outside prior to the game 's start .
The mob of over 20 @,@ 000 people developed into a riot . Windows and doors were smashed at the Forum and surrounding businesses . By the following morning , between 65 and 70 had been arrested . Over 50 stores were looted and 37 people injured . Damage was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 899 @,@ 291 in 2016 dollars ) . Richard had also attended the game , but left immediately following the forfeit . Frank Selke attempted to persuade him to return to try to disperse the crowd , but Richard refused , fearing that he would instead further inflame the passions of the mob . He took to the radio the next day asking for calm : " Do no more harm . Get behind the team in the playoffs . I will take my punishment and come back next year and help the club and the younger players to win the Cup . "
The suspension cost Richard the points title , which he lost to teammate Geoffrion by one point . Montreal fans booed Geoffrion when he surpassed Richard on the final day of the regular season . The fans continued to jeer Geoffrion into the following season . Montreal reached the 1955 Stanley Cup Final without Richard , and lost the championship series four games to three . The defeat was a bitter loss for Richard , who struggled to control his anger .
= = = Captain of a dynasty = = =
Richard fulfilled his promise to Canadiens ' fans as he led Montreal to a Stanley Cup championship in 1955 – 56 . The season began with the arrival of his young brother Henri to the Canadiens roster . It also marked the return of his former Punch line teammate , Toe Blake , as head coach . Along with general manager Frank Selke , Blake worked with Richard on moderating his temper and responding to the provocation of his opponents by scoring goals rather than engaging in fisticuffs . Richard finished the season with 38 goals and 71 points , second on the team in both respects to Jean Béliveau 's 47 goals and 88 points . Richard added 14 points in 10 playoff games as Montreal defeated Detroit to claim the Stanley Cup . He scored the second and ultimately Cup @-@ clinching goal in the fifth and final game , a 3 – 1 victory .
Entering his 15th NHL season in 1956 – 57 , Richard 's teammates named him captain of the Canadiens , succeeding Émile Bouchard , who had retired prior to the season . With 33 goals and 62 points , Richard again finished second on the team to Béliveau . In the playoffs , he scored the overtime @-@ winning goal in the fifth game of the semi @-@ final to eliminate New York , then scored four goals in a 5 – 1 victory over Boston in the first game of the final en route to a five @-@ game series win and second consecutive championship for Montreal .
Richard reached a major scoring milestone early in the 1957 – 58 season . During the first period of a 3 – 1 victory over Chicago on October 19 , 1957 , he became the first player in NHL history to score 500 goals in his career . As Richard celebrated with his teammates , it was announced to the Montreal Forum crowd : " Canadiens ' goal , scored by Mr. Hockey himself , Maurice Richard " . He played only 28 regular season games that season , scoring 34 points , as he missed three months due to a severed Achilles tendon . Returning in time for the playoffs , Richard led Montreal with 11 goals and 15 points as the team won its third consecutive Stanley Cup . He scored the overtime winning goal in the fifth game of the final against Boston . It was the sixth playoff overtime @-@ winning goal of his career , and the third during the finals , both NHL records .
At 37 , Richard was the oldest player in the NHL in 1958 – 59 . He scored 38 points in 42 games , but missed six weeks due to a broken ankle . Injuries again plagued Richard during the 1959 – 60 season as he missed a month due to a broken cheekbone . Montreal nonetheless won the Stanley Cup in both seasons . Richard scored no points in four games in the 1959 Stanley Cup Final , but recorded a goal and three assists in 1960 . The titles were the seventh and eighth of Richard 's career , and Montreal 's five consecutive championships remain a record . The 1956 – 60 Canadiens rank as one of eight dynasties recognized by the NHL .
The playoff goal was Richard 's last , as on September 15 , 1960 , he announced his retirement as a player . Richard had reported to Montreal 's training camp that Autumn , but Selke compelled Richard to end his playing career , fearing he was risking serious injury . In Richard 's retirement speech , he said he had been contemplating leaving the game for two years , and stated that at age 39 , the game had become too fast for him .
= = Playing style = =
Richard was nicknamed " the Comet " early in his career . When teammate Ray Getliffe remarked that Richard " went in like a rocket " as he approached the opposition goal , Richard was dubbed " The Rocket " by a local sportswriter ; both Baz O 'Meara from the Montreal Star and Dink Carroll of the Montreal Gazette have been credited for the appellation . The nickname described Richard 's play in terms of speed , strength , and determination . Teammate and coach Toe Blake said the moniker was fitting because " when he would take off , nothing got in his way that could stop him " . Goaltender Jacques Plante declared it one of the most appropriate nicknames given to an athlete , noting the fierce intensity that often showed in Richard 's eyes and comparing it to " the rocket 's red glare " referenced in " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Glenn Hall agreed : " What I remember most about Rocket was his eyes . When he came flying toward you with the puck on his stick , his eyes were all lit up , flashing and gleaming like a pinball machine . It was terrifying . "
The prime of Richard 's career was the era immediately following the Second World War , where battle @-@ hardened players returned to the NHL and implemented a " gladiatorial " style that featured rugged , physical and often violent play . Richard 's own temper was infamous , as illustrated by his actions that precipitated the Richard Riot .
A pure goal @-@ scorer , Richard did not play with finesse , nor was he known for his passing . One of his teammates remarked that " Maurice wouldn 't even pass you the salt " . Richard led the NHL in goals five times , but never in points . He was best known for dashing toward the net from the blue line and was equally adept at scoring from his forehand or backhand . His exploits revived a Montreal Canadiens franchise that had struggled to draw fans in the 1930s . In addition to his 14 appearances on a post @-@ season all @-@ star team ( eight on the first team , six on the second ) , Richard played in 13 consecutive NHL All @-@ Star Games between 1947 and 1959 .
Richard was still an active player when Gordie Howe overtook his career record for points . Howe surpassed Richard 's career mark of 544 goals in 1963 , while the latter 's record of 50 goals in one season stood for 20 years until broken by Bobby Hull in 1965 . The Montreal Canadiens donated the Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy to the NHL in 1999 as an award presented annually to the league 's leading goal scorer .
= = Personal life = =
Upon his retirement as a player , Selke offered Richard a job as a team ambassador and promised to pay him his full playing salary in the first year . After serving in the position for three years , Richard was named a vice @-@ president of the Canadiens in 1964 . He became disgruntled with a role he felt was powerless and only honorary , and resigned one year later . Richard grew estranged from the organization as his desire to be involved in the team 's operations was ignored , and the split deepened when the Canadiens forced Frank Selke to retire in 1965 . He eventually refused to allow his name to be associated with the team .
As Richard struggled both with the need to find a purpose to his post @-@ retirement life and the fear of being forgotten , he attached his name to numerous endeavours . He acted as a consulting editor for a magazine titled Maurice Richard 's Hockey Illustrated , owned the " 544 / 9 Tavern " ( named for his career goal total and sweater number ) in Montreal , and was a pitchman for dozens of products , including beer , hair dye , car batteries , fishing tackle and children 's toys . He continued to use his name as a promotional vehicle for over 30 years after his retirement . Richard briefly returned to hockey in 1972 as head coach for the Quebec Nordiques of the World Hockey Association . He lasted only two games , a win and a loss , before finding himself unable to handle the strain of coaching . Richard reconciled with the Canadiens in 1981 and resumed his team ambassador role . In March 1996 , prior to the last game played at the Montreal Forum , numerous team luminaries were presented including Richard who received a 16 @-@ minute standing ovation . He was overcome in tears as he experienced the adoration of a Forum crowd one last time , recalling his past triumphs at the venue .
Richard and his wife , Lucille , lived in Montreal where they raised seven children : Huguette , Maurice Jr . , Norman , André , Suzanne , Polo and Jean . They had 14 grandchildren . Lucille died of cancer in 1994 , two years after the Richards celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary . Richard 's companion late in his life was Sonia Raymond . It was announced in 1998 that Richard was suffering from abdominal cancer . As his health deteriorated , Richard was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease , and doctors suspected he had Alzheimer 's disease . He died on May 27 , 2000 , of respiratory failure as a result of his cancer .
= = Legacy = =
Numerous honours were bestowed upon Richard throughout and following his career : the Canadian Press named him its male athlete of the year on three occasions , and in 1957 , Richard won the Lou Marsh Trophy as Canada 's athlete of the year . The Canadiens retired his sweater number 9 in 1960 , while the Hockey Hall of Fame waived its five @-@ year waiting period after retirement and inducted him in 1961 .
On September 16 , 1960 , the day of Richard 's retirement , Gordie Howe , who was sorry to hear of the news , had this to say about The Rocket . " He sure was a drawing card . He brought in the crowds that helped pay our wages . Richard certainly has been one of the greatest players in the game and we will miss him . "
In 1962 , Maurice Richard Arena , a 4750 @-@ seat multi @-@ purpose arena was built and named in his honor .
In 1967 , he was made one of the inaugural members of the Order of Canada , and , in 1998 , was elevated to the Companion of the Order of Canada . Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame honoured him in 1975 , and Richard was given a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame in 1999 . He was appointed to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada in 1992 .
While he was a popular player throughout Canada , Richard was an icon within Quebec . Author Roch Carrier explained the passion Richard elicited from the fans in his 1979 Canadian @-@ classic short story The Hockey Sweater . Carrier wrote of how he and his friends all emulated Richard 's style and mannerisms : " we were five Maurice Richards against five other Maurice Richards , throwing themselves on the puck . We were ten players all wearing the uniform of the Montréal Canadiens , all with the same burning enthusiasm . We all wore the famous number 9 on our backs . " The story 's publication , and subsequent adaptation into a National Film Board animated short helped entrench Richard 's image as a pan @-@ Canadian icon . Richard 's popularity persisted late into his life : when introduced as part of the ceremonies preceding the final hockey game at the Montreal Forum , Richard was brought to tears by Canadiens ' fans , who acknowledged him with an 11 @-@ minute standing ovation . Upon his death , the province of Quebec honoured Richard with a state funeral , a first in Quebec for a non @-@ politician . Over 115 @,@ 000 people paid their respects by viewing his lying in state at the Molson Centre .
The Richard Riot has achieved a mythical place in Canadian folklore . The riot is commonly viewed as a violent manifestation of the discontent Francophones within Quebec held with their place in largely Anglophone Canada , and some historians consider the riot to be a precursor to the 1960s Quiet Revolution . In its 40th anniversary retrospective of the Riot , Montreal newspaper La Presse opened with the following passage : " Forty years ago began one of the most dramatic episodes in the history of Quebec , and of hockey . " Richard himself publicly dismissed his role as a catalyst for cultural or political change . He added in 1974 that he played with " English boys " and was largely unaware of the situation in French Quebec at the time .
In an article published four days after the riot , journalist André Laurendeau was the first to suggest that it was a sign of growing nationalism in Quebec . Laurendeau suggested the riot " betrayed what lay behind the apparent indifference and long @-@ held passiveness of French Canadians " . In contrast , in his book The Rocket : A Cultural History of Maurice Richard , Benoît Melançon disputes the importance of the riot , stating its perceived importance in history grew retroactively with Richard 's myth . Melançon wrote : " According to this popular narrative , for the first time the people of Quebec stood up for themselves ; especially English Canada delights in anachronistically announcing that this was the beginning of the 1960s Quiet Revolution . "
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= = = General = = =
Career statistics : Maurice Richard playing card , National Hockey League , retrieved 2014 @-@ 03 @-@ 03
Cameron , Steve , ed . ( 2013 ) , Hockey Hall of Fame Book of Players , Richmond Hill , Ontario : Firefly Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 77085 @-@ 224 @-@ 2
Carrier , Roch ( 2001 ) , Our Life With The Rocket : The Maurice Richard Story , Fischman , Sheila ( translator ) , Toronto , Ontario : Penguin Books , ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 88375 @-@ 1
Diamond , Dan ( 2013 ) , National Hockey League Official Guide & Record Book 2014 , Toronto , Ontario : Diamond Sports Data , Inc . , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 894801 @-@ 26 @-@ 3
Foran , Charles ( 2011 ) , Maurice Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Penguin Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 06412 @-@ 0
Lavigne , Carl , ed . ( 2013 ) , 2013 – 14 Montreal Canadiens Media Guide , Montreal Canadiens Hockey Club
McKinley , Michael ( 2006 ) , Hockey : A People 's History , Toronto , Ontario : McClelland & Stewart , ISBN 0 @-@ 7710 @-@ 5769 @-@ 5
Melançon , Benoît ( 2009 ) , The Rocket : A Cultural History , Reed , Fred A. ( translator ) , Vancouver , British Columbia : Greystone Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55365 @-@ 336 @-@ 3
O 'Brien , Andy ( 1961 ) , Rocket Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Ryerson Press
O 'Brien , Andy ( 2001 ) , Rocket Richard , Toronto , Ontario : Ryerson Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9686220 @-@ 4 @-@ 9
Pincus , Arthur ( 2006 ) , The Official Illustrated NHL History , Montreal , Quebec : Readers Digest , ISBN 0 @-@ 88850 @-@ 800 @-@ X
Podnieks , Andrew ( 2003 ) , Players : The ultimate A – Z guide of everyone who has ever played in the NHL , Toronto , Ontario : Doubleday Canada , ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 25999 @-@ 9
= The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel =
The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel is a 2011 British comedy @-@ drama film , directed by John Madden . The screenplay , written by Ol Parker , is based on the 2004 novel These Foolish Things , by Deborah Moggach , and features an ensemble cast consisting of Judi Dench , Celia Imrie , Bill Nighy , Ronald Pickup , Maggie Smith , Tom Wilkinson and Penelope Wilton , as a group of British pensioners moving to a retirement hotel in India , run by the young and eager Sonny , played by Dev Patel . The movie was produced by Participant Media and Blueprint Pictures on a budget of $ 10 million .
Producers Graham Broadbent and Peter Czernin first saw the potential for a film in Deborah Moggach 's novel with the idea of exploring the lives of the elderly beyond what one would expect of their age group . With the assistance of screenwriter Ol Parker , they came up with a script in which they take the older characters completely out of their element and involve them in a romantic comedy .
Principal photography began on 10 October 2010 in India , and most of the filming took place in the Indian state of Rajasthan , including the cities of Jaipur and Udaipur . Ravla Khempur , an equestrian hotel which was originally the palace of a tribal chieftain in the village of Khempur , was chosen as the site for the film hotel .
The film was released in the United Kingdom on 24 February 2012 and received critical acclaim ; The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel opened to strong box @-@ office business in the United Kingdom and continued to build worldwide . It became a surprise box @-@ office hit following its international release , eventually grossing nearly $ 137 million worldwide .
It was ranked among the highest @-@ grossing 2012 releases in Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and as one of the highest @-@ grossing speciality releases of the year . A sequel , The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel , began production in India in January 2014 , and was released on 27 February 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Recently widowed housewife Evelyn ( Judi Dench ) must sell her home to cover huge debts left by her late husband . Graham ( Tom Wilkinson ) , a high @-@ court judge who had spent his first eighteen years in India , abruptly decides to retire and return there . Jean ( Penelope Wilton ) and Douglas ( Bill Nighy ) seek a retirement they can afford , having lost most of their savings through investing in their daughter 's internet business . Muriel ( Maggie Smith ) , a retired housekeeper prejudiced against Indians , needs a hip replacement operation which can be done far more quickly and inexpensively in India . Madge ( Celia Imrie ) is hunting for another husband , and Norman ( Ronald Pickup ) , an aging Lothario , is trying to recapture his youth . They each decide on a retirement hotel in India , based on pictures on its website .
When the group arrives at the picturesque hotel , they find an energetic young manager Sonny ( Dev Patel ) but a dilapidated facility , not yet what he had promised . Overwhelmed by the cultural changes , Jean often stays inside at the hotel , while her husband Douglas explores the sights . Graham finds that the area has greatly changed since his youth and disappears on long outings every day . Muriel , despite her xenophobia , starts to appreciate her doctor for his skill and the hotel maid for her good service . Evelyn gets a job advising the staff of a call centre on how to interact with older British customers . Sonny struggles to raise funds to renovate the hotel and sees his girlfriend Sunaina ( Tena Desae ) , despite his mother 's disapproval . Madge joins the Viceroy Club seeking a spouse , where she is surprised to find Norman . She introduces him to Carol ( Diana Hardcastle ) . He admits he is lonely and seeking a companion , and the two begin an affair .
Graham confides in Evelyn that he is trying to find the Indian lover he was forced to abandon as a youth . Social @-@ climber Jean is attracted to Graham , and makes a rare excursion to follow him , but is humiliated when he explains he is gay . Graham reunites with his former lover , who is in an arranged marriage of mutual trust and respect . Reconciled , the Englishman dies of an existing heart condition . Evelyn and Douglas grow increasingly close , angering his wife , which results in an outburst from Douglas denouncing this marriage . Muriel reveals that she was once housekeeper to a family who had her train her younger replacement and now , having been forced out of the home and into retirement , she feels that she has lost any purpose in her life .
Sonny 's more successful brothers each own a third of the hotel and plan to demolish it . His mother ( Lillete Dubey ) agrees and wants him to return to Delhi for an arranged marriage . Jean and Douglas prepare to return to England after money is found through their daughter 's company . Jean eagerly awaits returning to England , but Douglas is more hesitant . Now that the hotel is closing against Sonny 's wishes and pleas , Madge prepares to return to England , and Norman agrees to move in with Carol . Madge , after encouragement from Carol and Muriel , decides to keep searching for another husband .
Sonny , encouraged by Evelyn , finally tells Sunaina that he loves her . He confronts his mother , who first forbids the match but then is persuaded by Young Wasim , who speaks no English . He explains that he once knew another man who wanted to marry a smart beautiful woman against his family 's wishes . Sonny 's mother interprets for Young Wasim , realizing he is talking about her , and she finally gives the couple her blessing . She asks Sunaina to take good care of her " favourite son " . Before the remaining guests can leave , Muriel reveals that her experience running the family 's household gave her the knowledge how to balance a budget and that the hotel can make a profit . She approaches Sonny 's investor privately and then invites him to visit the hotel to discuss matters with Sonny . The investor agrees to fund Sonny 's plans for renovation so long as Muriel stays on as an assistant manager .
All the guests agree to stay — except Jean and Douglas . Due to their daughter 's long @-@ awaited success , they decide to return home but on the way to the airport , their taxi gets caught in a traffic jam . A rickshaw driver says that he can take only one of them . Jean sees it as a sign that it is time to split with Douglas ; she bids him farewell and departs . He winds up at another hotel , discovering that it 's nothing more than a brothel and drug den , and spends the rest of the night wandering the streets . He returns to the hotel just as Evelyn is leaving for work , and asks when she 'll be back . A closing montage with a voiceover shows Muriel checking in customers in an elegant renovated lobby , Madge dining with a handsome older Indian man , and Norman and Carol living happily together . Sonny and Sunaina are shown riding a motorbike and passing Douglas and Evelyn on another bike .
= = Cast = =
Judi Dench as Evelyn Greenslade , a recently widowed housewife whose house must be sold to pay off her husband 's debts . Like his father , her son wants to " care " for her , without her input . At Sonny 's home for the " elderly and beautiful " , she keeps a blog of her activities . She narrates throughout the film , from bookend to bookend , from the opening sequence to the Day 51 moral " We get up in the morning , we do our best " .
Bill Nighy as optimist Douglas Ainslie , husband of Jean for 39 years . His loyalty has kept them together when she sees they both " deserve better " . He enjoys the food and sights , going out every day .
Penelope Wilton as pessimist Jean Ainslie . After Douglas invested — and seemingly lost — all their savings in their daughter 's internet business , they can afford only a " beige bungalow " installed with a panic button and hand rails " for the future " . She hates everything about India ; the perceived noise , poverty , and smells . It is for this reason that she stays indoors often , and wishes to return to the UK .
Maggie Smith as Muriel Donnelly , an ex @-@ nanny with a head for figures , is deemed surplus to requirements by her lifelong employers after she unwittingly trains her own replacement . She has no family of her own , having devoted her life to her employers . Although racist , she chooses not to wait six months for a hip replacement , and rather be " outsourced " to India .
Tom Wilkinson as Graham Dashwood , a High Court judge who has , for many years , been retiring " any day now " . During the retirement speech of a colleague , he decides that " today 's the day " . Having lived in India for his first 18 years , he returns to seek out the love of his early life , a man .
Ronald Pickup as Norman Cousins , an aged lothario , unable to face up to his own age and consequent undesirability by younger women ; he hopes for a new start with new possibilities in India .
Celia Imrie as Madge Hardcastle , who has had several unsuccessful marriages . Like Norman , she wants fun , adventure and a new mate . Tired of her daughter 's attempts to keep her as unpaid babysitter , she flees for anywhere , choosing India .
Dev Patel as Sonny Kapoor , manager of the hotel , and one @-@ third owner with his older , more favoured brothers . Sonny is a dreamer eager for a first success , but his determination makes him unwilling to ask for help until the end .
Tina Desai as Sunaina , call centre worker , Sonny 's " modern " girlfriend . She befriends Evelyn when Evelyn gets a job at the same call centre ( see below ) .
Sid Makkar as Jay , Sunaina 's brother , manager of a call centre , hires Evelyn to teach workers British culture .
Lillete Dubey as Mrs. Kapoor , widowed mother of Sonny . She admits that Sonny is not her favourite son , and wants him to move back with her to Delhi for an arranged marriage , not to Sunaina .
Diana Hardcastle as Carol , an Englishwoman but lifelong resident of Jaipur , who asks Norman to enter into cohabitation , according to his perception , impetuously .
Seema Azmi as Anokhi , a Dalit ( lowest @-@ caste ) maid at the hotel who takes Muriel 's acknowledgement for friendship . Via an interpreter , Muriel reveals that her bitterness was caused by her employers having tossed her aside as obsolete after having devoted her life as a nanny and housekeeper , and having unwittingly prepared her replacement .
Paul Bhattacharjee as Dr. Ghujarapartidar ; this was Bhattacharjee 's final feature film appearance before his death in 2013 .
Liza Tarbuck as head nurse Karen .
Denzil Smith as Mr Dhurana , the Viceroy Club Secretary
Honey Chhaya as Young Wasim .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and script = = =
Producers Graham Broadbent and Peter Czernin were the ones who first saw the potential for a film in Deborah Moggach 's novel . The concept of outsourcing retirement , " taking our outsourcing of everyday tasks like banking and customer service one step further " , appealed to them , and they commissioned screenwriter Ol Parker to formulate this concept into a screenplay .
Parker wanted to take the older characters completely out of their element and involve them in a romantic comedy . They initially encountered difficulties finding a studio ; Working Title Films rejected their proposals , considering it unmarketable , but they eventually aligned with Participant Media , Imagination Abu Dhabi FZ , and Blueprint Pictures .
= = = Casting = = =
To helm the project , the producers Broadbent and Czernin approached John Madden , who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for Shakespeare in Love in 1998 . Madden considered the characters in The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel to be of " an analogous kind of geographical suspension " , which have " entered a strange world removed from their former reality , cut off from their past , where they have to invent a new life for themselves " . Dench and fellow cast members Maggie Smith , Penelope Wilton , Celia Imrie , Bill Nighy , Ronald Pickup , Tom Wilkinson , and director John Madden jumped at the opportunity to all work together for the first time in one film . Producer Broadbent considers Dench 's character to be central to the story , and that Evelyn is much like Dench herself , being " the most wonderfully sympathetic person " . John Madden considers Maggie Smith 's character Muriel to be " instinctively xenophobic , never stepping out of her comfort zone in any way " , which is not uncommon in England .
The filmmakers determined early on that the role of Sonny was crucial to the outcome of the picture , and they selected Dev Patel , who at the time was still revelling in the success of Slumdog Millionaire . Dench described Patel as a " born comedian " , and Madden considered him to be a " comic natural — a sort of Jacques Tati figure , with amazing physical presence and fantastic instincts " . Patel had personal experience of watching the elderly through his mother who had been a carer , and he was " enticed by how vivid these characters are , by their sarcasm and their wisdom " , confessing that he " fell in love with the script because every character shines in his or her own different way and you believe in each of them . " Lilette Dubey was cast as Sonny 's mother , and English @-@ language debutante Tina Desai portrayed Sunaina , Sonny 's call @-@ centre @-@ operator girlfriend .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 10 October 2010 in India . Most of the filming took place in the Indian state of Rajasthan , including the cities of Jaipur and Udaipur . In Jaipur , filming took place around the City Palace , the Marigold market , and on crowded buses . Other scenes were shot in Kishangarh , and on the outskirts of Jaipur , footage was shot at Kanota Fort , which stood in for the Viceroy Club . The place where Sonny and Sunaina meet in the film was shot nearby at the Step Well near Amer Fort , a 10th @-@ century establishment noted for its " ten stories of pale golden stone steps . " Ravla Khempur was chosen as the site for the Best Exotic Marigold Hotel ; it is an equestrian hotel that was originally the palace of a tribal chieftain , located about an hour and a half outside of Udaipur in the village of Khempur . Madden considered the building to have a magical quality and unmistakable charm , remarking that it had " something special that could ultimately draw the characters in . It had these wonderful cool dark interiors , with glimpses of saturated light and the teeming life outside its walls . " Production designer Alan MacDonald , who won Best Art Direction in a Contemporary Film from the Art Directors Guild for his work , was brought in to embellish the interiors , intentionally making it clash with " interesting furniture inspired by colonial India , mismatched local textiles , all mixed together with modern plastic bits and pieces , with everything distressed and weather beaten . " Footage was also shot at the Lake Palace Hotel at Lake Pichola .
Madden said that challenges of filming in India included the street noise , as well as the people 's curiosity and hospitality when they saw him producing a camera . The cast and crew were well received by the locals , as was the director who , along with the cast , was invited by Arvind Singh Mewar , the Maharaja of Udaipur , to attend his lavish Diwali celebrations and firework display , as well as attend a royal wedding held at the Rambagh Palace Hotel in Jaipur . Chris Gill was the editor of the picture .
A sequel , The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel , began production in India in January 2014 and was released in February 2015 . Most of the cast returned , with additions including American actor Richard Gere .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack , composed by Thomas Newman , was released in the CD format in 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was first shown at the Italian cinema trade show Le Giornate Professionali di Cinema ( " The Professional Days of Cinema " ) in Sorrento on 30 November 2011 and at the Glasgow Film Festival on 17 February 2012 , before being released widely in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 24 February 2012 . This was followed by release in a further 26 countries in March and April . From May to August , more and more nations saw the release of the film , before Japan 's February 2013 release capped off the film 's theatrical debut calendar .
In the United Kingdom , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel came in second to The Woman in Black at the box office during its first week , earning £ 2 @.@ 2 million . It eventually topped the UK box office , with £ 2 @.@ 3 million , in its second weekend on release . By the end of its UK run , the film had grossed around US $ 31 million . Prior to its United States debut , the comedy had already grossed US $ 69 million worldwide and passed both The Queen ( 2006 ) and Calendar Girls ( 2003 ) in total international grosses . After three months of release , it was ranked the third highest @-@ grossing 2012 release in Australia and New Zealand , behind only The Avengers and The Hunger Games , and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing 2012 title in the UK .
In the US and Canada , the film initially opened in 16 theatres in its first week . In its second week of release , it expanded from 16 to 178 screens in North America and grossed US $ 2 @.@ 7 million for the weekend , ending eighth on the week 's top hits . By the end of the month , Best Exotic Marigold Hotel had grossed US $ 100 million worldwide . The film had a worldwide gross of US $ 136 @,@ 836 @,@ 156 . It ranks among the highest @-@ grossing international films released by Fox Searchlight Pictures behind Black Swan ( 2010 ) , The Full Monty ( 1997 ) , and The Descendants ( 2011 ) , and among the highest @-@ grossing specialty releases of the year along with Moonrise Kingdom and To Rome with Love .
Elsewhere , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel took in less that 58 million USD . Nations contributing sizable box office returns aside from the UK and North America included Australia ( 21 @.@ 2 million USD ) , Germany ( 6 million USD ) , New Zealand ( 4 @.@ 4 million USD ) , Spain ( 4 @.@ 3 million USD ) , France ( 1 @.@ 9 million USD ) , Sweden ( 1 @.@ 3 million USD ) , Italy ( 1 @.@ 1 million USD ) , South Africa ( 1 million USD ) , and Norway ( 797 thousand USD ) .
= = = Reception = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 78 % of critics gave the film a positive rating , based on 148 reviews , with an average score of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 . Its consensus states " The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel isn 't groundbreaking storytelling , but it 's a sweet story about the senior set featuring a top @-@ notch cast of veteran actors . " On Metacritic , which uses a normalized rating system , the film holds a 62 / 100 rating , based on 35 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle remarked that the film was " a rare reminder from movies that the grand emotions are not only for the young and the middle @-@ aged " , citing it " too well made to be dismissed and contains too much truth to be scorned . " Roger Ebert , writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , gave The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel three and a half out of four stars . He declared the film " a charming , funny and heartwarming movie [ and ] a smoothly crafted entertainment that makes good use of seven superb veterans . " Claudia Puig from USA Today called it " a refreshing , mature fairy tale with a top @-@ notch ensemble cast . " While she felt the film was " about 15 minutes too long " , she summarized it as " a delightful , droll and entertaining comedy of manners with an estimable cast " and an " ideal low @-@ tech alternative to the special @-@ effects laden " film projects of 2012 .
Peter Travers from Rolling Stone rated the comedy three out of four stars . He found that " with a lesser cast , the movie would be a lineup of TV @-@ movie clichés . But this is a cast that never makes a false move even when the script settles for formula . " Chicago Tribune critic Michael Phillips wrote that " as two @-@ hour tours go , The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel goes smoothly . " While he felt that the film focused on " pleasantly predictable story " , he noted that the project was one of those films which " are better off concentrating on a reassuring level of actorly craft [ than ] going easy on the surprises . "
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly graded the film with a ' B – ' rating , summarizing it as a " lulling , happy @-@ face story of retirement @-@ age self @-@ renewal , set in a shimmering , weltering , jewel @-@ colored India " , and that it succeeded in selling " something safe and sweet , in a vivid foreign setting , to an underserved share of the moviegoing market . " Peter Bradshaw , writing for The Guardian , was more igneous in his 2 / 5 star review , saying that the film " needs a Stannah chairlift to get it up to any level of watchability , and it is not exactly concerned to do away with condescending stereotypes about old people , or Indian people of any age . " Noting the luminous , prolific resumes of the cast he noted " nothing in this insipid story does anything like justice to the cast 's combined potential . " He went on to opine that the film appeared " oddly like an Agatha Christie thriller with all the pasteboard characters , 2D backstories and foreign locale , but no murder . " In further negative reviews , critics from The Guardian and the blog Marshall and the Movies criticized the film for having a colonialist and orientalist point of view towards India .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the Cinema Scapes Awards , organised on the sidelines of the 2012 Mumbai Film Festival , the film was honoured with the Best International Film accolade for showcasing Indian filming locations . The film and its cast earned five nominations from the British Independent Film Awards .
= Walden Galleria =
Walden Galleria is an enclosed shopping mall located in the town of Cheektowaga , a suburb of Buffalo , New York located east of I @-@ 90 and New York State Thruway Exit 52 off of Walden Avenue New York State Route 952Q . The Walden Galleria comprises more than 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , with 250 stores on two levels , including a food court and a movie theater . The Galleria has four anchors , JCPenney , Sears , Macys , and Lord & Taylor ; with additional major stores including Best Buy , Dick 's Sporting Goods , DSW Shoe Warehouse , Forever 21 , Old Navy , and a Regal Cinemas multiplex . The mall is owned and managed by The Pyramid Companies of Syracuse , New York , the same management firm that developed it .
Opened in 1989 , Walden Galleria initially featured national chains JCPenney and Sears , along with regional chain Bonwit Teller , and local chains Sibley 's , L. L. Berger , and The Sample as its major tenants ; the bankruptcies of these chains in the 1990s made way for several big @-@ box stores . Anchors Lord & Taylor and Galyan 's ( now Dick 's Sporting Goods ) were later additions to the existing mall property , opening in 1992 and 2000 , respectively . The most recent renovation to Walden Galleria comprised an extensive $ 60 million renovation between 2006 and 2008 , which added several new tenants , as well as a new theater adding 250 @,@ 000 square feet of retail .
= = History = =
Walden Galleria was developed by The Pyramid Companies , a New York @-@ based shopping center management firm . Built on a site near Exit 52 of the New York State Thruway , the mall was opened in 1989 . At the time , the mall featured six anchor stores : national chains JCPenney , and Sears , regional chain Bonwit Teller , and three Western New York chains : Sibley 's , L. L. Berger , and The Sample . Sibley 's opened in late 1988 , several months before the rest of the mall . An additional anchor space was originally built for B. Altman and Company , but it remained vacant , as the chain decided not to open the Walden Galleria store due to credit restraints . At the time , the two @-@ story mall also featured more than 150 stores , as well as a theater owned by Hoyts Cinemas .
In 1990 , Sibley 's parent , May Co . , merged operations with Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania @-@ based Kaufmann 's . That same year , local chain AM & A 's ( Adam , Meldrum & Anderson Company ) moved from the nearby Thruway Mall into the space originally planned for B. Altman . The owner of the Thruway Mall sued the AM & A 's chain , claiming breach of contract ; the chain would later be declared liable for damages to the Thruway Mall , which was subsequently torn down and rebuilt as a strip mall in the early 1990s . Finally , Hoyts sold the Walden Galleria theater complex to General Cinemas by the end of the year .
L. L. Berger declared bankruptcy in 1991 , closing all of its stores . Later that same year , three more anchor stores were added to the mall : Lechmere , Loehmann 's , and Lord & Taylor . The Sample closed in 1991 , and was soon replaced with Linens & Wares , a household goods @-@ based retailer ; also , by the end of the year , Filene 's Basement would open in the former L. L. Berger space . Both Filene 's Basement and Loehmann 's would close within three years .
= = = Mid @-@ late 1990s = = =
In 1995 , York , Pennsylvania @-@ based department store chain The Bon @-@ Ton acquired the AM & A 's chain , converting all outlets to The Bon @-@ Ton . Later that year , on December 14 , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Cynthia Wiggins of Buffalo was struck by a dump truck while trying to get to her first day of work in the mall 's food court from a NFTA Metro bus stop on Walden Avenue . The incident sparked allegations from Buffalo 's African @-@ American community that Pyramid did not want people from Buffalo 's predominantly minority East Side to have easy access to the mall . In settling a wrongful death claim against Walden Galleria and NFTA Metro and to prevent a boycott of the mall , the bus stop was soon moved to a point inside the mall , where it remains today . Bonwit Teller closed off its upper level in 1996 as part of the chain 's restructuring , with Old Navy soon opening in the store 's former upper level . By the end of the year , Bonwit Teller had closed the rest of its store as well , with the lower level becoming the area 's first Bed Bath & Beyond store in 1997 . Also in 1996 , sporting apparel retailer Finish Line opened what was then one of its largest stores , in the space vacated by Filene 's Basement two years previous .
Montgomery Ward , which acquired the Lechmere chain in 1994 , closed the last of the Lechmere stores nationwide in 1998 , as part of a corporate restructuring . After its closure , half of the former Lechmere was then converted to a home store for JCPenney , while the other half sat vacant until DSW Shoe Warehouse replaced it in 1999 . Linens ' n Wares , which closed at some point in the late 1990s , was converted to a home store for Kaufmann 's in 1999 as well . One year later , a Galyan 's Trading Company store was added onto the mall as well , with this store being renamed Dick 's Sporting Goods in 2004 following the acquisition of the Galyan 's chain .
= = = 2000s = = =
Starting in 2000 , the first of several renovation plans was announced for the mall . The initial plan called for the addition of a new , three @-@ story wing with an eighteen @-@ screen movie theater complex , as well as several upscale tenants . Under this proposal , the existing Sears store would have been converted to mall space , and a new Sears store built immediately behind it . These expansion plans never came to fruition . By 2002 , General Cinemas had sold the mall 's theater complex to AMC Theatres . One year later , Pyramid made a failed attempt to evict the theaters for a Best Buy store , although Best Buy opened a store at the mall next to Sears in 2006 . AMC closed the mall 's theaters in 2004 and only four days after closing , the theater complex was acquired and reopened by Regal Entertainment Group . The JCPenney Home Store closed in 2002 . Kaufmann 's was one of several former May Co. brands to be acquired and renamed by Macy 's in 2005 , and while the main Kaufmann 's store was converted to Macy 's , the Home Store was shuttered . Also in 2006 , The Bon @-@ Ton closed .
= = = = 2007 expansion = = = =
With the closure of The Bon @-@ Ton in 2006 , plans were once again announced to expand the Walden Galleria . Under these new plans , The Bon @-@ Ton 's former store was demolished for a concourse composed of more than 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new retail space . The mall 's existing theater complex , which was located next to The Bon @-@ Ton , was also demolished for a newer , larger theater complex , which opened at the end of May 2008 . Barnes & Noble was planned for the former theater space , but never opened . Several new restaurants , including The Cheesecake Factory , P.F. Chang 's China Bistro and The Melting Pot , were also added , as were new tenants such as The Walking Company , Oakley , Urban Outfitters , Sephora and Coach . On January 14 , 2011 , two new stores were announced to join the lineup at the Walden Galleria-- H & M and Anthropologie , the latter of which opened up in a small location next to the former . It was announced in 2011 that Michael Kors would also open at the mall .
= = = Present @-@ day = = =
Walden Galleria is the largest mall in the Buffalo @-@ Niagara Falls area , as well as the busiest , with more than 18 million shoppers annually , from both Canada and the United States . Its anchor stores as of 2014 are Sears , JCPenney , Macy 's , and Lord & Taylor . In 2013 , new Italian Marble floors , lounge areas and lighting fixtures were installed throughout the mall . The mall also offers a valet parking service . Currently the old main entrances are being updated to reflect the newer addition to the mall . Some of the mall 's newest additions include Pole Position Raceway Indoor Go @-@ Karting , lululemon , Sperry Top Sider , and Texas De Brazil . In November 2014 , the mall was involved in a controversy regarding stores being fined for deciding not to open on Thanksgiving Day . The mall owners threatened to fine stores $ 200 an hour if they remain closed on the holiday . On November 17 , 2014 , it was announced that Dave and Buster 's will be moving into the mall from the nearby Eastern Hills Mall in the fall of 2015 , with a 30 @,@ 000 square foot addition to the mall planned to be built in between Macy 's and Lord and Taylor to accommodate the restaurant .
= Italian ironclad Re di Portogallo =
Re di Portogallo was an ironclad warship built for the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s , the second and final member of the Re d 'Italia class . She was laid down at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York in December 1861 , was launched in August 1863 , and was completed a year later in August 1864 ; the two Re d 'Italia @-@ class ships were the only Italian ironclads built in the United States . The ships were broadside ironclads , armed with a battery of six 72 @-@ pounder guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
Re di Portogallo saw action at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . She engaged several Austrian wooden vessels in the melee , including ship of the line Kaiser , which rammed Re di Portogallo but inflicted no significant damage . The ship 's career after the war was very limited ; in 1871 , she was converted into a training ship . By 1875 , her wooden hull was found to have deteriorated badly , and so she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Re di Portogallo was 99 @.@ 61 meters ( 326 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 16 @.@ 76 m ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 18 m ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 610 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 520 long tons ; 6 @,@ 180 short tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 082 t ( 5 @,@ 986 long tons ; 6 @,@ 704 short tons ) at full load . Her hull was built from green wood . She had a crew of 552 . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 8 knots ( 19 @.@ 6 to 20 @.@ 0 km / h ; 12 @.@ 2 to 12 @.@ 4 mph ) from 1 @,@ 812 to 1 @,@ 845 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 351 to 1 @,@ 376 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) . For long @-@ distance travel , Re di Portogallo was fitted with three masts and was barque @-@ rigged .
Re di Portogallo was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of six 72 @-@ pounder 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns and thirty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship was equipped with a spur @-@ shaped ram at the bow . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) thick . Her rudder and propellers , however , were not protected by her armor .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Re di Portogallo was laid down at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York City in December 1861 ; she and her sister were the only Italian ironclads to be built in the United States . She was launched on 29 August 1863 and completed just under a year later , on 23 August 1864 . Re di Portogallo then crossed the Atlantic and joined the Italian fleet . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 27 , in attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines , including Re di Portogallo , which could not get underway . Persano held a council of war aboard the ironclad Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . Re di Portogallo was at that time in the 3rd Division , along with the ironclads Terribile , Formidabile , and Regina Maria Pia , and the coastal defense ship Varese . After spending the 18th unsuccessfully bombarding the Austrian fortresses , the Italians withdrew late in the day , preparing to launch another attack the following morning . Persano sent most of his ships to bombard the town of Vis , but he was unable to effect the landing .
The next morning , Persano ordered another attack ; four ironclads would force the harbor defenses at Vis while Re di Portogallo and the rest of the fleet would attempt to suppress the outer fortifications . This second attack also proved to be a failure , but Persano decided to make a third attempt
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the next day . Re di Portogallo and the bulk of the fleet would again try to disable the outer forts in preparation for the landing . Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; the three ships of Admiral Giovanni Vacca 's 1st Division were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . Re di Portogallo initially had trouble getting her engines running , but after repairs were quickly made , she joined the rest of the fleet . She was one of the last ships in the line .
Shortly before the action began , Persano decided to leave his flagship and transfer to Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They were thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet . Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , in an attempt to split the Italian line and initiate a melee . He failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass , so he turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . The Austrians quickly inflicted serious damage on Re d 'Italia and Palestro , eventually sinking both ships . After Palestro withdrew , the Austrian ironclads turned their attention to the 3rd Division , including Re di Portogallo .
Re di Portogallo initially attacked the unarmored ships Erzherzog Friedrich and Kaiserin Elizabeth before the ship of the line Kaiser rammed Re di Portogallo in an attempt to save them . Kaiser struck only a glancing blow , however , and inflicted little damage . Re di Portogallo fired her light guns into the ship in response , starting a fire , and killing or wounding a number of Austrian gunners before Kaiser could break free . By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk , and Palestro had been set on fire , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , Persano refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; as night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Re di Portogallo emerged from the battle relatively unscathed , though many of her iron plates had been loosened in the collision with Kaiser .
= = = Later career = = =
After the battle , Vacca replaced Persano ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out . The damage to Re di Portogallo was repaired after the battle , but the ship was rapidly made obsolete by the development of casemate ships and shortly thereafter turret ships . As a result , her postwar career was very limited . In 1870 , the ship 's armament was modified ; twenty of her 164 mm guns were removed and two 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns were added . The following year , she was converted into a gunnery training ship , and was again re @-@ equipped , now with twenty 8 in guns , two 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns , and eight 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) guns . The ship did not serve long in this capacity ; the ageing of the unseasoned wood used to build the ship , coupled with several flaws in the ship 's construction cut her career short . She was stricken from the naval register on 31 March 1875 and subsequently broken up for scrap . The Navy discarded Re di Portogallo and the three Principe di Carignano @-@ class ironclads between 1875 and 1880 to remove the cost of maintaining them from the naval budget , as part of an effort to reduce the financial impact of the new Caio Duilio and Italia @-@ classes then under construction .
= Meadowbrook State Parkway =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway ( also known as the Meadowbrook , the Meadowbrook Parkway or the MSP ) is a 12 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 15 km ) parkway in Nassau County , New York , in the United States . Its southern terminus is at a full cloverleaf interchange with the Bay and Ocean parkways in Jones Beach State Park . The parkway heads north , crossing South Oyster Bay and intersecting Loop Parkway before crossing onto the mainland and connecting to the Southern State Parkway in North Merrick . It continues north to the village of Carle Place , where the Meadowbrook Parkway ends at exit 31A of the Northern State Parkway . The Meadowbrook Parkway is designated New York State Route 908E ( NY 908E ) , an unsigned reference route . Most of the road is limited to non @-@ commercial traffic , like most parkways in the state of New York ; however , the portion south of Merrick Road is open to commercial traffic .
The Meadowbrook State Parkway was first envisioned in 1924 as part of the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) and Robert Moses 's system to connect several parks in Nassau and Suffolk counties . One park included in the proposal was Jones Beach State Park , which opened along with the Ocean Parkway in 1929 . Construction of the Meadowbrook and Loop causeways began in July 1933 , and was slated for completion in January 1935 . The Reconstruction Finance Corporation loaned $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 toward the project , which was completed in October 1934 . Nassau County acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for an extension to the Northern State Parkway in 1936 , and the highway was originally intended to be finished for the 1939 World 's Fair in Flushing Meadows , Queens . The start of construction was ultimately delayed until December 1953 , and the $ 10 million ( 1953 USD ) highway was completed in October 1956 .
Reconstruction projects in the later parts of the 20th century have caused local protests by entities such as the town of Hempstead and the village of Westbury . The latter was concerned about construction affecting the way of life in Westbury , and the mayor and citizens wanted confirmation that the reconstruction of Northern State Parkway exit 31 — the Meadowbrook State Parkway 's northern terminus — would not lead to environmental disruption . In August 1998 , the Meadowbrook was dedicated as the Senator Norman J. Levy Memorial Parkway in honor of Norman J. Levy , a state senator who helped sponsor the first seat belt law in the United States .
= = Route description = =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway begins at a cloverleaf interchange with the Ocean Parkway and Bay Parkway on Jones Beach Island in the town of Hempstead . The parkway briefly proceeds northwest through Jones Beach before turning northward and crossing South Oyster Bay on a six @-@ lane causeway . After crossing the bay , the Meadowbrook reaches exit M10 , a trumpet interchange with Loop Parkway . In the middle of exit M10 is a southbound @-@ only toll barrier used to charge for access to Jones Beach . After Loop Parkway , the Meadowbrook heads northwest across another water channel and becomes a divided highway with a large center median . A third bridge over a waterway soon follows , bringing the Meadowbrook Parkway onto the mainland part of Long Island near the Norman J. Levy Park and Preserve .
As the highway heads north from the channels surrounding the west end of South Oyster Bay , it runs along the west side of the Norman J. Levy Park and Preserve and the Merrick Road Park Golf Course , both of which are separated from the Meadowbrook by a small creek . The golf course leads to nearby exit M9 , a cloverleaf interchange with Merrick Road ( unsigned County Route 27 or CR 27 ) in the Freeport section of Hempstead . Not far to the north is exit M8 , another cloverleaf serving NY 27 ( East Sunrise Highway ) . After crossing the adjacent Babylon Branch of the Long Island Rail Road , the parkway continues north across East Meadow Park to reach exit M7 , a cloverleaf interchange with the Babylon Turnpike ( unsigned CR 7A ) . After exit M7 , the Meadowbrook makes a slight turn to the northwest as it traverses Roosevelt Preserve County Park .
At the northern edge of the park , the Meadowbrook enters exit M6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with several flyover ramps connecting to the Southern State Parkway . After the Southern State interchange , the Meadowbrook continues north through a narrow park known as Barnum Woods , which separates the heavily developed neighborhoods of Uniondale to the west and East Meadow to the east . The highway passes over NY 102 ( Front Street ) with no connection before leaving Barnum Woods and bending northward near exit M5 and the northbound half of exit M4 , which serve NY 24 ( Hempstead Turnpike ) and several other local streets by way of a series of service roads in the vicinity of Eisenhower Park , Nassau Coliseum , and Mitchel Field . After another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the Meadowbrook makes a turn to the west and enters exit M4 southbound and exit M3 , which connect to Stewart Avenue ( unsigned CR 177 ) via Merchants Concourse . Exit M3 also serves Nassau Community College , located just southwest of the Meadowbrook Parkway .
Continuing west , the Meadowbrook State Parkway enters exit M2 , a cloverleaf interchange with Zeckendorf Boulevard ( unsigned CR 260 ) adjacent to nearby Roosevelt Field Mall . Both directions of Zeckendorf Boulevard are accessible southbound , with exit M2E using part of Dibblee Drive ; the northbound direction of the parkway has only one exit , exit M2W for Zeckendorf Boulevard westbound . Past the cloverleaf , the parkway winds back to the northwest as it approaches exit M1 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with Old Country Road ( unsigned CR 25 ) on the border between the towns of Hempstead and North Hempstead . The Meadowbrook Parkway continues northwest across Old Country Road into North Hempstead , passing under the Long Island Rail Road 's Main Line as it traverses the village of Carle Place . Just north of the community , the Meadowbrook reaches exit 31A of the Northern State Parkway , a semi @-@ directional T interchange that serves as the north end of the Meadowbrook State Parkway .
According to annual average daily traffic counts compiled by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) in 2011 , the most @-@ traveled part of the parkway is the section north of the Southern State Parkway . This portion carries an average of 106 @,@ 800 vehicles daily , with the segment between Zeckendorf Boulevard and Old Country Road serving the most at 139 @,@ 500 vehicles per day . South of the Southern State Parkway , the Meadowbrook Parkway sees only an average of about 54 @,@ 000 vehicles daily . The busiest part in this stretch lies between the Babylon Turnpike and the Southern State Parkway , which handles 95 @,@ 600 vehicles on an average day . The section between the Ocean and Loop parkways is the least @-@ traveled part of the Meadowbrook Parkway , as only 15 @,@ 400 vehicles use the segment per day on average , although as the gateway to Jones Beach , it is busily traveled during the summer months .
= = History = =
= = = Design and construction = = =
The Meadowbrook State Parkway was part of the original design for the Long Island Parkway System , developed by Robert Moses and LISPC in 1924 to alleviate congestion on " unattractive " local roads . The system was designed to connect several parks that were under construction at the time , including Jones Beach State Park , Bethpage State Park and Sunken Meadow State Park . In 1927 , the parkway system was linked to parkways in New York City 's boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens . Jones Beach State Park and the Ocean Parkway opened in 1929 , with access to the mainland via the Jones Beach Causeway ( now part of the Wantagh State Parkway ) .
Construction of the Meadowbrook Causeway began in May 1933 with a $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 loan ( 1933 USD ) given from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Long Island State Park Commission in April 1933 . In order to repay this loan , the Long Island State Park Commission , working with the Jones Beach State Parkway Authority , would institute a 25 @-@ cent toll on the Meadowbrook and Jones Beach causeways . The 50 @-@ cent parking fee on Jones Beach would be reduced to 25 cents in order to keep the total charged to motorists at 50 cents . It was proposed that the loan would be repaid in 25 years . The Meadowbrook Causeway was designed as a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) road from the Southern State Parkway in Freeport to Jones Beach with six bridges across channels of South Oyster Bay . Three grade @-@ separating structures would be designed as well by the State of New York Department of Public Works and the LISPC . A trumpet interchange with the Lido Beach Loop Causeway ( current @-@ day Loop Parkway ) was constructed as well . Designs also included 10 @.@ 1 million cubic yards of hydraulic fill , and a new water channel for boats . Proposed completion of the project was set for January 1 , 1935 . The road was constructed by 3 @,@ 800 people and completed in October 1934 , six months ahead of schedule .
On October 27 , 1934 , the Meadowbrook and Lido Beach Loop causeways were opened to vehicular traffic by LISPC . A motorcade of cars was led across the new roadways by Robert Moses , then a Republican Party candidate for Governor of New York . The event was preceded by parades in Freeport and Rockville Centre . During a speech Moses cited praises to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation for donating the money and letting the LISPC and Jones Beach State Parkway Authority do the work without interference . Other speakers that afternoon praised Moses and the LISPC , and New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia showed up late to give his congratulations . Despite the opening ceremony , two @-@ way traffic was not permitted on the Meadowbrook between the Southern State and Merrick Road until June 1 , 1935 . Prior to that time , motorists had to use the renamed Wantagh Causeway to access Jones Beach .
= = = Extension to the Northern State Parkway = = =
Moses announced during the opening of the Bethpage State Parkway in November 1936 that the land for extending the Meadowbrook from the Southern State Parkway to the Northern State Parkway had been acquired by Nassau County and plans for the road were being designed by the State Division of Highways . Moses stated that the funds would be requested at the next session of the New York State Legislature , with a completion date of 1939 to coincide with the opening of the 1939 World 's Fair in Flushing , Queens . This would make it plausible for motorists to go from Flushing to Jones Beach State Park directly . The new extension would also alleviate congestion along several north – south highways in Nassau County and provide quicker access to Jones Beach . However , construction on the $ 10 million ( 1956 USD ) highway was delayed until December 1953 .
On October 13 , 1956 , Governor Averell Harriman officially opened the new extension of the Meadowbrook State Parkway with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at 11 : 30 a.m. near the Jerusalem Avenue overpass . Robert Moses , Hempstead Town Supervisor Edward Larkin , and Nassau County Executive Holly Patterson also attended the event . After the ceremony , a motorcade led by Moses traveled from the Northern State Parkway south to Roosevelt Field Shopping Center . At Roosevelt Field , the board chairman for Roosevelt Field , Inc . , William Zeckendorf , honored Moses and Harriman with brand new tankards made of sterling silver . On July 5 , 1962 , the New York State Assembly announced the opening of bids on the widening of a 4 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) section of the Meadowbrook between Merrick Road and the Southern State Parkway . Bids were to be accepted on the project in August , with a price tag of $ 3 @.@ 851 million ( 1962 USD ) . The construction would widen the segment from four lanes to six and add a new center median . The widening was prompted by the frequency of accidents along the stretch , and efforts to develop the project were sped up as a result . Completion was set for 1964 , and the reconstruction and repaving was finished on November 18 , 1964 .
= = = Reconstruction concerns = = =
The interchange constructed between the Meadowbrook and Northern state parkways in 1956 was undergoing a new $ 61 million ( 1989 USD ) reconstruction project in the late 1980s . Although it was previously redesigned in 1968 , it was still the site of about 180 accidents per year — over six times the statewide average for accident frequency . The junction was to be rebuilt with three lanes in each direction for the Northern State in the middle of exit 31A , a direct ramp between the westbound Northern State Parkway and the southbound Meadowbrook , connections from Glen Cove Road to both parkways , and the relocation of exit and entrance ramps within the interchange . Construction began in May 1988 , and the project was expected to be completed on October 31 , 1991 . It was proceeding on schedule until the village of Westbury filed a suit against NYSDOT in February 1989 . The lawsuit claimed that NYSDOT did not follow proper environmental guidelines while designing the project because their environmental impact report failed to consider the impacts of a nearby future widening project on the Northern State Parkway . This widening project , considered a second phase of the interchange reconstruction , had no intended date of construction .
The Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court ruled that NYSDOT had to provide a new environmental report by May 12 , 1989 or face having the reconstruction shut down . The order by the court reversed a decision by the New York State Supreme Court that determined that a revised report was unnecessary . Residents of Westbury claimed that the project would bring noise concerns to the village , along with a spillover of diverted traffic to local roads . Concerns were also stated by then @-@ mayor Ernest Strada about Westbury 's water supply and potential impacts from the project . NYSDOT claimed that no disruption would be caused by the project , but Strada insisted there were still concerns . Strada also stated that the village had no interest in shutting down the project ; rather , they wanted to ensure that their community would be protected from any disruptions caused by the reconstruction . On April 24 , NYSDOT announced they had appealed the stoppage of work on the interchange , which had been suspended pending a ruling by the Court of Appeals , the highest court in the state .
On December 19 , 1989 , the Court of Appeals announced their decision on the case of Village of Westbury v. Department of Transportation of the State of New York , et al . , ruling in favor of Westbury . In its decision , the court stated NYSDOT should have issued a joint report for the interchange and widening projects because both projects improved the flow of traffic on the Northern State Parkway and thus were related . The ruling made by the previous court was affirmed , and NYSDOT was advised to consider the environmental impacts of projects on other nearby projects in the future . While the village of Westbury was praising Ernest Strada for taking on the state , residents of the village of Carle Place felt they were being taken hostage by his actions and that the stoppage of work was hurting their community more than Westbury . Editorials in Newsday also called the mayor " parochial and overzealous " .
While Carle Place was complaining about the inability to access their section of town , a January 1990 article in The New York Times mentioned that the Court 's decision put Westbury alone against the state , then @-@ Governor Mario Cuomo and regional planners , who were worried about the safety of the roughly 140 @,@ 000 drivers who used the interchange daily . Local business leaders claimed that Westbury was being selfish in opposing inconvenient construction . Even after the ruling , Strada continued to claim that they wanted to be informed on the impacts of a nearby widening project on the Northern State . NYSDOT officials worried that this would add more bureaucratic levels to getting approval for local road projects and that it could set the project back three years . Officials also went out of their way to call this a simple " not in my backyard " case . NYSDOT continued to claim that the projects were separate , and filed three years apart , despite the court 's ruling that they were similar projects . Cuomo , worried about the safety of drivers , invited Strada to come to Albany to meet with NYSDOT Commissioner Franklin White and State Senator Norman J. Levy to make an agreement . Strada , however , felt that in order to compromise , they would have to continue the original " violation " of not giving a report .
Westbury and NYSDOT came to a deal allowing construction to resume in February 1990 , with lane changes and other modifications being made by the end of the month . This truce , made by Governor Cuomo , allowed work to resume at a normal pace , with nearly 200 workers doing daily work on the project by April 1990 . The speed of progress on the reconstruction put the project back on track to meet the original October 1991 deadline . Mayor Strada , however , stated that he thought NYSDOT would not advance any work that would " need to be ripped up " . The interchange reconstruction project was ultimately completed in 1991 as expected .
= = = Recent changes = = =
In 1947 , the LISPC approved $ 37 @,@ 000 ( 1947 USD ) to construct a stone ornate gasoline station along the Meadowbrook in Jones Beach State Park . The gas station , one of eight constructed by Robert Moses throughout Long Island , would serve drivers , when there were fewer stations throughout the area . After 1975 , NYSDOT , who took control of the parkways from the LISPC , started demolishing some of the stations , including the Meadowbrook , which ended up being one of the first buildings to go . The stations , which were once useful , would fork from the left lane into the median . However , according to NYSDOT , with the change in traffic patterns , the entrances to these stations became dangerous . By 1997 , over two decades after demolition , the station site became a problematic place for people parking and walking up the Meadowbrook and Loop to fish on the bridges . According to the New York State Police , the site is legal for use as a repair stop or for emergencies . However , not for use of dropping people off for fishing , which is also illegal to fish from atop the bridge , except it is around and under the bridges .
In August 1998 , signs were installed along the Meadowbrook State Parkway dedicating the road in honor of State Senator Norman J. Levy , who died in February 1998 after brain surgery . Levy had served on the State Senate Transportation Committee since 1982 and sponsored the first seat belt law in the United States , and had also been part of the negotiations that helped work resume on the Meadowbrook – Northern State interchange . The new signs were unveiled in a ceremony in the median of the parkway just south of Merrick Road . Dignitaries at the honoring ceremony included then @-@ Governor George Pataki , Senator Charles Fuschillo and Levy 's widow , Joy Levy . Signs were erected at both ends of the Meadowbrook Parkway and at a point near the Babylon Turnpike interchange .
The Long Island Transportation Plan 2000 , a study of how to handle Long Island traffic issues in 2020 , was started in 1997 by engineers from NYSDOT . The preferred alternative in the study would widen several parkways on the island , inserting high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV lanes ) for buses and carpools . The Meadowbrook would receive a new HOV lane between the Southern and Northern state parkways , while everything south of the Southern State Parkway would remain the same . The Northern State Parkway would get lanes from the Long Island Expressway to the Meadowbrook , and the Southern State would get lanes from the Meadowbrook to the Sunrise Highway .
In October 2008 , Nassau County Legislator David Denenberg demonstrated with ten civic leaders in front of the NYSDOT building in East Meadow about the slow progress of construction on the NY 102 ( Front Street ) overpass . Construction was causing rush hour traffic to back up for miles near the Hempstead Turnpike ( NY 24 ) exit , and evidence showed no work had been done for several months . After residents and commuters started demanding answers , NYSDOT stated that a project that began as just basic bridge repair had become a larger @-@ scale project that required a redesign due to the fact that the bridge had more damage than initially realized .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Nassau County .
= Agneepath ( 2012 film ) =
Agneepath ( English : The Path of Fire ) is a 2012 Indian action drama film produced by Hiroo Yash Johar and Karan Johar under the banner of Dharma Productions . It is a retelling of the 1990 film of the same name and was directed by Johar 's former assistant Karan Malhotra . The screenplay was written by Malhotra along with Ila Dutta Bedi . Johar pays tribute to his father , Yash Johar , the producer of the original , through the film . The music of the film was composed by Ajay @-@ Atul , with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya . Though publicised as a remake , the film borrows only the basic plot of the original , while making the characters and incidents completely different . The film 's title was taken from a poem of the same name by Harivansh Rai Bachchan , which forms a thematic link through the film , both literally and metaphorically .
Hrithik Roshan plays the lead role of Vijay Deenanath Chauhan and Sanjay Dutt plays the role of the antagonist Kancha , originally played by Amitabh Bachchan and Danny Denzongpa respectively , with Rishi Kapoor portraying the newly introduced character of Rauf Lala . The supporting cast include Om Puri as Commissioner Gaitonde , Priyanka Chopra as Kaali Gawde and Zarina Wahab as Suhasini Chauhan , with Katrina Kaif featuring in an item number . The film follows the struggle of a common man , Vijay Chauhan , as he seeks revenge from Kancha , for wrongly framing and murdering his father in the island village of Mandwa . In the process he befriends an underworld drug lord Rauf Lala and falls in love with a loquacious girl , Kaali Gawde .
Principal photography of Agneepath took place in Diu and Mumbai , with several accidents taking place on the sets . After several issues such as plagiarism charges and release @-@ date postponement , Agneepath released on 26 January 2012 in 2650 screens worldwide , coinciding with the Republic Day celebrations . Made on a budget of ₹ 600 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) , the film broke the highest opening day collections record in India and became a major critical and commercial success with a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) . It has since emerged as one of the highest grossing films of all time in Bollywood . The following year Agneepath received five nominations at the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , and won five IIFA Awards and four Zee Cine Awards .
= = Plot = =
In the island village of Mandwa , the school teacher Dinanath Chauhan ( Chetan Pandit ) , highly respected by the villagers , tries to dissuade them from giving away their lands on lease to Kancha ( Sanjay Dutt ) , the son of the village head who plans to start a drug mafia . Knowing this , Kancha decides to get rid of the school teacher . He ambushes and murders a young girl inside the school , framing Chauhan for the murder . With the support of the villagers , Kancha then kills Chauhan by hanging him to death from a tree which is witnessed by young Vijay Chauhan ( Arish Bhiwandiwala ) , the son of the teacher . Vijay Chauhan along with his pregnant mother Suhasini Chauhan ( Zarina Wahab ) leave the village . Destitute , they find shelter in the city of Mumbai but Vijay harbours intentions to go back to Mandwa and kill Kancha . While in Mumbai , Vijay 's mother delivers a baby girl named Shiksha . Vijay is attracted to Rauf Lala ( Rishi Kapoor ) , a local girl @-@ trafficker and importantly an enemy of Kancha and wants to get into his company . He earns his favour and joins his gang . Meanwhile , his mother along with his baby sister leave Vijay 's side as he resorts to violence .
A grown @-@ up Vijay ( Hrithik Roshan ) now works for Rauf Lala and finds himself as his trusted wing @-@ man . Once inspector and now commissioner , Gaitonde ( Om Puri ) acts as a silent guardian for Vijay and tries to eliminate crime in Mumbai . During the time when Rauf 's influence over the drug business in Mumbai is falling , Kancha decides to grow his influence as a drug lord in the city and sends his aid , Shantaram ( Ravi Jhankal ) over to Mumbai for the process . Vijay with the help of the commissioner disrupts this plan and is lauded by Lala . He further gains the trust of Lala by taking a bullet shot which was aimed for Lala 's son , Mazhar ( Rajesh Tandon ) ; but is later revealed as a conspiracy involving Vijay and Shantaram to eliminate Mazhar .
After murdering both Mazhar and Shantaram , Vijay brings Mazhar 's corpse to Lala , who falls sick and is admitted into a hospital . In the meantime , Vijay takes over Lala 's empire and stops all the crimes committed by Lala 's gang . He is then contacted by Kancha and offers to go to Mandwa for a business agreement . While in Mandwa , Vijay tries to strike a deal with Kancha to hand over the drug business in Mumbai over to Kancha and in return taking Mandwa . Though Kancha initially suspects this deal , he later agrees on the condition that Gaitonde must be killed .
Meanwhile , back in Mumbai , Lala regains health and finds out the truth behind Mazhar 's death . He gets hold of Shiksha ( Kanika Tiwari ) and tries to sell her off . Vijay is notified of this by Kancha and he flees back to Mumbai and kills Lala . Soon after , Kancha sends a man to assassinate Gaitonde . This man identifies Vijay to be the son of the teacher killed by Kancha and reports this to Kancha . However , while he tries to assassinate Gaitonde , he is killed by Vijay . Vijay , meanwhile marries his love interest Kaali Gawde ( Priyanka Chopra ) , who is killed right after during a shooting spree by Kancha 's men .
Vijay leaves for Mandwa to avenge the death of his father and his wife and after an intense battle with Kancha , kills him by hanging him from the same tree in which his father was hanged . However , Vijay dies due to his severe injuries .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Vijay Deenanath Chauhan , a man seeking to avenge the murder of his father .
Rishi Kapoor as Rauf Lala , an underworld Don . He runs a meat business and simultaneously deals in drugs and prostitution .
Sanjay Dutt as Kancha Cheena . An unscrupulous man , often mocked for his hairless appearance ; he runs Mandwa as a concentration camp and exploits the villagers in order to deal in cheap cocaine .
Om Puri as Commissioner Gaitonde . He is a brutally honest cop who develops a close bond with Vijay .
Priyanka Chopra as Kaali Gawde , a talkative girl . She loves Vijay and provides moral support in his quest for revenge .
Zarina Wahab as Suhasini Chauhan , Vijay 's mother . She tries hard to dissuade Vijay against choosing a path of violence .
Chetan Pandit as Master Deenanath Chauhan , Vijay 's father . A morally upright man , he is wrongly framed for the rape and murder of a young girl and is subsequently killed by Kancha .
Sachin Khedekar as Mr. Borkar . He is the Home Secretary of Maharashtra and an aide of Kancha .
Rajesh Tandon as Mazhar Lala , Rauf Lala 's elder son . He is suspicious of Vijay 's loyalties .
Deven Bhojani as Azhar Lala , a mentally challenged younger son of Rauf Lala .
Rajesh Vivek as Mr. Bakshi , a police inspector who doubles as Kancha 's informer .
Banwarilal Taneja as Kancha 's father .
Ravi Jhankal as Shantaram , Kancha 's aid who conspires with Vijay .
Kanika Tiwari as Shiksha Deenanath Chauhan , Vijay 's sister . She lives with her mother and is unaware of Vijay 's existence .
Pankaj Tripathi as Surya .
Brijendra Kala as Muneem .
Katrina Kaif as " Chikni Chameli " ( special appearance ) .
Madhurjeet Sarghi as Lachhi , Kaali 's mother .
Arish Bhiwandiwala as the younger Vijay Chauhan .
Vraddhi Sharma as a journalist .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In an interview with The Times of India , Karan Johar explained that he harboured intentions of remaking the original Agneepath ever since the film released in 1990 . Though the film had received critical acclaim over the years , its commercial failure had devastated his father , producer Yash Johar . The idea of a possible remake materialised on the sets of Johar 's directorial My Name Is Khan , in which Karan Malhotra was an assistant director . Johar told Malhotra of his desire to remake the original film and asked him to revisit it again . On not directing the film himself , Johar commented , " I am happy directing films on love , romance and drama . That 's what I do best . I don 't think I will be good at an action film . So I am not taking the reins of the film in my hand " . However , Johar maintained that the new film would belong to a different milieu as compared to the original . He stated , " We are adapting the film from the original but ours would be a new age version that would fit in well with today 's time . We really hope that we are able to do justice to the original and make the remake exciting for today 's generation . " In an interview with Filmfare , he added that the protagonist of the film would be " more of an underdog " , while the antagonist would be " more flamboyant and menacing " than the older version .
Several changes were made to the story @-@ line of the original film , including the omission of certain characters and addition of new ones . The characters of Krishnan Iyer MA , played by Mithun Chakraborty and Nurse Mary Matthew , played by Madhavi were done away with and new characters such as Rauf Lala and Kaali Gawde were introduced in the screenplay . Moreover , the characterisation of Vijay Chauhan was changed , unlike the original which was inspired by Al Pacino 's role in Scarface ( 1983 ) . In an interview with The Calcutta Telegraph , director Karan Malhotra explained the adaptation by saying , " The similarity ( between the original and this film ) lies only in the fact that it is a revenge film ; a son seeking revenge for his father ’ s death . Unlike Mr. ( Amitabh ) Bachchan ’ s film , my film starts and ends in Mandwa and is primarily about the conflict between the mother and the son . It ’ s a completely new film with a lot of new characters . " He additionally termed Agneepath to be a " crazily dramatic masala Bollywood film " .
= = = Casting = = =
While media reports initially suggested that Abhishek Bachchan was being considered to portray the role of Vijay Chauhan , director Karan Malhotra approached Hrithik Roshan for the role . Roshan , however was sceptical on taking up a role earlier played by Amitabh Bachchan and agreed to star in the film only after months of deliberation . He said , " The script had so much passion that I felt very emotional and I made up my mind to do it " . On casting Hrithik , Malhotra explained , " Hrithik has the charm of a boy and the attitude of a man . Also , he has a certain vulnerability , which I was looking in my characterisation of Vijay Dinananth Chauhan . " While explaining the character of Vijay Chauhan , Malhotra added , " Nobody can play Vijay the way Amitabh Bachchan did , and I would have wanted my Vijay to be subtle even if it wasn 't Hrithik . I wanted the negative characters in my film to be bigger . This made Hrithik 's victory seem bigger . " In preparation for the film , Roshan did not look up Bachchan 's performance in the original for inspiration , as he considered his role to be completely different . Roshan , however , faced several difficulties while filming . He suffered from a severe back injury , which caused him considerable pain , throughout the shooting schedule . In an interview with Filmfare he quoted , " Agneepath is the hardest I ’ ve ever worked in my life . I didn ’ t know what the film had in store for me . I ’ ve never been so tired in my life . I have exhausted my body completely . "
Actor Rishi Kapoor was subsequently cast as Rauf Lala , an underworld Don . Kapoor , who had never played a completely negative character in his entire career , was initially hesitant to sign the film . In an interview with Daily News and Analysis he stated that when Malhotra had offered him the role , he considered it to be a joke and thought that he would be the reason for the film 's failure . Kapoor subsequently insisted on a test look before principal photography could begin , so that he could comfortably fit into the Muslim character of Lala , who wears kohl in his eyes , a karakul cap and is dressed in traditional kurta @-@ pajamas . While shooting for the action sequences , Kapoor suffered several bad falls and bruises , but continued shooting and was thereby praised by co @-@ star Hrithik Roshan for his professionalism .
For the role of Kancha , the antagonist , Sanjay Dutt was cast . According to Malhotra , the script of Agneepath demanded that the villain be more powerful than the hero , and due to Dutt 's bulky frame , he was considered perfect for the role . The character of Kancha demanded that Dutt go bald , but due to a prior commitment to the film Son of Sardar , which was being shot simultaneously , he could not do so for the sake of continuity . Therefore , Hollywood make up artist Robin Slater created a " bald " look for Dutt , with the use of prosthetics . However , due to the summer heat in Diu , the make @-@ up would eventually drip down Dutt 's face , which impelled him to finally shave his head . Director Malhotra admitted to being inspired by Marlon Brando 's bald look in the film Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) while designing Dutt 's character . Dutt explained his look by saying , " Kancha is suffering from an ailment that leaves him hairless . I shaved my head for the role , not once but twice , and the eye @-@ brows and eye @-@ lashes have been digitally removed . " Furthermore , Dutt worked out in the gym twice a day in order to bulk up for the role .
During pre @-@ production , media reports suggested that several actresses including Genelia D 'Souza , Priyanka Chopra and Kareena Kapoor were being considered for the role of Kaali Gawde . However , Chopra was approached over the others , who agreed to do the film instantly . While initial reports suggested that Chopra would be playing the role of a sex worker in the film , they were later denied as rumours . In an interview with Rediff.com , she clarified that she was playing a prostitute 's daughter . On Chopra 's character , Malhotra commented , " Despite being a male dominated film , the part played by Priyanka is very prominent . It isn 't that of a simple or ordinary lover . She is there for Vijay unconditionally and without any expectations . With all the dangerous people around her , she is like this pretty flower standing there with a smile on her face . " In preparation for her role , Chopra wanted to visit a brothel , but Malhotra insisted that she doesn 't for safety reasons .
For the supporting roles , Zarina Wahab was cast as Suhasini Chauhan , Vijay 's mother ; a role originally played by Rohini Hattangadi . Wahab agreed to do the film , due to her close association with producer , Johar . For the role of Shiksha Chauhan , newcomer Kanika Tiwri was auditioned and cast among 6500 girls . In order to feature an item number in the film , producer Johar wanted to sign Kareena Kapoor , who refused the offer and Katrina Kaif was eventually contracted . Filming for the song was demanding on Kaif , as she ended up with cuts and blisters on her feet , due to the long , stretched @-@ out schedules .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography of Agneepath took place in the union territory of Diu , which was used to double as the village of Mandwa . Johar had to complete several formalities before shooting could begin , due to the sensitive nature of the territory . Director Malhotra , however did not shoot in the port of Mandwa itself , as it was " too congested " . While shooting for the film in Mumbai , a picture of Hrithik Roshan , filming a dahi handi sequence was leaked to the media . Worried over this , Johar increased the security on the sets and banned the use of cell phones . Additionally , Priyanka Chopra faced difficulties in allocating dates to shoot for the film , as she was simultaneously shooting for Anurag Basu 's Barfi ! .
According to Malhotra , most of the action stunts in the film were shot by Roshan and Dutt themselves , while body doubles were used to film a few scenes . Several accidents took place during the filming of Agneepath . Priyanka Chopra 's lehenga caught fire , while shooting for an elaborate Ganpati festival song . Hrithik Roshan too scalded his hands while shooting for the same scene . Roshan also suffered from an eye injury during the shoot of a song , when holi colours were flung into his eyes by some junior artists . In October , Roshan suffered from a major back injury while lifting a man weighing 110 kilograms , which was a part of an elaborate action sequence . Shooting was stalled for some time following the incident , while Roshan recuperated in a hospital .
While Ravi K. Chandran was assigned as the cinematographer of Agneepath , he opted out of the film after filming certain portions , for unknown reasons . Kiran Deohans was later contracted to replace him . Sabu Cyril was contracted as the production designer for the film , along with a team of 200 people . He explained the creation of Kancha 's den by saying that he built a haveli @-@ like structure with tantric paintings on the walls , resembling an old fort built by the Portuguese ( who had historically occupied Diu ) . Vijay 's home , on the other hand , was a " small sack @-@ like thing " on the terrace of a chawl , which was built on an open ground with a hundred houses . Cyril added , " We wanted a tree to be at the edge of a hillside , protruding out due to erosion , with not enough soil . We made this banyan tree with fibre as we wanted it to have a particular look . " This tree forms a visual thread to represent Kancha 's atrocities in the film . The song " Chikni Chameli " featuring Katrina Kaif was shot in Film City , Mumbai , where the entire set of Dutt 's villa was recreated .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first official trailer of Agneepath was launched at a press conference in Mumbai on 29 August 2011 . Dharma Productions streamed the event live on the production house 's YouTube channel . The event was attended by the entire cast : Roshan , Kapoor , Dutt and Chopra . The trailer of the film was the third most watched trailer in India , behind the films , Don 2 and Ra.One.
The film associated itself with McDonald 's to provide a discount of ₹ 50 ( 74 ¢ US ) to customers buying a meal at the joint . Additionally , few winners were offered a chance to win a lunch date with Roshan . As part of the promotional campaign , Roshan , Dutt and Chopra visited Dubai on 19 January 2012 , to interact with fans at a shopping mall , followed by an invitational high tea party . The actors travelled to several places in India including New Delhi , Nagpur and other cities to promote the film .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music of Agneepath was composed by Ajay @-@ Atul , with lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya . Sony Music acquired the rights to the album for ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) and released its digital version on 16 December 2011 , followed by mass release on 19 December 2011 . Sanujeet Bhujabel , the marketing director of Sony Music , revealed that live instruments would be extensively used on the soundtrack . While explaining the process involved in composing the soundtrack , Ajay said that director Karan Malhotra narrated the story to them for over four hours , whilst humming the background score that he wanted . This was followed by innumerable discussions which made them " understand each other well " . He also mentioned that the song " Chikni Chameli " was a remake of their own Marathi song " Kombdi Palali " from the film Jatra ( 2006 ) .
In January 2012 , a plagiarism suit was filed against Sony Music and Dharma Productions by a Mumbai @-@ based engineer , for lifting and featuring the song " O Saiyyan " in the album . The Nagpur High Court ordered Johar to release the film , only after truncating the use of the song in it .
The song Chikni Chameli was extremely well received and topped the music charts .
= = = Track listing = = =
= = = Reception = = =
The music of Agneepath received positive reviews from critics . Joginder Tuteja praised the compositions and added that " Chikni Chameli " would be responsible for the rise in sales of the album . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the album 3 out of 5 stars and said that the film 's soundtrack was better than that of the original , while praising the composition of the songs " Deva Shree Ganesha " and " O Saiyyan " . A review carried by BBC UK summed up , " Blessedly free of unnecessary remixes , Agneepath is a well @-@ crafted , evocative collection of songs that proves the adage that , when it comes to Indian music composers , sometimes two heads can be better than one .
= = Release and reception = =
Prior to its theatrical release , the Central Board of Film Certification ( CBFC ) certified the film with a UA certificate after demanding a few cuts , due to a high proportion of violence present in the film . Explaining the certificate , Pankaja Thakur , CEO of CBFC stated , " Agneepath has a lot of bloodshed but none of us felt disturbed by it . The violence is not the type that can psychologically damage a child and the softer scenes of the film managed to offset the darker part of it " . The film 's posters subsequently featured disclaimers reading , " This film is certified U / A. We advise parental guidance due to violence in the film . " The board , consequently praised Johar for the step .
Initially scheduled to release on 13 January 2012 , Agneepath was postponed by a week to 26 January to coincide with the Republic Day celebrations . The film eventually released at around 2650 screens worldwide . The satellite rights of the film were sold to Zee Network for a sum of ₹ 410 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 1 million ) , a month before the theatrical release . Dharma Productions released the DVD of Agneepath on 13 March 2012 across all regions in the NTSC format , with a censor rating of PG @-@ 13 . The DVD includes special features such as the " making of the film " and " deleted scenes and songs " . It is available in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 and Stereo format with English and Arabic subtitles presented in 16 : 9 anamorphic widescreen .
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
Upon release , Agneepath received mostly positive reviews from film critics in India . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , and said , " Agneepath is an uncomplicated story of revenge , is hard @-@ hitting yet entertaining , dwells on strong emotions and aggressive and forceful action , yet is dissimilar from the original . It is a fitting tribute to the masterwork . " Subhash K.Jha of IANS gave it 4 out of 5 stars , while commenting , " Every component of the film falls into place , with a resounding thump . Agneepath is brilliant in its brutality . It 's a riveting and hectic homage to the spirit of the cinema when revenge reigned supreme . And content was king . This new Agneepath takes us back to the era when there was no computer or cellphones . And communication with the audience was immediate and electrifying . " Kaveree Bamzai of India Today rated the film 4 out of 5 , noting , " Melodramatic , choir @-@ inducing sentiment , ecstatic . Agneepath is that rare mainstream movie written well . "
Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , reviewing , " An adaptation rather than a remake , the film assumes a life of its own once the central plot has been established . The film then charts a journey of his own . " Piyali Dasgupta of NDTV gave it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , stating " Watch this film because this one is unadulterated Bollywood entertainment . " Daily Bhaskar gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , while adding , " On the whole , Agneepath totally rests on star power which will lure the cine @-@ goers to halls but how far will it impress them remains to be seen . "
Avijit Ghosh of The Times of India gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , and said , " Try to wipe out the movie 's earlier version from your mind . You might find it more enjoyable . " Sukanya Verma of Rediff gave it 3 out of 5 , while commenting , " Agneepath , less of a remake , more of a tribute . The makers of Agneepath should have just called it Dharmapath . " Kunal Guha of Yahoo.com gave the film 3 out of 5 stars , saying that , " The biggest dilemma of remaking a movie is how much to retain and what to retain . If the new story takes violent shifts , you lose the audience who came to revisit the original . If you photocopy scene @-@ by @-@ scene , you risk failing to connect with the audience who is accustomed to present sensibilities . The only safe bet : a ‘ khichdi ’ of the past and the present , like this one . " Mayank Shekhar of Hindustan Times gave the film 3 out of 5 stars while remarking , " This is the kind of genuine theatre experience , now getting rare , which remains most precious in the life of a film @-@ goer . Reason can take over later . I had a ball ! " Sonia Chopra of Sify gave it 3 out of 5 , and mentioned , " Debut director Karan Malhotra shows great promise in making the film visually arresting and maintaining the consistency of performances . But remaking a cult film means you have big shoes to fill . If you ’ re a loyalist of the late Mukul Anand ’ s Agneepath , you ’ re likely to have reservations with this one . But if you leave the comparisons aside and are willing to forgive the faults , Agneepath is worth a watch essentially to savor Hrithik ’ s performance . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave Agneepath 3 out of 5 and said , " It is in the end , an old @-@ fashioned revenge drama treated in that melodramatic , over @-@ the @-@ top style . You 're not likely to be bored by the intense action and the solid performances , but prepare to be exhausted by just how long this film plays on . "
= = = = Overseas = = = =
Overseas , the film received positive reviews . Russel Edwards of Variety reviewed , " Debuting helmer Karan Malhotra stokes up a fiery revenge tale in Agneepath , an expensively pumped @-@ up , relentlessly energetic retelling of the 1990 Amitabh Bachchan cult favorite of the same name . Toplining Bollywood hunk Hrithik Roshan and veteran actor Sanjay Dutt donning the hat as the antagonist , this dynamic Hindi action extravaganza boosts its potent story with an aggressive style that will ensure audiences feel every blow . " Farah Andrews of Gulf News praised the film while saying , " Fans of the 1990 original starring Amitabh Bachchan and Danny Denzongpa as Vijay and Kancha may be wary about the remake , but take it from us , the revamped flick is well worth a watch . " Rabina A. Khan of The First Post wrote , " Director Karan Malhotra has made an impressive film under the able guidance of his mentor , Karan Johar . It scores on all directorial aspects – design , sound , edit , costumes , camera , phenomenal cast , dialogues and a very gripping screenplay . "
= = = Themes and analysis = = =
Agneepath derives its name from a poem of the same name written by Harivansh Rai Bachchan . The poem , which is recited through the film provides a metaphorical link to represent Vijay 's quest for vengeance .
Several critics consider Agneepath to be a homage to the era of the melodramatic , over @-@ the @-@ top action films of the 1980s and 90s . Critic Rajeev Masand analysed , " Agneepath is a throwback to those heightened action dramas of the 90s , so every dialogue is delivered as a punch @-@ line ; our hero may be battered and stabbed , yet he 'll rise like the phoenix , and the women are flung around to be raped or sold as sex slaves . " He added , " The film is enhanced by uncompromising , brutal action , and by its striking camerawork , especially those scenes framed against a monsoon sky , heavy with dark clouds . " Writing for Hindustan Times , Mayank Shekhar explained that the film , like several other Bollywood films was inspired by the Indian mythological tale of the Ramayana . He also added that " the external logic of a star driven , fantasy fed film " would " not be easy to gulp for many . " While writing a critique for Deccan Chronicle , Suparna Sharma quoted , " Agneepath is more than a remake or a homage to the original . It ’ s about a son righting a wrong and this emotion makes us connect with the film immediately . "
= = = Box office =
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. Constance was short , just under five feet tall , and had dark hair . She trained between 1925 and 1929 at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School in Melbourne . Over the summer of 1925 – 1926 the Gallery held a competition for its students , who were asked to paint " holiday subjects " ; Constance won the prize for a landscape . The competition was judged by artist George Bell , who would have a continuing influence over her artistic career .
In 1930 , Stokes was among artists who exhibited at a Melbourne gallery , the Athenaeum . Her painting , Portrait of Mrs. W. Mortill , was one of only two to draw praise from prominent member of the Heidelberg School , Arthur Streeton , who described the work as a " rare attraction " that was " liquid and luminous " . At the end of her studies , Stokes won the National Gallery of Victoria Art School 's prestigious National Gallery Travelling Scholarship , which allowed her to continue her training at the Royal Academy of Arts in London . In addition to her education at the Royal Academy , she studied under the French cubist painter and sculptor André Lhote in Paris in 1932 . The following year she returned to Australia , where she married businessman Eric Stokes . The family settled in Collins Street , Melbourne , and Stokes had three children between 1937 and 1942 . In later years , Stokes had a studio in the family home in Toorak , a modernist house designed by architect Edward Billson .
= = Artistic career = =
= = = Early career : 1934 to 1952 = = =
Stokes returned from a European honeymoon in 1934 , but she produced few works in the years immediately following . Although the Collins Street apartment had become a full @-@ time studio for Stokes , only two paintings and two sketches from the period are known . The most notable is The Village ( c.1933 – 1935 ) , influenced , according to Stokes ' own account , by the post @-@ impressionist and portraitist Augustus John . This work was hung in the inaugural exhibition of the Contemporary Art Society , held at the National Gallery of Victoria . It was included in a travelling exhibition that appeared in New York 's Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1941 and later in Canada . In 1946 , Stokes presented the work to the National Gallery of Victoria .
In the mid @-@ twentieth century , there were divisions in the Melbourne art scene , which became intertwined with the complex cultural politics of the Cold War era . In the late 1940s , there was a move against modernism in art , and tonalism came into favour . Partly as a reaction to this development , artist George Bell established an exhibiting group called the Melbourne Contemporary Artists in 1940 . Bell was a former war artist and influential member of the Victorian artistic establishment , who after World War II was appointed to teach at the National Gallery of Victoria 's painting school . Influenced by Bell , Stokes was among the artists for whom modernism was a strong influence , and who exhibited with the Melbourne Contemporary Artists . Other members of the group included Russell Drysdale and Sali Herman .
Stokes ' artistry endured , while that of some of her modernist colleagues did not . By 1945 , when the Melbourne Contemporary Artists held one of their exhibitions , art critic Alan McCulloch observed that the works were increasingly lacking in originality and that the former standards of the group were being maintained by only a few members . One of those was Stokes , whose work The Family he praised as " strongly designed and sensitively modelled " . The following year , though , McCulloch was more upbeat , describing the show as their best to date , while again complementing Stokes on her " rich and opulent pictures " . Six years later , when the group exhibited in 1952 , the critic for Melbourne 's Argus was as unimpressed as had been McCulloch in 1945 . Suggesting that the show demonstrated that Melbourne 's art scene lacked innovation , he nevertheless singled out a small number of works for praise . One of these was Stokes ' Christ with Simon and Andrew , which he thought showed " richness and feeling " .
While Stokes was being praised at home in Melbourne , one of her portraits was among six paintings owned by the National Gallery of Victoria that were loaned for an exhibition on the other side of the country , in Perth . The city 's newspaper , The West Australian , chose Stokes ' picture to illustrate its story on the exhibition . Calling it Girl Drying Her Hair , the paper described the work as " notable for its patient handling , use of bright colour and skilful blending of figure and background " . The National Gallery of Victoria refers to the work as Woman Drying Her Hair , which it had acquired in 1947 at the behest of curator and artist Daryl Lindsay . It was soon to travel a great deal further than to Perth .
= = = Later career : 1953 to 1989 = = =
In 1953 , at the request of Prime Minister Robert Menzies and the British Arts Council , an exhibition of the works of twelve Australian artists was assembled . It was shown in London , five regional British cities , and at the Venice Biennale . Of the twelve artists selected for inclusion , only two were from Victoria , the rest being from New South Wales ; Stokes was one of the Victorians . Her three works , including Woman Drying Her Hair , hung alongside those of Australia 's most prominent mid @-@ twentieth @-@ century artists , including Arthur Boyd , Russell Drysdale , William Dobell , Sidney Nolan , Lloyd Rees , Donald Friend and Frank Hinder . Despite these prominent painters being selected for inclusion , when the exhibition appeared in London , Stokes ' Girl in Red Tights drew critical attention and acclaim . Admired by the director of the National Gallery Sir Philip Hendy , the work was proclaimed by the art critic at The Times as the " best picture in London that week " . Some artists in Sydney were not so impressed . A meeting of the Royal Art Society of New South Wales urged Prime Minister Menzies to intervene , members describing the paintings as " the worst ever gathered in one place " . However , the Commonwealth Art Advisory Board member who announced the exhibition considered that it would represent the most substantial promotion Australian art would have experienced to that time . The following year , Joseph Burke , Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Melbourne , praised Stokes ' painting , making particular reference to her work that had so entranced viewers at the 1953 exhibition . " Constance Stokes " , he wrote , was a painter who " announced the pursuit of the classical ideal as [ her ] aim . [ Her ] Girl in Red Tights , with its Venetian richness of colouring , ably sustains the monumental harmony of the classical tradition . "
Religious subjects appear regularly in Stokes ' paintings ; one such work , The Baptism , is in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria . Despite her recurring attention to such subjects , however , the artist entered the Blake Prize for Religious Art only once , in 1953 . Esmond George , critic at Adelaide newspaper The Mail , admired the ( unidentified ) work as having " strong art interest " . Stokes ' interest in the Prize was not so strong as to prompt her to enter again . She told an interviewer that " abstract painting took over " .
Eric Stokes died unexpectedly in 1962 , an experience which left Constance bereft ; a long @-@ time friend said that she never really recovered . Faced with a substantial mortgage to service , Stokes returned to work : painting . Two years later , she opened her first one @-@ woman show in over thirty years . It comprised 43 works , with the 27 paintings priced dearly , at upwards of 150 guineas . The exhibition was a success both financially and critically : Stokes earned over 4000 guineas , and the exhibition attracted praise from art historian and critic Bernard William Smith . Throughout the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s , she painted and held shows ; this later phase of her work was based on a stronger , if lighter , colour palette and reflected the influence of the art of Henri Matisse , whom Stokes admired . There was also a change in her subject matter , from " classically conceived " still lifes , groups of figures and nudes , to more decorative themes . Stokes ' works continued to be well received , having been included in the 1975 exhibition Australian women artists at the University of Melbourne , and the Regional Galleries Association of Victoria 's 1977 touring exhibition The heroic years of Australian painting , 1940 – 1965 . Stokes ' last painting was Alice Tumbling Down the Rabbit Hole , painted around 1989 ; she died in Melbourne in 1991 .
= = Legacy = =
The standard reference work , McCulloch 's Encyclopedia of Australian Art , describes Stokes as " a leading figure in the modernist movement in Victoria " . Not all critics regard Stokes ' work so favourably , however . Art historian Christopher Heathcote acknowledges the recognition of Stokes ' work by her contemporaries , but goes on to say that " strong staff support [ at Melbourne University ] for a few lesser practitioners , such as Constance Stokes ... hardly aided the appreciation of the better local work . " Though she appears in McCulloch 's guide , few other reviews of Australian art recognise Stokes . Exceptions , according to feminist writer Anne Summers , include Ursula Hoff 's Masterpieces of the National Gallery of Victoria and Janine Burke 's Australian Women Artists . One Hundred Years 1840 – 1940 , both of which refer to the well @-@ travelled painting Woman Drying Her Hair . While academic artists and art historians such as Bernard William Smith and Joseph Burke praised Stokes ' work during her lifetime , she faded into relative obscurity . There is , however , a strong market for resale of her works .
Stokes returned to some prominence through a book by Anne Summers , published in 2009 , called The Lost Mother , in which Stokes and her paintings are central to a narrative about Summers ' own family . Summers contrasts Stokes ' ongoing obscurity with the dramatic resurrection of the oeuvre of artists Grace Cossington Smith and Clarice Beckett , both brought to attention by well @-@ regarded gallery curators . Summers considers a number of factors to be involved in Stokes ' fate , including her association with George Bell , whose destruction of many of his early pictures , propensity to keep reworking his old pieces , and artistic conservatism , all limited his subsequent reputation . Summers also points to the lack of a high @-@ profile champion of Stokes ' work , and her Melbournian identity in a time when " Sydney was where the ideas and the experimentation were and the place where reputations were made " . Historian Helen Topliss takes a slightly different view , emphasising that Stokes was " deflected " from her career by raising a family .
A retrospective exhibition of Stokes ' paintings toured Victorian regional galleries including Swan Hill Regional Gallery and Geelong Art Gallery in 1985 . The next year , an exhibition of her work toured several state galleries and the S.H. Irvin gallery in Sydney . In 1992 , her works were displayed in the National Gallery of Victoria 's exhibition Classical Modernism : The George Bell Circle , while in 1993 the same gallery curated an exhibition of her paintings and drawings .
Most major Australian collections hold works by Stokes : The Village is one of thirteen in the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria . Closely associated with Victoria , and in particular the cultural milieu of Melbourne , Stokes is well represented in the galleries of that state . These include the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery , Benalla Art Gallery , Geelong Art Gallery , Mornington Peninsula Regional Gallery , and Swan Hill Regional Gallery . Other public galleries holding works by Stokes include the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory , and the Queensland Art Gallery . The Art Gallery of New South Wales is alone among the major Australian institutions in not holding any of her paintings or drawings .
= Jerusalem and Dopesmoker =
Jerusalem and Dopesmoker are the final albums by the American heavy metal band Sleep . The albums were released in 1999 and 2003 respectively . The music for these albums was written during a four @-@ year period when the group was working on a single song that was around an hour in length . Sleep had signed with London Records , which financed the album . When recording had finished , London Records was unhappy with the finished product and refused to release it . The album was later released in various forms by different record labels . All versions of the album received very positive reception from music critics , who described it as a high @-@ water mark in both the stoner metal and doom metal genres .
= = Production = =
After positive reviews from the heavy metal press and the release of the album Sleep 's Holy Mountain ( 1993 ) on Earache Records , Sleep 's label announced that they would release their follow @-@ up record . Sleep had been touring in Europe with Cathedral and in the United States with Hawkwind in support of Sleep 's Holy Mountain when the group felt they had to write new material . The new album was going to be an hour @-@ long song . This song was written and practiced at sound checks , motel rooms and in friends ' houses . Matt Pike said the songwriting process was long and that they were " working on [ the song ] for like four years . We also had two other songs that were working on that were really long , too — like 15 and 20 minutes . But we never recorded them . " Al Cisneros stated that smoking cannabis was important to the song 's creative process : " I was really dependent on the space I got into when I was using it , and some of the lyrics are about that ... The line , ' Drop out of life [ with bong in hand ] , ' was kind of a creed at that point . " The song was originally known and performed live under the title " Dopesmoker " . After their tour , the group began to be interested in a Middle Eastern desert theme which led to Sleep referring to the song as " Jerusalem " during later practice sessions .
Sleep were ready to record the album in 1995 but did not record it until 1996 as the band was still contracted with Earache . Cisneros said that there was " about a year and half of legal wrangling between their managers and lawyers at Earache " and that Earache owner Digby Pearson " waited to make the most prime conditions for himself before he let [ Sleep 's ] contract [ go ] . " Sleep were in talks with both London Records and Elektra Records to release their next album . They chose to sign to London , as they were promised complete artistic freedom and more money , and since the label did not have any metal bands , Sleep felt they would receive special treatment . The members of Sleep were poor , and used the majority of money they received from London Records to cover for the debt they were in at that time .
The song was recorded at Record Two Studio in Comptche , California . While recording the song , it began to develop differently from the original vision . Pike stated that the " song was getting slower and slower and then it got weird . We started tripping out and second guessing ourselves . " Recording the album was difficult . Pike recalled that " there was so much to memorize for that album , and we had to do it in like three different sections because a reel @-@ to @-@ reel only holds 22 minutes . It was really cool , but it was one of the hardest things I 've ever done in in my life . " Sleep were in the studio for one month then went home to rehearse and returned for another month . Pike noted that they ended up with two or three different versions of the song .
= = Release = =
Within a few weeks of signing with London , the A & R member who was negotiating with Sleep had been transferred and replaced . After sending the finished album to London Records , the label told Sleep that they were not going to release the album in its current format . London Records had David Sardy remix the album but the label were still confused as to what to do with the album . Sleep refused to have the album released in any edited form which led to a deadlock between London and the band . The members of Sleep have mixed feelings whether the album should have been released in general . Cisneros felt it should not have been released while Pike was content with its release , saying " We did all the work so why leave it sitting around ? "
By 2009 , there had been four versions of the album released : a rare London Records promotional disc , a bootleg with cover art by Arik Roper , the Rise Above / Music Cartel Records album , and a release by Tee Pee Records . The Rise Above / Music Cartel release was an unauthorized edited version , released in 1999 under the title Jerusalem . Jerusalem runs at 52 minutes and is a single composition split into six identically named tracks . The version of the album titled Dopesmoker was released on April 22 , 2003 , by Tee Pee Records on compact disc and vinyl with a 63 @-@ minute running time . Cisneros spoke most positively about the 2003 Dopesmoker release , saying " I don 't think the Dopesmoker thing is the exact version that we submitted , but that 's the closest one that 's come out of the four . If I had to pick a favorite , that would be it . " Parts of the song were used in the film Broken Flowers by Jim Jarmusch . Jarmusch stated that he was a fan of Sleep and listed them along with Earth and Sunn O ) ) ) as an influence for creating the film : " I love these kind of visual landscapes they make , and they really inspired things for me for my film The Limits of Control " .
= = Reissue = =
In March 2012 , Southern Lord Records announced plans for a deluxe reissue of the album , adding of the pending release that " The audio is clearer , louder , and at last brings a true representation of Sleep 's hour @-@ plus Weedian chronicle " . The reissue features new artwork by the band 's artist Arik Roper , a recording mastered from the original studio tapes by From Ashes Rise guitarist Brad Boatright , and a live version of the song " Holy Mountain " , recorded at the I @-@ Beam in San Francisco in 1994 . This version of the album reached number 14 on the Top Heatseekers chart .
= = Reception = =
Both Dopesmoker and early releases of the album received positive reviews from the music press . In the December 2000 issue of Spin the album was referred to as " brilliant " and as a " stoner touchstone " . CMJ New Music Monthly wrote positively about the song , saying that the " monotony rarely becomes tedious , because Al Cisneros and company are unpredictable and sensual in their drug @-@ induced pounding of early Sabbath terrain . " Online music database AllMusic gave the Jerusalem album four stars out of five stating that " Either version is worth investigating for adventurous metal enthusiasts , but Dopesmoker is clearly the final and definitive presentation of this work " . In 2006 , the extreme metal magazine Decibel included the album in their hall of fame of " extreme metal masterpieces " .
The album continued to receive praise after the release of Dopesmoker . Eduardo Rivadavia of online music database AllMusic gave the album four and a half stars out of five stating " Dopesmoker is [ ... ] an instant doom metal classic — some might even say a masterpiece " . The British music magazine Mojo gave the album a rating of five out of five stars proclaiming that Dopesmoker is " A benchmark by which all that dares call itself stoner rock must surely be judged . " Exclaim ! praised Dopesmoker 's production value and noted that the album was " ultimately better version of 1999 's stoner opus Jerusalem . " Stylus Magazine 's Stewart Voegtlin defined Dopesmoker as " a 60 @-@ minute song about the spliff , a monstrous rock ode to stinky buds " . Voegtlin pointed out that London Records ' refusal to " share Sleep 's affection or vision , [ led the band to ] disbanding in disgust . Matt Pike went on to form High on Fire ; Al Cisneros and Chris Hakius contemplate the universe 's navel with Om . " A New York Times critic wrote : " What seems disorienting and monochromatic at first grows richer and more rewarding upon repeated exposure . It ’ s like a Mark Rothko painting hitting you over the head with a bag of hammers . "
The 2012 Southern Lord Records re @-@ issue was also praised . On Metacritic , it has a score of 94 out of 100 , based on 9 reviews . Exclaim ! noted that this issue was " cleaner and more powerful , the guitars sound heavier , with a much larger presence , and the mesmerizing complexity of the track has been reinvigorated . " Pitchfork Media gave the album an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and listed it as one of " the best new reissues " noting that " It 's an hour of adventure and momentum , where the lumber and the repetition somehow always push ahead . " Consequence of Sound gave the album three and a half stars out of five , stating that " It 's not for everybody , certainly ; all but the biggest potheads / metalheads may burn out after so much grinding . It 's no showcase for songwriting , either , but it makes up for that with heady atmosphere . "
= = Track listing = =
All music written and composed by Sleep .
= = Personnel = =
Sleep
Al Cisneros – vocals , bass
Matt Pike – guitar
Chris Hakius – drums
= 2010 – 11 York City F.C. season =
The 2010 – 11 season was the eighty @-@ ninth season of competitive association football and seventh season in the Football Conference played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their fifth @-@ place finish in 2009 – 10 meant it was their seventh successive season in the Conference Premier . The season covers the period from 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2011 .
Ahead of Martin Foyle 's second start to a season as manager , six signings were made before the summer transfer window closed . With York fifteenth in the table ten games into the season Foyle resigned , and was succeeded by Tamworth 's Gary Mills in October 2010 . Under his guidance , York enjoyed an unbeaten run at home in the league that lasted until April 2011 , when they were beaten by Mills ' former side . York 's push for a play @-@ off place was ended late in the season and they finished eighth in the table . They reached the third round of the 2010 – 11 FA Cup , being beaten 2 – 0 away by Bolton Wanderers , and were knocked out in the first round of the 2010 – 11 FA Trophy after losing 1 – 0 at home to Boston United .
Thirty @-@ two players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were twenty different goalscorers . Goalkeeper Michael Ingham and defender James Meredith missed only one of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Michael Rankine finished as leading scorer with fourteen goals , of which twelve came in league competition and two came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Danny Parslow for the second time in three seasons .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 2009 – 10 season was Martin Foyle 's first full season as manager of York City and the team reached the play @-@ offs after finishing fifth in the Conference Premier table . After defeating Luton Town 2 – 0 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final , York were beaten 3 – 1 by Oxford United in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium . Jamie Clarke , Kevin Gall , Josh Mimms , Craig Nelthorpe , Alan O 'Hare , Richard Pacquette and Simon Russell were released by York following the play @-@ off defeat , with Luke Graham , Ben Purkiss and Adam Smith leaving for Kettering Town , Oxford and Mansfield Town respectively . Andy McWilliams was loaned out to Stalybridge Celtic . Levi Mackin and Djoumin Sangaré signed new contracts with the club .
Goalkeeper David Knight was brought in on a season @-@ long loan from Histon before the start of the season , while two defenders , Duane Courtney and Greg Young , signed from Kidderminster Harriers and Altrincham respectively . Midfielder Jonathan Smith was signed from Forest Green Rovers , with wingers David McDermott and Peter Till joining from Kidderminster and Walsall respectively . Striker George Purcell was signed from Braintree Town for an undisclosed fee . Defender Dean Lisles and winger Jamie Hopcutt entered the first team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts .
The team adopted a new home kit , which featured red shirts with white collars , white trims on the shoulders and white sleeves that included red trims . York started the season wearing red shorts with white trims , but these were replaced later in the season with navy blue shorts with white trims . The home kit also included red shorts with white trims . The away kit , retained from the previous season , comprised light blue shirts with white horizontal stripes , light blue shorts and light blue socks . Pryers Solicitors continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York started the season with a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Kidderminster , who opened the scoring with a goal direct from a corner kick . After Michael Rankine equalised on eighty @-@ six minutes with a penalty , Kidderminster won the game with a penalty three minutes later . Hopcutt was loaned out to Northern Premier League Premier Division side Whitby Town for a month . The team 's first away game of the season was against Grimsby Town , with the match finishing a 0 – 0 draw . This was followed by another away draw , with Michael Gash and Till scoring against Bath City as the match finished 2 – 2 . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to Barrow and the team 's first victory of the season came after Rankine and Richard Brodie scored to beat Altrincham at home 3 – 0 . The team were defeated 2 – 1 away by Fleetwood Town , where Young made his debut and scored York 's only goal . Brodie joined fellow Conference Premier side Crawley Town for an undisclosed fee , believed to be around £ 300 @,@ 000 , with the transfer being completed three minutes before the transfer deadline .
= = = September = = =
Following Brodie 's departure , two strikers were signed ; Leon Constantine joined on a contract until the end of the season after leaving Hereford United and youth team coach Steve Torpey was registered as a player . Till and debutant Constantine scored in the space of two minutes in a 2 – 0 home win over Rushden & Diamonds . Striker David Dowson , defender Jamal Fyfield and midfielder Danny Racchi joined the club on trial and played for the reserve team in a 1 – 1 draw with Chesterfield . Having fallen a goal behind , York earned a 1 – 1 draw away to Wrexham after Till scored the equalising goal . Ahead of York 's home game against Hayes & Yeading United , the club signed Fyfield from Maidenhead United for a nominal fee and Racchi from Wrexham , where he had been on non @-@ contract terms . The same day , York beat Hayes & Yeading 2 – 0 with goals from Rankine and Constantine , the latter making his first start for the club . York were defeated 5 – 0 away at Mansfield , with Jonathan Smith being sent off on thirty @-@ four @-@ minutes after receiving a second yellow card . Hopcutt and Lisles were loaned out to Stokesley of the Northern League Division One . Manager Foyle resigned ten games into the season , with the team fifteenth in the table , and assistant manager Andy Porter was appointed caretaker manager . Porter 's first game in charge was a 3 – 1 away victory over Tamworth , York 's first away win of the season , with goals scored from Rankine , Alex Lawless and debutant Fyfield . Ahead of this game , Dowson was signed and made his debut as an eighty @-@ fifth @-@ minute substitute . The first home game of Porter 's tenure was a 0 – 0 draw with Darlington , which was York 's first televised appearance on sports channel Premier Sports .
= = = October = = =
A 2 – 1 defeat away by Eastbourne Borough followed , with Lawless scoring York 's only goal . McDermott was released having made four appearances for the club after his month @-@ to @-@ month contract was not extended . Striker Mark Beesley was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Fleetwood before the game against Kettering Town . York lost this game 1 – 0 at home and the following day Porter left the club after four games in charge , with Torpey being appointed caretaker manager . He led the team for a 4 – 0 away loss to Newport County before Tamworth manager Gary Mills was appointed as manager , with Darron Gee following as assistant manager . Mills ' first game in charge was a 1 – 1 draw at home to Bath , with York taking the lead through a first @-@ half penalty scored by Rankine before Bath equalised in the second half . McDermott rejoined the club on another month @-@ to @-@ month contract to become Mills ' first signing . Former York defender Chris Smith , who played under Mills at Tamworth , was signed from Mansfield on a three @-@ month loan , with a view to a permanent transfer . With Mills stating his desire to reduce the size of a squad that was " too big " , Dowson , Hopcutt and Lisles were released by the club . The first victory under Mills ' management was a 2 – 0 win away to Kidderminster in the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup , with Racchi and Jonathan Smith scoring their first goals for the club . Courtney was made available for loan having made seven appearances for the club . Mills ' first defeat came in a 2 – 1 away loss against Forest Green Rovers , with former Forest Green player Lawless scoring York 's only goal .
= = = November = = =
Beesley returned to Fleetwood after Mills decided to terminate his loan . York drew 0 – 0 away to League Two side Rotherham United in the first round of the FA Cup , which resulted in a replay at home . Lawless joined divisional rivals Luton on loan until January 2011 , when a permanent transfer for an undisclosed fee would take place . Two loan signings were subsequently made ; Leicester City striker Ashley Chambers joined until January 2011 and Sunderland midfielder Robbie Weir joined on a one @-@ month deal . Rankine scored York 's equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw against Wrexham with a second @-@ half penalty . York beat Rotherham 3 – 0 in their FA Cup first round replay , with Chris Smith opening the scoring before Rankine scored twice . David McGurk handed in a transfer request having expressed his desire to join Luton , after they had a number of bids for him rejected and he had turned down a contract extension with York . York recorded their first league win under Mills with a 4 – 0 victory away to Rushden with Racchi , Rankine , Chambers and Neil Barrett scoring . Purcell was loaned out to Conference South team Dartford until January 2011 to regain match fitness following his return from injury . The Rushden win was followed by the season 's first successive league victory , after York beat Southport 2 – 0 at home with late goals from Constantine and McDermott . Midfielder Andre Boucaud was signed from Kettering on loan until January 2011 , with a view to a permanent transfer . York progressed to the third round of the FA Cup for the second season running after beating Darlington 2 – 0 away in the second round . The team 's run of three straight wins came to an end after a 0 – 0 away draw against Kidderminster .
= = = December = = =
Weir 's loan from Sunderland was extended until January , with Mills commenting " He 's a fit lad who 's totally committed in what he does and I 've been impressed with him " . Mills was named the Conference Premier Manager of the Month for November 2010 after leading York to a seven @-@ match unbeaten run , while Michael Ingham picked up the Player of the Month award after he kept six clean sheets and conceded one goal in this period . York were knocked out of the FA Trophy in the first round after being beaten 1 – 0 by Conference North club Boston United , which was the team 's first home defeat under Mills . Racchi 's contract with York expired , although Mills stated his intention to re @-@ sign him once the January 2011 transfer window opened . York 's away game with Luton was abandoned after fifty @-@ five @-@ minutes due to heavy snow , with the score at the time being 0 – 0 . Sangaré agreed to sign for Moroccan Botola champions Wydad Casablanca pending the expiry of his York contract at the end of December 2010 , although after the transfer fell through he signed for Oxford . McDermott and Racchi agreed to sign new contracts with York once the January 2011 transfer window opened , which would keep them at the club until the end of the season . Having failed to establish a place in the team under Mills , Gash agreed to join Rushden in January 2011 on loan for the rest of the season .
= = = January = = =
York started the New Year with a 3 – 0 victory away to Gateshead , with Jonathan Smith , Barrett and Constantine scoring in the second half . Chambers ' loan at the club was extended until the end of the season . Boucaud signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 and Chris Smith signed a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract to join the club permanently , while Lawless departed for Luton permanently . Jamie Reed was signed from Welsh Premier League side Bangor City for an undisclosed fee , on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract , after York had a bid for him rejected in November 2010 . York were defeated 2 – 0 away by Premier League side Bolton Wanderers in the FA Cup third round , with Kevin Davies and Johan Elmander scoring late in the match . Weir returned to Sunderland after his loan expired , although Mills wanted to re @-@ sign the player . Constantine scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory at home to Grimsby with a lob over goalkeeper Kenny Arthur . York came from behind to beat Histon 2 – 1 away after Constantine and Till scored in the last fifteen minutes . A 5 – 0 defeat at Luton followed after Ingham was sent off in the fifteenth @-@ minute , with Chris Smith subsequently playing in goal until half time when Young took over .
Following a trial with League Two club Cheltenham Town , Courtney was released by the club after having his contract cancelled . Mackin scored the winning goal in the eighty @-@ fifth @-@ minute of a 2 – 1 home victory over Forest Green , in which Reed scored his first goal for the club . Leeds United midfielder Will Hatfield was signed on a one @-@ month loan following a trial . York were beaten 4 – 0 at Southport , with McGurk being sent off in the second @-@ minute . On transfer deadline day , former Leeds defender Liam Darville signed a contract until the end of the season and former Lincoln City midfielder Scott Kerr signed a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract , following their release by their respective clubs . Fyfield joined former club Maidenhead on a one @-@ month loan and Purcell joined Eastbourne on loan until the end of the season .
= = = February = = =
Danny Parslow , James Meredith , Rankine and Chambers scored as York beat league leaders AFC Wimbledon 4 – 1 at home . Young returned to Altrincham on an emergency loan for the rest of the season . York played a second consecutive match against Wimbledon , being beaten 1 – 0 away . This was followed by a 1 – 0 victory at home to Fleetwood , with Reed scoring the only goal of the game in the second half . York drew 0 – 0 away to Altrincham , which was the team 's first draw since November 2010 , before Jonathan Smith and Rankine scored as York won 2 – 1 away to Hayes & Yeading .
= = = March = = =
Jonathan Smith scored in a second successive match to give York the lead at home to Gateshead , although the winning goal of a 2 – 1 victory was scored by Constantine from the penalty spot . Hatfield 's loan from Leeds was extended until the end of the season , after he made two appearances during his first month at the club . McGurk signed a new contract with York , which contracted him to the club until the summer of 2013 . York drew 0 – 0 away at Barrow . Fyfield opted not to extend his loan at Maidenhead , to fight for a place in the team . Rankine scored the only goal to give York a 1 – 0 victory at home to Eastbourne , with a header from a Till cross during the first half . Reed came off the bench to score both goals as York came from behind to beat Mansfield 2 – 1 at home . He scored for a second successive game away to Cambridge United , although York lost 2 – 1 . Winger Aidan Chippendale was signed on loan from Huddersfield Town for the rest of the season . Reed scored his fourth goal in three games as York beat Histon 1 – 0 at home .
= = = April and May = = =
Rankine missed an eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute penalty for York away at Kettering , with Reed scoring the team 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw . Jonathan Smith scored in the first half for York at home to league @-@ leaders Crawley , who equalised in the second half , with the match finishing a 1 – 1 draw . Racchi was released from his contract with immediate effect after requesting a transfer , having failed to establish himself in the team . York beat Newport 2 – 1 at home , with Rankine opening the scoring
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before assisting Reed for the second goal . During this match McGurk picked up an ankle ligament injury , which ruled him out for the rest of the season . York suffered their first defeat at home since December 2010 after losing 2 – 1 to Tamworth , in which Constantine scored a consolation goal in the eighty @-@ ninth @-@ minute . Having not made any appearances for the club , Chippendale was recalled by Huddersfield . Reed scored the only goal to give York a 1 – 0 victory at home to Luton . Young was recalled from his loan at Altrincham after Parslow suffered a head injury during the match against Luton .
York were beaten 2 – 1 away to Darlington , in which Chris Carruthers scored a consolation goal in the eighty @-@ seventh @-@ minute . York 's hopes of making the play @-@ offs were ended after drawing 0 – 0 with Cambridge in the last home match of the season . The last match of the season was a 1 – 1 draw away to champions @-@ elect Crawley ; York took the lead in the fifth @-@ minute through an own goal scored by David Hunt , before the home side equalised with a Matt Tubbs penalty in the sixty @-@ eighth @-@ minute . York finished the season in eighth place in the Conference Premier table , seven points adrift of a play @-@ off spot . The Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was won by Parslow for the second time in three seasons . He was presented with the trophy at an awards ' ceremony held at Bootham Crescent .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York spent most of the season in mid @-@ table , and having been as low as nineteenth in the table in November went on to reach sixth place during the last month of the season . The team 's goals scored tally of fifty @-@ five was the lowest of any team in the top half of the table , and the sixth lowest of any team in the division . Ingham and Meredith made the highest number of appearances during the season , each appearing in fifty @-@ one of York 's fifty @-@ two games . Rankine was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with twelve league goals and fourteen in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Reed with nine goals .
Before the start of the new season York released Barrett , Carruthers , Constantine , Darville , Gash , Mackin and McWilliams , with Purcell , Rankine , Jonathan Smith , Till and Young leaving for Dover Athletic , Aldershot Town , Swindon Town , Fleetwood and Alfreton Town respectively . Fyfield , Ingham and Meredith signed new contracts with York , and McDermott was retained on non @-@ contract terms . The club 's new arrivals were goalkeeper Paul Musselwhite from Lincoln , defender Lanre Oyebanjo from Histon , midfielders Patrick McLaughlin from Newcastle United , Adriano Moké from Jerez Industrial and Michael Potts from Blackburn Rovers , winger Matty Blair from Kidderminster and strikers Chambers from Leicester , Liam Henderson from Watford and Jason Walker from Luton .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Conference Premier = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = FA Trophy = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
= Barbara L =
Barbara L ( 1947 – 1977 ) was an American Quarter Horse that raced during the early 1950s and often defeated some of the best racehorses of the time . She earned $ 32 @,@ 836 ( about $ 290 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) on the race track in 81 starts and 21 wins , including six wins in stakes races . She set two track records during her racing career . After retiring from racing in 1955 , she went on to become a broodmare and had 14 foals , including 11 who earned their Race Register of Merit with the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) . Her offspring earned more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in race money . She died in 1977 and was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Barbara L was foaled in 1947 , a bay daughter of a Thoroughbred stallion named Patriotic and a Quarter Horse broodmare named Big Bess . She was registered with the AQHA as number 146 @,@ 954 . Her sire , or father , was a grandson of Man o ' War , while her dam , or mother , descended from the Quarter Horse Peter McCue . Barbara L was registered as bred by James Hunt of Sonora , Texas , and her owner at the time of registration was A. B. Green , of Purcell , Oklahoma .
As a yearling , Barbara L was sold at auction for $ 140 ( approximately $ 1 @,@ 400 as of 2016 ) to a Mr. Lumpkin , who sold horse trailers for a living . She spent the next period of her life demonstrating trailers across Texas before someone suggested that Lumpkin race her . Lumpkin changed her name from " Anthem " to " Barbara L " in honor of his daughter Barbara , who was the filly 's first trainer .
= = Racing career = =
Barbara L 's first race was in 1949 at Del Rio , Texas , where she came in fourth and only rated a B speed index ( a measure of how fast a horse ran in a race ) . She did not win a race until her third start that year , completing a 440 yards ( 400 m ) course in 23 @.@ 4 seconds . In the following years , she raced at Centennial Race Track in Colorado ; at Raton in New Mexico ; at Albuquerque , New Mexico ; at Phoenix , Arizona ; at Los Alamitos Race Track in California ; and at Bay Meadows Race Track . She raced for Lumpkin until 1952 , when she was sold to A. B. Green . Green raced her until May 1955 , when her last start was recorded with the AQHA .
Barbara L raced for seven years , starting 81 times . She ended her career on the track with 21 victories , 23 seconds and nine third @-@ place finishes . During her racing career , she beat a number of the top racehorses of her time : Stella Moore , Blob Jr , Bart BS , Johnny Dial , and Monita . She won six stakes races , placed second in four , and came in third in three . Her earnings on the racetrack were $ 32 @,@ 836 ( approximately $ 290 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . The stakes wins were the Speedwell Handicap , the Del Rio Feature , the Bart BS Stakes , the Miss Princess Invitational Handicap , Maddon 's Bright Eyes Handicap , and the Pima County Fair Premier Stakes . She set two track records — one at Centennial for 400 yards ( 370 m ) with 20 @.@ 2 seconds , the other at Los Alamitos for 400 yards ( 370 m ) with 20 @.@ 5 seconds — and equaled the 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) track record at Los Alamitos with an 18 @.@ 5 second run . The AQHA awarded her a Race Register of Merit and a Superior Race Horse award .
= = Broodmare career = =
As a broodmare , Barbara L produced eleven foals who earned their Race Register of Merit with the AQHA . Four of her foals earned speed ratings of AAAT , which would translate to speed indexes of 100 or better in current usage . She had 14 foals ; collectively , they started 230 times on the racetrack , winning 52 races and earning $ 262 @,@ 042 ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 97 million as of 2016 ) in races . Two of her foals won Superior Race Horse Awards : Cuter Yet , and Mr Walt . Her leading money earner was Barbara 3 , who earned more than $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Barbara L 's first foal was Mr. Bruce , a chestnut stallion foaled in 1956 and sired by the Thoroughbred stallion Three Bars . He started 25 races , of which he won six , earning $ 8 @,@ 283 ( approximately $ 67 @,@ 200 as of 2016 ) on the track . He earned an AAA speed index and placed second once and third once in stakes races . Barbara L 's next foal was Miss Olene , a bay mare sired by Leo and foaled in 1957 . She started 33 races and won 11 times , including one stakes race . She earned an AAAT speed index and finished third in the 1959 All American Futurity while earning $ 31 @,@ 022 ( approximately $ 245 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) in total racing earnings . Polly Jane , a bay mare sired by Go Man Go , was Barbara L 's 1958 foal . Polly Jane started 21 times , winning four races , achieving an AAA speed index , and earning $ 3 @,@ 961 ( approximately $ 31 @,@ 400 as of 2016 ) . In 1959 , Barbara L 's foal was Mr. Walt , a bay stallion by Vandy . Mr. Walt started 55 times and had a AAAT speed index . He won nine races , including one stakes race , earning him $ 9 @,@ 417 ( approximately $ 68 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) . In 1960 , Barbara L produced Barbara 2 , a sorrel mare by Leo . Barbara 2 raced 11 times , winning 2 races with $ 2 @,@ 847 ( approximately $ 22 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) in earnings and a AAAT speed index .
Barbara L 's next two foals , Go Doctor and Barbara 1 , did not race , but the foal born in 1963 , Barbara L 's Boy , started 12 times and won twice . He was sired by Depth Bars and won $ 1 @,@ 312 ( approximately $ 9 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) and earned a AAA speed index . In 1964 , Barbara L had Barbara 3 , a sorrel mare sired by the Thoroughbred Top Deck . Barbara 3 started 19 races and won seven times , including one stakes race . Her best speed index was AAAT and she earned $ 100 @,@ 692 ( approximately $ 714 @,@ 600 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L 's next foal , in 1965 , was Top Decker , a brown stallion also by Top Deck . He started five times and earned a AAA speed index and $ 98 ( approximately $ 630 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L did not have a foal in 1966 , but in 1967 she had a bay mare named Cuter Yet by Jet Deck . Cuter Yet started 27 races and won 5 times , including 2 stakes races . Cuter Yet 's race earnings were $ 98 @,@ 806 ( approximately $ 602 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) , and her highest speed index was 98 . In 1968 , Barbara L had Barbara Meyers , a bay mare by Kid Meyers . Barbara Meyers started six times and earned an 89 speed index and $ 1 @,@ 082 ( approximately $ 6 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) . Barbara L 's 1969 foal , Peggy Rollins , did not race , but her last foal , Barbara El , a bay mare also by Kid Meyers , started 16 times and won 3 races . Barbara El won $ 4 @,@ 522 ( approximately $ 24 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) and an 80 speed index .
= = Death and legacy = =
Barbara L died in 1977 . A stakes race was named in her honor and run at Ruidoso Downs , New Mexico , in 1956 . In 2006 , she earned a Dam of Distinction award from the AQHA ; she was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2007 .
= = Pedigree = =
= The Experiment ( Dane Rumble album ) =
The Experiment is the first solo studio album by New Zealand singer @-@ songwriter Dane Rumble . Released by Rumble Music and Warner Music on 29 March 2010 , it follows two years after the split of his hip hop group Fast Crew . Rumble found it difficult to write music for himself , and therefore deviated to the pop rock genre . The Experiment includes elements of dance @-@ pop and pop rap , and lyrically focusses on personal issues . Rumble produced the album with Jonathan Campbell . In July 2010 Rumble embarked on The Edge Winter Jam : The Experiment Tour , which had him perform in Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch .
The Experiment received mixed to positive reviews from music critics ; some praised its catchiness while others labelled it " chart fodder " . The record received nominations in four categories at the 2010 New Zealand Music Awards , and won the Rumble the award for Best Male Solo Artist . The Experiment debuted at number one on the New Zealand Albums Chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . Five singles were released from the album : top @-@ ten hits " Don 't Know What to Do " and " Cruel " , and " Always Be Here " , " Everything ( Take Me Down ) " and " What Are You Waiting For ? " .
= = Background = =
Rumble 's hip hop group , Fast Crew , released their second studio album , Truth , Lies & Red Tape , in 2008 . The band split soon afterwards , and Rumble decided to pursue a solo musical career , and taught himself to play the guitar . He began writing material for his album , but he found that he could no longer write hip hop . " Hip hop was just wearing really thin for me because it 's really quite macho . ' I 'm wicked because of this . I 'm the best because of that ' . It 's a lot of talking yourself up , " Rumble said . He began to write songs inspired by his own experiences and emotions , which allowed him to explore other musical genres . He explained that when he wrote songs for the album , he began by creating a chord progression using his guitar , which evolved into the tune 's basic melody , after which he would determine its theme . Other songs were conceived by Rumble humming a tune during everyday activities , then recording it onto his iPhone so as to not forget it . The tune would later be refined to a full @-@ fledged song . According to Rumble , writing music was the hardest component of the album 's making . " Always Be Here " was the first song Rumble completed , which he sent to record label Warner Music NZ , thereby commencing his solo career .
Rumble organised a band of his friends , rather than the standard practice of contracting out to professional studio musicians . Scott Nicholls played drums , Ben White played guitar , Alistair Wood played keyboard instruments and Rumble 's brother Josh played bass . White and Wood had previously played music with Fast Crew . The band spent three months recording the album 's music ; drums were recorded at York Street Studio , Auckland , while the remainder of the recording took place at Beaver Studios , Auckland . Rumble co @-@ produced The Experiment with Jonathan Campbell , who also engineered the record . Rumble said he put a lot of time and effort into the album ; " I really wanted to write a world class record , I didn 't want to come out with some half @-@ pie thing . "
= = Composition = =
The Experiment is a pop rock album , featuring guitar and synth riffs , and incorporates elements of dance @-@ pop , pop rap and power pop . Some parts of the album contain auto @-@ tuned vocals , and the record has been described as having an " international " feel . Rumble said that this was because he and Campbell made sure that the album " sounded big [ so that ] it could compete on the world stage " . Thematically , The Experiment is " about love , heartbreak , getting what he wants and knowing he is in charge of his own destiny " , although " Let You Down " is " quite dark and weighty " . Many of the song 's discuss Rumble 's own life experiences ; some are reflective while others " just try to get other people enthused about what they 're doing with their lives " . " Always Be Here " discusses maintaining a romantic relationship while constantly travelling , and " What Are You Waiting For ? " is " about being motivated and assessing your own life , which is exactly what happened to [ Rumble ] " .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 26 March 2010 , Rumble performed a free album launch concert at the Sky Tower in Auckland . The Experiment was released in New Zealand on 29 March 2010 by Rumble Music — Rumble 's own record label — and Warner Music New Zealand . An Australian release followed on 1 April 2011 , by Rumble Music and Hussle Recordings . Rumble embarked on The Edge Winter Jam : The Experiment Tour . Sponsored by radio station The Edge , it also featured appearances by J.Williams , Kidz in Space and Ivy Lies ; it was later announced that American rapper B.o.B would join the line @-@ up . The tour commenced on 15 July 2010 at Telstra Events Centre , Auckland . The second stop was at TSB Bank Arena , Wellington on 16 July , while the final show was on 17 July at Christchurch 's Westpac Arena . The Wellington and Christchurch dates were rescheduled ; the shows were originally booked for 8 and 9 July , respectively .
= = = Singles = = =
" Always Be Here " was released on 16 February 2009 , becoming Rumble 's debut solo single . It peaked at number thirteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified gold by the RIANZ in December 2009 . It also entered the ARIA Dance Chart at number nineteen . On 16 December 2009 " Don 't Know What to Do " was released , which reached number ten on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was also certified gold .
" Cruel " became the third single from The Experiment on 23 November 2009 . A version of the song featuring a rapped interlude was released the same day , and is used in its music video . Reaching number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart and receiving a platinum certification from the RIANZ , " Cruel " became Rumble 's most commercially successful single . Following the album 's release " Everything ( Take Me Down ) " was released on 12 April 2010 ; it peaked at number twenty on the New Zealand Singles Chart . " What Are You Waiting For ? " was released on 30 August 2010 as The Experiment 's final single , but failed to chart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Jacqueline Smith of The New Zealand Herald gave The Experiment four out of five stars , and praised its mainstream appeal and the variation within the album . Rip It Up 's Matt Ruys awarded The Experiment four out of five stars , calling it " arguably one of the best New Zealand male pop records of the new millenium " . The Press ' Vicki Anderson wrote , " This is one experiment that seems to have worked out for Dane Rumble " . Kristin Macfarlane from the Bay of Plenty Times was very favourable in her review of the album , and lauded its catchy tunes . She noted that many radio @-@ friendly songs become repetitive , however that does not apply to those on The Experiment . Conversely , The Nelson Mail 's Nick Ward gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , dismissing the radio @-@ friendly nature of the album and describing it as " chart fodder " . Simon Sweetman of The Dominion Post gave The Experiment one star out of five and wrote , " This [ album ] will be shoved down people 's faces as being great new music from New Zealand and it 's not . It 's horrible . "
The Experiment was nominated in four categories at the 2010 New Zealand Music Awards : Album of the Year , Breakthrough Artist of the Year , Best Male Solo Artist and Best Pop Album . It won the award for Best Male Solo Artist , while Gin Wigmore 's Holy Smoke took out the other three categories .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Experiment debuted atop the New Zealand Albums Chart on 5 April 2010 , replacing Lady Gaga 's The Fame Monster . In its second charting week it slipped to number three , with Slash 's self @-@ titled album taking the number one spot , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) on 11 April 2010 , denoting shipments of 7 @,@ 500 units . The album 's last week in the chart was on 30 August 2010 , having lasted twenty weeks on the top forty chart , including four in the top ten .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The Experiment , adapted from Allmusic :
= María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar =
María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar ( 1976 – 15 November 2012 ) was a Mexican physician and politician of the Party of the Democratic Revolution ( PRD ) . From 2008 to 2011 , she served as mayor of Tiquicheo , a small town in the Mexican state of Michoacán . In spite of three failed assassination attempts during her tenure as mayor , Gorrostieta Salazar continued to be outspoken in the fight against organized crime . In a fourth attack , Gorrostieta Salazar was kidnapped and assassinated by suspected drug traffickers on 15 November 2012 . Michoacán is home to several violent drug trafficking organizations such as La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel .
= = Career = =
Gorrostieta Salazar was born in 1976 in Tiquicheo , a small town in the state of Michoacán , Mexico . She attended the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo in Morelia and earned a PhD in medicine .
She began her political career by joining the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) , and from 2008 to 2011 , she served as the mayor of Tiquicheo . While in office , she survived three assassination attempts . She ran for the Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Union , but she did not get elected and returned to her office as mayor . After some differences with the PRI , which had urged her to resign , Gorrostieta Salazar left the party and joined the Party of the Democratic Revolution ( PRD ) in August 2010 . She said her Catholic faith influenced her approach to her duties as a politician . She has been described as a " heroine of the 21st century " for her opposition to Mexico 's drug cartels and for refusing to take bribes .
She had three children with her first husband , José Sánchez Chávez . After he was killed in the October 2009 attack , Gorrostieta Salazar later married Nereo Patiño Delgado .
= = Assassination attempts = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2008 , Gorrostieta Salazar was elected mayor of Tiquicheo . Several drug trafficking organizations , particularly the La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel , are based in the area . Michoacán is a leading producer of marijuana and opium poppy , making it a lucrative route for smugglers taking narcotics into the United States . Despite receiving threats , Gorrostieta Salazar publicly denounced the activities of these groups . The drug cartels , which are constantly fighting each other for territorial control , often target mayors who confront them . Other mayors , however , are corrupted and bribed by the cartels . Mexico has more than 2 @,@ 500 municipalities , many of which are far from the capital cities and lack amenities available in other parts of the country . Many of these areas are plagued with drug @-@ related violence , so the political parties have faced difficulties finding people interested in holding the post of mayor .
It was in Michoacán that Felipe Calderón launched the country 's first military @-@ led operation in the ongoing drug war , just ten days after he took office on 11 December 2006 . The military campaign spread to other states in Mexico , eventually including over 50 @,@ 000 federal agents . After years of past administrations taking a passive stance against the drug cartels , Calderón had decided it was time for the government to " flex its muscles . " Violence exploded in Michoacán and across the country , leaving a death toll of about 60 @,@ 000 ( perhaps even more than 100 @,@ 000 ) in six years . Numerous journalists and mayors have been killed since the start of the drug war , and some members of the Mexican Armed Forces and the Federal police have been accused of human rights abuses and causing forced disappearances . The organized crime groups have diversified their criminal agendas , no longer focusing solely on drug trafficking ; many of them operate kidnapping rings and extortion and protection rackets , and engage in piracy , and human trafficking . The cartels in Michoacán force the local population to pay for " protection " , spy , and report suspicious activities and law enforcement presence .
Calderón argued that if he had not acted , Mexico would have become a " narco @-@ state , " where the drug trafficking organizations impose law at their will . " I am sure that the Mexicans of tomorrow will remember these days as the moment when the country took the decision to defend itself , with all its force , against a voracious criminal phenomenon of translational dimensions , " Calderón said on 20 November 2012 at a ceremony for fallen soldiers . His successor , Enrique Peña Nieto , has pledged to continue the fight , but plans to adjust the strategy to reduce the level of violence .
= = = 2009 attacks = = =
In January 2008 , three months after Gorrostieta Salazar took office , she and her husband were travelling near the rural community of Las Mojarras when an automobile ran them off the road . In that incident , the gunmen only threatened Gorrostieta Salazar by shooting in the air and warning her to resign " before it was too late . " On 16 January 2009 , in the rural area of El Limón de Papatzindán , the couple was attacked by armed assailants and received minor injuries that did not prevent them from continuing their public lives . The next attack occurred on 15 October 2009 , when Gorrostieta Salazar was ambushed while driving through El Limón de Papatzindán with her husband . A group of armed men opened fire on Sánchez Chávez when he left the vehicle to make a phone call . Gorrostieta Salazar ran to protect her husband and was shot as well . Sánchez Chávez died that day from three gunshot wounds , but Gorrostieta Salazar survived because the gunmen believed she was dead .
A few months later , Gorrostieta Salazar announced that she was still willing to work and returned to her duties as mayor . By then , she contacted the leaders of the PRI to ask for protection , but she encountered difficulties , including unanswered phone calls .
= = = 2010 attack = = =
On 23 January 2010 , Gorrostieta Salazar was attacked by armed men in Ciudad Altamirano , Guerrero , while returning from a local event with four other people . Severely injured by bullet wounds in the abdomen , chest , and leg , she was taken to a local hospital . Also injured were the driver of the vehicle , who was shot twice ; Marbella Reyes Ortoño , head of the Institute of Women in Tiquicheo ; and Fanny Almazán Gómez , a journalist from El Sol de Morelia . In addition to the bullet wounds , Gorrostieta Salazar suffered further injuries when the vehicle crashed after the shooting . Her wounds left her in constant pain and she had to use a colostomy bag , but she refused to resign her post as mayor . She publicly displayed her wounds in photographs published in an issue of Contacto Ciudadano magazine , and repeated her statement that she would continue her work .
" I wanted to show you my wounded , mutilated , humiliated body because I am not ashamed of it , because it is the result of the misfortunes that have marked my life ... it is the living testimony that I am a whole and strong woman , who , despite my physical and mental wounds , continues standing . "
Gorrostieta Salazar left the PRI and joined the PRD in August 2010 , stating that the PRI had not supported her after the attacks . She ran for election to the National Congress with the PRD , but failed to get elected . At the end of her term as mayor , Gorrostieta Salazar retired from politics . She returned to private life , remarried , and dedicated her time to raise her three children : Malusi , José , and Deysi . Her police protection came to an end when her mayoral term expired in 2011 .
= = Assassination = =
On 12 November 2012 , Gorrostieta Salazar was driving her daughter to school in Morelia at around 8 : 30 a.m. when a vehicle ran them off the road . Two armed men descended from their vehicle and forced her out of her car as onlookers watched . Gorrostieta Salazar pleaded with her abductors to let her daughter go unharmed , and then agreed to go with the kidnappers . The family of the former mayor initially thought it was a ransom kidnapping . After not hearing from Gorrostieta Salazar or her abductors for two days , they notified the police . On 15 November , police identified the body after farm workers from the rural community of San Juan Tararameo in Cuitzeo found the corpse on their way to work .
Post @-@ mortem reports indicated that she died of a traumatic brain injury , the result of severe blows to the head . The governor of Michoacán said that organized crime was undoubtedly involved . Gorrostieta Salazar was buried alongside her husband José Sánchez Chávez in a tomb at a local cemetery in Tiquicheo , her hometown .
= Rock Lee =
Rock Lee ( Japanese : ロック ・ リー , Hepburn : Rokku Rī ) is a fictional character in the anime and manga series Naruto created by Masashi Kishimoto . Kishimoto considers Lee his favorite character to draw , and at first designed Lee to symbolize human weakness . In the anime and manga , Lee is a ninja affiliated with the village of Konohagakure , and is a member of Team Guy , which consists of himself , Neji Hyuga , Tenten , and Might Guy — the team 's leader . Unable to use most ninja techniques , Lee dedicates himself to using solely taijutsu , ninja techniques similar to martial arts . Lee dreams of becoming a " splendid ninja " despite his inabilities . Lee has appeared in several pieces of Naruto media , including the third and fourth featured films in the series , the third original video animation , and multiple video games .
Numerous anime and manga publications have commented on Lee 's character . IGN compared Lee to Bruce Lee and Noel Gallagher , and Anime News Network called Lee the " goofiest looking character " in the series . Among the Naruto reader base , Lee has been popular , placing high in several popularity polls . Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released in Lee 's likeness , including figurines and plush dolls .
= = Creation and conception = =
In an interview in Weekly Shōnen Jump 's Naruto Anime Profiles Episodes 1 @-@ 37 , Masashi Kishimoto stated that he enjoys drawing Lee more than any other character in the series . When designing Lee 's appearance , Kishimoto intended to have Lee wield a variety of weapons , including nunchaku ; however , due to time constraints while creating the series , he was unable to do so . Kishimoto has noted that he originally designed Lee to symbolize human weakness ; Kishimoto 's design of Sakura Haruno was also intended to carry the same symbolism . Kishimoto was surprised by Lee 's popularity within fans . He intended to write more about him but the timing was never right .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Rock Lee is a ninja from Konohagakure part of Team Guy , a four @-@ man cell of ninja led by Might Guy . Inspired by Lee 's determination to become stronger despite his inability to perform basic ninja techniques , Guy takes a personal interest in him , deciding to help him achieve his dream of becoming a powerful ninja by using only taijutsu that is primary hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . This relationship with Guy causes Lee to acquire many of Guy 's traits . Lee believes he can surpass the natural talents of others through hard work and passion ; throughout the series , he attempts to surpass Neji Hyuga , who is labeled a " genius " . Lee first appears in the series as a participant in the Chunin Exams , twice a year exams for ninja who wish to increase their rank . During the Chunin Exams , Lee battles Gaara , a ninja from the village of Sunagakure . In the fight , Lee uses the eight chakra gates , limits on the body 's ability to use chakra , increasing his natural abilities at the cost of his health . Despite his effort , Gaara cripples Lee by crushing his left arm and leg , injuring Lee to the point that he must abandon being a ninja .
When Tsunade , a Konohagakure medical ninja , returns to lead the village as the Fifth Hokage , she offers to operate on him . Despite the procedure 's fifty percent chance of failure , Guy encourages Lee to have the operation . Ultimately , Lee undergoes the surgery , which succeeds in healing his arm and leg . Immediately after the operation , Lee follows a team of ninja led by Shikamaru Nara who attempt to stop Sasuke Uchiha from defecting from Konohagakure to the village of Otogakure . Lee battles the Otogakure ninja Kimimaro through using the Potion Punch ( 酔拳 , Suiken , literally " Drunken Fist " , English TV : " Loopy Fist " ) fighting style in which he becomes inebriated with unpredictable attacks . When Kimimaro is on the verge of defeating Lee , Gaara intervenes , continuing the battle .
In Part II , Lee obtains the rank of Chunin , and is dispatched with his team to help save Gaara following his abduction by the criminal organization Akatsuki . During the events of the Fourth Shinobi War Lee is assigned to the Third Division , Lee helps in fighting the Kabuto Yakushi 's reanimated army and later aids Naruto in the fight against Obito Uchiha and Madara Uchiha . Years after the war , Lee marries an unknown woman and has a son named Metal Lee . In the epilogue , Lee is last seen many years later , training with his son . In Boruto : Naruto the Movie , Lee hosts the third stage of the Chunin Exam .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Lee has made several appearances outside of the Naruto anime and manga . In the third featured film in the series , Naruto the Movie 3 : The Animal Riot of Crescent Moon Island , Lee acts as a member of Team 7 for the duration of the film . In the fourth film , which is set in Part II , Naruto Uzumaki , Sakura Haruno , Neji Hyuga , and Lee are assigned to escort the maiden Shion , who needs to perform a ritual to seal a demonic army . Lee also appears in the third original video animation , participating in a tournament .
Lee is a playable character in nearly every Naruto video game , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he utilizes variations of his techniques not seen in the anime or manga . Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX marks his first appearance in a video game set in Part II . Rock Lee is also the main character of a spin @-@ off manga by Kenji Taira that follows his training in comical misadventures . The manga was adapted into an anime series titled Rock Lee and his Ninja Pals .
= = Reception = =
Lee has ranked highly in the Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series , initially continuously placing in top ten and reaching fifth place once . In later polls , Lee lost his top ten status . In an interview , Brian Donovan , the voice actor for Rock Lee in the English adaptation of the anime , commented that he likes Lee because he felt he was attempting to be a " knight in shining armor but bumbling and stumbling at the same time " . Due to the popularity Lee garnered over the course of the series , Kishimoto tends to place him towards the front of promotional artwork in which he appears . Also , several pieces of merchandise based on Lee have also been released , including action figures of his Part I and Part II appearances , plush dolls , and keychains .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other media have provided commentary on Lee 's character . IGN 's A.E. Sparrow called Lee one of his favorite characters in the series and compared his personality to that of Bruce Lee and Noel Gallagher . Fellow editor Ramsey Isler ranked him as the eight best character on the series and said he " was the true underdog of the series . " Isler added , " Perhaps a little too intense , but always fiercely devoted to his cause , Rock Lee added all sorts of flavor to the series . " However , Rock Lee 's profile on IGN describes him as " kind of stiff " because of his very polite demeanor . Active Anime celebrated Lee 's introduction in the series as a comedic relief to the growing tension of the story at that point . Anime Insider listed him in their top five list for " pure @-@ hearted heroes " from anime and manga publications , ranking at number five . Insider praised him for " never [ giving ] up , even in the face of people with actual ninja powers . "
Anime News Network referred to Lee as the " star of [ the Chunin Exam arc ] " , and claimed that he " almost single @-@ handedly rescues this arc from being tossed into the ' entertaining but disposable ' bin " . His fight against Gaara in the exams was listed as second best one in anime by AnimeCentral . Anime News Network also called Lee the " goofiest looking character " in the series and praised Kishimoto 's " ninja @-@ punk visual sensibilities " that allowed him to make Lee " damn cool when the action starts " . In the NEO Awards 2007 from Neo , Rock Lee won in the category " Best Anime Character " . He was also listed as one of the three " Honorable Mentions " from Naruto by Wizard Entertainment 's Danica Davidson with comments from the article being focused on Lee 's determination .
= Interstate 195 ( New Jersey ) =
Interstate 195 ( abbreviated I @-@ 195 ) is an auxiliary route of the Interstate Highway System located in the U.S. state of New Jersey . Its western end is at I @-@ 295 and Route 29 just south of Trenton , New Jersey in Hamilton Township , Mercer County while its eastern end is at the Garden State Parkway , Route 34 and Route 138 in Wall Township . I @-@ 195 is 34 @.@ 17 miles ( 54 @.@ 99 km ) in length . The route is mostly a four @-@ lane highway that runs through wooded areas in the center of New Jersey . It has an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) at Exit 7A in Robbinsville Township and serves as a main access road to Six Flags Great Adventure ( which is off the CR 537 exit in Jackson Township ) and the Jersey Shore . I @-@ 195 is occasionally referred to as the Central Jersey Expressway . On April 6 , 1988 , President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming Interstate 195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway , in honor of the late James J. Howard .
The current I @-@ 195 was initially planned as a toll road called the Trenton @-@ Asbury Park Expressway in the 1950s . In the 1960s , the road became part of the proposed Route 37 and Route 38 freeways that were to cross the central part of the state . A compromise between these two freeways was planned between Trenton and Belmar and would get Interstate Highway funding , becoming I @-@ 195 . This freeway was built in several stages during the 1970s and 1980s . Between 2005 and 2015 , a plan existed to extend the I @-@ 195 designation west to the planned interchange between the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) and I @-@ 95 in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania . Under this plan , I @-@ 195 would have followed present I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 295 to the north of Trenton . It was instead decided to extend the I @-@ 295 designation west and south , along existing I @-@ 95 , to the new interchange .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
I @-@ 195 's western terminus is at a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 295 in Hamilton Township , Mercer County , located southeast of the city of Trenton . From this end , the freeway continues north into Trenton as Route 29 . I @-@ 195 serves as the southern continuation of Route 29 , continuing east from I @-@ 295 as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing between suburban neighborhoods to the north and the Crosswicks Creek to the south . After the exit for US 206 , the highway narrows to four lanes and turns northeast as it interchanges with CR 524 and CR 620 . Following this , I @-@ 195 passes near more neighborhoods and runs to the northwest of Gropp Lake before turning more to the east . The route has a cloverleaf interchange with Yardville @-@ Hamilton Square Road before passing near business parks and reaching a cloverleaf junction with US 130 . After US 130 , the road enters Robbinsville Township as the settings start to become more rural , with a few areas of suburban development . In Robbinsville Township , there is a ramp that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) . Shortly after passing over the New Jersey Turnpike , I @-@ 195 reaches the exit for CR 526 . The highway runs to the north of Allentown before briefly forming the border between Robbinsville Township to the north and Upper Freehold Township , Monmouth County to the south as it reaches the interchange with CR 524 / CR 539 .
= = = Monmouth and Ocean counties = = =
Upon passing under CR 524 / CR 539 , I @-@ 195 fully enters Upper Freehold Township in Monmouth County and continues east through a mix of woodland and farmland . The next interchange the highway reaches is with CR 43 . Past this exit , the highway passes through more rural areas and crosses into Millstone Township . In this area , I @-@ 195 turns to the southeast and enters more forested areas as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange with CR 537 . This exit off I @-@ 195 provides access to Six Flags Great Adventure and the Jackson Premium Outlets . Due to the presence of Six Flags , this exit off I @-@ 195 can become busy during the summer months since it provides access to the park from both the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway , which lies just east of I @-@ 195 's eastern terminus . Upon crossing CR 537 , the highway enters Jackson Township in Ocean County and continues east through heavy woods . The road comes to an exit with CR 527 , where there is a park and ride lot for motorists . The median of I @-@ 195 widens past the CR 527 junction before narrowing as it comes to the CR 638 interchange . The road runs through more woodland , with nearby residential development increasing .
After crossing the North Branch Metedeconk River , I @-@ 195 continues into Howell Township , Monmouth County and turns northeast , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with US 9 . At this point , the road turns east again and soon heads back into dense woods . After crossing the Manasquan River , the expressway interchanges with CR 547 , which provides access to CR 524 and CR 549 . Shortly after CR 547 , I @-@ 195 enters Wall Township and passes through Allaire State Park . The eastern end of I @-@ 195 is located at Exit 35 , its junction with Route 34 that has access to the southbound Garden State Parkway from the eastbound direction . At the exit for Route 34 , I @-@ 195 ends and Route 138 begins , but the highway and exit numbering continue onto Route 138 , marking the interchange with the Garden State Parkway as Exit 36 . Past this interchange , Route 138 continues east to Belmar on the Jersey Shore as an arterial boulevard , making connections with Route 18 and Route 35 .
= = History = =
What would become I @-@ 195 was first proposed in the late 1950s as a toll road called the Trenton @-@ Asbury Park Expressway that was to be operated by the New Jersey Highway Authority , the owner of the Garden State Parkway at the time . In 1965 , this road would be incorporated into a planned Central Jersey Expressway System . The western portion would become a part of the Route 37 freeway that was to run from Trenton to Seaside Heights while the eastern portion would become a part of the Route 38 freeway that was to run from Camden to Belmar . The two freeways were to meet near Fort Dix . By 1967 , plans for the Route 38 freeway were canceled , leaving Route 37 as the only planned east @-@ west freeway through central New Jersey . The routing of this freeway , which was to be called the Central Jersey Expressway , was changed to run from the Trenton area east to Wall Township In addition , officials pushed for Interstate Highway funding for the freeway , with funds to be diverted from the canceled I @-@ 278 in Union County . The proposed freeway would cost $ 60 million .
By 1970 , construction took place on the route between CR 539 near Allentown and CR 527 in Jackson Township . The portion of I @-@ 195 between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 527 was opened by 1973 and construction on the section between White Horse and the New Jersey Turnpike began . In 1979 , I @-@ 195 was completed east to Squankum . By 1983 , the length of I @-@ 195 was completed .
When it was planned , I @-@ 195 did not intersect I @-@ 95 at all ; it instead connected to I @-@ 295 at its west end . When I @-@ 95 was re @-@ routed to the New Jersey Turnpike after the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , I @-@ 195 was connected to I @-@ 95 . Since I @-@ 95 abruptly ends at I @-@ 295 and US 1 in Lawrence Township , motorists must take I @-@ 295 southbound to I @-@ 195 east in order to access I @-@ 95 / New Jersey Turnpike .
On April 6 , 1988 , President Ronald Reagan signed H.R. 4263 naming I @-@ 195 in New Jersey the James J. Howard Interstate Highway , in honor of the late James J. Howard , a U.S. Representative from New Jersey who advocated improving the highways of the United States . In the late 1990s , the New Jersey Department of Transportation considered the possibility of widening I @-@ 195 to six lanes between the New Jersey Turnpike and CR 537 in order to accommodate traffic going to Six Flags Great Adventure . The interchange with CR 537 was improved in 1997 by adding separate ramps to westbound and eastbound CR 537 from I @-@ 195 and by making the westbound ramp two lanes for Six Flags traffic .
I @-@ 195 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar powered emergency call boxes every 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . With the advent of cell phones , the call boxes saw limited use . To save on maintenance costs , the NJDOT removed the call boxes in 2005 .
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the performances , scenes of Rihanna and her team are shown choosing the artwork for Talk That Talk , as well as Rihanna preparing for her appearance on Ellen DeGeneres Show . She also discusses the breakdown she had during the tour . After the interlude , the singer is back on the stage wearing a yellow dress , performing " Unfaithful " on a platform . Then , she sings " Hate That I Love You " while sitting on a chair and then " California King Bed " as the last song from the set . Scenes of Rihanna having fun with her fans and making a birthday party for her manager Jay Brown is shown . Scenes of the singer in Madrid , one week before Christmas are shown ; she takes a tour in the bus with which they are traveling around Europe . Rihanna is then shown getting ready for the show before starting to perform " What 's My Name ? " in daisy duke accompanied with four female dancers . She performs " Rude Boy " and is accompanied with male dancers wearing colorful outfits . Before performing " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " she takes a shot of a drink . The set is followed with " Don 't Stop the Music " and finishes with Rihanna performing " Take a Bow " together with the audience . Before the encore starts , scenes of Rihanna preparing for the show are shown . She is arguing with the tour director how the set should arranged , because she wants to add " We Found Love " to it . She then rehearses for the choreography of the latter song alongside with her dancers and explains how she learned the whole dance for 30 minutes . Her choreographer Tunisha praises and calls her " a dope " . Then , the last set starts with a man who wears glasses performing on a piano . Rihanna then emerges and sits on the top of it . At one point of the performance the piano started levitating and when the songs ends the piano is again on the background . The music then transitions to " Umbrella " ; the performance features golden drops on the LED screens . Loud Tour Live at the O2 finishes with Rihanna performing " We Found Love " as the final song ; the end of the performance features red confetti flying around .
= = Commercial performance = =
Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 12 on the Flemish Belgian Music DVD Chart for the week dated December 22 , 2012 . The next weak it climbed six places to number six . On January 19 , 2013 , the album reached its peak on the chart at number three . On the Wallonian Belgian Music DVD Chart , the album debuted at number three for the week dated December 29 , 2012 . After three weeks on the chart , it reached its peak of number two on January 19 , 2013 . The release also peaked at number three on the Swiss Music DVD Chart and number seven on the Dutch Music DVD Chart . For the last week of December 2012 , Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 12 on the Czech Music DVD Chart . The following week it stayed on the same position , while in the second week of January 2013 , it peaked at number six . In the last week of January it reached its peak of number five on the chart . The DVD debuted at peaked at number eighton the UK Music Video Chart and number nine on the Irish Music DVDs Chart . The album was more successful in France where debuted and peaked at number two on the French Music DVD Chart . Loud Tour Live at the O2 debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Music Video Sales chart which was also its peak . Additionally , it peaked at number eight on the Australian Music DVD Chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the ending notes of Loud Tour Live at the O2 , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= If It 's Lovin ' that You Want =
" If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her debut studio album Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) . It was written by Samuel Barnes , Scott La Rock , Makeba Riddick , Jean @-@ Claude Oliver , Lawrence Parker , and produced by Poke & Tone . It was released on September 13 , 2005 , as the second and final single from the album . The lyrics revolve around " basically telling a guy , ' If it 's lovin ' that you want , you should make me your girl because I 've got what you need " .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom praised and criticised Rihanna 's vocal performance ; its composition was also complimented . " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " achieved moderate success around the world , reaching the top forty in few European countries , while reaching the top ten in Australia , Ireland and New Zealand . In the United States , the song failed to match the commercial success of Rihanna 's previous single , " Pon de Replay " , peaking at number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It managed , however , to reach number nine on the Pop Songs chart . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Marcus Raboy , was shot on a beach in California , and features the singer enjoying various activities , such as dancing and riding jet skis with her friends .
= = Background and composition = =
Following the release and commercial success of " Pon de Replay " , the lead single from Music of the Sun and Rihanna 's debut in the music industry , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " was released as the second single from the album . In an interview with MTV News , Rihanna explained the lyrical meaning behind the song , saying " The song is basically telling a guy , ' If it 's lovin ' that you want , you should make me your girl because I 've got what you need " . A sequel to the song entitled " If It 's Lovin ' That You Want – Part 2 " , which features rap vocals by Cory Gunz , was included as a bonus track on Rihanna 's sophomore album , A Girl Like Me ( 2006 ) . The song was written by Samuel Barnes , Scott LaRock , Makeba Riddick , Jean @-@ Claude Oliver , Lawrence Parker and was produced by the latter two under their production name , Poke & Tone of Trackmasters . According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " is written in the key of A @-@ flat major and is set in common time with a moderate dance goove with a metronome of 98 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of G5 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics , who both praised and criticised Rihanna 's vocal performance . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that although the singer provides " simple , pleasant vocals " , her voice sounds " too light " and " thin " . Lamb continued to comment about the song , writing that although the song is " pleasurable " and " summery " to listen to and is not " offensive " , it fails to re @-@ capture the " killer hook of ' Pon de Replay ' " . However , A. Vishnu of The Hindu had contrasting opinions with regard to Rihanna 's vocal performance , writing the song further " exposes her versatility and vocal range " . A reviewer for Billboard praised the song 's composition and beat , writing " [ ' If It 's Lovin ' that You Want ' ] reinforces Rihanna 's tropical reggae signature with an itchy hook that , albeit monotonous , cannot miss . " A reviewer of Take40 and Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times were brief in their reviews of " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " , with the former writing that the song is more " low @-@ key " compared to Rihanna 's previous release , " Pon de Replay " , and the latter simply writing that it is a " pretty good " song .
= = Chart performance = =
" If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " failed to match the commercial success of Rihanna 's previous single , " Pon de Replay " , only peaking within the top ten of three national charts . In the United States , the song debuted at ninety six on October 22 , 2005 and managed to peak at number 36 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on December 31 , 2005 , and number 99 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on October 29 , 2005 . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at number 9 on February 6 , 2006 . The song fell one position the following week to number ten , but managed to peak at number 9 again in its third week . In total , the song spent two non @-@ consecutive weeks at number 9 and fourteen weeks on the chart . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number 12 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 19 , 2005 . During " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " ' s first four weeks of charting , it fluctuated in the top twenty , but managed to peak at number 9 in its fifth week for one week . In total , the song spent 12 weeks on the chart .
In Europe , " If It 's Lovin ' that You Want " debuted on the Austrian Singles Chart at number 40 on December 16 , 2005 . During the song 's first five weeks on the chart , it struggled to stay inside the top forty , but in its sixth week , managed to peak at number 31 for one week , and spent a total of 11 weeks on the chart . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number 25 on December 18 , 2005 , and peaked at number 19 . The song spent a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In The Netherlands , the song debuted at number 76 on February 4 , 2006 , and peaked at number 13 the following week . The song spent a total of 7 weeks on the chart . In the Flanders region of Belgium , the song debuted at number 50 December 31 , 2005 , but dropped out of the chart the following week , but re @-@ entered the chart at number 38 on January 21 , 2006 , and peaked at number 25 the following week . The song spent a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 11 on December 10 , 2005 , and dropped out of the Official UK Top 40 after five weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the song was shot on a stretch of beach on the coast of California in Malibu and directed by Marcus Raboy . In an interview with MTV News , Rihanna spoke about the development of the shoot for the video , saying " The water was so cold ... but oh my gosh , we had so much fun ... We were bumping each other off the Jet Skis and just had a ball " . During the interview , the singer elaborated further upon the content of the video and the meaning behind it , saying " This video is about having fun , giving off the vibe of the Caribbean ... we did some mermaid @-@ looking stuff down on the sand ... and I 'm just [ performing ] to the camera as if it were my boyfriend . Now we 're going to do [ some scenes with ] the Tiki torches . It 's going to be incredible " . The dance routines in the video were choreographed by noted choreographer Fatima Robinson .
The video begins with scenes of Rihanna dancing and walking along the beach and riding jet ski 's with her friends during the first chorus and continues into the first verse . Halfway through the first verse , a new scene of the singer is introduced , where she is dancing on a platform with four other female dancers , wearing a " short , flowing white skirt and a cropped tee " , with the ocean as the backdrop behind her . During the second chorus , the previous scenes are intercut with each other , and continue into the second verse , where a new scene of the singer wearing a different outfit and lying on the beach , whilst also interacting with some male extras . For the third chorus , which is repeated twice , another new scene of Rihanna is shown with four other female dancers who belly dance in the middle of a Tiki torch circle during the night . The chorus is repeated for a final time , where scenes from throughout the video are intercut with each other .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= The Dark Knight ( film ) =
The Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero action film directed , produced , and co @-@ written by Christopher Nolan . Featuring the DC Comics character Batman , the film is the second part of Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy and a sequel to 2005 's Batman Begins , starring an ensemble cast including Christian Bale , Michael Caine , Heath Ledger , Gary Oldman , Aaron Eckhart , Maggie Gyllenhaal and Morgan Freeman . In the film , Bruce Wayne / Batman ( Bale ) , James Gordon ( Oldman ) and Harvey Dent ( Eckhart ) form an alliance to dismantle organised crime in Gotham City , but are menaced by a criminal mastermind known as the Joker ( Ledger ) who seeks to undermine Batman 's influence and create chaos .
Nolan 's inspiration for the film was the Joker 's comic book debut in 1940 , the 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke , and the 1996 series The Long Halloween , which retold Two @-@ Face 's origin . The nickname " the Dark Knight " was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in a story written by Bill Finger . The Dark Knight was filmed primarily in Chicago , as well as in several other locations in the United States , the United Kingdom , and Hong Kong . Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras to film some sequences , including the Joker 's first appearance in the film . The film is dedicated to Heath Ledger , who died on January 22 , 2008 , some months after the completed filming and six months before the film 's release , from a toxic combination of prescription drugs , leading to intense attention from the press and movie @-@ going public . Warner Bros. initially created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight , developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screenshots of Ledger as the Joker .
A co @-@ production of the United States and the United Kingdom , The Dark Knight was released on July 16 , 2008 in Australia , on July 18 , 2008 in North America , and on July 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . Considered by film critics to be one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever , the film received highly positive reviews and set numerous records during its theatrical run . The Dark Knight appeared on more critics ' top ten lists ( 287 ) than any other film of 2008 with the exception of WALL @-@ E , and more critics ( 77 ) named The Dark Knight the best film of 2008 than any other film released that year . With over $ 1 billion in revenue worldwide , it is the 25th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time , unadjusted for inflation . The film received eight Academy Award nominations ; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor . The Dark Knight Rises , the final film in the trilogy , was released on July 20 , 2012 .
= = Plot = =
A gang of criminals rob a Gotham City mob bank , double @-@ crossing and murdering each other until there is only one left : The Joker , who escapes with the money .
Batman , District Attorney Harvey Dent and Lieutenant Jim Gordon form an alliance to rid Gotham of organized crime . Bruce Wayne is impressed with Dent 's idealism and offers to support his career ; he believes that , with Dent as Gotham 's protector , he can give up being Batman and lead a normal life with Rachel Dawes — even though she and Dent are dating .
Mob bosses Sal Maroni , Gambol and the Chechen hold a videoconference with corrupt accountant Lau , who has taken their funds and fled to Hong Kong . The Joker interrupts , warns them that Batman is unhindered by the law , and offers to kill him in exchange for half of their money . Gambol puts a bounty on the Joker , but the Joker kills him instead and takes over his gang . The mob ultimately decides to take the Joker up on his offer .
Dent arrests the entire mob , while Batman finds Lau in Hong Kong and brings him back to Gotham to testify against them . The Joker threatens to keep killing people unless Batman reveals his identity , and starts by murdering Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and the judge presiding over the mob trial . The Joker also tries to kill Mayor Anthony Garcia , but Gordon sacrifices himself to stop the assassination . Dent learns that Rachel is the next target .
Bruce decides to reveal his secret identity . Before he can , however , Dent announces that he is Batman . Dent is taken into protective custody , but the Joker appears and attacks the convoy . Batman comes to Dent 's rescue and Gordon , who faked his death , arrests the Joker and is promoted to Commissioner . Rachel and Dent are escorted away by policemen on the mob 's payroll . Batman interrogates the Joker , who reveals that Rachel and Dent have been trapped in separate locations rigged with explosives . Batman races to save Rachel , while Gordon goes to save Dent . Batman arrives at the building , realizing that the Joker sent him to Dent 's location instead . Both buildings explode , killing Rachel and disfiguring half of Dent 's face . The Joker escapes the jail with Lau .
Coleman Reese , an accountant at Wayne Enterprises , deduces that Bruce is Batman and tries to go public with the information . After observing the unpredictability of the Joker , Maroni informs the Joker 's location to commissioner Gordon . The Joker sets fire to the mob 's money , burning Lau alive in the process and kills the Chechen . He then threatens to destroy a hospital unless someone kills Reese . Gordon orders the evacuation of all the hospitals in Gotham and goes to secure Reese . The Joker finds Harvey Dent in a hospital and manipulates him into seeking revenge for Rachel 's death . The Joker destroys the hospital and escapes with a busload of hostages . Dent goes on a killing spree based on a coin flip , targeting people he holds responsible for Rachel 's death . This includes two corrupt cop @-@ detectives ( Michael Wuertz and Anna Ramirez ) who worked for Maroni in kidnapping Dent and Rachel . While in car with Maroni , Dent kills his driver , which could have supposedly killed Maroni as well .
The Joker rigs two ferries with explosives ; one containing civilians and the other containing prisoners . He says that he will blow them both up by midnight , but will let one live if the passengers of anyone blows up the other . Batman finds the Joker with a sonar device that spies on the entire city , with the reluctant help of Lucius Fox . The passengers refuse to kill each other , and Batman apprehends the Joker after a fight . Before the police arrive to take the Joker into custody , he gloats that Gotham 's citizens will lose hope once Dent 's rampage becomes public knowledge .
Gordon arrives at the building where Rachel died , where Dent judges his fate , along with his own and Batman 's , by flipping a coin . He spares himself , shoots Batman , and tries to kill Gordon 's son . Batman , who was wearing body armor , tackles Dent off the building to his death . Batman persuades Gordon to preserve Dent 's heroic image by holding Batman responsible for the killing spree . As the police launch a manhunt for Batman , Gordon destroys the Bat @-@ signal , Fox watches as the sonar device self @-@ destructs , and Alfred Pennyworth burns a letter from Rachel about her choice to marry Dent .
= = Cast = =
Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman :
A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld as a bat @-@ masked vigilante hailed as its " Dark Knight " at night . Bale said he was confident in his choice to return in the role because of the positive response to his portrayal in Batman Begins . He continued training in the Keysi Fighting Method and performed many of his own stunts , but did not gain as much muscle as in the previous film because the new Batsuit allowed him to move with greater agility . Bale described Batman 's dilemma as whether " [ his crusade is ] something that has an end . Can he quit and have an ordinary life ? The kind of manic intensity someone has to have to maintain the passion and the anger that they felt as a child , takes an effort after a while , to keep doing that . At some point , you have to exorcise your demons . " He added , " Now you have not just a young man in pain attempting to find some kind of an answer , you have somebody who actually has power , who is burdened by that power , and is having to recognize the difference between attaining that power and holding on to it . " Bale felt Batman 's personality had been strongly established in the first film , so it was unlikely his character would be overshadowed by the villains , stating : " I have no problem with competing with someone else . And that 's going to make a better movie . "
Heath Ledger as The Joker :
A psychotic criminal mastermind portraying himself as an " agent of chaos " , who rises to dominant power by terrorizing Gotham and plunging it into anarchy . Before Ledger was confirmed for the role in July 2006 , Paul Bettany , Lachy Hulme , Adrien Brody , Steve Carell , and Robin Williams publicly expressed interest in it . However , Nolan had wanted to work with Ledger on a number of projects in the past ( including unsuccessfully approaching Ledger for the role of Batman in Batman Begins ) and was agreeable to Ledger 's chaotic interpretation of the character . When Ledger saw Batman Begins , he had realized a way to make the character work that was consistent with the film 's tone : he described his Joker as a " psychopathic , mass murdering , schizophrenic clown with zero empathy . " In the film , the Joker has a Glasgow smile , and his trademark chalk @-@ white skin and red lips are makeup rather than the result of chemical bleaching , as in the traditional portrayal of the character . Throughout the film , the Joker states his desire to upset social order through crime , and comes to define himself by his conflict with Batman . To prepare for the role , Ledger lived alone in a hotel room for a month , formulating the character 's posture , voice , and personality , and kept a diary , in which he recorded the Joker 's thoughts and feelings . While he initially found it difficult , Ledger eventually generated a voice unlike Jack Nicholson 's character in Tim Burton 's 1989 Batman film . He was also given Batman : The Killing Joke and Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth , which he " really tried to read and put it down . " Ledger also cited A Clockwork Orange and Sid Vicious as " a very early starting point for Christian [ Bale ] and I. But we kind of flew far away from that pretty quickly and into another world altogether . " " There 's a bit of everything in him . There 's nothing that consistent , " Ledger said , and added , " There are a few more surprises to him . " Ledger was allowed to shoot and mostly direct the videos the Joker sends out as warnings . Each take Ledger made was different from the last . Nolan was impressed enough with the first video shoot that he chose to not be present when Ledger shot the video with a kidnapped reporter ( Anthony Michael Hall ) . On January 22 , 2008 , after he had completed filming The Dark Knight , Ledger died of an accidental prescription drug overdose , leading to intense press attention and memorial tributes . " It was tremendously emotional , right when he passed , having to go back in and look at him every day [ during editing ] , " Nolan recalled . " But the truth is , I feel very lucky to have something productive to do , to have a performance that he was very , very proud of , and that he had entrusted to me to finish . " All of Ledger 's scenes appear as he completed them in the filming ; in editing the film , Nolan added no " digital effects " to alter Ledger 's actual performance posthumously . Nolan has dedicated the film in part to Ledger 's memory .
Gary Oldman as Lt. James Gordon :
A lieutenant in the Gotham City Police Department and one of the city 's few honest police officers , who forms a tenuous , unofficial alliance with Batman and Dent and is given the position of Police Commissioner by the city 's mayor following the recent commissioner 's assassination . Oldman described his character as " incorruptible , virtuous , strong , heroic , but understated . " Nolan explained that " The Long Halloween has a great , triangular relationship between Harvey Dent and Gordon and Batman , and that 's something we very much drew from . " Oldman added that " Gordon has a great deal of admiration for him at the end , but [ Batman ] is more than ever now the dark knight , the outsider . I 'm intrigued now to see : If there is a third one , what he 's going to do ? " On the possibility of another sequel , he said that " returning to [ the role ] is not dependent on whether the role was bigger than the one before . "
Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent :
Gotham 's district attorney , hailed as the city 's " White Knight " . Nolan and David S. Goyer had originally considered using Dent in Batman Begins , but they replaced him with the new character Rachel Dawes when they realized they " couldn 't do him justice . " Before Eckhart was cast in February 2007 , Liev Schreiber , Josh Lucas , and Ryan Phillippe had expressed interest in the role , while Mark Ruffalo auditioned . Matt Damon stated that he was considered for the role , but could not accept due to scheduling conflicts . Hugh Jackman was also considered for the part . Nolan chose Eckhart , whom he had considered for the lead role in Memento , citing his " extraordinary " ability as an actor , his embodiment of " that kind of chiselled , American hero quality " projected by Robert Redford , and his subtextual " edge . " Eckhart was " interested in good guys gone wrong , " and had played corrupt men in films such as The Black Dahlia , Thank You for Smoking , and In the Company of Men . Whereas Two @-@ Face is depicted as a crime boss in most characterizations , Nolan chose to portray him as a twisted vigilante to emphasize his role as Batman 's counterpart . Eckhart explained , " [ He ] is still true to himself . He 's a crime fighter , he 's not killing good people . He 's not a bad guy , not purely . " For Dent , Eckhart " kept on thinking about the Kennedys , " particularly Robert F. Kennedy , who was " idealistic , held a grudge and took on the Mob . " He had his hair lightened and styled to make him appear more dashing . Nolan told Eckhart to not make Dent 's Two @-@ Face persona " jokey with slurping sounds or ticks . "
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Rachel Dawes :
Gotham City 's assistant district attorney and Bruce 's childhood friend , who is one of the few people to know Batman 's true identity . Gyllenhaal took over the role from Katie Holmes , who played the part in Batman Begins . In August 2005 , Holmes was reportedly planning to reprise the role , but she eventually turned it down to do Mad Money with Diane Keaton and Queen Latifah . By March 2007 , Gyllenhaal was in " final talks " for the part . Gyllenhaal has acknowledged her character is a damsel in distress to an extent , but says Nolan sought ways to empower her character , so " Rachel 's really clear about what 's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals , which made a nice change " from the many conflicted characters whom she has previously portrayed .
Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth :
Bruce 's trusted butler and confidant , who supplies useful advice to Bruce and likeness as a father figure , leading him to be labeled " Batman 's batman " .
Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox :
The recently promoted CEO of Wayne Enterprises who , now fully aware of his employer 's double life , serves more directly as Bruce 's armorer for the Batsuit in addition to his corporate duties .
Monique Gabriela Curnen as Detective Anna Ramirez :
A cop in Gordon 's unit who starts working for the mob to pay her mother 's hospital bills . She betrays Rachel Dawes to the Joker .
Ron Dean as Detective Michael Wuertz :
A corrupt cop in Gordon 's unit who betrays Dent to the Joker .
Nestor Carbonell as Mayor Anthony Garcia :
The mayor of Gotham , who appoints Gordon Police Commissioner for saving his life and arresting the Joker .
Chin Han as Lau :
A corrupt Chinese LSI Holdings accountant at Wayne Enterprises secretly operating as a Triad boss in charge of money @-@ laundering deals for the mob .
Eric Roberts as Sal Maroni :
An Italian mafia boss who takes over Carmine Falcone 's mob . Bob Hoskins and James Gandolfini auditioned for the role .
Ritchie Coster as the Chechen :
A Chechen mafia boss in charge of drug @-@ trafficking for the mob .
Anthony Michael Hall as Mike Engel :
A Gotham Cable News reporter who is kidnapped from the destroyed hospital by the Joker and used to broadcast his plan for anarchy within Gotham .
Keith Szarabajka as Detective Gerard Stephens :
An honest cop in Gordon 's unit who the Joker holds captive during his escape from the police station .
Joshua Harto as Coleman Reese :
An M & A law accountant at Wayne Enterprises who deduces Bruce 's persona of Batman from Fox and plans to reveal it to Gotham on Gotham Cable News until the Joker threatens his life .
Melinda McGraw as Barbara Gordon :
Gordon 's wife , who is worried that her husband is risking his life in his war on crime .
Nathan Gamble as James Gordon , Jr . :
Gordon 's 10 @-@ year @-@ old son , whom Dent tries to kill to punish Gordon for Rachel 's death .
Michael Jai White as Gambol :
A Nigerian mafia boss in charge of illegal gambling and extortion for the mob . He places a bounty on the Joker , who kills him instead . David Banner auditioned for the role .
Colin McFarlane as Commissioner Gillian Loeb :
The Police Commissioner of Gotham until his murder at the hands of the Joker .
The film 's supporting cast include Nydia Rodriguez Terracina as Judge Janet Surrillo , and Tom " Tiny " Lister , Jr. as a prison inmate on one of the bomb @-@ rigged ferries . William Fichtner played the Gotham National Bank manager , and Cillian Murphy returns in a cameo as Dr. Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow , who is apprehended early on in the film by Batman .
Musician Dwight Yoakam was approached for the roles of either the manager or a corrupt cop , but he chose instead to focus on his album Dwight Sings Buck . United States Senator Patrick Leahy — a fan of Batman comics who was previously an extra in the 1997 film Batman & Robin and also was a guest voice actor on Batman : The Animated Series — appears as a guest at Bruce Wayne 's party . Matt Skiba , lead singer of Chicago punk band Alkaline Trio , made a small appearance in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Before the release of Batman Begins , screenwriter David S. Goyer wrote a treatment for two sequels which introduced the Joker and Harvey Dent . His original intent was for the Joker to scar Dent during the Joker 's trial in the third film , turning Dent into Two @-@ Face . Goyer , who penned the first draft of the film , cited the DC Comics 13 @-@ issue comic book limited series Batman : The Long Halloween as the major influence on his storyline . According to veteran Batman artist Neal Adams , he met with David Goyer in Los Angeles , and the story would eventually look to Adams and writer Denny O 'Neil 's 1971 story " The Joker 's Five @-@ Way Revenge " that appeared in Batman # 251 , in which O 'Neil and Adams re @-@ introduced the Joker . While initially uncertain of whether or not he would return to direct the sequel , Nolan did want to reinterpret the Joker on screen . On July 31 , 2006 , Warner Bros. officially announced initiation of production for the sequel to Batman Begins titled The Dark Knight ; it is the first live @-@ action Batman film without the word " Batman " in its title , which Bale noted as signaling that " this take on Batman of mine and Chris ' is very different from any of the others . "
After much research , Nolan 's brother and co @-@ writer , Jonathan , suggested the Joker 's first two appearances , published in the first issue of Batman ( 1940 ) , as the crucial influences . Christopher had Jonathan watch Fritz Lang 's 1933 crime film The Testament of Dr. Mabuse prior to writing the Joker , with the Joker resembling Mabuse 's characteristics . Christopher Nolan referred to Lang 's film as " essential research for anyone attempting to write a supervillain . " Jerry Robinson , one of the Joker 's co @-@ creators , was consulted on the character 's portrayal . Nolan decided to avoid divulging an in @-@ depth origin story for the Joker , and instead portray his rise to power so as to not diminish the threat he poses , explaining to MTV News , " the Joker we meet in The Dark Knight is fully formed ... To me , the Joker is an absolute . There are no shades of gray to him – maybe shades of purple . He 's unbelievably dark . He bursts in just as he did in the comics . " Nolan reiterated to IGN , " We never wanted to do an origin story for the Joker in this film , " because " the arc of the story is much more Harvey Dent 's ; the Joker is presented as an absolute . It 's a very thrilling element in the film , and a very important element , but we wanted to deal with the rise of the Joker , not the origin of the Joker . " Nolan suggested Batman : The Killing Joke influenced a section of the Joker 's dialogue in the film , in which he says that anyone can become like him given the right circumstances . Nolan also cited Heat as " sort of an inspiration " for his aim " to tell a very large , city story or the story of a city " : " If you want to take on Gotham , you want to give Gotham a kind of weight and breadth and depth in there . So you wind up dealing with the political figures , the media figures . That 's part of the whole fabric of how a city is bound together . "
According to Nolan , an important theme of the sequel is " escalation , " extending the ending of Batman Begins , noting " things having to get worse before they get better . " While indicating The Dark Knight would continue the themes of Batman Begins , including justice vs. revenge and Bruce Wayne 's issues with his father , Nolan emphasized the sequel would also portray Wayne more as a detective , an aspect of his character not fully developed in Batman Begins . Nolan described the friendly rivalry between Bruce Wayne and Harvey Dent as the " backbone " of the film . He also chose to compress the overall storyline , allowing Dent to become Two @-@ Face in The Dark Knight , thus giving the film an emotional arc the unsympathetic Joker could not offer . Nolan acknowledged the title was not only a reference to Batman , but also the fallen " white knight " Harvey Dent .
= = = Filming = = =
While scouting for shooting locations in October 2006 , location manager Robin Higgs visited Liverpool , concentrating mainly along the city 's waterfront . Other candidates included Yorkshire , Glasgow , and parts of London . In August 2006 , one of the film 's producers , Charles Roven , stated that its principal photography would begin in March 2007 , but filming was pushed back to April . For its release in IMAX theaters , Nolan shot four major sequences in that format , including the Joker 's opening bank robbery and the car chase midway through the film , which marked the first time that a feature film had been even partially shot in the format . The cameras used for non @-@ IMAX 35 mm scenes were Panavision 's Panaflex Millennium XL and Platinum .
For fifteen years Nolan had wanted to shoot in the IMAX format , and he also used it for " quiet scenes which pictorially we thought would be interesting . " The use of IMAX cameras provided many new challenges for the filmmakers : the cameras were much larger and heavier than standard cameras , and produced noise which made recording dialogue difficult . In addition , the cameras had short film loads ranging from 30 seconds to two minutes and the cost of the film stock was much greater than standard 35mm film . Nevertheless , Nolan said that he wished that it were possible to shoot the entire film in IMAX : " if you could take an IMAX camera to Mount Everest or outer space , you could use it in a feature movie . " In addition , Nolan chose to edit some of the IMAX sequences using the original camera negative , which by eliminating generation loss , raised the film resolution of those sequences up to 18 thousand lines .
Warner Bros. chose to film in Chicago for 13 weeks , because Nolan had a " truly remarkable experience " filming part of Batman Begins there . Instead of using the Chicago Board of Trade Building as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises , as Batman Begins did , The Dark Knight shows Wayne Enterprises as being headquartered in the Richard J. Daley Center . While filming in Chicago , the film was given the false title Rory 's First Kiss to lower the visibility of production , but the local media eventually uncovered the ruse . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented on the absurdity of the technique , " Is there a Bat @-@ fan in the world that doesn 't know Rory 's First Kiss is actually The Dark Knight , which has been filming in Chicago for weeks ? " Production of The Dark Knight in Chicago generated $ 45 million in the city 's economy and created thousands of jobs . For the film 's prologue involving the Joker , the crew shot in Chicago from April 18 , 2007 to April 24 , 2007 . They returned to shoot from June 9 , 2007 to early September . Noticeably , unlike Batman Begins , less CGI was used to disguise Chicago . Many recognizable locations were used in the film , like the Sears Tower , Navy Pier , 330 North Wabash , the James R. Thompson Center , Trump International Hotel and Tower , LaSalle Street , The Berghoff , Randolph Street Station , and Hotel 71 . An old Brach 's factory was used as Gotham Hospital . The defunct Van Buren Street post office doubles as Gotham National Bank for the opening bank robbery . Several sequences , including one car chase , were shot on the lower level of Wacker Drive . The Marina City towers also appear in the background throughout the movie .
Pinewood Studios , near London , was the primary studio space used for the production . While planning a stunt with the Batmobile in a special effects facility near Chertsey , England in September 2007 , technician Conway Wickliffe was killed when his car crashed . The film is dedicated to both Ledger and Wickliffe . The restaurant scene was filmed at the Criterion Restaurant in Piccadilly Circus , London .
The following month in London at the defunct Battersea Power Station , a rigged 200 @-@ foot fireball was filmed , reportedly for an opening sequence , prompting calls from local residents who feared a terrorist attack on the station . A similar incident occurred during the filming in Chicago , when an abandoned Brach 's candy factory ( which was Gotham Hospital in the film ) was demolished .
Filming took place in Hong Kong from November 6 to 11 , 2007 , at various locations in Central , including Hong Kong 's tallest building at the time , the International Finance Centre , for the scene where Batman captures Lau . The shoot hired helicopters and C @-@ 130 aircraft . Officials expressed concern over possible noise pollution and traffic . In response , letters sent to the city 's residents promised that the sound level would approximate noise decibels made by buses . Environmentalists also criticized the filmmakers ' request to tenants of the waterfront skyscrapers to keep their lights on all night to enhance the cinematography , describing it as a waste of energy . Cinematographer Wally Pfister found the city officials a " nightmare , " and ultimately Nolan had to create Batman 's jump from a skyscraper digitally .
= = = Design = = =
Costume designer Lindy Hemming described the Joker 's look as reflecting his personality , in that " he doesn 't care about himself at all " ; she avoided designing him as a vagrant , but still made him appear to be " scruffier , grungier , " so that " when you see him move , he 's slightly twitchier or edgy . " Nolan noted , " We gave a Francis Bacon spin to [ his face ] . This corruption , this decay in the texture of the look itself . It 's grubby . You can almost imagine what he smells like . " In creating the " anarchical " look of the Joker , Hemming drew inspiration from such countercultural pop culture artists as Pete Doherty , Iggy Pop , and Johnny Rotten . Ledger described his " clown " mask , made up of three pieces of stamped silicone , as a " new technology , " taking less than an hour for the make @-@ up artists to apply , much faster than more @-@ conventional prosthetics usually requires . Ledger also said that he felt he was barely wearing any make @-@ up .
Hemming and Ledger 's Joker design has had an impact in popular and political culture in the form of the Barack Obama " Joker " poster , and has since become a meme in its own right .
Designers improved on the design of the Batsuit from Batman Begins , adding wide elastic banding to help bind the costume to Bale , and suggest more sophisticated technology . It was constructed from 200 individual pieces of rubber , fiberglass , metallic mesh , and nylon . The new cowl was modeled after a motorcycle helmet and separated from the neck piece , allowing Bale to turn his head left and right and nod up and down . The cowl is equipped to show white lenses over the eyes when the character turns on his sonar detection , which gives Batman the white eyed look from the comics and animation . The gauntlets have retractable razors which can be fired . Though the new costume is eight pounds heavier , Bale found it more comfortable and not as hot to wear . The depiction of Gotham City is less gritty than in Batman Begins . " I 've tried to unclutter the Gotham we created on the last film , " said production designer Nathan Crowley . " Gotham is in chaos . We keep blowing up stuff , so we can keep our images clean . "
= = = Effects = = =
The film introduces the Batpod , which is a recreation of the Batcycle . Production designer Nathan Crowley , who designed the Tumbler for Batman Begins , designed six models ( built by special effects supervisor Chris Corbould ) for use in the film 's production , because of necessary crash scenes and possible accidents . Crowley built a prototype in Nolan 's garage , before six months of safety tests were conducted . The Batpod is steered by shoulder instead of hand , and the rider 's arms are protected by sleeve @-@ like shields . The bike has 508 @-@ millimeter ( 20 @-@ inch ) front and rear tires , and is made to appear as if it is armed with grappling hooks , cannons , and machine guns . The engines are located in the hubs of the wheels , which are set 31 ⁄ 2 feet ( 1067 mm ) apart on either side of the tank . The rider lies belly down on the tank , which can move up and down to dodge any incoming gunfire that Batman may encounter . Stuntman Jean @-@ Pierre Goy doubled for Christian Bale during the riding sequences in The Dark Knight . The Batpod was highly unstable for riding , and Goy was the only stuntman who could manage to balance the bike , even commenting that he had to " nearly un @-@ learn how to ride a motorcycle " to manage riding the Batpod . Bale did insist on doing shots on the Batpod himself , but was prohibited by the team fearing his safety .
Nolan designed Two @-@ Face 's appearance in the film as one of the least disturbing , explaining , " When we looked at less extreme versions of it , they were too real and more horrifying . When you look at a film like Pirates of the Caribbean – something like that , there 's something about a very fanciful , very detailed visual effect , that I think is more powerful and less repulsive . " Framestore created 120 computer @-@ generated shots of Two @-@ Face 's scarred visage . Nolan felt using make @-@ up would look unrealistic , as it adds to the face , unlike real burn victims . Framestore acknowledged they rearranged the positions of bones , muscles and joints to make the character look more dramatic . For each shot , three 720 @-@ pixel HD cameras were set up at different angles on set to fully capture Aaron Eckhart 's performance . Eckhart wore markers on his face and a prosthetic skullcap , which acted as a lighting reference . A few shots of the skullcap were kept in the film . Framestore also integrated shots of Bale and Eckhart into that of the exploding building where Dent is burned . It was difficult simulating fire on Eckhart because it is inherently unrealistic for only half of something to burn .
= = = Music = = =
Batman Begins composers Hans Zimmer and James Newton Howard returned to score the sequel . Composition began before shooting , and during filming Nolan received an iPod with ten hours of recordings . Their nine @-@ minute suite for the Joker , " Why So Serious ? , " is based around two notes . Zimmer compared its style to that of Kraftwerk , a band from his native Germany , as well as bands like The Damned . When Ledger died , Zimmer felt like scrapping and composing a new theme , but decided that he could not be sentimental and compromise the " evil [ Ledger 's performance ] projects . " Howard composed Dent 's " elegant and beautiful " themes , which are brass @-@ focused .
= = Marketing = =
In May 2007 , 42 Entertainment began a viral marketing campaign utilizing the film 's " Why So Serious ? " tagline with the launch of a website featuring the fictional political campaign of Harvey Dent , with the caption , " I Believe in Harvey Dent . " The site aimed to interest fans by having them try to earn what they wanted to see and , on behalf of Warner Bros. , 42 Entertainment also established a " vandalized " version of I Believe in Harvey Dent , called " I believe in Harvey Dent too , " where e @-@ mails sent by fans slowly removed pixels , revealing the first official image of the Joker ; it was ultimately replaced with many " Haha " s and a hidden message that said " see you in December . "
During the 2007 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , 42 Entertainment launched WhySoSerious.com , sending fans on a scavenger hunt to unlock a teaser trailer and a new photo of the Joker . On October 31 , 2007 , the film 's website morphed into another scavenger hunt with hidden messages , instructing fans to uncover clues at certain locations in major cities throughout the United States , and to take photographs of their discoveries . The clues combined to reveal a new photograph of the Joker and an audio clip of him from the film saying " And tonight , you 're gonna break your one rule . " Completing the scavenger hunt also led to another website called Rory 's Death Kiss ( referencing the false working title of Rory 's First Kiss ) , where fans could submit photographs of themselves costumed as the Joker . Those who sent photos were mailed a copy of a fictional newspaper called The Gotham Times , whose electronic version led to the discovery of numerous other websites .
The Dark Knight 's opening sequence , ( showing a bank raid by the Joker ) and closing montage of other scenes from the film , was screened with selected IMAX screenings of I Am Legend , which was released on December 14 , 2007 . A theatrical teaser was also released with non @-@ IMAX showings of I Am Legend , and also on the official website . The sequence was released on the Blu @-@ ray Disc edition of Batman Begins on July 8 , 2008 . Also on July 8 , 2008 , the studio released Batman : Gotham Knight , a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD animated film , set between Batman Begins and The Dark Knight and featuring six original stories , directed by Bruce Timm , co @-@ creator and producer of Batman : The Animated Series , and starring veteran Batman voice actor Kevin Conroy . Each of these segments , written by Josh Olson , David S. Goyer , Brian Azzarello , Greg Rucka , Jordan Goldberg , and Alan Burnett , presents its own distinctive artistic style , paralleling numerous artists collaborating in the same DC Universe .
After the death of Heath Ledger on January 22 , 2008 , Warner Bros. adjusted its promotional focus on the Joker , revising some of its websites dedicated to promoting the film and posting a memorial tribute to Ledger on the film 's official website and overlaying a black memorial ribbon on the photo collage in WhySoSerious.com. On February 29 , 2008 , I Believe in Harvey Dent was updated to enable fans to send their e @-@ mail addresses and phone numbers . In March 2008 , Harvey Dent 's fictional campaign informed fans that actual campaign buses nicknamed " Dentmobiles " would tour various cities to promote Dent 's candidacy for district attorney .
On May 15 , 2008 , Six Flags Great America and Six Flags Great Adventure theme parks opened The Dark Knight roller coaster , which cost US $ 7 @.@ 5 million to develop and which simulates being stalked by the Joker . Mattel produced toys and games for The Dark Knight , action figures , role play costumes , board games , puzzles , and a special @-@ edition UNO card game , which began commercial distribution in June 2008 .
Warner Bros. devoted six months to an anti @-@ infringement strategy that involved tracking the people who had a pre @-@ release copy of the film at any one time . Shipping and delivery schedules were also staggered and spot checks were carried out both domestically and overseas to ensure illegal copying of the film was not taking place in cinemas . An unlicensed copy was released on the web approximately 38 hours after the film 's release . BitTorrent search engine The Pirate Bay taunted the movie industry over its ability to provide the movie free , replacing its logo with a taunting message .
= = Release = =
Warner Bros. held the world premiere for The Dark Knight in New York City on July 14 , 2008 , screening in an IMAX theater with the film 's composers James Newton Howard and Hans Zimmer playing a part of the film score live . Leading up to The Dark Knight 's commercial release , the film had drawn " overwhelmingly positive early reviews and buzz on Heath Ledger 's turn as the Joker . " The Dark Knight was commercially released on July 16 , 2008 in Australia , grossing almost $ 2 @.@ 3 million in its first day .
In the United States and Canada , The Dark Knight was distributed to 4 @,@ 366 theaters , breaking the previous record for the highest number of theaters held by Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End in 2007 . The number of theaters also included 94 IMAX theaters , with the film estimated to be played on 9 @,@ 200 screens in the United States and Canada . Online , ticketing services sold enormous numbers of tickets for approximately 3 @,@ 000 midnight showtimes as well as unusually early showtimes for the film 's opening day . All IMAX theaters showing The Dark Knight were sold out for the opening weekend .
= = Reception = =
The movie was met with mostly positive reviews . Based on 314 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a 94 % approval rating from critics , with an average score of 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Dark , complex and unforgettable , The Dark Knight succeeds not just as an entertaining comic book film , but as a richly thrilling crime saga . " By comparison , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating in the 0 – 100 range based on reviews from top mainstream critics , calculated an average score of 82 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 39 reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade cinemagoers gave the film was " A " on an A + to F scale , and that audiences skewed slightly male and older .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , awarding four out of four stars , described The Dark Knight as a " haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy . " He praised the performances , direction , and writing , saying the film " redefine [ s ] the possibilities of the comic @-@ book movie . " Ebert stated that the " key performance " is by Heath Ledger , and pondered whether he would become the first posthumous Academy Award @-@ winning actor since Peter Finch in 1976 . ( Ledger ultimately won the Oscar . ) Ebert named it one of his twenty favorite films of 2008 . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone writes that the film is deeper than its predecessor , with a " deft " script that refuses to scrutinize the Joker with popular psychology , instead pulling the viewer in with an examination of Bruce Wayne 's psyche . Travers has praise for all the cast , saying each brings his or her " ' A ' game " to the film . He says Bale is " electrifying , " evoking Al Pacino in The Godfather Part II , that Eckhart 's portrayal of Harvey Dent is " scarily moving " , and that Oldman " is so skilled that he makes virtue exciting as Jim Gordon " . Travers says Ledger moves the Joker away from Jack Nicholson 's interpretation into darker territory , and expresses his support for any potential campaign to have Ledger nominated for an Academy Award , Travers says that the filmmakers move the film away from comic book cinema and closer to being a genuine work of art , citing Nolan 's direction and the " gritty reality " of Wally Pfister 's cinematography as helping to create a universe that has something " raw and elemental " at work within it . In particular , he cites Nolan 's action choreography in the IMAX @-@ tailored heist sequence as rivaling that of Heat ( 1995 ) . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote " Pitched at the divide between art and industry , poetry and entertainment , it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic @-@ book kind . " Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Every great hero needs a great villain . And in 2008 , Christian Bale 's Batman found his in Heath Ledger 's demented dervish , the Joker . " BBC critic Mark Kermode , in a positive review , said that Ledger is " very , very good " but that Oldman 's turn is " the best performance in the film , by a mile " ; Kermode felt Oldman was deserving of an Oscar nomination .
Emanuel Levy wrote Ledger " throws himself completely " into the role , and that the film represents Nolan 's " most accomplished and mature " work , and the most technically impressive and resonant of all the Batman films . Levy calls the action sequences some of the most impressive seen in an American film for years , and talks of the Hong Kong @-@ set portion of the film as being particularly visually impressive . Levy and Peter Travers conclude that the film is " haunting and visionary , " while Levy goes on to say that The Dark Knight is " nothing short of brilliant . " On the other hand , David Denby of The New Yorker said that the story is not coherent enough to properly flesh out the disparities . He said the film 's mood is one of " constant climax , " and that it feels rushed and far too long . Denby criticized scenes which he argued to be meaningless or are cut short just as they become interesting . Denby remarks that the central conflict is workable , but that " only half the team can act it , " saying that Bale 's " placid " Bruce Wayne and " dogged but uninteresting " Batman is constantly upstaged by Ledger 's " sinister and frightening " performance , which he says is the film 's one element of success . Denby concludes that Ledger is " mesmerising " in every scene . The vocalization of Christian Bale 's Batman ( which was partly altered during post @-@ production ) was the subject of particular criticism by some commentators , with David Edelstein from NPR describing Bale delivering his performance with " a voice that 's deeper and hammier than ever " . Alonso Duralde at MSNBC , however , referred to Bale 's voice in The Dark Knight as an " eerie rasp " , as opposed to the voice used in the Batman Begins , which according to Duralde " sounded absurdly deep , like a 10 @-@ year @-@ old putting on an ‘ adult ’ voice to make prank phone calls " .
The Dark Knight was ranked the 15th greatest film in history on Empire 's 2008 list of the " 500 Greatest Movies of All Time , " based upon the weighted votes of 10 @,@ 000 readers , 150 film directors , and 50 key film critics . Heath Ledger 's interpretation of the Joker was also ranked number three on Empire 's 2008 list of the " 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time . " In June 2010 , the Joker was ranked number five on Entertainment Weekly 's " 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years " . Paste magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) , ranking it at number 11 . In 2016 , Playboy ranked the film number five on its list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals . The Dark Knight was included in American Cinematographer 's " Best @-@ Shot Film of 1998 @-@ 2008 " list , ranking in the top 10 . More than 17 @,@ 000 people around the world participated in the final vote . In March 2011 , the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their eight favorite film of all time . On the March 22 , 2011 television special Best in Film : The Greatest Movies of Our Time , The Dark Knight was voted the second best action film while the Joker , as portrayed by Ledger , was voted the third greatest film character . In 2012 , Total Film ranked The Dark Knight as the sixth most accomplished film of the past 15 years , writing that " Christopher Nolan 's psycho @-@ operatic crime drama was its decade 's most exciting blockbuster – and its most challenging . " In 2014 , Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films . The Dark Knight was listed at 80th place on this list . In 2014 , The Dark Knight was ranked the 3rd greatest film ever made on Empire 's list of " The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time " as voted by the magazine 's readers . The film was also included and ranked 57th on Hollywood 's 100 Favorite Films , a list compiled by The Hollywood Reporter , surveying " Studio chiefs , Oscar winners and TV royalty " . The Dark Knight ranked 96th on BBC 's " 100 Greatest American Films " list , voted on by film critics from around the world .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
Mystery writer Andrew Klavan , writing in The Wall Street Journal , compared the extreme measures that Batman takes to fight crime with those U.S. President George W. Bush used in the War on Terror . Klavan claims that , " at some level " The Dark Knight is " a paean of praise to the fortitude and moral courage that has been shown by George W. Bush in this time of terror and war . " Klavan supports this reading of the film by comparing Batman — like Bush , Klavan argues — " sometimes has to push the boundaries of civil rights to deal with an emergency , certain that he will re @-@ establish those boundaries when the emergency is past . " Klavan 's article has received criticism on the Internet and in mainstream media outlets , such as in The New Republic 's " The Plank . " Reviewing the film in The Sunday Times , Cosmo Landesman reached the opposite conclusion to Klavan , arguing that The Dark Knight " offers up a lot of moralistic waffle about how we must hug a terrorist – okay , I exaggerate . At its heart , however , is a long and tedious discussion about how individuals and society must never abandon the rule of law in struggling against the forces of lawlessness . In fighting monsters , we must be careful not to become monsters – that sort of thing . The film champions the anti @-@ war coalition 's claim that , in having a war on terror , you create the conditions for more terror . We are shown that innocent people died because of Batman – and he falls for it . " Benjamin Kerstein , writing in Azure , says that both Klavan and Landesman " have a point , " because " The Dark Knight is a perfect mirror of the society which is watching it : a society so divided on the issues of terror and how to fight it that , for the first time in decades , an American mainstream no longer exists . "
U.S. president Barack Obama has used the film to help explain how he understood the role and growth of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIS ) . " There 's a scene in the beginning in which the gang leaders of Gotham are meeting ... These are men who had the city divided up . They were thugs , but there was a kind of order . Everyone had his turf . And then the Joker comes in and lights the whole city on fire . ISIS is the Joker . It has the capacity to set the whole region on fire . That 's why we have to fight it . ”
= = = = Themes and analysis = = = =
According to David S. Goyer , the primary theme of The Dark Knight is escalation . Gotham City is weak and the citizens blame Batman for the city 's violence and corruption as well as the Joker 's threats , and it pushes his limits , making him feel that taking the laws into his own hands is further downgrading the city . Roger Ebert noted , " Throughout the film , [ the Joker ] devises ingenious situations that force Batman , Commissioner Gordon and District Attorney Harvey Dent to make impossible ethical decisions . By the end , the whole moral foundation of the Batman legend is threatened . "
Other critics have mentioned the theme of the triumph of evil over good . Harvey Dent is seen as Gotham 's " White Knight " in the beginning of the film but ends up becoming seduced to evil . The Joker , on the other hand , is seen as the representation of anarchy and chaos . He has no motive , no orders , and no desires but to cause havoc and " watch the world burn . " The terrible logic of human error is another theme as well . The ferry scene displays how humans can easily be enticed by iniquity , and how that could lead to potential disaster .
= = = = Awards = = = =
Most notable among the nominations were
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ges , he was considered the richest man in Britain , if not the world . Bute 's wealth was important to the success of the partnership : as Burges himself wrote , " Good art is far too rare and far too precious ever to be cheap . " But , as a scholar , antiquarian , compulsive builder and enthusiastic medievalist , Bute brought more than money to the relationship and his resources and his interests allied with Burges 's genius to create what McLees considers to be " Bute 's most memorable overall achievement . "
However occasioned , the connection lasted the rest of Burges 's life and led to his most important works . To the Marquess and his wife , Burges was the " soul @-@ inspiring one " . The architectural writer Michael Hall considers Burges 's rebuilding of Cardiff Castle and the complete reconstruction of the ruin of Castell Coch , north of the city , as representing his highest achievements . In these buildings , Crook contends that Burges escaped into " a world of architectural fantasy " which Hall describes as " amongst the most magnificent the Gothic Revival ever achieved . "
= = = Cardiff Castle = = =
In the early nineteenth century , the original Norman castle had been enlarged and refashioned by Henry Holland for the 1st Marquess , the 3rd Marquess 's great @-@ grandfather . The 2nd Marquess occupied the castle on visits to his extensive Glamorgan estates , during which he developed modern Cardiff and created Cardiff Docks as the outlet for coal and steel from the South Wales Valleys , but did little to the castle itself , beyond completing the 1st Marquess 's work . The 3rd Marquess despised Holland 's efforts , describing the castle as having been " the victim of every barbarism since the Renaissance " , and , on his coming of age , engaged Burges to undertake rebuilding on a Wagnerian scale . Almost all of Burges 's usual team were involved , including Chapple , Frame and Lonsdale , creating a building which John Newman describes in Glamorgan : The Buildings of Wales as the " most successful of all the fantasy castles of the nineteenth century . "
Work began in 1868 with the 150 feet high Clock Tower , in Forest of Dean ashlar . The tower forms a suite of bachelor 's rooms , the Marquess not marrying until 1872 . They comprise a bedroom , a servant 's room and the Summer and Winter Smoking Rooms . Externally , the tower is a re @-@ working of a design Burges used for the unsuccessful Law Courts competition . Internally , the rooms are sumptuously decorated with gilding , carvings and cartoons , many allegorical in style , depicting the seasons , myths and fables . The Summer Smoking Room is the tower 's literal and metaphorical culmination . It rises two storeys high and has an internal balcony that , through an unbroken band of windows , gives views to Cardiff docks , one source of Bute 's wealth , the Bristol Channel , and the Welsh hills and valleys . The floor has a map of the world in mosaic and the sculpture is by Thomas Nicholls .
As the castle was developed , work continued with alterations to Holland 's Georgian range , including his Bute Tower , and to the medieval Herbert and Beauchamp Towers , and the construction of the Guest Tower and the Octagonal Tower . In plan , the castle broadly follows the arrangement of a standard Victorian stately home . The Bute Tower includes Lord Bute 's bedroom and ends in another highlight , the Roof Garden , with a sculpture of the Madonna by Fucigna . Bute 's bedroom has much religious iconography and a mirrored ceiling . The Marquess 's name , John , is repeated in Greek , ΙΩΑИΣ , along the ceiling beams . The Octagon Tower followed , including the oratory , built on the spot where Bute 's father died , and the Chaucer Room , the roof of which Mark Girouard cites as " a superb ... example of Burges 's genius in the construction of roofs . " The Guest Tower contains the site of the original kitchen at its base and above , the Nursery , decorated with painted tiles depicting Aesop 's Fables and characters from nursery rhymes .
The central block of the castle comprises the two storey banqueting hall , with the library below . Both are enormous , the former to act as a suitable reception hall where the Marquess could fulfil his civic duties , the latter to hold part of his vast library . Both include elaborate carvings and fireplaces , those in the banqueting hall depicting the castle itself in the time of Robert , Duke of Normandy , who was imprisoned there in 1126 – 1134 . The fireplace in the library contains five figures , four representing the Greek , Egyptian , Hebrew and Assyrian alphabets , while the fifth is said to represent Bute as a Celtic monk . The figures refer to the purpose of the room and to the Marquess , a noted linguist . The decoration of these large rooms is less successful than in the smaller chambers ; much was completed after Burges 's death and Girouard considers that the muralist , Lonsdale , " was required to cover areas rather greater than his talents deserved . " The central portion of the castle also included the Grand Staircase . Illustrated in a watercolour perspective prepared by Axel Haig , the staircase was long thought never to have been built but recent research has shown that it was constructed , only to be torn out in the 1930s , reputedly after the third Marchioness had " once slipped on its polished surface . " The staircase was not universally praised in the contemporary press ; the Building News writing that the design was " one of the least happy we have seen from Mr Burges 's pencil ... the contrasts of colour are more startling than pleasing . " The Arab Room in the Herbert Tower was the last room on which Burges was working when he fell ill in 1881 . Bute placed Burges 's initials , together with his own and the date , in the fireplace of that room as a memorial . The room was completed by Burges 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Popplewell Pullan .
Following Burges 's death , further areas of the castle were developed along the lines he had set by , amongst others , William Frame . This included extensive reconstruction of the walls of the original Roman fort . The Animal Wall , completed in the 1920s by the 4th Marquess , originally stood between the castle moat and the city and has nine sculptures by Thomas Nicholls , with a further six sculpted by Alexander Carrick in the 1930s . The Swiss bridge , which once crossed the moat to the pre @-@ Raphaelite garden encompassed by the Animal Wall , was removed in the 1930s . The stables , which lie to the north , on the edge of Bute Park , were designed by Burges in 1868 – 69 .
Megan Aldrich contends that Burges 's interiors at Cardiff have " rarely [ been ] equalled ; " [ although ] " he executed few buildings as his rich fantastic gothic required equally rich patrons ( .. ) his finished works are outstanding monuments to nineteenth century gothic , " the suites of rooms he created at Cardiff being amongst " the most magnificent that the gothic revival ever achieved . " Crook goes further still , arguing that the rooms reach beyond architecture to create " three dimensional passports to fairy kingdoms and realms of gold . In Cardiff Castle we enter a land of dreams . "
The Castle was given to Cardiff City Corporation by the 5th Marquess of Bute in 1947 .
= = = Castell Coch = = =
In 1872 , while work at Cardiff Castle was proceeding , Burges presented a scheme for the complete reconstruction of Castell Coch , a ruined thirteenth @-@ century fort on the Bute estate to the north of Cardiff . Burges 's report on the possible reconstruction was delivered in 1872 but building was delayed until 1875 , in part because of the pressure of works at Cardiff Castle and in part because of an unfounded concern on behalf of the Marquess 's trustees that he was facing bankruptcy . The exterior comprises three towers , described by Newman as " almost equal to each other in diameter , [ but ] arrestingly dissimilar in height . " Burges 's main inspiration was the work of the almost contemporaneous French architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc who was undertaking similar restoration and building work for Napoleon III . Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc 's work at the Château de Coucy , The Louvre and particularly at the Château de Pierrefonds is echoed at Castell Coch , Burges 's Drawing Room roof drawing heavily on the octagonal , rib @-@ vaulted chambre de l 'Imperatrice at Pierrefonds . Burges 's other main source was the Château de Chillon , from which his conical , and conjectural , tower roofs are derived .
Severely damaged during Welsh rebellions in the early fourteenth century , Castell Coch fell into disuse and by the Tudor period , the antiquary John Leland described it as " all in ruin no big thing but high . " A set of drawings for the planned rebuilding exists , together with a full architectural justification by Burges . The castle reconstruction features three conical roofs to the towers that are historically questionable . According to Crook , Burges " supported his roofs with a considerable body of examples of doubtful validity ; the truth was that he wanted them for their architectural effect . "
The Keep Tower , the Well Tower and the Kitchen Tower comprise a series of apartments , of which the main sequence , the Castellan 's Rooms , lie within the Keep . They begin weakly , the Banqueting Hall , completed well after Burges 's death , being described by Newman as " dilute [ and ] unfocused " while Crook considers it " anaemic . " It contains a colossal chimney piece , carved by Thomas Nicholls . The identity of the central figure in the overmantel is uncertain ; Girouard states that it is King David while McLees suggests that it depicts St Lucius . The Drawing Room is a double @-@ height room with decoration that Newman describes as illustrating the " intertwined themes ( of ) the fecundity of nature and the fragility of life . " A stone fireplace by Nicholls features the Three Fates , spinning , measuring and cutting the thread of life . The murals around the walls draw on Aesop 's Fables with delicate drawings of animals in the Aesthetic Movement style .
The octagonal chamber with its great rib @-@ vault , modelled on Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc 's chambers at Coucy and Pierrefonds , is decorated with drawings of butterflies and birds . Off the hall lies the Windlass Room , in which Burges delighted in assembling the fully functioning apparatus for the drawbridge , together with murder @-@ holes for expelling boiling oil . The Marquess 's bedroom provides some spartan relief before the culmination of the castle , Lady Bute 's Bedroom . Crook considers this room " pure Burges : an arcaded circle , punched through by window embrasures , and topped by a trefoil @-@ sectioned dome . " The decorative theme is ' love ' , symbolised by monkeys , pomegranates and nesting birds . The decoration was completed long after Burges 's death but his was the guiding spirit . " Would Mr Burges have done it ? " William Frame wrote to Thomas Nicholls in 1887 . Burges 's original design for the castle included a chapel to be built on the roof of the Well Tower . It was never finished and the remains were removed in the late nineteenth century .
Following Burges 's death in 1881 , work on the interior continued for another ten years . The castle was little used , the Marquess never came after its completion , and its main function was as a family sanatorium , although the Marchioness and her daughter , Lady Margaret Crichton @-@ Stuart , did occupy it for a period following the death of the Marquess in 1900 . In 1950 , the 5th Marquess of Bute handed the castle over to the Ministry of Works . McLees views it as " one of the greatest Victorian triumphs of architectural composition " , whilst Crook writes of Burges " recreating from a heap of rubble a fairy @-@ tale castle which seems almost to have materialised from the margins of a medieval manuscript . "
= = Later works = =
Bute 's commissions formed the major corpus of Burges 's work from the 1860s until his death . However , he continued to accept other appointments .
= = = Worcester College , Oxford = = =
The interiors of the Hall and Chapel of Worcester College , Oxford , had been designed by James Wyatt in 1776 – 90 . In 1864 , Burges was commissioned to overhaul Wyatt 's unremarkable designs for the Chapel by the Reverend H C O Daniel , a member of the College 's Senior Common Room and future Provost , who had known Burges when they were contemporaries at King 's College London . Burges 's extensive iconography envelopes the building , with animals and birds depicted on the end of pews , and Burges 's mosaic flooring astonished his contemporaries . Drawing on his rare knowledge of medieval techniques and working with his meticulous attention to detail , Burges created a chapel that Crook describes as " almost unique amongst High Victorian ecclesiastical interiors . " The richly symbolic iconography " and Masonic influences on the scheme of decoration are significant , Gillingham suggesting that Burges 's Freemasonry connections were a partial explanation for his appointment and noting that a " symbolic masonic commentary pervades the Chapel . Unusually , in the redecoration of the Chapel , Burges did not use members of his usual team . The stained glass and the ceiling paintings are by Henry Holiday , and the statues , lectern and candlesticks are by William Grinsell Nicholl .
In 1873 – 79 Burges also undertook a redecoration of the College 's Hall . The funds needed for the Hall were raised by an appeal in which the decorated wooden panels on the walls were individual gifts , incorporating the crests and shields of the donors . In some cases , where there were no known crests or shields , those of former members were substituted and Burges made several painted imitations of marbling on wood . The large window at the end of the Hall was also filled with the armorial bearings for which room had not been found in the panels . A fireplace was also inserted on the dais . Almost all of Burges 's work in the Hall was lost in a redevelopment of the 1960s in which Wyatt 's designs were reinstated , although the fireplace was removed to Knightshayes Court and the East Window , above the high table , was restored circa 2009 .
= = = Skilbeck 's Warehouse = = =
Skilbeck 's Warehouse , formerly at 46 Upper Thames Street , London , and now demolished , was a drysalter 's warehouse constructed by Burges in 1866 and is important as his only foray into industrial design . Burges was commissioned by the Skilbeck Brothers to re @-@ model an existing warehouse ; the result was influential , representing what one of Burges 's obituarists described as " probably the most successful attempt ever made to unite the requirements of art and mercantile convenience . " Bradley describes Burges 's re @-@ modelling as using " twin pointed bays under a single Gothic relieving arch and gable " . The use of exposed cast iron was revolutionary . Modern materials and technologies were combined with gothic iconography , an article of 1886 in The Ecclesiologist describing " the great crane supported by a corbel carved into a bust of a fair Oriental maid , symbolising the clime from which so much of the drysalter 's materials are brought , and over a circular window in the gable ( a ) ship bringing in its precious freight . " The total cost of the work was £ 1 @,@ 413 .
= = = Knightshayes Court = = =
The commission for the brand new house of Knightshayes Court was obtained from Sir John Heathcoat @-@ Amory in 1867 and the foundation stone was laid in 1869 . By 1874 , the building was still incomplete , owing to ongoing difficulties with Heathcoat @-@ Amory , who objected to many of Burges 's designs on the grounds of cost and of style . Although work had begun on the interior , the turbulent relationship between architect and client led to Burges 's sacking in 1874 and his replacement by John Dibblee Crace . Nevertheless , Knightshayes Court remains the only example of a medium @-@ sized Burges country house , built in a standard Victorian arrangement . Early French Gothic in style , it follows a standard neo @-@ Tudor plan of a large central block with projecting gables . The tower Burges planned was never built .
The interior was to have been a riot of Burgesian excess but not a single room was completed to Burges 's designs . Of the few interior features that were fully executed , much was altered or diluted by Heathcoat @-@ Amory and his successors . However some of the interiors , such as the library , vaulted hall and the arched red drawing room , remain or have been re @-@ instated .
Since the house passed to the National Trust in 1972 , major works of restoration and re @-@ creation have been undertaken and a number of pieces of Burges furniture , mostly not original to the house , are displayed . These include a bookcase from Buckingham Street and a chimney piece from the Hall at Worcester College , Oxford , where , in the 1960s , some decorative works by Burges were removed , although his redecoration of the college Chapel remains . The aim is , as far as possible , to reinstate the work of Burges and Crace .
= = = Park House = = =
Park House , Cardiff was built by Burges for Lord Bute 's engineer , James McConnochie , between 1871 and 1875 . With its steep roofs and boldly textured walls , Park House revolutionised Cardiff 's domestic architecture , and was highly influential , in the city and beyond . The impact of the building can be seen in many of Cardiff 's inner suburbs , where imitations of Park House and its features can frequently be identified . Cadw described it as " perhaps the most important 19th century house in Wales " , a position reflected in its status as a Grade I listed building .
The style of the house is Early French Gothic , with triangle and rectangle to the fore , although it is without the conical tower Burges considered appropriate both for his own home , The Tower House and for Castell Coch . Burges used various building stones for Park House : Pennant Sandstone for the walls , Bath Stone around the windows , entrance porch and plinths , with pillars in pink Peterhead granite from Aberdeenshire . The external frontage comprises four gables , the windows of the last gable concealing what Newman describes as " the major peculiarity of the interior . On entering , one is immediately confronted by the underside of the staircase , and has to skirt round it to reach the rest of the house . " The arrangement was not repeated at The Tower House , which is an almost reversed replica with added conical tower . The interior fittings are of high quality , including the massive , mahogany staircase and marble chimneypieces . Both the drawing room and the dining room have beamed ceilings . The whole is built with a solidity that was guaranteed by the use of the Marquess of Bute 's own workforce from Cardiff Docks .
= = = Christ the Consoler , St Mary 's and St Paul 's Cathedral = = =
Burges 's two finest gothic churches were also undertaken in the 1870s , the Church of Christ the Consoler , Skelton @-@ on @-@ Ure , and St Mary 's , Studley Royal . His patron , George Robinson , 1st Marquess of Ripon , although not as rich as Bute , was his equal in romantic medievalism and had been a friend of Bute 's at Oxford , which may account for the choice of Burges as architect . Both churches were built as memorial churches for Ripon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Frederick Grantham Vyner , who was murdered by Greek bandits in 1870 . Vyner 's mother commissioned the Church of Christ the Consoler and his sister St Mary 's . Both begun in 1870 , Skelton was consecrated in 1876 and Studley Royal in 1878 .
The Church of Christ the Consoler , in the grounds of Newby Hall in North Yorkshire , is built in the Early English style . The exterior is constructed of grey Catraig stone , with Morcar stone for the mouldings . The interior is faced with white limestone , and richly fitted out with marble . The work was undertaken by members of Burges 's usual team , Gualbert Saunders making the stained glass , from cartoons by Lonsdale , and Nicholls sculpting the carvings . Leach and Pevsner describe the scheme of stained glass as " uncommonly excellent . " It is particularly interesting as representing an architectural move from Burges 's favourite Early French style to an English inspiration . Pevsner considers it : " Of determined originality ; the impression is one of great opulence , even if of a somewhat elephantine calibre . "
The Church of St Mary , Studley Royal , is also in the Early English style and is located in the grounds of Studley Royal Park at Fountains Abbey , in North Yorkshire . As at Christ the Consoler , the exterior is of grey limestone , with a two @-@ stage west tower topped with a soaring spire . The interior is equally spectacular , exceeding Skelton in richness and majesty , Leach commenting that " everything is precisely calculated as to its visual impact . " The theme , previously used at Gayhurst , is Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained . The stained glass , by Saunders & Co , is of particularly high quality . Pevsner describes St Mary 's as " a dream of Early English glory " and Crook writes , " [ although ] Cork Cathedral may stand as Burges 's greatest Gothic work , Studley Royal is his ' ecclesiastical ' masterpiece . " Burges also constructed an estate cottage in 1873 .
In 1870 , Burges was asked to draw up an iconographic scheme of internal decoration for St Paul 's Cathedral , unfinished since the death of Sir Christopher Wren . In 1872 , he was appointed architect and over the next five years produced what Crook describes as a " full @-@ blown scheme of early Renaissance decoration " for the interior which he intended would eclipse that of St Peter 's in Rome . However , as Crook writes , his plans were " rather too creative for most Classicists " and these artistic , and linked religious , controversies led to Burges 's dismissal in 1877 with none of his plans undertaken .
= = = Trinity College , Hartford , Connecticut = = =
In 1872 , Abner Jackson , the President of Trinity College , Connecticut , visited Britain , seeking models and an architect for a planned new campus for the college . Burges was chosen and he drew up a four @-@ quadrangled masterplan , in his Early French style . Lavish illustrations were produced by Axel Haig . However , the estimated cost , at just under one million dollars , together with the sheer scale of the plans , thoroughly alarmed the College Trustees . Only one sixth of the plan was executed , the present Long Walk , with Francis H. Kimball acting as local , supervising , architect , and Frederick Law Olmsted laying out the grounds . Crook considers the result , " unsatisfactory .. [ but important ] .. in its key position in the development of late nineteenth @-@ century American architecture . " Other critics have viewed Burges 's design more positively : the American architectural historian Henry @-@ Russell Hitchcock thought Trinity " perhaps the most satisfactory of all of [ Burges 's ] works and the best example anywhere of Victorian Gothic collegiate architecture " ; whilst Charles Handley @-@ Read suggested the college was " is in some ways superior to Butterfield 's Keble or Seddon 's Aberystwyth . "
= = = The Tower House = = =
From 1875 , although he continued to work on the completion of projects already begun , Burges received no further major commissions . The construction , decoration and furnishing of his own home , The Tower House , Melbury Road , Kensington , occupied much of the last six years of his life . Burges designed the house in the style of a substantial thirteenth century French townhouse . Of red brick , and in an L plan , the exterior is plain . The house is not large , its floor @-@ plan being little more than 50 feet square . But the approach Burges took to its construction was on a grand scale : the floor depths were sufficient to support rooms four or five times their size and the architect Richard Norman Shaw wrote of the concrete foundations as being suitable " for a fortress . " This approach , combined with Burges 's architectural skills and the minimum of exterior decoration , created a building that Crook describes as " simple and massive " . As was usual with Burges , many elements of earlier designs were adapted and included , the street frontage from the McConnochie House , the cylindrical tower and conical roof from Castell Coch and the interiors from Cardiff Castle .
The interior centres on the double @-@ height entrance hall , Burges having avoided the error that he had made at the McConnochie House when he placed a vast central staircase in the middle of the building . At The Tower House , the stair is consigned to the conical tower . The ground floor contains a drawing room , dining room and library , while the first floor holds bedroom suites and a study . If Burges shunned exterior decoration at The Tower House , he more than compensated internally . Each room has a complex iconographic scheme of decoration : that of the hall is Time , in the drawing room , Love , in Burges 's bedroom , the Sea . Massive fireplaces with elaborate overmantels were carved and installed , a castle in the Library and mermaids and sea @-@ monsters of the deep in his own bedroom . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , Pullan , wrote that " Chaucer and Tennyson 's poems were Mr Burges ' chief text @-@ books when engaged in designing these decorations . "
In designing the medieval interior to the house , Burges also illustrated his skill as a jeweller , metalworker and designer , and produced some of his best works of furniture including the Zodiac settle , the Dog Cabinet and the Great Bookcase , the last of which Charles Handley @-@ Read described as " occupying a unique position in the history of Victorian painted furniture . " The fittings were as elaborate as the furniture : the tap for one of the guest washstands was in the form of a bronze bull from whose throat water poured into a sink inlaid with silver fish . Within the Tower House Burges placed some of his finest metalwork ; the artist Henry Stacy Marks wrote " he could design a chalice as well as a cathedral ... His decanters , cups , jugs , forks and spoons were designed with an equal ability to that with which he would design a castle . "
Upon completion , the Tower House was sensationally received . In a survey of the architecture of the past fifty years , published by The Builder in 1893 , it was the only private town house to be included . Crook considers the house , the " synthesis of [ Burges 's ] career and a glittering tribute to his achievement . " The Tower House , which remains a private home , owned by Jimmy Page for many years , retains much of its internal structural decoration , but the furniture and contents that Burges designed for his home have been dispersed .
= = Metalwork and jewellery = =
Burges was a notable designer of Gothic @-@ inspired metalwork and jewellery , and he has been cited as " Pugin 's successor in the Gothic revival style . " Although Burges was foremost an architect , Edmund Gosse described his buildings as " more jewel than architecture " , and Crook states that " Burges 's genius as a designer is expressed to perfection in his jewellery and metalwork . " He began with religious artifacts ( candlesticks , chalices , pectoral crosses ) as individual commissions or as part of the decorative scheme for buildings over which he had complete artistic control . Examples include the chalices for St Michael 's Church , Brighton , the statue of the Angel which stands above St Fin Barre 's and which was his personal gift to the cathedral , and the Dunedin Crozier . This item , carved in ivory and depicting St George slaying the dragon , was made for the first Bishop of Dunedin . In 1875 Burges published the design in a French magazine as a thirteenth century original , an example of his delight in tricks and jokes . Similarly inventive were his designs for fish plates for Lord Bute , in which a service of eighteen plates is decorated with punning illustrations , such as a skating skate , and a winged perch seated on the branch of a tree . He also undertook commissions for other patrons , including the Sneyd dessert service . On 3 April 1872 , Burges produced a gothic @-@ style brooch for the marriage of the Marquess of Bute to Lady Bute . In September 1873 , he produced another brooch for the Marchioness , in the shape of a gothic G , a gold heraldic shield in enamel , encrusted with gems and pearls . He followed this with a necklace and earrings , an attempt to " design in Castellani 's archeological style . " Another example of the works that Burges created for Lady Bute as a present for her husband , was a silver cruet set , in the form of two medieval retainers carrying tiny barrels of salt and pepper ; the answer to the question of " what to give a man who ( could ) afford everything . "
Some of his most notable works , however , were those he created for himself , often with the proceeds of the winning of an architectural competition . Examples include the Elephant Inkstand , which Crook considers " the very epitome of its creator 's special genius " , the pair of jewelled decanters paid for with the fees for the plans of the Crimea Memorial Church and for his series of lectures , Art Applied to Industry , and the Cat Cup , created by Barkentin in commemoration of the Law Courts competition , of which Crook writes : " Its technical virtuosity sets standards for the Arts and Crafts phase . But the overall conception , the range of materials , the ingenuity , the inventiveness , the sheer gusto of the design , is peculiarly , triumphantly Burges . " Burges also designed more utilitarian articles which were nonetheless imbued with his love of allusion and punning , including silverware featuring mermaids , spiders and other creatures and a set of knives and forks for the Tower House , with the handles , carved by Nicholls , showing symbols of " meat and vegetables , veal , venision , onion , pea and so on . " He was also a knowledgeable critic , referred to by a contemporary as " one of the best judges of armour in Europe . " His large collection of armour was bequeathed to the British Museum upon his death .
The whereabouts of some of Burges 's most important pieces are unknown , but discoveries are sometimes made : a brooch which he designed as a wedding present for his friend John Pollard Seddon was identified on the BBC television series Antiques Roadshow and subsequently sold at auction for £ 31 @,@ 000 in August 2011 .
= = Stained glass = =
Burges played an important role in the renaissance of High Victorian stained glass . The provision of glass of appropriate colour and richness was central to many of his decorative themes , and he invested effort in working with the best cartoonists and manufacturers to achieve this . He also studied the history of glass production , writing in his second Art Applied to Industry lecture , " [ a ] use of antiquarian studies is to restore disused arts , and to get all the good we can out of them for our own improvement . " In the catalogue to the exhibition of stained glass cartoons from Cardiff Castle , Sargent pays tribute to " his deep knowledge of the history and techniques of glass manufacture " and Lawrence considers him a pioneer who , by his " painstaking studies , re @-@ established the principles of medieval decoration and used this to make [ his ] own bold and original statements . " The results were outstanding ; Lawrence wrote that Burges designed with " a vibrancy , an intensity and a brilliance which no other glass maker could match . " He acknowledges Burges 's debt to the manufacturers and craftsmen with whom he worked , in particular , Gualbert Saunders , whose " technique [ gave ] Burges 's glass its most distinctive characteristic , namely the flesh colour . This is unique , had no precedents and has had no imitators . " As well as at Saint Fin Barre 's , Burges designed stained glass for all of his own significant churches , for reconstructions of medieval churches undertaken by others , and for his secular buildings . He undertook significant work at Waltham Abbey with Edward Burne @-@ Jones , but much of his work there was destroyed in the Blitz . Crook writes , " At Waltham , Burges does not copy . He meets the Middle Ages as an equal . " .
Windows by Burges continue to be discovered . In 2009 , a stained glass window found in the vaults of Bath Abbey was confirmed as a design by Burges . The window , which was commissioned by Mallet and Company , featured on the Antiques Roadshow in early 2010 and is currently on display at the Bath Aqua Theatre of Glass . In March 2011 , two glass panels designed by Burges were purchased for £ 125 @,@ 000 by Cadw . The panels were part of a set of twenty Burges designed for the chapel at Castell Coch but were removed when the unfinished chapel was demolished . Ten of the panels were put on display at Cardiff Castle , and eight were used in the model of the chapel in the attic room of the Well Tower at Castell Coch ; the two purchased by Cadw were considered lost until they failed to sell at auction in Salisbury in 2010 . The Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Cadw , speaking after their purchase , said , " The panels show a variety of Welsh and British saints and key biblical figures and are of the highest quality Victorian stained glass . William Burges ' work attracts enormous worldwide attention and the price reflects the artistic genius of the man and the rare quality of these glass panels . "
Research has also led to being Burges properly credited with work previously attributed to others . In his 1958 volume on North Somerset and Bristol , Pevsner praises the " aesthetic quality " of the stained glass at the Church of St James , in Winscombe but erroneously describes it as " one of the best examples of Morris glass in existence and quite unrecorded . " In fact , the glass is by Burges .
= = Furniture = =
Burges 's furniture was , second to his buildings , his major contribution to the Victorian Gothic Revival ; as Crook writes , " More than anyone , it was Burges , with his eye for detail and his lust for colour , who created the furniture appropriate to High Victorian Gothic . " Enormous , elaborate and highly painted , Crook considers his " art furniture medieval in a way no other designer ever approached . " The first detailed study of Burges 's work in this area was by Charles Handley @-@ Read in his article in The Burlington Magazine of November 1963 , Notes on William Burges 's Painted Furniture . Despised as much as his buildings in the reaction against Victorian taste that occurred in the twentieth century , his furniture came back into fashion in the latter part of that century and now commands very high prices .
Burges 's furniture is characterised by its historical style , its mythological iconography , its vibrant painting and , often , by rather poor workmanship . The Great Bookcase collapsed in 1878 and required complete restoration . The painting of his furniture was central to Burges 's views on its purpose . Describing his ideal medieval chamber in the lecture on furniture , delivered as part of the Art Applied to Industry series , he writes of its fittings being " covered with paintings ; it not only did its duty as furniture , but spoke and told a story . " The designs were frequently collaborative , with artists from Burges 's circle completing the painted panels that they mostly comprise . The contributors were often notable , Vost 's sales catalogue for the Mirrored Sideboard suggesting that some of its panels were by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne @-@ Jones .
Much of his early furniture , such as the Great Bookcase and the Zodiac settle , was designed for his offices at Buckingham Street and subsequently moved to the Tower House . The Great Bookcase was also part of Burges 's contribution to the Medieval Court at the 1862 International Exhibition . Others , such as the Yatman Cabinet , were created as commissions . Later pieces , such as the Crocker Dressing Table and the Golden Bed and its accompanying Vita Nuova washstand , were specifically made for suites of rooms at the Tower House . The Narcissus washstand was originally made for Buckingham Street and subsequently moved to Burges 's bedroom at the Tower House . John Betjeman , later Poet Laureate and a leading champion of the art and architecture of the Victorian Gothic Revival , was left the remaining lease on the Tower House , including some of the furniture , by E. R. B. Graham in 1961 . He gave the washstand to the novelist Evelyn Waugh who made it the centrepiece of his 1957 novel , The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold , in which Pinfold is haunted by the stand .
Examples of Burges 's painted furniture can be seen in major museums including the Victoria and Albert Museum , the Detroit Institute of Arts , the National Museum Wales and the Manchester Art Gallery . The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum , Bedford holds a particularly fine collection , begun with a large number of purchases from the estate of Charles and Lavinia Handley @-@ Read , including the Narcissus washstand , Burges 's bed and the Crocker Dressing Table . The most recent acquisition by the Bedford Museum is the Zodiac settle ( 1869 – 70 ) , painted by Henry Stacy Marks . The Museum paid £ 850 @,@ 000 for the settle , comprising a £ 480 @,@ 000 grant from the National Heritage Memorial Fund , £ 190 @,@ 000 from the Trustees of the Cecil Higgins Art Gallery and £ 180 @,@ 000 from the Art Fund after the British government imposed an export ban on the work .
= = Personal life = =
Burges , who never married , was considered by his contemporaries to be eccentric , unpredictable , over @-@ indulgent and flamboyant . He was also physically unprepossessing , described by the wife of his greatest patron as " ugly Burges . " Short , fat , and so near @-@ sighted that he once mistook a peacock for a man , Burges appears to have been sensitive about his appearance and very few images of him exist . The known portraits are : a painting of 1858 by Edward John Poynter on a panel of the Yatman Cabinet ; a photograph from the 1860s , by an unknown author , showing Burges dressed as a court jester ; a sketch of 1871 in The Graphic by Theodore Blake Wirgman ; a pencil drawing in profile of 1875 by Edward William Godwin ; three posed photographs from 1881 by Henry Van der Weyde and a posthumous caricature by Edward Burne @-@ Jones .
Whatever his physical shortcomings , his personality , his conversation and his sense of humour were attractive and infectious , Crook commenting that " his range of friends [ covered ] the whole gamut of pre @-@ Raphaelite London . " Burges 's childlike nature occasioned comment ; Dante Gabriel Rossetti composing a limerick about him ( see box ) .
Robert Kerr 's novel of 1879 , The Ambassador Extraordinary , involves an architect Georgius Oldhousen , whom Crook considers to be based on Burges ; he is " not exactly young in years but is in an odd way youthful in appearance and in manners Georgius can never grow old ... His strong point is a disdain for Common Sense ... His vocation is Art ... [ a ] matter of Uncommon Sense . " Burges was a clubbable man . Elected to the Institute of British Architects in 1860 , in 1862 he was appointed to its Council and in 1863 was elected to the Foreign Architectural Book Society , the FABS , which comprised the RIBA elite and was limited to fifteen members . He became a member of the Athenaeum Club in 1874 , was a member of the Arts Club , the Medieval Society , the Hogarth Club , and was elected to the Royal Academy in the year of his death . As with many of his friends Burges also joined The Artists Rifles .
Burges was a fanatical collector , particularly of drawings and metalwork . He was also a Freemason . Other pursuits included ratting and opium . The influence of drugs on his life and his architectural output has been debated ; Crook speculating that it was in Constantinople , on his tour in the 1850s , that he first tasted opium and the Dictionary of Scottish Architects stating with certainty that his early death was brought about " at least partly as a result of his bachelor lifestyle of smoking both tobacco and opium . " The architectural writer Simon Jenkins speculated as to why Sir John Heathcoat @-@ Amory chose as his architect " an opium @-@ addicted bachelor Gothicist who dressed in medieval costume . " Burges 's own diary of 1865 includes the reference , " Too much opium , did not go to Hayward 's wedding " , and Crook concludes that " it is hard to resist the conclusion that [ opium ] reinforced the dreamier elements in his artistic make @-@ up " .
= = Death = =
Burges died , aged 53 , at The Tower House on 20 April 1881 . While on a tour of works at Cardiff , he caught a chill and returned to London , half @-@ paralysed , where he lay dying for some three weeks . Among his last visitors were Oscar Wilde and James Whistler . He was buried in the tomb he designed for his mother at West Norwood , London . On his death , John Starling Chapple , Burges 's office manager and close associate for more than twenty years , wrote " a constant relationship ... with one of the brightest ornaments of the profession has rendered the parting most severe . Thank God his work will live and ... be the admiration of future students . I have hardly got to realize my lonely position yet . He was almost all the world to me . " Lady Bute , wife of his greatest patron , wrote , " Dear Burges , ugly Burges , who designed such lovely things – what a duck . "
In Saint Fin Barre 's , together with memorials to his mother and sister , there is a memorial plaque to Burges , designed by him , and erected by his father . It shows the King of Heaven presiding over the four apostles , who hold open the Word of God . Under the inscription " Architect of this cathedral " is a simple shield and a small , worn , plaque with a mosaic surround , bearing Burges 's entwined initials and name . Legal complications obstructed Burges 's wish to be buried in the cathedral he had built . Burges 's own words on Saint Fin Barre 's , in his letter of January 1877 to the Bishop of Cork , sum up his career , " Fifty years hence , the whole affair will be on its trial and , the elements of time and cost being forgotten , the result only will be looked at . The great questions will then be , first , is this work beautiful and , secondly , have those to whom it was entrusted , done it with all their heart and all their ability . "
= = Legacy and influence = =
On Burges 's death in 1881 , his contemporary , the architect Edward William Godwin , said of him that " no one of the century of this country or any other that I know of , ever possessed that artistic rule over the kingdom of nature in a measure at all comparable with that which he shared in common with the creator of the Sphinx and the designer of Chartres . " But the Gothic Revival he championed with such force was in decline . Within twenty years his style was considered hopelessly outdated and owners of his works sought to eradicate all traces of his efforts . From the 1890s to the later twentieth century , Victorian art was under constant assault , critics writing of " the nineteenth century architectural tragedy " , ridiculing " the uncompromising ugliness " of the era 's buildings and attacking the " sadistic hatred of beauty " of its architects . Of Burges , they wrote almost nothing . His buildings were disregarded or altered , his jewellery and stained glass were lost or ignored , and his furniture was given away . The architectural historian Megan Aldrich writes , " He founded no school ... had few adherents outside the circle of his practice ... and trained no further generation of designers . " In comparison with more prolific contemporaries , he completed relatively few works and lost many architectural competitions . Burges 's collaborator , the artist Nathaniel Westlake , lamented " competitions are seldom given to the best man – look at the number poor Burges won , or should have won , and I think he executed only one . "
Almost his sole champion in the years after his death was his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Popplewell Pullan . Primarily an illustrator , as well as a scholar and archaeologist , Pullan trained with Alfred Waterhouse in Manchester , before joining Burges 's office in the 1850s . In 1859 , he married Burges 's sister . Following Burges 's death in 1881 , Pullan lived at The Tower House and published collections of Burges 's designs , including Architectural Designs of William Burges ( 1883 ) and The House of William Burges ( 1886 ) . In his preface to Architectural Designs Pullan expressed the hope that illustrated volumes of his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's work " would be warmly welcomed and thoroughly appreciated , not only by his professional brethern , but by all men of educated taste in Europe and America . " This hope was not to be fulfilled for a hundred years but Burges 's work did continue to attract followers in Japan . Josiah Conder studied under him , and , through Conder 's influence , the notable Japanese architect Tatsuno Kingo was articled to Burges in the year before the latter 's death .
From the later twentieth century to the present a renaissance has occurred in the study of Victorian art , architecture and design and Crook contends that Burges 's place at the centre of that world , as " a wide @-@ ranging scholar , an intrepid traveller , a coruscating lecturer , a brilliant decorative designer and an architect of genius , " is again appreciated . Crook writes further that , in a career of only some twenty years , he became " the most brilliant architect @-@ designer of his generation , " and , beyond architecture , his achievements in metalwork , jewellery , furniture and stained glass place him as Pugin 's only " rival [ . ] as the greatest art @-@ architect of the Gothic Revival . "
= = Architectural scholarship = =
Burges 's limited output , and the general unpopularity of his work for much of the century following his death , meant that he was little studied . In a seventy @-@ one page guide to Cardiff Castle , published in 1923 , he is referenced only three times , and on each occasion his name is misspelt as " Burgess " . Pevsner 's 1951 volume on the exhibits at The Great Exhibition , High Victorian Design , makes no mention of him , despite his significant contributions to the Medieval Court . The 1950s saw the small beginnings of a reaction against the condemnation of all that the Victorian architects , including Burges , had produced . The exhibition of Victorian and Edwardian Decorative Arts held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1952 included five pieces of his furniture and four examples of his metalwork . This was followed by the foundation of the Victorian Society in 1958 . Victorian Architecture , a collection of essays edited by Peter Ferriday and published in 1963 , contained an article on him by Charles Handley @-@ Read , perhaps the first serious scholar of Burges . Handley @-@ Read took a measured view of Burges 's work writing that , " as a designer , he ( was ) apt to be aggressive rather than charming " , but he was in no doubt of Burges 's significance , writing of his best works as " indispensable examples of ' Victorian Conservanda ' . " The last thirty years , however , have seen a significant revival of interest . Burges 's rehabilitation can be dated to 1981 , the centenary of his death , when a major exhibition on his life and works was held , firstly at the National Museum Cardiff , until October 1981 , and then at the Victoria and Albert Museum , London , from November 1981 to January 1982 . The catalogue to that exhibition , entitled The Strange Genius of William Burges , was edited by J. Mordaunt Crook . A much smaller exhibition of his work was also held at the Crawford Municipal Art Gallery in Cork . In the same year , the only full study of Burges , Crook 's William Burges and the High Victorian Dream , was published . In the dedication to that volume , " In Mem . C.H.-R " , Crook acknowledges his debt to Charles Handley @-@ Read , whose notes on Burges Crook inherited following Handley @-@ Read 's suicide . A revised edition was published in February 2013 . Other sources include articles on Cardiff Castle and Castle Coch in Mark Girouard 's The Victorian Country House . The Buildings of England , The Buildings of Wales , The Buildings of Scotland and The Buildings of Ireland series provide comprehensive coverage of Burges 's works by county , although in the last two instances they are not yet complete . The current ( 2012 ) curator of Cardiff Castle , Matthew Williams , has also written a number of Burgesian / Bute articles for the architectural press . The Cathedral of Saint Fin Barre at Cork , by David Lawrence and Ann Wilson , covers Burges 's work in Ireland .
= = List of works = =
The chronological list of Burges 's major buildings is believed to be complete , although some minor works , or minimal additions to pre @-@ existing structures , have not been included . The list of furniture and other works is selective . No listing is given of his extensive creations of jewellery , metalwork and stained glass . Crook has a comprehensive , chronological , appendix of Burges 's work with indications as to whether the work is still in situ , was never executed , has been removed elsewhere , has been demolished or where the present location is unknown .
= = = Buildings = = =
= = = Unexecuted designs = = =
= = = Major pieces of furniture with locations = = =
= New York State Route 173 =
New York State Route 173 ( NY 173 ) is a state highway located in the Syracuse area of central New York in the United States . It takes a slightly bow @-@ shaped route from NY 31 in the town of Van Buren to NY 5 in Chittenango , gently curving to the south of Downtown Syracuse in the center of its 30 @.@ 59 @-@ mile ( 49 @.@ 23 km ) routing . Even so , NY 173 briefly enters the Syracuse city limits near where it intersects U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) . NY 173 passes through several suburbs of Syracuse , including Camillus , where it first meets NY 5 , and Manlius , where it has a short overlap with NY 92 .
NY 173 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to its modern alignment . The route itself has not been altered since ; however , the portion of the route from Onondaga to Manlius became part of NY 20N c . 1938 and a small section of the route within Manlius was included in NY 20SY when that highway was assigned in the early 1950s . Both designations were removed c . 1962 . All of NY 173 east of Onondaga was originally part of the Seneca Turnpike .
= = Route description = =
= = = West of Syracuse = = =
NY 173 begins at an intersection with NY 31 in Ionia , a hamlet within the town of Van Buren . The route heads southeast , intersecting several county roads as it proceeds through a rural , marshy area of Onondaga County as Warners Road . It crosses over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) on its way into the hamlet of Warners , where it briefly follows Canton Street and crosses the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision rail line before becoming Warners Road once again as it follows the railroad east out of the community and into the town of Camillus .
The route parallels the track for roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , over which time it passes to the north of Greenlawn Memorial Park . As the trackage and the highway approach a point known as Amboy Station , NY 173 curves away from the railroad and heads southeast toward Amboy . After making the turn , NY 173 meets Pottery Road ( County Route 164 or CR 164 ) , a local road leading to Camillus Airport , a simple one @-@ runway facility located adjacent to the railroad line . NY 173 continues into and through Amboy , passing a large area of tailings that was once the site of the Syracuse Municipal Airport . The brownfields are bordered to the north by Ninemile Creek and to the south by the Old Erie Canal , both of which are traversed by NY 173 on its way into the densely populated Fairmount neighborhood of Camillus .
In Fairmount , NY 173 passes Reed Webster Park and turns to the east ahead of the Camillus Bypass , a limited @-@ access highway carrying NY 5 through the town . NY 173 parallels NY 5 for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before connecting to westbound NY 5 by way of a partial interchange ; the eastbound connection is made by way of Hinsdale Road ( CR 209 ) 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west . East of the westbound on @-@ ramps , NY 173 passes over NY 5 and turns to the southeast ahead of an intersection with NY 297 . The route continues on through Fairmount , intersecting West Genesee Street ( CR 98 ) before becoming Onondaga Road and exiting the neighborhood upon entering the town of Onondaga .
Within Onondaga , NY 173 passes through both open areas with sparse development and areas containing built @-@ up residential neighborhoods . The route heads southeast to Onondaga Hill , a large community built up just east of Onondaga Community College . Here , it overlaps with NY 175 for about 100 yards ( 91 m ) before NY 175 forks off to the northeast into Syracuse . NY 173 continues eastward as the Seneca Turnpike , passing to the south of Community General Hospital before it enters the southernmost portion of Syracuse . This portion of the city is mostly residential , save for a smattering of businesses around NY 173 's junctions with NY 80 and US 11 . Near the midpoint of the route 's 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stay in Syracuse , it crosses over Onondaga Creek , on the banks of which lie Faith Heritage School and Meachem Field . The route leaves the city limits shortly after passing under both directions of I @-@ 81 .
All of NY 173 west of Genesee Street in Camillus is maintained by Onondaga County . NY 173 is co @-@ designated with CR 204 from NY 31 to Bennetts Corners Road in Van Buren , CR 64 between Bennetts Corners Road and Canton Street in the hamlet of Warners , CR 57 from Canton Street to Thompson Road in Camillus , and CR 63 between Thompson Road and Genesee Street . Within Syracuse , NY 173 is maintained by the city . The remainder of the route in both Onondaga and Madison counties is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation .
= = = East of Syracuse = = =
East of Syracuse , the route passes through a narrow 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) portion of the town of Onondaga and the hamlet of Southwood before entering the adjacent town of DeWitt . It continues east , serving Clark Reservation State Park as it heads toward the community of Jamesville , located at the northern end of the Jamesville Reservoir on Butternut Creek . Here , NY 173 intersects NY 91 in the center of the hamlet . Past Jamesville , the homes that had lined the highway give way to open areas to the south and large quarries to the north . The route passes north of the Onondaga County Correctional Facility just east of Jamesville .
NY 173 continues on into the town of Manlius , where the homes gradually return as the highway enters the village of Manlius . Inside the village limits , the route becomes surrounded by homes once again as it crosses over Limestone Creek and enters the village 's business district . Here , it intersects and briefly overlaps NY 92 for roughly 250 yards ( 230 m ) between Fayette and Washington Streets . At Washington Street , NY 92 turns to the southeast towards Cazenovia while NY 173 continues northeastward out of the village . Now back in the surrounding town of Manlius , NY 173 passes south of Fayetteville – Manlius High School before entering another rural area near a point known as Eagle Village . The route continues northeast from there into Madison County .
Upon crossing the county line , NY 173 initially turns slightly eastward to follow a less pronounced northeasterly alignment . However , as the route approaches the Chittenango Creek valley , it gradually turns northward . At Brinkerhoff Hill , NY 173 enters the Chittenango village limits and descends into the valley , where it ends at an intersection with NY 5 in the village center at the base of the valley .
= = History = =
The portion of modern NY 173 between NY 175 in Onondaga and NY 5 in Chittenango was originally part of the original Seneca Turnpike . The Seneca Turnpike was originally the longest road in the state of New York when it was built in the 1800s . NY 173 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to the entirety of its modern alignment . Although NY 173 itself has not changed since that time , other routes have been overlaid on parts of NY 173 over the years . The segment of NY 173 between NY 175 in Onondaga and the east end of the NY 92 overlap in Manlius became part of NY 20N , a northerly alternate route of US 20 between Skaneateles and Cazenovia , c . 1938 . In the early 1950s , the portion of NY 173 concurrent with NY 92 in Manlius also became part of NY 20SY , a second , even more northern alternate route of US 20 between Marcellus and Cazenovia . The NY 20N and NY 20SY designations were removed c . 1962 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Steve Javie =
Steve Javie ( born January 17 , 1955 ) is an American retired professional basketball referee who refereed in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) from the 1986 – 87 NBA season to the 2010 – 11 season . As of the beginning of the 2006 – 07 NBA season , Javie has officiated 1 @,@ 264 regular season , 190 playoff , and 18 NBA Finals games . According to Referee magazine , Javie was a highly regarded referee in the NBA , and he was respected within the officiating community for his game management skills . He was also notable during his NBA officiating career for his quickness in assessing technical fouls .
Prior to his NBA career , he played and graduated from La Salle College High School . He later played baseball for Temple University from 1974 to 1976 and later was an umpire in the Florida State League ( Class @-@ A ) from 1978 to 1981 . Transitioning to basketball , he officiated in the Continental Basketball Association ( CBA ) from 1981 to 1986 .
= = Personal = =
= = = Early life = = =
Steve Javie was born on January 17 , 1955 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania to Stan and Stella Javie . During his childhood , he attended and later graduated from La Salle College High School in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where he played baseball , football , and basketball , earning All @-@ League honors in baseball and basketball . Following high school , he continued a baseball career at Temple University . He graduated from the university in 1976 with a bachelor 's degree in business administration . As a prospect in baseball , Javie signed with the Baltimore Orioles minor league organization . He was released from the Orioles minor league system ( Class @-@ A ) after one year due to an arm injury suffered as a pitcher . Also is the proud owner of a beer distributor in the Roxborough section of Philadelphia . Supporting the city in each and every way he can .
= = = Family = = =
Steve Javie 's father , Stan Javie , was also a sports official . Stan Javie worked in the National Football League from 1951 to 1980 as a field judge and back judge , and was assigned to officiate four Super Bowls . In an interview with Referee magazine , Steve Javie described his father as " a guy you 'd go to war with . He had a passion . He was probably the official that everyone strives to be , but can 't , because you have to be yourself . I can 't be a Stan Javie and you can 't be , but if you took all the characteristics and makeup , you 'd want to be that kind of official . " His godfather , Johnny Stevens , was an American League umpire and worked four World Series in a career that spanned from 1948 to 1975 .
Javie resides in Blue Bell , Pennsylvania . He is married to Mary Ellen , whom he met in 1990 at the Philadelphia International Airport , where she was employed . The couple was married in August 1991 .
= = = Charity = = =
Along with his wife , Steve Javie started the Javie Foundation for Charity to raise money for the homeless , disabled , abused and neglected children . He hosts an annual fundraising golf tournament to support a variety of causes in the Philadelphia metropolitan area . The two @-@ day event , which also includes dinner , dance , and silent auction , has raised US $ 1 million since its inception .
In 2007 , he participated in a summer clinic at Don Guanella High School in Springfield , Pennsylvania , along with four other NBA officials , teaching developmentally challenged boys the rules of basketball and how to signal violations .
= = Baseball umpire = =
After his baseball playing career was over at age 22 , Javie began working at Johnson & Johnson in their baby products line . Becoming uninterested in his job at Johnson & Johnson , he decided to pursue an occupation within sports , and became a baseball umpire in 1978 . Having no prior experience as an arbiter , Javie attended an umpire school operated by Major League Baseball ( MLB ) umpire Bill Kinnamon . Upon completion of training , he was selected to work in the Florida State League . Looking to be promoted to the Class @-@ AA Eastern League , he was denied entrance into the league due to scheduling conflicts and later a players ' strike . In June 1981 , after two and a half years in the Florida State League , Javie left the organization over disagreements with executives due to the lack of promotion opportunities , and being forced to split from an experienced umpire crew that included Jerry Layne , who later worked in the major leagues .
= = Basketball referee = =
= = = CBA career = = =
While serving as an umpire , Javie had officiated basketball games at the high school level in Pennsylvania during the baseball off @-@ season . In addition , he was invited to NBA camps for prospective officials . Within a week of return home following the end of his umpiring career , Javie contacted his father 's friend , NBA referee Earl Strom , who assisted Javie in reaching then @-@ CBA supervisor Cecil Watkins about the possibility of working in the CBA . After officiating games in Philadelphia 's Baker League , he was hired by the CBA in the fall of 1981 . He arrived to the CBA with a " baseball mentality " and had to make quick decisions on the court because of the league 's reputation for fighting among players and arguing by coaches . During a game at The Armory in Albany , New York , Javie was chased down a staircase by then @-@ Albany Patroons coach Phil Jackson , who had received a technical foul . He worked CBA games for five years before being hired by the NBA in 1986 .
= = = NBA career = = =
= = = = Early years = = = =
Upon arriving in the NBA , Javie developed a reputation early for having a " quick trigger finger " , and he was believed to be one of the league leaders in calling technical fouls during the late 1980s and early 1990s . Reflecting on his early years in the league , Javie told Sports Illustrated in October 2000 , " I 'd get so mad I 'd lose control for two or three minutes , and that 's when I would miss calls . " Javie developed mentorships with referees Joe Crawford and Jack Madden to assist in the maturation process . Working his debut game with Crawford at the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit , Michigan , Javie received a grade of 40 points out of 100 by supervisor Darell Garretson . While reviewing game film later at the hotel , Crawford noted errors made throughout the game by himself . As a result of this film study , Javie learned that experienced officials make mistakes and admitting error will improve a referee 's ability in the long @-@ term . Ninety minutes after the conclusion of a game , Javie reviews game film . In addition to film review , Madden taught Javie not to lose focus when players and coaches were upset , and to walk away from them rather than becoming angry . Javie credited his mentors for success as a referee saying , " My mentors have made me what I am today . I 'm a little part of each of them . It 's their success in teaching me . "
= = = = On @-@ court controversies = = = =
Javie 's first public incident came during the 1990 – 91 NBA season in a game between the Portland Trail Blazers and Washington Bullets at the Capital Centre on April 4 , 1991 . Bullets ' forward Pervis Ellison was called for a personal foul and then threw the ball at referee Billy Spooner . Javie ran across the court to impose a technical foul on Ellison for this action . In the sequence of events that followed , Javie ejected Ellison after protesting the call , the Bullets ' head coach Wes Unseld for protesting the dismissal of Ellison , and the Bullets ' mascot , " Hoops " , for making gestures to incite the crowd . Rod Thorn , then the NBA 's vice president for operations , ruled that Javie overreacted in ejecting Ellison and would be subject to discipline . The extent of the disciplinary action was not disclosed . Javie reflected on the experience saying , " My fatal mistake was getting involved with Billy [ Spooner ] and Pervis [ Ellison ] in the first place . You have to be there for your partners , but most of the time you 've got to let them call their game . "
Nearly three years later in another game involving the Portland Trail Blazers , Trail Blazers radio broadcast analyst Mike Rice was ejected by Javie for disputing calls from his broadcast position . In the third quarter of the game in Indianapolis , Indiana , Rice made a " choke " gesture towards Javie in disagreement over a goaltending violation non @-@ call on shot attempt by Portland 's Cliff Robinson . After a verbal exchange between Javie and Rice , Rice was removed from the broadcast and escorted to the locker room area by arena security .
During the 2002 – 03 NBA season , Javie was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 by the league for a verbal altercation with Pat Riley , then @-@ head coach of the Miami Heat .
In a January 2007 game between the Philadelphia 76ers and Denver Nuggets , Denver point guard Allen Iverson received two technical fouls and was ejected from the game in the fourth quarter . Iverson was quoted postgame about Javie , telling the press , " I thought I got fouled on that play , and I said I thought that he was calling the game personal , and he threw me out , his fuse is real short anyway , and I should have known that I couldn 't say anything anyway . It 's been something personal with me and him since I got in the league . This was just the perfect game for him to try and make me look bad . " Iverson was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for his remarks , as well as for " verbal abuse of a game official " .
= = = = Income tax evasion trial = = = =
In January 1999 , Javie was the only one of fifteen referees to be acquitted of tax evasion charges as a result of not reporting income he received by downgrading airline tickets provided by the league . Other referees were sentenced to probation or a period of house arrest , and ordered to pay the taxes . He fought the charges because he believed he did not intentionally do anything wrong . Discussing the trial , Javie told Referee magazine , " My job is about my name . My dad taught me your name is the most important thing . I had to fight for my name . " During the trial , Javie argued that he didn 't owe taxes on more than $ 84 @,@ 000 in income over three years because the money was value @-@ earned from frequent flyer miles , which are non @-@ taxable . He later described the trial as " the hardest two weeks " of his life .
= = = = Memorable games = = = =
In April 2003 , Javie was the referee in Michael Jordan 's final game of his fifteen @-@ year NBA career . During a game break towards the end of regulation , Javie congratulated Jordan on his career and told him he was a " class act " . Javie then turned around and told the younger players on the court , " You could do a lot worse than modeling yourselves after this guy . "
= = = = Retirement = = = =
Javie announced his retirement before the beginning of the 2011 – 12 season .
= Finnieston Crane =
The Finnieston Crane or Stobcross Crane is a disused giant cantilever crane in the centre of Glasgow , Scotland . It is no longer in working order , but is retained as a symbol of the city 's engineering heritage . The crane was used for loading cargo , in particular steam locomotives , onto ships to be exported around the world .
It is one of four such cranes on the River Clyde , a fifth one having been demolished in 2007 , and one of only eleven giant cantilever cranes remaining worldwide . The crane can be seen in the background of news broadcasts from BBC Pacific Quay .
= = History = =
Queens Dock was opened in August 1877 as a 61 acres ( 25 ha ) dock for exporting goods from the centre of Glasgow . A 130 tonnes ( 130 long tons ; 140 short tons ) steam crane was constructed west of the current one in the 1890s , until it was demolished to make way for a proposed bridge crossing between Finnieston Quay and Mavisbank Quay that was never built . The present crane , constructed as a replacement , was the last giant cantilever crane to be built on the Clyde .
It was commissioned in June 1928 by the Clyde Navigation Trust , the operators of the port and dock facilities in Glasgow , completed in 1931 and commenced operation in 1932 . The tower was built by Cowans , Sheldon & Company of Carlisle and the cantilever by the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company , under the supervision of Daniel Fife , mechanical engineer to the Clyde Navigation Trust . The contract to build the crane did not go to Sir William Arrol & Co . , who had significant experience in dock cranes , and built a number of other cranes along the Clyde including the Titan Clydebank , although Arrol was involved in the design of the foundations .
The total cost of the crane and foundations was GB £ 69 @,@ 000 , 85 % of which was met by the Trust . It is properly known as the " Stobcross Crane " or " Clyde Navigation Trustees crane # 7 " , but its proximity to Finnieston Quay , and the fact that it was intended to replace the previous Finnieston Crane , has led to its being popularly known as the Finnieston Crane
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premiere of Gone with the Wind at the Astor Theater on December 19 , 1939 . Over the next few days , Stewart took her to the theater several times and to the 21 Club . They continued to see each other back in Los Angeles , where Stewart provided occasional flying lessons and romance . According to de Havilland , Stewart proposed marriage to her in 1940 , but she felt that he was not ready to settle down . Their relationship ended in late 1941 when de Havilland began a romantic relationship with film director John Huston while making In This Our Life . " John was a very great love of mine " , she would later admit , " He was a man I wanted to marry . "
= = = Marriages and children = = =
On August 26 , 1946 , she married Marcus Goodrich , a Navy veteran , journalist , and author of the 1941 novel Delilah . The marriage ended in divorce in 1953 . They had one child , Benjamin Goodrich , who was born on December 1 , 1949 . He was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma at the age of nineteen , but was able to graduate from the University of Texas . He worked as a statistical analyst for Lockheed Missiles and Space Company in Sunnyvale , California , and as an international banking representative for the Texas Commerce Bank in Houston . He died on October 1 , 1991 , in Paris at the age of forty @-@ one of heart disease brought on by treatments for Hodgkin 's disease , three weeks before the death of his father .
On April 2 , 1955 , de Havilland married Pierre Galante , an executive editor for the French journal Paris Match . Her marriage to Galante prompted de Havilland to move to Paris . The couple separated in 1962 but continued to live in the same house for another six years to raise their children together . Galante moved across the street and the two remained close , even after the finalization of the divorce in 1979 . She looked after him during his final bout with lung cancer prior to his death in 1998 . They had one child , Gisèle Galante , who was born on July 18 , 1956 . After studying law at the Université de Droit de Nanterre School of Law , she worked as a journalist in France and the United States . Since 1956 , de Havilland has lived in the same three @-@ story house near Bois de Boulogne park in the Rive Droite section of Paris .
= = = Religion and politics = = =
De Havilland was raised in the Episcopal Church and has remained an Episcopalian throughout her life . After moving to France , she became one of the first women lectors at the American Cathedral in Paris , where she was on the regular rota for Scripture readings . As recently as 2012 , she was still doing readings on major feast days , including Christmas and Easter . " It 's a task I love , " she once said . In describing her preparation for her readings , de Havilland once observed , " You have to convey the deep meaning , you see , and it has to start with your own faith . But first I always pray . I pray before I start to prepare , as well . In fact , I would always say a prayer before shooting a scene , so this is not so different , in a way . " De Havilland prefers to use the Revised English Bible for its poetic style . She raised her son Benjamin in the Episcopal Church and her daughter Gisèle in the Roman Catholic Church , the faith of the child 's father .
As a United States citizen , de Havilland became involved in politics as a way of exercising her civic responsibilities . She campaigned for Franklin D. Roosevelt 's re @-@ election in 1944 . After the war , she joined the Independent Citizens ' Committee of the Arts , Sciences and Professions , a national public policy advocacy group that included Bette Davis , Gregory Peck , and Humphrey Bogart in its Hollywood chapter . In June 1946 she was asked to deliver speeches for the committee that reflected the Communist Party line — the group was later identified as a Communist front organization . Disturbed at seeing a small group of Communist members manipulating the committee , de Havilland removed the pro @-@ Communist material from her speeches and rewrote them to reflect Harry S. Truman 's anti @-@ Communist platform . She later recalled , " I realized a nucleus of people was controlling the organization without a majority of the members of the board being aware of it . And I knew they had to be Communists . "
She organized a fight to regain control of the committee from its pro @-@ Soviet leadership , but her reform efforts failed . Her resignation from the committee triggered a wave of resignations from eleven other Hollywood figures , including future President Ronald Reagan . In 1958 she was secretly called before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee and recounted her experiences with the Independent Citizens ' Committee .
= = = Sibling rivalry = = =
De Havilland and her sister Joan Fontaine are the only siblings to have won Academy Awards in a lead acting category . According to biographer Charles Higham , the sisters always had an uneasy relationship , starting in early childhood when Olivia had trouble accepting the idea of having a younger sister , and Joan resenting her mother 's favoritism for her older sister . This tension was made worse by Fontaine 's frequent childhood illnesses , which led to her mother 's overly protective expression , " Livvie can , Joan can 't . " Of the two sisters , de Havilland was the first to become an actress , and for several years Fontaine was overshadowed by her accomplishments . When Mervyn LeRoy offered Fontaine a personal contract , her mother told her that Warner Bros. was " Olivia 's studio " and that she could not use the name " de Havilland " . In 1942 de Havilland and Fontaine were both nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress — de Havilland for Hold Back the Dawn , and Fontaine for Suspicion . When Fontaine 's name was announced as winner , de Havilland reacted graciously saying , " We 've got it ! " According to biographer Charles Higham , Fontaine rejected de Havilland 's attempts to congratulate her , and de Havilland was offended and embarrassed .
Their relationship was further strained in 1946 when Fontaine made negative comments to an interviewer about de Havilland 's new husband . When she read her sister 's remarks , de Havilland was deeply hurt and waited for an apology that was never offered . The following year after accepting her first Academy Award for To Each His Own , de Havilland was approached backstage by Fontaine who wanted to congratulate her ; de Havilland turned away from her sister . They did not speak to each other for the next five years , and their silence may have caused the estrangement between Fontaine and her own daughters , who secretly maintained a relationship with de Havilland . Following her divorce from Goodrich , de Havilland resumed contact with her sister , coming to her apartment in New York and spending Christmas together there in 1961 . The final break between the sisters occurred in 1975 from a disagreement over their mother 's cancer treatment — de Havilland wanted to consult other doctors and supported exploratory surgery ; Fontaine disagreed . Fontaine also claimed that de Havilland did not notify her of their mother 's death while she was touring with a play — de Havilland in fact had sent a telegram , which took two weeks to reach her sister . The sibling feud ended with Fontaine 's death on December 15 , 2013 . The following day , de Havilland released a statement saying she was " shocked and saddened " by the news .
= = Career assessment and legacy = =
De Havilland 's career spanned fifty @-@ three years , from 1935 to 1988 . During that time , she appeared in forty @-@ nine feature films , and was one of the leading movie stars during the golden age of Classical Hollywood . She began her career playing demure ingénues opposite popular male stars , including Errol Flynn , with whom she made her breakout film Captain Blood in 1935 . They would go on to make seven more feature films together , and became one of Hollywood 's most popular romantic on @-@ screen pairings . Her range of performances included roles in most major movie genres . Following her film debut in the Shakespeare adaptation A Midsummer Night 's Dream , de Havilland achieved her initial popularity in romantic comedies , such as The Great Garrick and Hard to Get , and Western adventure films , such as Dodge City and Santa Fe Trail . Her natural beauty and refined acting style made her particularly effective in historical period dramas , such as Anthony Adverse , The Adventures of Robin Hood , Gone with the Wind , and The Heiress , and romantic dramas , such as Hold Back the Dawn and To Each His Own . In her later career , she was most successful in drama films , such as In This Our Life and Light in the Piazza , and psychological dramas playing unglamorous characters in films such as The Dark Mirror , The Snake Pit , and Hush ... Hush , Sweet Charlotte .
During her career , de Havilland won two Academy Awards ( To Each His Own and The Heiress ) , two Golden Globe Awards ( The Heiress and Anastasia : The Mystery of Anna ) , two New York Film Critics Circle Awards ( The Snake Pit and The Heiress ) , the National Board of Review Award and the Venice Film Festival Volpi Cup ( The Snake Pit ) , and a Primetime Emmy Award nomination ( Anastasia : The Mystery of Anna ) .
For her contributions to the motion picture industry , de Havilland received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6762 Hollywood Boulevard on February 8 , 1960 . Since her retirement in 1988 , her lifetime contribution to the arts has been honored on two continents . In 1998 she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Hertfordshire in England .
In 2006 , she was inducted into the Online Film & Television Association Award Film Hall of Fame . On November 17 , 2008 , President George W. Bush presented de Havilland the National Medal of Arts , the highest honor given for achievement in the arts conferred to an individual artist on behalf of the American people . On September 9 , 2010 , de Havilland was appointed a Chevalier ( knight ) of the Légion d 'honneur , the highest decoration in France , awarded by French President Nicolas Sarkozy .
The moving image collection of Olivia de Havilland is held at the Academy Film Archive , which preserved a nitrate reel of a screen test for " Danton , " Max Reinhardt ’ s never @-@ produced follow @-@ up to “ A Midsummer Night ’ s Dream ” ( 1935 ) .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = Filmography = =
= New York State Route 590 =
New York State Route 590 ( NY 590 ) is a 4 @.@ 98 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 01 km ) north – south state highway located in the eastern suburbs of Rochester , New York , in the United States . The route is a limited @-@ access northward extension of Interstate 590 ( I @-@ 590 ) that begins at the Can of Worms , an interchange between I @-@ 490 , I @-@ 590 , and NY 590 on the boundary between the town of Brighton and the city of Rochester , and ends at a roundabout with Titus Avenue in the town of Irondequoit . NY 590 is known as the Sea Breeze Expressway , a name derived from the small community of Sea Breeze located near the highway 's former northern terminus at Culver Road near the southern shore of Lake Ontario .
The portion of NY 590 between the Can of Worms and NY 104 is part of the northeastern quadrant of the Rochester Outer Loop , a series of expressways that form a beltway around the city of Rochester . At NY 104 , the Outer Loop turns west to follow NY 104 through Irondequoit . The Sea Breeze Expressway was built in stages from the 1950s to the 1960s and carried various designations until 1970 , when the entirety of the Rochester – Sea Breeze highway was designated as part of NY 47 . It was redesignated as NY 590 in 1980 . In the late 2000s , the section of NY 590 north of Titus Avenue was reconfigured into a two @-@ lane road named Sea Breeze Drive , and NY 590 was truncated to end at Titus Avenue .
= = Route description = =
The four @-@ lane I @-@ 590 becomes NY 590 upon passing under I @-@ 490 at the Can of Worms on the eastern edge of Rochester . It heads northeast into Brighton and through the remainder of the interchange , passing under the ramp connecting I @-@ 490 west to I @-@ 590 south , the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision , and the ramps from NY 590 south to I @-@ 490 in succession before widening to six lanes and turning northward ahead of a diamond interchange with Blossom Road , once designated as NY 286A . Between Blossom Road and NY 286 ( Browncroft Boulevard ) , NY 590 slowly turns to the northwest , passing through densely populated neighborhoods located adjacent to the Rochester – Brighton boundary . It reaches the city line and reenters Rochester upon meeting NY 286 .
The lone portion of NY 590 within the city of Rochester runs due north – south , acting as a divider between residential neighborhoods to the west and the Irondequoit Creek valley ( much of which is part of Ellison Park ) to the east . Little more than a half mile after entering the city , NY 590 exits the city and enters the neighboring town of Irondequoit . Here , the freeway turns to the northwest to avoid the area surrounding the intersection of North Winton Road and NY 404 ( Empire Boulevard ) . After passing under North Winton Road , NY 590 resumes its northward trek and connects to NY 404 by way of a modified cloverleaf interchange . The expressway continues onward , separating a large residential area from Irondequoit Bay Park West as it progresses toward a northbound @-@ only exit with Norton Street . One half @-@ mile to the north of Norton , NY 590 meets NY 104 via a large interchange .
Due to the terrain surrounding the interchange and the location of the Irondequoit Bay Bridge , NY 104 is forced to run parallel to NY 590 for a short distance between the Keeler Street Expressway and NY 590 's next exit , a diamond interchange connecting to East Ridge Road . Through this stretch , NY 590 — now just four lanes wide — runs in between NY 104 westbound and NY 104 eastbound . At East Ridge Road , NY 104 turns to the northeast to cross Irondequoit Bay while NY 590 continues north through residential areas toward Sea Breeze . The road has an at @-@ grade intersection with Sunrise Crescent , a private residential street , before meeting Titus Avenue at a roundabout that serves as NY 590 's northern terminus . Past this point , the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 590 continues north to Culver Road at the Lake Ontario shoreline as a divided two @-@ lane street named Sea Breeze Drive .
Traveling southbound on NY 590 , two significant movements are restricted due to the composition of the expressway . One is at Blossom Road in Brighton , where traffic entering NY 590 southbound cannot access I @-@ 490 due to the location of the exit 5 ( left exit ) flyover , which begins north of the Blossom Road onramp . This movement was possible prior to the reconstruction of the Can of Worms , as the original connection point between the Sea Breeze Expressway and I @-@ 490 was south of the Blossom Road interchange . In Irondequoit , there are no southbound exits between East Ridge Road and NY 404 ; thus , there is no access to either NY 104 or Norton Street . An access road between NY 590 at Titus Avenue and the Irondequoit Bay Bridge was planned to provide access from NY 590 southbound to NY 104 eastbound and from NY 104 westbound to NY 590 northbound , but it was never completed .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and designation = = =
The origins of NY 590 date back to the start of the 1950s when work first began on the Sea Breeze Expressway , a part @-@ divided highway , part limited @-@ access highway that extended from Rochester north to the Lake Ontario shoreline at Sea Breeze . The highway was built in stages from north to south , with the first section — a divided highway connecting Culver Road to East Ridge Road in Irondequoit — opening to traffic in the early 1950s as a realignment of NY 18 . The northern end of the roadway was situated just west of the Irondequoit Bay outlet , where Irondequoit Bay meets Lake Ontario . Construction on the next segment , a limited @-@ access extension south to Empire Boulevard ( U.S. Route 104 or US 104 ) , began in the mid @-@ 1950s . The new roadway was completed in the late 1950s , at which time it became part of a rerouted US 104 .
By 1960 , construction was underway on the final piece , a second extension south to the Eastern Expressway ( I @-@ 490 ) in eastern Rochester . The under @-@ construction highway generally paralleled Winton Road , then designated as part of NY 47 . The new extension was completed c . 1961 , but went unnumbered until c . 1962 when NY 47 was realigned north of Blossom Road to follow the expressway north to the Empire Boulevard interchange , where it ended at US 104 . The remainder of the Sea Breeze Expressway from I @-@ 490 to Blossom Road became part of NY 47 c . 1965 following the completion of what is now I @-@ 590 from the Can of Worms to Elmwood Avenue .
From 1970 to 1980 , the Sea Breeze Expressway underwent a series of designation changes . On January 1 , 1970 , NY 47 was extended northward to encompass the entirety of the Sea Breeze Expressway . The change resulted in overlaps with US 104 from Empire Boulevard to the new Keeler Street Expressway , which was built south of Ridge Road in the late 1960s as a realignment of US 104 , and NY 18 from East Ridge Road to Culver Road , from where NY 18 continued east along Lake Road to Webster . Both overlaps proved to be temporary : US 104 was realigned c . 1971 to cross Irondequoit Bay on the Irondequoit Bay Bridge while NY 18 was truncated c . 1973 to end in Rochester 's Kodak Park .
In the late 1970s , the state of New York submitted a proposal to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials that would substantially alter how the Outer Loop was numbered . As part of the plan , the NY 47 designation would be eliminated while most of the northeastern section of the Outer Loop — from I @-@ 490 in Rochester to NY 104 ( former US 104 ) to Irondequoit — would become the northernmost part of I @-@ 590 . A replacement designation for NY 47 north of NY 104 was not named at the time . Most of the proposed changes took effect on March 18 , 1980 , when NY 47 was eliminated ; however , I @-@ 590 was modified to end at its junction with I @-@ 490 . In its place , the Rochester – Irondequoit leg of the Outer Loop was assigned NY 590 , which continued north to Sea Breeze over former NY 47 .
= = = Sea Breeze Drive = = =
= = = = Project origins = = = =
In 1995 , Irondequoit Town Supervisor David Schantz proposed the idea of converting the portion of NY 590 north of Titus Avenue into a parkway that would serve as a " gateway " into Irondequoit . He presented the idea to Jim Walsh , the United States Representative representing Irondequoit , who later secured $ 8 million from the federal government for the project . Another $ 4 @.@ 5 million of funding was also devoted to the project from the state of New York . Planning for the project began in mid @-@ 2004 . In late 2006 , the Irondeqout Town Board chose a configuration calling for the number of lanes on NY 590 to be reduced to two and for four intersections to be replaced with roundabouts as its " preferred alternative " .
The final project design was presented on February 6 , 2008 , in the last of five public meetings on the project . Under the plan , the section of NY 590 north of Titus Avenue would be reduced to a two @-@ lane , 25 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 40 km / h ) parkway and named " Sea Breeze Drive " . Its signalized intersections with Titus Avenue , Durand Boulevard , and Seneca and Point Pleasant Roads would be converted into roundabouts as part of the reconstruction . Also , the portion of NY 590 north of Durand Boulevard would be realigned to meet Culver Road at a new intersection farther west along the lakeshore . The realignment would open up 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) of waterfront land along the shore of Irondequoit Bay that had previously been occupied by the expressway . The town of Irondequoit would then acquire the former right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 590 from the state of New York for future recreational uses in a transaction that would officially cost the town $ 1 .
Public opinion on the proposed project was split . Many residents supported the project , stating it would improve the safety of the highway ; however , others believed that the reduction in lanes would result in increased traffic on Culver Road , which runs parallel to NY 590 through Irondequoit , and that the roundabouts would make navigating the highway difficult .
= = = = Construction = = = =
On July 15 , 2008 , the town of Irondequoit let a $ 12 @.@ 8 million contract for the Sea Breeze Drive project , a mark that was within the $ 14 million accumulated in funding by this time . Ground was officially broken on the project on July 28 as part of a ceremony attended by several Rochester @-@ area dignitaries . Among those present were Jim Walsh and David Schantz , both of whom played large roles in making the project a reality . The corridor was subsequently reduced to two lanes as the southbound lanes of NY 590 were reconfigured to handle both directions of traffic while work ensued on permanently narrowing the northbound lanes to a single lane . Northbound traffic on NY 590 was realigned to use the new northbound lane on August 17 , 2009 .
The first two of the roundabouts to reach operational status were those at Point Pleasant Road and Durand Boulevard . The Point Pleasant Road roundabout opened to traffic on September 8 , 2009 , by which time the Durand Boulevard roundabout was also ready for use . The Titus Avenue roundabout was completed in late 2009 , while work on the Seneca Road junction was delayed until October 2009 due to the proximity of the intersection to the side of the hill overlooking Irondequoit Bay . Although the original plans for the project had already accounted for the issue , the plans had to be revised to comply with new federal standards regarding the use of steel pilings for supporting the hillside . Work on the roundabout finally began on October 12 . The Seneca Road roundabout and the new alignment of Sea Breeze Drive north of Durand Boulevard were completed in the first half of 2010 .
The completion date for the project , dubbed " the largest public works project ever done in the town of Irondequoit " by then @-@ Town Supervisor Mary Ellen Heyman , was pushed back several times . It was originally set for May 2010 , but was subsequently pushed back to late August or early September . It was finally completed in October 2010 with the installation of a decorative ship mast structure at the Durand Boulevard roundabout . Following the project 's completion , NY 590 was truncated to Titus Avenue and ownership and maintenance of Sea Breeze Drive was transferred to the town of Irondequoit . According to New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) official Rick Papaj , the state turned Sea Breeze Drive over to the town because the portion of NY 590 north of Titus Avenue had low traffic volumes and was situated in a residential area . Papaj added , " [ the portion of NY 590 north of Titus Avenue ] didn 't make sense ( to us ) anymore . 590 effectively ends at Route 104 . "
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= United States rainfall climatology =
The characteristics of United States rainfall climatology differ significantly across the United States and those under United States sovereignty . Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western , southern , and southeast Alaska annually . During the winter , and spring , Pacific storm systems bring Hawaii and the western United States most of their precipitation . Nor 'easters moving down the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Carolinas , Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England states . Lake @-@ effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes , as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season . The snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States averages 13 : 1 , meaning 13 inches ( 330 mm ) of snow melts down to 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of water .
During the summer , the North American monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening air @-@ mass thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains . Equatorward of the subtropical ridge , tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern and eastern sections of the country , as well as Puerto Rico , the United States Virgin Islands , the Northern Mariana Islands , Guam , and American Samoa . Over the top of the ridge , the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes . Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains , Midwest , and Great Lakes during the warm season , contributing up to 10 % of the annual precipitation to the region .
The El Niño – Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution , by altering rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America , while droughts are becoming more frequent in the western portions .
= = General = =
The eastern part of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian , the mountains of the Pacific Northwest , the Willamette Valley , and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation , with average rainfall exceeding 30 inches ( 760 mm ) per year . The drier areas are the Desert Southwest , Great Basin , valleys of northeast Arizona , eastern Utah , and central Wyoming . Increased warming within urban heat islands leads to an increase in rainfall downwind of cities .
= = Alaska = =
Juneau averages over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) of precipitation a year , while other areas in southeast Alaska receive over 275 inches ( 6 @,@ 980 mm ) . South central Alaska does not get nearly as much rain as the southeast of Alaska , though it does get more snow . On average , Anchorage receives 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of precipitation a year , with around 75 inches ( 1 @,@ 905 mm ) of snow . The northern coast of the Gulf of Alaska receives up to 150 inches ( 3 @,@ 800 mm ) of precipitation annually . Across western sections of the state , the northern side of the Seward Peninsula is a desert with less than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation annually , while some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 540 mm ) of precipitation . Inland , often less than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) falls a year , but what precipitation falls during the winter tends to stay throughout the season . La Niña events lead to drier than normal conditions , while El Niño events do not have a correlation towards dry or wet conditions . Precipitation increases by 10 to 40 percent when the Pacific decadal oscillation is positive .
= = West = =
From September through May , extratropical cyclones from the Pacific Ocean move inland into the region due to a southward migration of the jet stream during the cold season . This shift in the jet stream brings much of the annual precipitation to the region , and also brings the potential for heavy rain events . The West Coast occasionally experiences ocean @-@ effect showers , usually in the form of rain at lower elevations south of the mouth of the Columbia River . These occur whenever an Arctic air mass from western Canada is drawn westward out over the Pacific Ocean , typically by way of the Fraser Valley , returning shoreward around a center of low pressure . Strong onshore flow is brought into the mountain ranges of the west , focusing significant precipitation into the Rocky Mountains , with rain shadows occurring in the Harney Basin , Great Basin , the central valley of California , and the lower Colorado River valley . In general , rainfall amounts are lower on the southern portions of the West coast . The biggest recipients of the precipitation are the coastal ranges such as the Olympic Mountains , the Cascades , and the Sierra Nevada range . Lesser amounts fall upon the Continental Divide . Cold @-@ season precipitation into this region is the main supply of water to area rivers , such as the Colorado River and Rio Grande , and also acts as the main source of water to people living in this portion of the United States . During El Niño events , increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly , zonal , storm track . California also enters a wet pattern when thunderstorm activity within the tropics associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation nears 150E longitude . During La Niña , increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track .
= = = Lake @-@ effect snow off Great Salt Lake = = =
The southern and southeastern sides of the Great Salt Lake receive significant lake @-@ effect snow . Since the Great Salt Lake never freezes , the lake @-@ effect can affect the weather along the Wasatch Front year around . The lake @-@ effect largely contributes to the 55 inches ( 140 cm ) to 80 inches ( 200 cm ) annual snowfall amounts recorded south and east of the lake , with average snowfall amounts exceeding 600 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 cm ) in the Wasatch Mountains . The snow , which is often very light and dry due to the desert climate , is referred to as " The Greatest Snow on Earth " in the mountains . Lake @-@ effect snow contributes to approximately 6 @-@ 8 snowfalls per year in Salt Lake City , with approximately 10 % of the city 's precipitation being contributed by the phenomenon .
= = = North American Monsoon = = =
The North American Monsoon ( NAM ) occurs from early July into September , originating over Mexico and spreading into the southwest United States by mid @-@ July . This allows the wet season to start in the Southwest during the summer rather than early fall as seen across the remainder of the West . Within the United States , it affects Arizona , New Mexico , Nevada , Utah , Colorado , West Texas , and California . The North American monsoon is known to many as the Summer , Southwest , Mexican or Arizona monsoon . It is also sometimes called the Desert Monsoon as a large part of the affected area is desert .
When precipitable water values near 1 @.@ 32 inches ( 34 mm ) , brief but often torrential thunderstorms can occur , especially over mountainous terrain . This activity is occasionally enhanced by the passage of retrograding ( westward @-@ moving ) upper cyclones moving under the subtropical ridge and the entrainment of the remnants of tropical storms . Tropical cyclones from the eastern Pacific contribute to the moisture within the monsoon system , and bring up to 20 percent of the average annual rainfall to southern California . Flash flooding is a serious danger during the monsoon season . Dry washes can become raging rivers in an instant , even when no storms are visible as a storm can cause a flash flood tens of miles away . Lightning strikes are also a significant danger . Because it is dangerous to be caught in the open when these storms suddenly appear , many golf courses in Arizona have thunderstorm warning systems .
As much as 45 % of the annual rainfall across New Mexico occurs during the summer monsoon . Many desert plants are adapted to take advantage of this brief wet season . Because of the monsoons , the Sonoran and Mojave are considered relatively " wet " when ranked among other deserts such as the Sahara . Monsoons play a vital role in managing wildfire threat by providing moisture at higher elevations and feeding desert streams . Heavy monsoon rain can lead to excess winter plant growth , in turn a summer wildfire risk . A lack of monsoon rain can hamper summer seeding , reducing excess winter plant growth but worsening drought .
= = Great Plains = =
Downslope winds off the Rocky Mountains can aid in forming the dry line . Major drought episodes in the midwestern United States are associated with an amplification of the upper tropospheric subtropical ( or monsoon ) ridge across the West and Plains , along with a weakening of the western edge of the " Bermuda high " . During the summer , a southerly low @-@ level jet draws moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Additional moisture comes from more local sources , especially transpiring vegetation . Maximum precipitation generally occurs in late spring and early summer , with minimum precipitation in winter . During La Niña events , the storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions ( in the form of increased snowfall ) to the Midwestern states , as well as hot and dry summers .
The convective season for the Plains ranges between May and September . Organized systems of thunderstorms known as mesoscale convective systems develop over the region during this period , with a bulk of the activity occurring between midnight and 6 a.m. local time . The time of maximum precipitation during the day gradually varies from late afternoon near the slopes of the Rockies to early morning near the Ohio River valley , in part reflecting the west @-@ to @-@ east propagation of mesoscale convective systems . Mesoscale convective systems bring 30 to 70 percent of the annual warm season rainfall to the Plains . An especially long @-@ lived and well @-@ organized type of mesoscale convective system called a mesoscale convective complex produces on average 8 % to 18 % of the annual warm season rainfall across the Plains and Midwest . Squall lines account for 30 % of the large thunderstorm complexes which move through the region .
= = Gulf Coast and Southeast = =
= = = Cold season = = =
The subtropical jet stream brings in upper level moisture from the Pacific Ocean during the cold season . Ahead of storm systems , significant moisture becomes drawn in from the Gulf of Mexico , which increases moisture within the atmospheric column and leads to precipitation ahead of extratropical cyclones . During the El Niño portion of ENSO , increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal , and more southerly , polar jet stream . Rare ocean effect snows are possible along the coast of eastern Florida . In the area around Memphis , Tennessee and across the state of Mississippi , there are two rainfall maxima in the winter and spring . Across Georgia and South Carolina , the first of the annual precipitation maxima occurs in late winter , during February or March . Alabama has an annual rainfall maximum in winter or spring and a dry summer .
= = = Warm season = = =
During the summer , the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean strengthens , bringing in increasingly humid air from the warm Atlantic , Caribbean , and Gulf of Mexico . Once precipitable water values exceed 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) , afternoon and evening thunderstorms break out at the western periphery of the subtropical ridge across the Southeast on a daily basis . Summer is the time of the second rainfall maximum during the year across Georgia , and the time of the main rainfall maximum in Florida . Evidence shows that increased air pollution is causing rainfall to reach a maximum in intensity during the middle of the week . During the late summer and fall , tropical cyclones move into the region from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico , supplying portions of the area with one @-@ quarter of their annual rainfall , on average . Fall is the time of the rainfall minimum across Louisiana . Sometimes , Gulf moisture sneaks up the Front Range of Rockies as far north as the northern High Plains , bringing higher dewpoint air into states such as Wyoming and Montana .
= = Great Lakes = =
= = = Cold season = = =
Extratropical cyclones can bring moderate to heavy snowfall during the cold season . On the backside of these systems , particularly those moving through the eastern United States , lake effect snowfall is possible . Low level cold in the winter sweeping in from Canada combine with relatively warmer , unfrozen lakes to produce dramatic lake @-@ effect snow on the eastern and southern shores of the Great Lakes . Lake @-@ effect precipitation produces a significant difference between the snowfall around the Great Lakes , sometimes within small distances . Lake effect snowfall accounts for 30 to 60 percent of the annual snowfall near the coasts of the Great Lakes . Lake Erie has the distinction of being the only great lake capable of completely freezing over during the winter due to its relative shallowness . Once frozen , the resulting ice cover alleviates lake @-@ effect snow downwind of the lake . The influence of the Great Lakes allows the region to lie within a Humid Continental Climate regime .
= = = Warm season = = =
Late spring through summer is the wettest time of the year for the region . Weather systems in the westerlies that cause precipitation move along jet stream , which migrates north into the region by summer . This also increases the likelihood for severe weather to develop due to stronger upper @-@ level divergence in its vicinity . Mesoscale convective complexes move into the region from the Plains from May through August , with June the peak month for Michigan . These systems contribute about 2 % of the annual precipitation for the region . Also , remnants of tropical cyclones occasionally move northward into the region , though their overall contribution to precipitation across the region is minimal . From the spring through the summer , areas near the shores of the relatively cooler Great Lakes develop sea breezes , which lowers
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rainfall amounts near the immediate coastline .
= = Northeast = =
Average precipitation across the region show maxima along the coastal plain and along the mountains of the Appalachians . Between 28 inches ( 710 mm ) and 62 inches ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) of precipitation falls annually across the area . Seasonally , there are slight changes to precipitation distribution through the year . For example , Burlington , Vermont has a summer maximum and a winter minimum . In contrast , Portland , Maine has a fall and winter maximum , with a summer minimum in precipitation . Temporally , a maximum in precipitation is seen around three peak times : 3 a.m. , 10 a.m. , and 6 p.m. During the summer , the 6 p.m. peak is most pronounced .
= = = Cold season = = =
Coastal extratropical cyclones , known as nor 'easters , bring a bulk of the wintry precipitation to the region during the cold season as they track parallel to the coastline , forming along the natural temperature gradient of the Gulf stream before moving up the coastline . The Appalachian Mountains largely shield New York City and Philadelphia from picking up any lake @-@ effect snow , though ocean @-@ effect snows are possible near Cape Cod . The Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake @-@ effect precipitation . Lake @-@ effect snow from the Finger Lakes occurs in upstate New York until those lakes freeze over . Bay @-@ effect snows fall downwind of Delaware Bay , Chesapeake Bay , and Massachusetts Bay when the basic criteria are met . Ocean effect snows are possible downwind of the Gulf Stream across the Southeast .
= = = Warm season = = =
During the summer and early fall , mesoscale convective systems can move into the area from Canada and the Great Lakes . Tropical cyclones and their remains occasionally move into the region from the south and southwest . Recently , the region has experienced a couple heavy rainfall events that exceeded the 50 @-@ year return period , during October 1996 and October 1998 , which suggest an increase in heavy rainfall along the coast .
= = Pacific islands = =
= = = Hawaii = = =
Snow , although not usually associated with tropics , falls at higher elevations on the Big Island , on Mauna Loa as well as Mauna Kea , which reaches an altitude of 13 @,@ 796 feet ( 4 @,@ 205 m ) in some winter months . Snow only rarely falls on Maui 's Haleakala . Mount Waiʻaleʻale ( Waiʻaleʻale ) , on the island of Kauai , is notable for its extreme rainfall , as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth , with 460 inches ( 12 @,@ 000 mm ) . Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March . Showers are common across the island chain , but thunderstorms are relatively rare . Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography , divisible into windward ( Koʻolau ) and leeward ( Kona ) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains . The Kona coast is the only area in Hawaii with a summer precipitation maximum . Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall ; leeward sides are drier and sunnier , with less rain and less cloud cover . In the late winter and spring during El Niño events , drier than average conditions can be expected in Hawaii .
= = = Northern Marianas = = =
The islands have a tropical marine climate moderated by seasonal northeast trade winds . There is a dry season which stretches from December to June , and a rainy season from July to November . Saipan 's average annual precipitation is 82 @.@ 36 inches ( 2 @,@ 092 mm ) , with 67 percent falling during the rainy season . Typhoons frequent the island chain , which can lead to excessive rainfall .
= = = Guam = = =
Guam 's climate is moderated by east to northeast trade winds through the year . The average annual rainfall for the island is 86 inches ( 2 @,@ 200 mm ) . There is a distinct dry season from January to June , and a rainy season from July to December . Typhoons frequent the island , which can lead to excessive rainfall . During El Niño years , dry season precipitation averages below normal . However , the threat of a tropical cyclone is over triple what is normal during El Niño years , so extreme shorter duration rainfall events are possible .
= = = American Samoa = = =
American Samoa 's climate regime is dominated by southeast trade winds . The island dependency is wet , with annual rainfall averaging near 120 inches ( 3 @,@ 000 mm ) at the airport , with amounts closer to 200 inches ( 5 @,@ 100 mm ) in other areas . There is a distinct rainy season when tropical cyclones occasionally visit between November and April . The dry season lasts from May to October . During El Niño events , precipitation averages about 10 percent above normal , while La Niña events lead to precipitation amounts which average close to 10 percent below normal .
= = Atlantic islands = =
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
There is a pronounced rainy season from April to November across the commonwealth , encompassing the annual hurricane season . Due to the commonwealth 's topography , rainfall varies greatly across the island . Pico del Este averages 171 @.@ 09 inches ( 4 @,@ 346 mm ) of rainfall yearly while Magueyes Island averages only 29 @.@ 32 inches ( 745 mm ) a year . Despite known changes in tropical cyclone activity due to changes in the El Niño / Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , there is no known relationship between rainfall in Puerto Rico and the ENSO cycle . However , when values of the North Atlantic oscillation are high during the winter , precipitation is lower than average for Puerto Rico . There have not been any documented cases of snow falling within Puerto Rico , though occasionally it is brought in from elsewhere as a publicity stunt .
= = = United States Virgin Islands = = =
The climate of the United States Virgin Islands has sustained easterly trade winds through the year . There is a rainy season which lasts from September to November , when hurricanes are more prone to visit the island chain . The average rainfall through the island chain ranges from 51 @.@ 55 inches ( 1 @,@ 309 mm ) at Annually to 37 @.@ 79 inches ( 960 mm ) at East Hill .
= = Changes due to global warming = =
Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation . As average global temperatures have risen , average global precipitation has also increased . Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30 ° N from 1900 to 2005 , but declined over the tropics since the 1970s . Eastern portions of North America have become wetter . There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century , as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts — especially in the tropics and subtropics . Over the contiguous United States , total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6 @.@ 1 percent per century since 1900 , with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region ( 11 @.@ 6 percent per century ) and the South ( 11 @.@ 1 percent ) . Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease ( − 9 @.@ 25 percent ) . From this excess precipitation , crop losses are expected to increase by US $ 3 billion ( 2002 dollars ) annually over the next 30 years .
= Tropical Storm Toraji ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Toraji was a short @-@ lived and minimal tropical cyclone that brought inundating rainfall to areas of Southeast Asia in July 2007 . The name Toraji was contributed to the western Pacific typhoon naming list by North Korea and stands for a broad bell flower ( Playtycodon gradniflorus ) . The third named storm of the annual typhoon season , Toraji developed from an area of disturbed weather within the South China Sea on July 4 . As a result of its northwesterly track , the tropical depression moved over Hainan shortly after tropical cyclogenesis . Upon its emergence into the Gulf of Tonkin on July 5 , Toraji quickly intensified into a tropical storm with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) ; this would be the tropical cyclone 's peak intensity for its entire duration . However , the JMA indicated that tropical storm intensity had been reached a day earlier . On the evening of July 5 , Toraji made its final landfall on Dongxing , Guangxi before rapidly deteriorating inland and degenerating into a remnant low @-@ pressure area by the following day .
During its two @-@ day duration , Toraji brought heavy rainfall to areas of southeastern China and Vietnam . Prior to impacting China , 147 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from potentially affected regions . In that country , the storm 's effects were spread out over a 800 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km2 ( 310 @,@ 000 – 460 @,@ 000 sq mi ) area . The torrential rainfall produced by the tropical storm damaged agricultural land and destroyed several hundred homes , while damaging many more . Total damage in China was estimated at CN ¥ 73 million ( $ 9 @.@ 6 million ) . Despite making landfall near the border of Vietnam and China , effects in the former were generally minimal . However , several fishing boats capsized offshore ; these sinkings did not result in any deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early July 2007 , an area of disturbed weather began to persist in the South China Sea roughly 155 mi ( 250 km ) southeast of Hainan . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 3 after the storm had organized sufficiently , however , other tracking agencies did not indicate that tropical cyclogenesis had occurred at the time . However , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to monitor the disturbance for potential signs of tropical cyclogenesis at 0100 UTC later that day , At the time , the storm system was situated in an area of weak to moderate wind shear , exposing the disturbance 's low @-@ level circulation center . Despite the prevailing conditions and proximity to land , the storm continued to organize , and as such the JTWC issued a tropical cyclone formation alert for the system at 0130 UTC the following day .
As it tracked in a general northwesterly direction , intensification continued , and both the JMA and JTWC consequently upgraded the disturbance to tropical storm intensity at 0600 UTC on July 4 , giving the storm the name Toraji . Meanwhile , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) upgraded the same system to tropical depression status . At the same time , Toraji made its first landfall on Hainan Island . According to the JMA , the tropical storm had winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) . As the cyclone passed over the island , Toraji weakened marginally , and whilst the HKO and JMA maintained their prior intensities for the system , the JTWC downgraded Toraji to tropical depression status at 1800 UTC before a subsequent re @-@ upgrade as the cyclone emerged into the Gulf of Tonkin early the following day . Once over open water , modest intensification ensued , with the storm reaching peak intensity at 1800 UTC on July 4 with winds still at 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 36 inHg ) . Six hours later on the following day , the HKO upgraded Toraji to tropical storm intensity . After having tracked north @-@ northwestward along the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , Toraji made its final landfall near Cẩm Phả , Vietnam at approximately 1200 UTC on July 5 at the same intensity . Six hours later , all three agencies downgraded Toraji to tropical depression intensity . By that time , the JTWC had ceased the issuance of tropical cyclone products on the storm . However , the JMA and HKO continued to monitor the system until 0000 UTC on July 5 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the impending threat of Toraji , Chinese officials evacuated over 147 @,@ 000 people from areas potentially affected by the cyclone . Upon making its first landfall in China , Toraji became the first of six tropical cyclones to move ashore the country in the first three quarters of 2007 . The system 's effects were spread out over a region approximately 800 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km2 ( 310 @,@ 000 – 460 @,@ 000 sq mi ) in area . In Guangxi , Toraji caused extensive impacts . In Dongxing , a weather station clocked gusts peaking at 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Associated rains destroyed approximately 16 @,@ 600 acres ( 6 @,@ 700 ha ) of farm and agricultural land , and the resulting flooding caused the collapse of 376 homes . An additional 946 residences sustained at least partial damage . In China , the total economic loss resulting from Toraji was estimated at approximately CN ¥ 73 million ( $ 9 @.@ 6 million ) .
In preparation for the tropical storm , the Government of Vietnam redirected all boats back to port in Ha Long Bay . A hundred people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas prone to landslides . Off of Vietnam , late reports indicated that several small fishing vessels were sunk by Toraji in Quảng Ninh Province , located in the northern part of the country . However , no deaths resulted in these sinkings . On Bach Long Vi , a station recorded 152 mm ( 5 @.@ 98 in ) of rain . Further inland , damage from Toraji in Vietnam remained generally minimal . Throughout northern areas of the country , an average of 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) of rain fell , leading to flooding and landslides . At least 27 homes were damaged and 13 others were destroyed by the storm , leaving millions of Vietnamese dong in losses . A power station at a nearby military base was also damaged during the storm , causing roughly ₫ 40 million ( US $ 2 @,@ 240 ) in damage .
= Dartford Crossing =
The Dartford @-@ Thurrock River Crossing , commonly known as the Dartford Crossing and until 1991 the Dartford Tunnel , is a major road crossing of the River Thames in England , connecting Dartford in Kent to the south to Thurrock in Essex to the north . It consists of two bored tunnels and the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge , a cable stayed bridge . The only fixed road crossing of the Thames east of Greater London , it is the busiest estuarial crossing in the United Kingdom , with an average daily use of over 130 @,@ 000 vehicles . It opened in stages : the west tunnel in 1963 , the east tunnel in 1980 and the bridge in 1991 . The crossing forms part of the M25 motorway 's route , though it is not under motorway restrictions itself . It has been described as one of the most important road crossings in Britain , and suffers from heavy traffic and congestion .
The crossing 's development started in the late 1930s , but was interrupted due to the Second World War and resumed in the 1950s . The original tunnel catered for a single lane of traffic in each direction , but rising traffic levels required the second tunnel to be built . The M25 connected to the tunnels at both ends when completed in 1986 , and this increased traffic put pressure on the tunnels ' capacity . A Private Finance Initiative scheme was started in 1988 to build the bridge . The combined crossing now handles four lanes of traffic in each direction .
The crossing had always been tolled , and from 1 April 2003 this became a charge , though since 2008 it has been free from 10 pm to 6 am . An electronic charging scheme ( Dart Charge ) began in November 2014 . As a result , the charge can no longer be paid in cash and the old toll booths have been removed . A residents ' scheme is available , offering further discounts for people living near the crossing .
= = Location = =
The crossing spans the River Thames between Dartford , Kent , to the south and Thurrock , Essex , to the north . It is about 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of the centre of London , outside the Greater London boundary . The two tunnels are 1 @,@ 430 metres ( 4 @,@ 690 ft ) long , while the cable @-@ stayed bridge is 137 metres ( 449 ft ) high with a main span of 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) . The high @-@ speed rail line High Speed 1 from St Pancras International Station to Ebbsfleet International Station passes under the crossing approach roads on the north side of the river , at a near right angle .
The design capacity is 135 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , but in practice the crossing can carry as much as 160 @,@ 000 . It has been described by the Highways Agency as " a vital transport link for the national and South East economies " and by the Secretary of State for Transport , Patrick McLoughlin as " a crucial part of the country ’ s strategic road network " . It is signed as a major destination on London 's orbital route , the M25 , though the crossing and its approach road are an all @-@ purpose road ( the A282 ) , allowing traffic prohibited from motorways to use it . Southbound traffic crosses the four lane bridge , while northbound traffic uses both of the two lane road tunnels . However , the bridge is sometimes closed due to bad weather , such as high winds , or for maintenance . On these occasions , traffic uses the tunnels in both directions .
= = = Alternative routes = = =
The crossing is the easternmost road crossing of the River Thames , and the only one that is east of Greater London . The next nearest vehicle crossings to the west are the Woolwich Ferry and the Blackwall Tunnel , both well within East London . There is no official diversion route through London for high vehicles . When the bridge is closed , vehicles over 5 @.@ 03 metres ( 16 @.@ 5 ft ) are diverted around the M25 in the opposite direction .
A number of new crossings have been proposed as relief for the Dartford Crossing . The proposed Thames Gateway Bridge to the west was given planning permission in December 2004 , but was cancelled in November 2008 when Boris Johnson became Mayor of London . Johnson subsequently proposed the Gallions Reach Ferry , a ferry crossing in the same location , as an alternative . The Lower Thames Crossing is a proposal for an alternative crossing , most likely a tunnel , to the east . Thurrock Council suggest that this crossing will be essential for managing congestion . In July 2014 , the government announced it would develop further plans for an alternative route . Option A is an additional crossing at the current location , while option C is a new crossing east of Gravesend .
= = Charges = =
A free @-@ flow electronic charging system called Dart Charge came into force in November 2014 based on automatic number plate recognition . The charge can be paid online , by text message or by phone in advance or by midnight the day after crossing , but can no longer be paid in cash since the old toll booths have been removed . Charges are payable between 6am and 10pm and this is indicated on overhead @-@ gantry signs . The schedule of charge , however , is not displayed at any location on either of the approaching roads . Reduced charges are available to users with a pre @-@ pay account and holders of DART @-@ Tags , a device held in a vehicle that is detected at the payment booth , automatically deducting the charge from a pre @-@ paid account . The charges for the crossing as of November 2014 are as follows :
The charge payment booths for both directions of travel are located on the south side of the crossing . Various categories of vehicles are exempt from the charge , including emergency services vehicles , military vehicles and those exempt from Vehicle Excise Duty on the grounds of disability . The charge may generally be suspended when it would ease congestion , such as when there is a continuous queue of traffic travelling under 10 mph from either junction 4 ( between Sevenoaks and Bromley ) or junction 28 ( near Brentwood ) on the M25 .
The charges vary according to the type of vehicle . Motorcycles are free but there are standard charges for cars , two @-@ axle goods vehicles and larger vehicles with more than two axles . Drivers who fail to pay the charge are issued with a penalty charge notice . There are no signs warning of penalty charges .
Since 2008 , a local residents ' scheme gives 50 free crossings to car drivers resident in the Dartford and Thurrock council areas for an annual registration fee of £ 10 , with additional crossings at 20p each . On 1 March 2014 , this scheme was extended to include privately owned 2 @-@ axle goods vehicles . A further option was introduced giving unlimited free crossings for £ 20 annually .
= = History = =
= = = First tunnel = = =
The idea of a tunnel crossing was first proposed by the Ministry of Transport in 1924 . Initial reports at the start of the year suggested a crossing between Tilbury and Gravesend , replacing a ferry service , but this had been rejected by July in favour of a route further upstream , near Dartford . By 1929 , the total cost of building the tunnel had been estimated at £ 3M . The tunnel was planned to be part of a general orbital route around London and was provisionally known as part of the " South Orbital Road " .
The first engineering work to take place was a compressed air driven pilot tunnel , which was drilled between 1936 and 1938 . Work on the tunnel was delayed due to World War II , and resumed in 1959 , using a Greathead Shield , similar to the work on the Blackwall Tunnel some 60 years earlier . The delay in work due to the war allowed the tunnel 's design to be improved , which included a better ventilation system . After negotiations with the Ministry of Transport , Kent and Essex County Councils successfully levied a toll on the tunnel in 1960 , before opening . The two @-@ lane bore tunnel opened to traffic on 18 November 1963 , costing £ 13M . It initially served approximately 12 @,@ 000 vehicles per day .
The toll was originally two shillings and sixpence , equivalent to 12.5p post @-@ decimalisation , and approximately equivalent in purchasing power to £ 2 @.@ 00 in 2015 . The Dartford Tunnel Act 1967 gave Kent and Essex County Councils authority to change the tolls , and in December 1977 , the toll was raised from 25p to 35p for cars , 40p to 55p for 2 axle goods vehicles , and 60p to 85p for HGVs . By 1984 , the toll for cars had risen to 60p .
= = = Second tunnel = = =
The tunnel was expected to carry two million vehicles a year but by 1970 was carrying over eight million . That year , Michael Heseltine , then a transport minister , announced that a second tunnel would be built in conjunction with the North Orbital Road , later to become the M25 .
Construction was approved in April 1971 , with an initial expected opening date in 1976 . Work was delayed due to a lack of funds , which was resolved by EEC funding granted in 1974 . The second tunnel opened in May 1980 , allowing each tunnel to handle one direction of traffic , by which time the joint capacity of the two tunnels had increased to 65 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . Connection of the crossing to the M25 was completed on the northerly Essex side in September 1982 ( Junction 31 ) , and to the southerly Kent side in September 1986 ( Junction 1a ) . Following the completion of the M25 in 1986 , the daily demand had grown to 79 @,@ 000 vehicles .
= = = Queen Elizabeth II Bridge = = =
During the early 1980s , it was anticipated that traffic through the tunnel would rise on the completion of the M25 in 1986 . At the time , the expectation was that other routes in London would be improved instead , diverting 15 % of traffic away from the tunnel . In 1985 , the Transport Minister , Lynda Chalker , announced that the number of toll booths would be increased to 12 each way , but concern grew that two tunnels would not be able to cope with the full demands of a completed M25 .
Between September 1985 and December 1986 , proposals for improvements to the Dartford Crossing underwent several changes , and in 1986 , a Trafalgar House consortium won a bid to build a new bridge at Dartford crossing , valued at £ 86M . At the time there were several other privately financed projects planned or under construction in the UK , including the Second Severn Crossing . From 1981 until the establishment of the Private Finance Initiatives ( PFIs ) in the late 1980s , private investment projects were governed by the Ryrie Rules which dictated that " any privately @-@ financed solution must be shown to be more cost @-@ effective than a publicly @-@ financed alternative , and that privately @-@ financed expenditure by nationalised industries could not be additional to public expenditure provision , which would be reduced by the amount of private financed borrowed . "
On 31 July 1988 , a Private Finance Initiative concession was enabled under the Dartford @-@ Thurrock Crossing Act 1988 , which transferred control of the crossing from Kent and Essex county councils to Dartford River Crossing Limited , a private company managed by Rodney Jones . The company would also bear the debt of the bridge , then under construction , " financed 100 % by debt , with no equity contribution " . The private company was at risk of not recuperating their costs , but ultimately the Dartford scheme demonstrated that the Ryrie Rules were no longer a barrier to the private financing of public infrastructure projects . The concession was scheduled for 20 years from the transfer date , with a stipulation that it could end when debts had been paid off , which was agreed to have been achieved on 31 March 2002 . According to the International Handbook on Public @-@ Private Partnership , the chief financing for the project came from a " 20 @-@ year subordinated loan stock , 16 @-@ year loan stock and £ 85 million as a term loan from banks " .
Construction of bridge started immediately after the creation of the PFI in 1988 . It was designed by German engineer Hellmut Homberg , and the two main caissons supporting the bridge piers were constructed in the Netherlands . Each caisson was designed to withstand a bridge strike of a ship weighing up to 65 @,@ 000 tonnes and travelling up to 18 @.@ 5 kilometres per hour ( 11 @.@ 5 mph ) The towers are about 61 metres ( 200 ft ) high , and it took a team of around 56 to assemble the bridge structure . During construction of the approach road , a World War II bomb was found in its path , which required closure of the entire crossing .
The bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 30 October 1991 . The total cost of construction was £ 120 million ( £ 246 million as of 2015 ) , including £ 30m for the approach roads . The proposed name had been simply the Dartford Bridge , but Thurrock residents objected and suggested the Tilbury Bridge , leading to a compromise . At the time of opening , it had the longest cable @-@ stayed span of any bridge in Europe . It is the only bridge across the Thames downstream of Central London to be opened since Tower Bridge in 1894 .
= = = Charging scheme = = =
In 2000 , the European Union issued a directive that value @-@ added tax should be charged on all road tolls , including the Dartford Crossing . The Government opposed the directive and said it would bear the additional cost . It was anticipated that the tolls would be removed on 1 April 2003 under the original PFI scheme contract . However , the Highways Agency decided that the tolls would become a " charge " , under a charging scheme under powers introduced by the Transport Act 2000 to introduce charging schemes on any trunk road bridge or tunnel at least 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in length .
Under the 2000 Transport Act , the A282 Trunk Road ( Dartford @-@ Thurrock Crossing charging scheme ) Order 2002 allowed the continuation of the crossing fee , which officially became a charge and not a toll on 1 April 2003 . Management of the crossing was contracted to Le Crossing Company Limited on behalf of the Highways Agency . In September 2009 the Highways Agency made a new contract with Connect Plus ( M25 ) Limited . As well as maintaining the crossing , the contract required the company to widen around 40 miles of the M25 and to refurbish a tunnel on the A1 ( M ) at Hatfield . In October 2009 , the Government announced its intention to sell the crossing as part of a public sector deficit reduction strategy . The announcement was unpopular with local residents , who encouraged drivers to sound their horns in protest when using the crossing . After the change of government following the 2010 Election , the new prime minister David Cameron announced that the crossing might still be sold , despite local opposition , particularly from Gareth Johnson , member of parliament for Dartford . Subsequently , the chancellor George Osborne announced that charges would be increased instead to cover the budget deficit .
Under the 2008 Charging Order introduced on 15 November 2008 , charges between 10pm and 6am were discontinued , but standard daytime rates increased , starting at £ 1 @.@ 50 for cars . On 7 October 2012 the charges increased to £ 2 for cars , £ 2 @.@ 50 for 2 axle goods vehicles and £ 5 for multi @-@ axle goods vehicles . By 2012 , local businesses were complaining that the crossing 's charge booths were impeding local growth . The government announced that a new electronic charging system would be introduced in 2014 . Drivers would be able to pay by phone , text , online or in shops . The charge is proposed to increase to £ 2 @.@ 50 for cars , £ 3 for 2 @-@ axle goods vehicles and £ 6 for multi @-@ axle vehicles . A later report stated that drivers evading the charge could be fined as much as £ 105 .
Preparation work on the free @-@ flow scheme started in April 2014 . Concerns have been raised about reliability , with a Highways Agency report predicting that it could lose up to £ 6m of unpaid charges per year . In September , the Highways Agency announced that the new scheme would start to operate at the end of November , though related works to remove barriers would continue until April 2015 . Subsequently , the date for removal of the booths was confirmed as 30 November . Drivers can browse to the official charge website and pay for credits to use the crossing at a discount .
= = Traffic = =
A total of 1 @,@ 486 @,@ 929 @,@ 267 vehicles have used the crossing as of 31 March 2014 . The highest recorded daily usage was 181 @,@ 990 vehicles on 23 July 2004 ; since then traffic levels have decreased . From April 2013 to March 2014 , 49 @,@ 645 @,@ 356 vehicles used the crossing : a daily average of 136 @,@ 015 vehicles . The total income for the financial year ended 31 March 2012 was £ 72 @,@ 147 @,@ 091 , while the corresponding figure for the following financial year was £ 80 @,@ 331 @,@ 662 .
Bicycles are not permitted on the crossing , but cyclists can be carried across the crossing by the transport authority at no charge . Cyclists report to the crossing control offices on either side , using a free telephone service . The transfer takes around 15 to 30 minutes .
In October 1963 , London Transport ordered five double decker buses based on the Ford Thames Trader chassis for special duties , taking cyclists through the Dartford Tunnel . These had a lower deck purpose @-@ built for carrying bicycles , with upper deck seats for cyclists . Access was via a stairwell to the upper deck starting several feet above the level of the road , accessible from special platforms built at either end of the tunnel ; there was also a ladder built into the side of the bodywork for access elsewhere . The design was criticised for failing to protect any passenger from falling off the vehicle , and running costs were estimated at £ 2 @,@ 550 per month , with only £ 45 revenue . The service was reduced to one bus in April 1964 and then cancelled in 1965 , to be replaced by the current transfer service . One of these buses has been preserved .
The transport of hazardous goods through the crossing is governed by the European ADR Agreement . The Dartford Crossing is class C , which restricts transporting goods such as nitrates and flammable liquids . The introduction of the ADR scheme initially caused confusion , and for a short time , transporting aerosols through the tunnel was banned . Certain hazardous goods vehicles , together with some oversize and abnormal loads ( if permitted ) may require escorting by Highways Agency Traffic Officers . The crossing authority must hold exercises in conjunction with the emergency services . In 2006 Exercise Orpheus was held , involving the closure of both road tunnels for five hours .
The tunnel is patrolled by Highways Agency Traffic Officers . Officers may stop and direct traffic on the crossing and its approach roads , and must be in uniform to exercise their powers . The crossing is subject to a 50 mph speed limit for all vehicles , which is enforced by safety cameras . Between October 2012 and June 2014 , 24 @,@ 229 drivers were caught speeding , with some travelling as fast as 94 mph . A spokesman from the Highways Agency said the cameras were " helping us improve safety and make journeys more reliable " .
= = = Congestion = = =
The crossing is the busiest in the United Kingdom . Because the design capacity has been exceeded , the crossing is subject to major traffic congestion and disruption , particularly when parts are closed because of accidents or bad weather . Though the Government was adamant that the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge should be designed to avoid closure due to high winds , the bridge has nevertheless had to close on occasions . In February 2014 , during the winter storms , it was closed on the 12th owing to 60 mph winds , and again on the evening of 13th – 14th .
At busy times there was significant delay at the payment booths when these existed . There are numerous junctions on either side of the crossing , and because it is not under motorway restrictions , a high proportion of local traffic mixes with long distance traffic , for example travelling from the North and Midlands onwards to Continental Europe . In 2004 , a BBC survey reported that the crossing was " the most stressful section of the M25 " while in 2009 , the crossing was listed in a Royal Automobile Club report as the fourth most congested road in Britain . Though Highways England have reported greatly improved journey times since automatic charging was introduced , Gareth Johnson claims otherwise and has insisted that the Lower Thames Crossing , along with improved signing around Dartford , are better options to reduce congestion .
= Queen 's University =
Queen 's University at Kingston ( commonly shortened to Queen 's University or Queen 's ) is a public research university located in Kingston , Ontario , Canada . Founded on 16 October 1841 via a royal charter issued by Queen Victoria , the university predates the founding of Canada by 26 years . Queen 's holds more than 1 @,@ 400 hectares ( 3 @,@ 500 acres ) of land throughout Ontario and owns Herstmonceux Castle in East Sussex , England . Queen 's is organized into ten undergraduate , graduate and professional faculties and schools .
The Church of Scotland established Queen 's College in 1841 with a royal charter from Queen Victoria . The first classes , intended to prepare students for the ministry , were held 7 March 1842 with 13 students and two professors . Queen 's was the first university west of the maritime provinces to admit women , and to form a student government . In 1883 , a women 's college for medical education affiliated with Queen 's University was established . In 1888 , Queen 's University began offering extension courses , becoming the first Canadian university to do so . In 1912 , Queen 's secularized and changed to its present legal name .
Queen 's is a co @-@ educational university , with more than 23 @,@ 000 students , and with over 131 @,@ 000 living alumni worldwide . Notable alumni include government officials , academics , business leaders and 56 Rhodes Scholars . The university was ranked 4th in Canada by Maclean 's University Ranking Guide for 2015 , 206th in the 2015 – 2016 QS World University Rankings , 251 – 300th in the 2015 – 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings , and 201 – 300 in the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities . Queen 's varsity teams , known as the Golden Gaels , compete in the Ontario University Athletics conference of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport .
= = History = =
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
Queen 's was a result of an outgrowth of educational initiatives planned by Presbyterians in the 1830s . A draft plan for the university was presented at a synod meeting in Kingston in 1839 , with a modified bill introduced through the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada during a session in 1840 . On 16 October 1841 , a royal charter was issued through Queen Victoria . Queen 's resulted from years of effort by Presbyterians of Upper Canada to found a college for the education of ministers in the growing colony and to instruct the youth in various branches of science and literature . They modelled the university after the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow . Classes began on 7 March 1842 , in a small wood @-@ frame house on the edge of the city with two professors and 15 students .
The college moved several times during its first eleven years , before settling in its present location . Prior to Canadian Confederation , the college was financially supported by the Presbyterian Church in Scotland , the Canadian government and private citizens . After Confederation the college faced ruin when the federal government withdrew its funding and the Commercial Bank of the Midland District collapsed , a disaster which cost Queen 's two @-@ thirds of its endowment . The college was rescued after Principal William Snodgrass and other officials created a fundraising campaign across Canada .
The risk of financial ruin continued to worry the administration until the final decade of the century . They actively considered leaving Kingston and merging with the University of Toronto as late as the 1880s . With the additional funds bequeathed from Queen 's first major benefactor , Robert Sutherland , the college staved off financial failure and maintained its independence . Queen 's was given university status on 17 May 1881 . In 1883 , Women 's Medical College was founded at Queen 's with a class of three . Theological Hall , completed in 1880 , originally served as Queen 's main building throughout the late 19th century .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
In 1912 , Queen 's separated from the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and changed its name to Queen 's University at Kingston . Queen 's Theological College remained in the control of the Presbyterian Church in Canada , until 1925 , when it joined the United Church of Canada , where it remains today . The university faced another financial crisis during World War I , from a sharp drop in enrolment due to the military enlistment of students , staff , and faculty . A $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 fundraising drive and the armistice in 1918 saved the university . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 students participated in the war and 187 died . Months before Canada joined World War II , US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , came to Queen 's to accept an honorary degree and , in a broadcast heard around the world , voiced the American policy of mutual alliance and friendship with Canada . During World War II , 2 @,@ 917 graduates from Queen 's served in the armed forces , suffering 164 fatalities . The Memorial Room in Memorial Hall of the John Deutsch University Centre lists those Queen 's students who died during the world wars .
Queen 's grew quickly after the war , propelled by the expanding postwar economy and the demographic boom that peaked in the 1960s . From 1951 to 1961 , enrolment increased from just over 2 @,@ 000 students to more than 3 @,@ 000 . The university embarked on a building program , constructing five student residences in less than ten years .
Following the reorganization of legal education in Ontario in the mid @-@ 1950s , Queen 's Faculty of Law opened in 1957 in the newly built John A. Macdonald Hall . Other construction projects at Queen 's in the 1950s included the construction of Richardson Hall to house Queen 's administrative offices , and Dunning Hall . By the end of the 1960s , like many other universities in Canada , Queen 's tripled its enrolment and greatly expanded its faculty , staff , and facilities , as a result of the baby boom and generous support from the public sector . By the mid @-@ 1970s , the number of full @-@ time students had reached 10 @,@ 000 . Among the new facilities were three more residences and separate buildings for the Departments of Mathematics , Physics , Biology and Psychology , Social Sciences and the Humanities .
During this period Schools of Music , Public Administration ( now part of Policy Studies ) , Rehabilitation Therapy , and Urban and Regional Planning were established at Queen 's . The establishment of the Faculty of Education in 1968 on land about a kilometre west of the university inaugurated the university 's west campus .
Queen 's celebrated its sesquicentennial anniversary in 1991 , and was visited by Charles , Prince of Wales , and his then @-@ wife , Diana , to mark the occasion . The Prince of Wales presented a replica of the 1841 Royal Charter granted by Queen Victoria , which had established the university ; the replica is displayed in the John Deutsch University Centre . The first female chancellor of Queen 's University , Agnes Richardson Benidickson , was installed on 23 October 1980 . In 1993 , Queen 's received Herstmonceux Castle as a donation from alumnus Alfred Bader . The castle is used by the university as the Bader International Study Centre .
= = = Twenty @-@ first century = = =
In 2001 the Senate Educational Equity Committee ( SEEC ) studied the experiences of visible minority and Aboriginal faculty members at Queen 's after a black female professor left , alleging that she had experienced racism . Following this survey SEEC commissioned a study which found that many perceived a ' Culture of Whiteness ' at the university . The report concluded that “ white privilege and power continues to be reflected in the Eurocentric curricula , traditional pedagogical approaches , hiring , promotion and tenure practices , and opportunities for research ” at Queen ’ s . The university 's response to the report is the subject of continuing debate . The administration implemented measures to promote diversity beginning in 2006 , such as the position of diversity advisor and the hiring of " dialogue monitors " to facilitate discussions on social justice .
In May 2010 , Queen 's University joined the Matariki Network of Universities , an international group of universities created in 2010 , which focuses on strong links between research and undergraduate teaching .
= = Campus = =
The university grounds lies within the neighbourhood of Queen 's in the city of Kingston , Ontario . The university 's main campus is bordered to the south by Lake Ontario , Kingston General Hospital to the southeast , city parks to the east , and by residential neighbourhoods , known as the Kingston student ghetto or the university district , in all other directions . The campus grew to its present size of 40 ha ( 99 acres ) through gradual acquisitions of adjacent private lands , and remains the university 's largest landholding . The campus 's original site and holds the majority of its facilities . In addition to its main campus in Kingston , Queen 's owns several other properties around Kingston , as well as in Central Frontenac Township , Ontario , Rideau Lakes , Ontario , and East Sussex , England .
The buildings at Queen 's vary in age , from Summerhill which opened in 1839 , to the new Queen 's School of Medicine building , which opened in 2011 . Grant Hall , completed in 1905 , is considered the university 's most recognizable landmark . It is named after Rev. George Munro Grant who served as Queen 's seventh principal . The building is used to host concerts , lectures , meetings , exams , and convocations . Two buildings owned and managed by the university have been listed as National Historic Sites of Canada . The Kingston General Hospital is the oldest operating public hospital in Canada . The Roselawn House , which is located east of the west campus , is the core component of the university 's Donald Gordon Centre .
= = = Libraries , museums and galleries = = =
Queen 's University Libraries include six campus libraries in five facilities housing 2 @.@ 2 million physical items and 400 @,@ 000 electronic resources , including e @-@ books , serial titles and databases . The library 's budget in 2007 – 2008 was $ 18 @.@ 1 million , with $ 9 @.@ 8 million dedicated to acquisitions . The libraries are Bracken Health Sciences Library , Education Library , Lederman Law Library , Stauffer Humanities and Social Sciences Library and Engineering & Science Library . The W.D. Jordan Special Collections and Music Library notably harbors early @-@ dated books from 1475 to 1700 . The Engineering & Science Library and the W.D. Jordan Library Special Collections and Music Library share facilities , known as Douglas Library .
Queen 's operates the Miller Museum of Geology , an earth @-@ science teaching museum which features an Earth Science and Geological Collections of 10 000 Minerals , and 865 fossils as well as an exhibit of the geology of the Kingston area . The museum is largely used as an earth @-@ science teaching museum for local schools and natural @-@ science interest groups in eastern Ontario . The permanent exhibits feature dinosaurs , dinosaur eggs , fossils of early multi @-@ celled animals and land tracks fossilized from 500 million years ago .
Queen 's art collections are housed at the Agnes Etherington Art Centre . The art centre owes its namesake to Agnes Etherington , whose house was donated to the university and is being used as an art museum . Opened in 1957 , it contains over 14 @,@ 000 works of art , including works by Rembrandt , and Inuit art . The Union Gallery , an art gallery opened in 1994 , is run by the university 's student body and faculty . The gallery is dedicated to the promotion of contemporary art .
= = = Housing and student facilities = = =
The university has eighteen student residences : Adelaide Hall , Ban Righ Hall , Brandt House , Chown Hall , Gordon House , Brockington House , Graduate Residence , Harkness Hall , John Orr Tower Apartments , Leggett Hall , Leonard Hall , McNeill House , Morris Hall , Smith House , Victoria Hall , Waldron Tower , Watts Hall and Jean Royce Hall . The largest is Victoria Hall , built in 1965 , which houses nearly 900 students . In September 2010 , 83 @.@ 3 percent of first @-@ year students lived on campus , part of the 26 percent of the overall undergraduate population which lived on campus . Residents were represented by two groups , the Main Campus Residents ' Council , which represents the main campus , and the Jean Royce Hall Council , which represents the west campus ( Jean Royce Hall , Harkness International Hall and the Graduate Residence ) . They were responsible for representing resident concerns , providing entertainment services , organizing events and upholding rules and regulations . In 2012 , the Main Campus and Jean Royce Hall Residents ' Councils were amalgamated into one organization , called ResSoc , standing for Residence Society .
The Student Life Centre is the centre of student governance and student directed social , cultural , entertainment and recreational activities . The Student Life Centre consists of the John Deutsch University Centre ( JDUC ) , Grey House , Carruthers Hall , Queen ’ s Journal House , MacGillivray @-@ Brown Hall , and the non @-@ athletic sections of Queen 's Centre . Collectively , these buildings provide 10 @,@ 500 square metres ( 113 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of space to the Queen 's community . The JDUC contains the offices of a number of student organizations , including the Alma Mater Society of Queen 's University , as well as retail and food services . The university has sixteen food outlets located throughout the campus , as well as three major residence dining facilities .
= = = Off @-@ campus facilities = = =
Queen 's has off @-@ campus faculties located in the Kingston area and abroad . The university has a second campus located in Kingston , known as the west campus . The west campus , acquired in 1969 , is 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) west of the main campus , and covers 27 ha ( 67 acres ) of land . The west campus has two student residences , the Faculty of Education , the Coastal Engineering Lab , and several athletic facilities , including the Richardson Memorial Stadium . In May 2007 , the university approved the designs for the Isabel Bader Centre for Performing Arts , also located in Kingston . The new centre for performing arts was expected to open in 2014 .
The university owns a research facility in Rideau Lakes , Ontario , known as the Queen 's University Biological Station . Opened during the 1950s , the field station encompasses approximately 3 @,@ 000 ha ( 7 @,@ 400 acres ) of property , a range of habitat types typical of Eastern Ontario , and many species of conservation concern in Canada .
Queen ’ s has an agreement with Novelis Inc. to acquire a 20 @-@ hectare ( 49 @-@ acre ) property adjacent to the company 's research and development centre in Kingston . The agreement is part of the plan to establish an innovative technology park located at the corner of Princess and Concession streets , which is to be called Innovation Park at Queen 's University . The property was acquired for $ 5 @.@ 3 million , a portion of the $ 21 million grant Queen 's received from the Ontario government last spring to pioneer this innovative new regional R & D " co @-@ location " model . Queen 's leases approximately 7 @,@ 900 square metres ( 85 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of the Novelis R & D facilities to accommodate faculty @-@ led research projects that have industrial partners and small and medium @-@ size companies with a research focus and a desire to interact with Queen 's researchers . The remainder of the government funds support further development of the technology park to transform the property into a welcoming and dynamic site for business expansion and relocation .
The Bader International Study Centre ( BISC ) is housed in Herstmonceux Castle , East Sussex , England , which was donated to Queen 's in 1993 by alumnus Alfred Bader . BISC is academically fully integrated with Queen 's , although financially self @-@ sufficient . Its mission is to provide academic programs for undergraduate students whose academic interests are oriented toward the United Kingdom , Europe and the European Union , continuing @-@ education programs for executives and other professional or “ special interest ” groups , a venue for conferences and meetings , a base for international graduate students and other scholars undertaking research in the United Kingdom and Europe and as an enhanced educational , social and cultural environment for the local community , using the unique heritage of the castle . The opportunity to study at the BISC is not limited to Queen 's students . Queen 's has academic exchange agreements with Canadian and foreign universities .
= = = Sustainability = = =
Queen 's Sustainability Office , which was created in 2008 , is charged with the university 's green initiatives and creating awareness about environmental issues . The office is headed by a Sustainability Manager , who works with the university , external community groups and the government . In 2009 , with the signing of the agreement , the Ontario Universities Committed to a Greener World , Queen 's had pledged to transform its campus into a model of environmental responsibility . Queen 's was the second Ontario university to sign the University and College Presidents ’ Climate Change Statement of Action for Canada , in 2010 .
The university campus received a B grade from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card for 2011 .
= = Administration = =
Academics at Queen 's is organized into ten undergraduate , graduate and professional faculties and schools . The governance of the university is conducted through the Board of Trustees , the Senate , and the University Council , all three of which were established under the Royal Charter of 1841 . The Board is responsible for the university 's conduct and management and its property , revenues , business , and affairs . Ex officio governors of the Board include the university 's chancellor , principal and the rector . The Board has 34 other trustees , 33 of which are elected by the various members of the university community , including elected representatives from the student body . The representative from Queen 's Theological College is the only appointed trustee .
The Senate is responsible for determining all academic matters affecting the university as a whole , including student discipline . The Senate consists of 17 ex officio positions granted to the principal and vice @-@ chancellor , the vice @-@ principals of the university , the senior dean of each faculty , dean of student affairs , the deputy provost , and the presidents of the undergraduate , graduate and faculty associations . The Senate also consists of 55 other members , appointed or elected by various communities of the university including elected representatives of the student body .
The Royal Charter of 1841 was amended to include the University Council in 1874 . The Council is a composite of the Board of Trustees , senators and an equal number of elected graduates . It serves as both an advisory and an ambassadorial body to the university as a whole and is responsible for the election of the chancellor . Although it is not directly involved in operations , the Council may bring to the Senate or Board of Trustees any matter that it believes affects Queen 's well @-@ being . The Council meets once per year , typically in May .
The Chancellor is the highest officer and the ceremonial head of the university . The office was created in 1874 and first filled in 1877 , although it was only enshrined in law in 1882 after its amendment into the Royal Charter of 1841 . The responsibilities of the chancellor includes presiding over convocations , conferring degrees , chairing the annual meetings of the Council and is an ex officio , voting member of the Board of Trustees . A person is elected to the office of chancellor on a three @-@ year term by the Council unless there is more than one candidate , in which case an election is conducted among Queen 's graduates .
The Principal acts as the chief executive officer of the university under the authority of the Board and the Senate , and supervises and directs the academic and administrative work of the university and of its teaching and non @-@ teaching staff . Since1974 , principals have been appointed for five @-@ year terms , renewable subject to review . The formal authority for the appointment of the Principal rests under the Royal Charter with the Board of Trustees although recent principals have been selected by a joint committee of trustees and senators . Daniel Woolf has served as the twentieth principal , serving since 1 September 2009 . The office of the vice @-@ chancellor has typically been held by the incumbent principal . In 1961 , an amendment was secured by the Board to separate the office of principal from vice @-@ chancellor if it wished . The first , and only person to ever hold the office of vice @-@ chancellor , but not the office of principal , was William Archibald Mackintosh .
= = = Finances = = =
The university completed the 2011 – 12 year with revenues of $ 769 @.@ 9 million and expenses of $ 773 @.@ 3 million , yielding a deficit of $ 3 @.@ 4 million . Government grants made up 48
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lemur , lemurs are seasonal breeders with very short mating and birth seasons influenced by the highly seasonal availability of resources in their environment . Mating seasons usually last less than three weeks each year , with the female vagina opening up only during a few hours or days of her most receptive time of estrus . These narrow windows for reproduction and resource availability appear to relate to their short gestation periods , rapid maturation , and low basal metabolic rates , as well as the high energy costs of reproduction for females . This may also relate to the relatively high mortality rate among adult females and the higher proportion of adult males in some lemur populations — both unusual traits among primates . In both the aye @-@ aye and Lac Alaotra gentle lemur , birth ( parturition ) occurs over a six @-@ month period .
Lemurs time their mating and birth seasons so that all weaning periods are synchronized to match the time of highest food availability . Weaning occurs either before or shortly after the eruption of the first permanent molars in lemurs . Mouse lemurs are able to fit their entire breeding cycle into the wet season , whereas larger lemurs , such as sifakas , must lactate for two months during the dry season . Infant survival in some species , such as Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka , has been shown to be directly impacted by both environmental conditions and the rank , age , and health of the mother . The breeding season is also affected by geographical location . For example , mouse lemurs give birth between September and October in their native habitat in the Southern Hemisphere , but from May through June in the captive settings in the Northern Hemisphere .
Scent factors heavily into lemur reproduction . Scent @-@ marking activity escalates during the mating season . Pheromones may coordinate reproductive timing for females coming into estrus . Mating can be either monogamous or promiscuous for both males and females , and mating can include individuals from outside the group . Monogamous lemurs include the red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer ) and the mongoose lemur ( E. mongoz ) , although the mongoose lemur has been observed mating outside of its pair bond . Monogamy is most common among nocturnal species , although some exhibit scramble competition , sexual suppression of subordinates , or competitions between males that avoid direct fighting . In mouse lemurs , males utilize sperm plugs , developed enlarged testes during the mating season , and develop size dimorphism ( likely due to the enlarged testes ) . These indicate a mating system known as scramble competition polygyny , where males cannot defend females or the resources that might attract them .
The gestation period varies within lemurs , ranging from 9 weeks in mouse lemurs and 9 – 10 weeks in dwarf lemurs to 18 – 24 weeks in other lemurs . The smaller , nocturnal lemurs , such as mouse lemurs , giant mouse lemurs , and dwarf lemurs , usually give birth to more than one infant , whereas the larger , nocturnal lemurs , such as fork @-@ marked lemurs , sportive lemurs , and the aye @-@ aye usually have one offspring . Dwarf and mouse lemurs have up to four offspring , but both average only two . Ruffed lemurs are the only large , diurnal lemurs to consistently give birth to two or three offspring . All other lemurs have single births . Multiple births in lemurs are normally fraternal , and are known to occur in every five to six births in species such as the ring @-@ tailed lemur and some Eulemur .
After the offspring are born , lemurs either carry them around or stash them while foraging . When transported , the infants either cling to the mother 's fur or are carried in the mouth by the scruff . In some species , such as bamboo lemurs , infants are carried by mouth until they are able to cling to their mother 's fur . Species that park their offspring include nocturnal species ( e.g. mouse lemurs , sportive lemurs , and dwarf lemurs ) , bamboo lemurs , and ruffed lemurs . In the case of the ruffed lemurs , the young are altricial and the mothers build nests for them , much like the smaller , nocturnal lemur species . Woolly lemurs are unusual for nocturnal lemurs because they live in cohesive family groups and carry their single offspring with them rather than parking them . Alloparenting ( multiple or group parenting ) has been reported in all lemur families except the sportive lemurs and aye @-@ aye . Allonursing is also known to occur in several lemur groups . Even males have been observed caring for infants in species such as the red @-@ bellied lemur , mongoose lemur , eastern lesser bamboo lemur , silky sifaka , fat @-@ tailed dwarf lemur , and ruffed lemurs .
Yet another trait that sets most lemurs apart from anthropoid primates is their long lifespan together with their high infant mortality . Many lemurs , including the ring @-@ tailed lemur , have adapted to a highly seasonal environment , which has affected their birthrate , maturation , and twinning rate ( r @-@ selection ) . This helps them to recover rapidly from a population crash . In captivity , lemurs can live twice as long as they do in the wild , benefiting from consistent nutrition that meets their dietary requirements , medical advancements , and improved understanding of their housing requirements . In 1960 , it was thought that lemurs could live between 23 and 25 years . We now know that the larger species can live for more than 30 years without showing signs of aging ( senescence ) and still be capable of reproduction .
= = = Cognitive abilities and tool use = = =
Lemurs have traditionally been regarded as being less intelligent than anthropoid primates , with monkeys and apes often described as having more cunning , guile , and deceptiveness . Many lemur species , such as sifakas and the ring @-@ tailed lemur , have scored lower on tests designed for monkeys while performing as well as monkeys on other tests . These comparisons may not be fair since lemurs prefer to manipulate objects with their mouths ( rather than their hands ) and only take interest in objects when in captivity . Recent studies have shown that lemurs exhibit levels of technical intelligence on par with many other primates , although they manipulate objects less often . Tool use has not been witnessed by lemurs in the wild , although in captivity the common brown lemur and the ring @-@ tailed lemur have been demonstrated to be able to understand and use tools .
A few lemurs have been noted to have relatively large brains . The extinct Hadropithecus was as large as a large male baboon and had a comparably sized brain , giving it the largest brain size relative to body size among all prosimians . The aye @-@ aye also has a large brain @-@ to @-@ body ratio , which may indicate a higher level of intelligence . However , despite having a built @-@ in tool in the form of its thin , elongated middle finger , which it uses to fish for insect grubs , the aye @-@ aye has tested poorly in the use of extraneous tools .
= = Ecology = =
See above : Diet , Metabolism , Activity patterns , and Locomotion
Madagascar not only contains two radically different climatic zones , the rainforests of the east and the dry regions of the west , but also swings from extended drought to cyclone @-@ generated floods . These climatic and geographical challenges , along with poor soils , low plant productivity , wide ranges of ecosystem complexity , and a lack of regularly fruiting trees ( such as fig trees ) have driven the evolution of lemurs ' immense morphological and behavioral diversity . Their survival has required the ability to endure the persistent extremes , not yearly averages .
Lemurs have either presently or formerly filled the ecological niches normally occupied by monkeys , squirrels , woodpeckers , and grazing ungulates . With the diversity of adaptations for specific ecological niches , habitat selections among lemur families and some genera are often very distinct , thus minimizing competition . In nocturnal lemurs from the more seasonal forests in the west , up to five species can coexist during the wet season due to high food abundance . However , to endure the extreme dry season , three of the five species utilize different dietary patterns and their underlying physiological traits to allow them to coexist : fork @-@ marked lemurs feed on tree gum , sportive lemurs feed on leaves , and giant mouse lemurs sometimes feed on insect secretions . The other two species , the gray mouse lemur and the fat @-@ tailed dwarf lemur ( Cheirogaleus medius ) , avoid competition through reduced activity . The gray mouse lemur uses bouts of torpor , while the fat @-@ tailed dwarf lemur hibernates completely . Similarly , on the east coast entire genera focus on specific food to avoid too much niche overlap . True lemurs and ruffed lemurs are frugivorous , indriids are folivorous , and bamboo lemurs specialize in bamboo and other grasses . Once again , seasonal dietary differences as well as subtle differences in substrate preferences , forest strata used , activity cycle , and social organization enable lemur species to coexist , although this time the species are more closely related and have similar niches . A classic example involves resource partitioning between three species of bamboo lemur that live in close proximity in small forested areas : the golden bamboo lemur , the greater bamboo lemur , and the eastern lesser bamboo lemur ( Hapalemur griseus ) . Each utilizes either different species of bamboo , different parts of the plant , or different layers in the forest . Nutrient and toxin content ( such as cyanide ) help regulate food selection , though seasonal food preferences are also known to play a role .
Dietary regimes of lemurs include folivory , frugivory , and omnivory , with some being highly adaptable while others specialize on foods such as plant exudates ( tree gum ) and bamboo . In some cases , lemur feeding patterns directly benefit the native plant life . When lemurs exploit nectar , they may act as pollinators as long as the functional parts of the flower are not damaged . In fact , several unrelated Malagasy flowering plants demonstrate lemur @-@ specific pollination traits , and studies indicate that some diurnal species , such as the red @-@ bellied lemur and the ruffed lemurs , act as major pollinators . Two examples of plant species that rely on lemurs for pollination include traveller 's palm ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) and a species of legume @-@ like liana , Strongylodon cravieniae . Seed dispersal is another service lemurs provide . After passing through the lemur gut , tree and vine seeds exhibit lower mortality and germinate faster . Latrine behavior exhibited by some lemurs may help improve soil quality and facilitate seed dispersal . Because of their importance in maintaining a healthy forest , frugivorous lemurs may qualify as keystone mutualists .
All lemurs , particularly the smaller species , are affected by predation and they are important prey items for predators . Humans are the most significant predator of diurnal lemurs , despite taboos that occasionally forbid the hunting and eating of certain lemur species . Other predators include native euplerids , such as the fossa , feral cats , domestic dogs , snakes , diurnal birds of prey , owls , and crocodiles . Extinct giant eagles , including one or two species from the genus Aquila and the giant Malagasy crowned eagle ( Stephanoaetus mahery ) , as well as the giant fossa ( Cryptoprocta spelea ) , previously also preyed on lemurs , perhaps including the giant subfossil lemurs or their subadult offspring . The existence of these extinct giants suggests that predator @-@ prey interactions involving lemurs were more complex than they are today . Today , predator size only restricts owls to the smaller lemurs , usually 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) or less , while the larger lemurs fall victim to the larger diurnal birds of prey , such as the Madagascan harrier @-@ hawk ( Polyboroides radiatus ) and the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) .
= = Research = =
Similarities that lemurs share with anthropoid primates , such as diet and social organization , along with their own unique traits , have made lemurs the most heavily studied of all mammal groups on Madagascar . Research often focuses on the link between ecology and social organization , but also on their behavior and morphophysiology ( the study of anatomy in relation to function ) . Studies of their life @-@ history traits , behavior and ecology help understanding of primate evolution , since they are thought to share similarities with ancestral primates .
Lemurs have been the focus of monographic series , action plans , field guides , and classic works in ethology . However , few species have been thoroughly studied to date , and most research has been preliminary and restricted to a single locality . Only recently have numerous scientific papers been published to explain the basic aspects of behavior and ecology of poorly known species . Field studies have given insights on population dynamics and evolutionary ecology of most genera and many species . Long @-@ term research focused on identified individuals is in its infancy and has only been started for a few populations . However , learning opportunities are dwindling as habitat destruction and other factors threaten the existence of lemur populations across the island .
Lemurs are mentioned in sailors ' voyage logs as far back as 1608 and in 1658 that at least seven lemur species were described in detail by the French merchant , Étienne de Flacourt , who may also have been the only westerner to see and chronicle the existence of a giant ( now extinct ) lemur , which he called the tretretretre . Around 1703 merchants and sailors began bringing lemurs back to Europe , at which time James Petiver , an apothecary in London , described and illustrated the mongoose lemur . Starting in 1751 , the London illustrator George Edwards began describing and illustrating some lemur species , of which a few were included in various editions of Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus . In the 1760s and 1770s , French naturalists Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon and Louis @-@ Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton began describing the anatomy of several lemur species . The first traveling naturalist to comment on lemurs was Philibert Commerçon in 1771 , although it was Pierre Sonnerat who recorded a greater variety of lemur species during his travels .
During the 19th century , there was an explosion of new lemur descriptions and names , which later took decades to sort out . During this time , professional collectors gathered specimens for museums , menageries , and cabinets . Some of the major collectors were Johann Maria Hildebrandt and Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major . From these collections , as well as increasing observations of lemurs in their natural habitats , museum systematists including Albert Günther and John Edward Gray continued to contribute new names for new lemur species . However , the most notable contributions from this century includes the work of Alfred Grandidier , a naturalist and explorer who devoted himself to the study of Madagascar 's natural history and local people . With the help of Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards , most of the diurnal lemurs were illustrated at this time . However , lemur taxonomic nomenclature took its modern form in the 1920s and 1930s , being standardized by Ernst Schwarz in 1931 .
Although lemur taxonomy had developed , it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that the in @-@ situ ( or on @-@ site ) study of lemur behavior and ecology began to blossom . Jean @-@ Jacques Petter and Arlette Petter @-@ Rousseaux toured Madagascar in 1956 and 1957 , surveying many of its lemur species and making important observations about their social groupings and reproduction . In 1960 , the year of Madagascar 's independence , David Attenborough introduced lemurs to the West with a commercial film . Under the guidance of John Buettner @-@ Janusch , who founded the Duke Lemur Center in 1966 , Alison Jolly traveled to Madagascar in 1962 to study the diet and social behavior of the ring @-@ tailed lemur and Verreaux 's sifaka at Berenty Private Reserve . The Petters and Jolly spawned a new era of interest in lemur ecology and behavior and were shortly followed by anthropologists such as Alison Richard , Robert Sussman , Ian Tattersall , and many others . Following the political turmoil of the mid @-@ 1970s and Madagascar 's revolution , field studies resumed in the 1980s , thanks in part to the renewed involvement of the Duke Lemur Center under the direction of Elwyn L. Simons and the conservation efforts of Patricia Wright . In the decades that followed , huge strides have been made in lemur studies and many new species have been discovered .
Ex situ research ( or off @-@ site research ) is also popular among researchers looking to answer questions that are difficult to test in the field . For example , efforts to sequence the genome of the gray mouse lemur will help researchers understand which genetic traits set primates apart from other mammals and will ultimately help understand what genomic traits set humans apart from other primates . One of the foremost lemur research facilities is the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) in Durham , North Carolina . It maintains the largest captive lemur population outside of Madagascar , which it maintains for non @-@ invasive research and captive breeding . Many important research projects have been carried out there , including studies of lemur vocalizations , basic locomotor research , the kinematics of bipedalism , the effects of social complexity transitive reasoning , and cognition studies involving a lemur 's ability to organize and retrieve sequences from memory . Other facilities , such as the Lemur Conservation Foundation , located near Myakka City , Florida , have also hosted research projects , such as one that looked at lemurs ' ability to preferentially select tools based on functional qualities .
= = Conservation = =
Lemurs are threatened by a host of environmental problems , including deforestation , hunting for bushmeat , live capture for the exotic pet trade , and climate change . All species are listed by CITES on Appendix I , which prohibits trade of specimens or parts , except for scientific purposes . As of 2005 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) listed 16 % of all lemur species as critically endangered , 23 % as endangered , 25 % as vulnerable , 28 % as " data deficient " , and only 8 % as least concern . Over the next five years , at least 28 species were newly identified , none of which have had their conservation status assessed . Many are likely to be considered threatened since the new lemur species that have been described recently are typically confined to small regions . Given the rate of continued habitat destruction , undiscovered species could go extinct before being identified . Since the arrival of humans on the island approximately 2000 years ago , all endemic Malagasy vertebrates over 10 kg ( 22 lb ) have disappeared , including 17 species , 8 genera , and 3 families of lemurs . The IUCN Species Survival Commission ( IUCN / SSC ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI ) have included as many as five lemurs in their biennial " Top 25 Most Endangered Primates " . The 2008 – 2010 list includes the greater bamboo lemur , gray @-@ headed lemur ( Eulemur cinereiceps ) , blue @-@ eyed black lemur ( Eulemur flavifrons ) , northern sportive lemur ( Lepilemur septentrionalis ) , and silky sifaka . In 2012 , an assessment by the Primate Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) concluded that 90 % of the then 103 described species of lemur should be listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List , making lemurs the most endangered group of mammals . The IUCN reiterated its concern in 2013 , noting that 90 % of all lemur species could be extinct within 20 to 25 years unless a $ 7 million USD 3 @-@ year conservation plan aimed at helping local communities can be implemented .
Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world , with a high population growth rate of 2 @.@ 5 % per year and nearly 70 % of the population living in poverty . The country is also burdened with high levels of debt and limited resources . These socioeconomic issues have complicated conservation efforts , even though the island of Madagascar has been recognized by IUCN / SSC as a critical primate region for over 20 years . Due to its relatively small land area — 587 @,@ 045 km2 ( 226 @,@ 659 sq mi ) — compared to other high @-@ priority biodiversity regions and its high levels of endemism , the country is considered one of the world 's most important biodiversity hotspots , with lemur conservation being a high priority . Despite the added emphasis for conservation , there is no indication that the extinctions that began with the arrival of humans have come to an end .
= = = Threats in the wild = = =
The greatest concern facing lemur populations is habitat destruction and degradation . Deforestation takes the form of local subsistence use , such as slash and burn agriculture ( referred to as tavy in Malagasy ) , the creation of pasture for cattle through burning , and legal and illegal gathering of wood for firewood or charcoal production ; commercial mining ; and the illegal logging of precious hardwoods for foreign markets . After centuries of unsustainable use , as well as rapidly escalating forest destruction since 1950 , less than 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) or 10 % of Madagascar 's land area remains forested . Only 17 @,@ 000 km2 ( 6 @,@ 600 sq mi ) or 3 % of the island 's land area is protected and due to dire economic conditions and political instability , most of the protected areas are ineffectively managed and defended . Some protected areas were set aside because they were naturally protected by their remote , isolated location , often on steep cliffs . Other areas , such as the dry forests and spiny forests of the west and south , receive little protection and are in serious danger of being destroyed .
Some species may be in risk of extinction even without complete deforestation , such as ruffed lemurs , which are very sensitive to habitat disturbance . If large fruit trees are removed , the forest may sustain fewer individuals of a species and their reproductive success may be affected for years . Small populations may be able to persist in isolated forest fragments for 20 to 40 years due to long generation times , but in the long term , such populations may not be viable . Small , isolated populations also risk extirpation by natural disasters and disease outbreaks ( epizootics ) . Two diseases that are lethal to lemurs and could severely impact isolated lemur populations are toxoplasmosis , which is spread by feral cats , and the herpes simplex virus carried by humans .
Climate change and weather @-@ related natural disasters also threaten lemur survival . For the last 1000 years , western and highland regions have been growing significantly drier , but in the past few decades , severe drought has become much more frequent . There are indications that deforestation and forest fragmentation are accelerating this gradual desiccation . The effects of drought are even felt in the rainforests . As annual rainfall decreases , the larger trees that make up the high canopy suffer increased mortality , failure to fruit , and decreased production of new leaves , which folivorous lemurs prefer . Cyclones can defoliate an area , knock down canopy trees , and create landslides and flooding . This can leave lemur populations without fruit or leaves until the following spring , requiring them to subsist on crisis foods , such as epiphytes .
Lemurs are hunted for food by the local Malagasy , either for local subsistence or to supply a luxury meat market in the larger cities . Most rural Malagasy do not understand what " endangered " means , nor do they know that hunting lemurs is illegal or that lemurs are found only in Madagascar . Many Malagasy have taboo , or fady , about hunting and eating lemurs , but this does not prevent hunting in many regions . Even though hunting has been a threat to lemur populations in the past , it has recently become a more serious threat as socioeconomic conditions deteriorate . Economic hardships have caused people to move around the country in search of employment , leading local traditions to break down . Drought and famine can also relax the fady that protect lemurs . Larger species , such as sifakas and ruffed lemurs , are common targets , but smaller species are also hunted or accidentally caught in snares intended for larger prey . Experienced , organized hunting parties using firearms , slings and blowguns can kill as many as eight to twenty lemurs in one trip . Organized hunting parties and lemur traps can be found in both non @-@ protected areas and remote corners of protected areas . National parks and other protected areas are not adequately protected by law enforcement agencies . Often , there are too few park rangers to cover a large area , and sometimes terrain within the park is too rugged to check regularly .
Although not as significant as deforestation and hunting , some lemurs , such as crowned lemurs and other species that have successfully been kept in captivity , are occasionally kept as exotic pets by Malagasy people . Bamboo lemurs are also kept as pets , although they only survive for up to two months . Live capture for the exotic pet trade in wealthier countries is not normally considered a threat due to strict regulations controlling their export .
= = = Conservation efforts = = =
Lemurs have drawn much attention to Madagascar and its endangered species . In this capacity , they act as flagship species , the most notable of which is the ring @-@ tailed lemur , which is considered an icon of the country . The presence of lemurs in national parks helps drive ecotourism , which especially helps local communities living in the vicinity of the national parks , since it offers employment opportunities and the community receives half of the park entrance fees . In the case of Ranomafana National Park , job opportunities and other revenue from long @-@ term research can rival that of ecotourism .
Starting in 1927 , the Malagasy government has declared all lemurs as " protected " by establishing protected areas that are now classified under three categories : National Parks ( Parcs Nationaux ) , Strict Nature Reserves ( Réserves Naturelles Intégrales ) , and Special Reserves ( Réserves Spéciales ) . There are currently 18 national parks , 5 strict nature reserves , and 22 special reserves , as well as several other small private reserves , such as Berenty Reserve and Sainte Luce Private Reserve , both near Fort Dauphin . All protected areas , excluding the private reserves , comprise approximately 3 % of the land surface of Madagascar and are managed by Madagascar National Parks , formerly known as l 'Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées ( ANGAP ) , as well as other non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , including Conservation International ( CI ) , the Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS ) , and the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) . Most lemur species are covered by this network of protected areas , and a few species can be found in multiple parks or reserves .
Conservation is also facilitated by the Madagascar Fauna Group ( MFG ) , an association of nearly 40 zoos and related organizations , including the Duke Lemur Center , the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , and the Saint Louis Zoological Park . This international NGO supports Madagascar 's Parc Ivoloina , helps protect Betampona Reserve and other protected areas , and promotes field research , breeding programs , conservation planning , and education in zoos . One of their major projects involved the release of captive black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , designed to help restock the dwindling population within Betampona Reserve .
Habitat corridors are needed for linking these protected areas so that small populations are not isolated . In September 2003 in Durban , South Africa , Madagascar 's former president Marc Ravalomanana promised to triple the size of the island 's protected areas in five years . This became known as the " Durban Vision " . In June 2007 , the World Heritage Committee included a sizable portion of Madagascar 's eastern rainforests as a new UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Debt relief may help Madagascar protect its biodiversity . With the political crisis in 2009 , illegal logging has proliferated and now threatens rainforests in the northeast , including its lemur inhabitants and the ecotourism that the local communities rely upon .
Captive lemur populations are maintained locally and outside of Madagascar in many zoos , although the diversity of species is limited . Sikafas , for instance , do not survive well in captivity , so few facilities have them . The largest captive lemur population can be found at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) , whose mission includes non @-@ invasive research , conservation ( e.g. captive breeding ) , and public education . Another large lemur colony the Myakka City Lemur Reserve run by the Lemur Conservation Foundation ( LCF ) , which also hosts lemur research . In Madagascar , Lemurs ' Park is a free @-@ range , private facility southwest of Antananarivo that exhibits lemurs for the public while also rehabilitating captive @-@ born lemurs for reintroduction into the wild .
= = Cultural references = =
In Malagasy culture lemurs , and animals in general , have souls ( ambiroa ) which can get revenge if mocked while alive or if killed in a cruel fashion . Because of this , lemurs , like many other elements of daily life , have been a source of taboos , known locally as fady , which can be based around stories with four basic principles . A village or region may believe that a certain type of lemur may be the ancestor of the clan . They may also believe that a lemur 's spirit may get revenge . Alternatively , the animal may appear as a benefactor . Lemurs are also thought to impart their qualities , good or bad , onto human babies . In general , fady extend beyond a sense of the forbidden , but can include events that bring bad luck .
One example of lemur fady told around 1970 comes from Ambatofinandrahana in the Fianarantsoa Province . According to the account , a man brought a lemur home in a trap , but alive . His children wanted to keep the lemur as a pet , but when the father told them it was not a domestic animal , the children asked to kill it . After the children tortured the lemur , it eventually died and was eaten . A short time later , all the children died of illness . As a result , the father declared that anyone who tortures lemurs for fun shall " be destroyed and have no descendants . "
Fady can not only help protect lemurs and their forests under stable socioeconomic situations , but they can also lead to discrimination and persecution if a lemur is known to bring bad fortune , for instance , if it walks through town . In other ways , fady does not protect all lemurs equally . For example , although the hunting and eating of certain species may be taboo , other species may not share that same protection and are therefore targeted instead . Fady can vary from village to village within the same region . If people move to a new village or region , their fady may not apply to the lemur species that are locally present , making them available for consumption . Fady restrictions on lemur meat can be relaxed in times of famine and drought .
The aye @-@ aye is almost universally viewed unfavorably across Madagascar , though the tales vary from village to village and region to region . If people see an aye @-@ aye , they may kill it and hang the corpse on a pole near a road outside of town ( so others can carry the bad fortunes away ) or burn their village and move . The superstitions behind aye @-@ aye fady include beliefs that they kill and eat chickens or people , that they kill people in their sleep by cutting their aortic vein , that they embody ancestral spirits , or that they warn of illness , death , or bad luck in the family . As of 1970 , the people of the Marolambo District in the Toamasina Province feared the aye @-@ aye because they believed it had supernatural powers . Because of this , no one was allowed to mock , kill , or eat one .
There are also widespread fady about indri and sifakas . They are often protected from hunting and consumption because of their resemblance to humans and their ancestors , mostly due to their large size and upright or orthograde posture . The resemblance is even stronger for indri , which lack the long tail of most living lemurs . Known locally as babakoto ( " Ancestor of Man " ) , the indri is sometimes seen as the progenitor of the family or clan . There are also stories of an indri that helped a human down from a tree , so they are seen as benefactors . Other lemur fady include the belief that a wife will have ugly children if her husband kills a woolly lemur , or that if a pregnant woman eats a dwarf lemur , her baby will get its beautiful , round eyes .
Lemurs have also become popular in Western culture in recent years . The original 2005 animated film Madagascar was seen by an estimated 100 million people in theaters and 200 – 300 million people on DVD worldwide . Prior to this movie , Zoboomafoo , a Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) children 's television series from 1999 to 2001 , helped to popularize sifakas by featuring a live Coquerel 's sifaka from the Duke Lemur Center as well as a puppet . A twenty @-@ episode series called Lemur Kingdom ( in the United States ) or Lemur Street ( in the United Kingdom and Canada ) aired in 2008 on Animal Planet . It combined the typical animal documentary with dramatic narration to tell the story of two groups of ring @-@ tailed lemurs at Berenty Private Reserve .
= = = Books cited = = =
= Medieval Faire ( Canada 's Wonderland ) =
Originally themed around the Middle Ages , Medieval Faire is a section of Canada 's Wonderland , a theme park in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada . As such , early attractions created under Kings Entertainment Company were named after knights , Don Quixote , Vikings , dragons , bats , and beasts . Throughout the Paramount Parks era , the section 's new attractions lacked appropriate theming . The introduction of the Leviathan roller coaster to Medieval Faire in 2012 was the first major investment in the section since 2000 ; the park is now under ownership of Cedar Fair . The section includes four roller coasters ( The Bat , Dragon Fire , Leviathan , and Wild Beast ) and six other rides .
Over the years , atmosphere performers have disappeared from most sections of the park , including Medieval Faire . Two entertainment areas have remained constant in the section , a proscenium theatre and a stunt and acrobatic space surrounded by water . Currently named Wonderland Theatre , the indoor facility has hosted a variety of stage show revues , ice shows , and now an acrobatic production , Cirque Ambiente . A structure within Arthur 's Baye initially featured a pirate diving and acrobatics show , which has changed now to have a more generic theme ; it is currently branded Kinet – X.
Food in the section was originally themed to the era , with a large indoor pub and rib stand . The food later took on a more traditional North American cuisine , like a buffet and subs . Private events are held in the Courtyard facility .
= = Theming = =
A 1979 planning document describes the section : " A trip into the Middle Ages is in store for those visiting this area of Canada 's Wonderland . Rides , restaurants , boutiques and the 1 @,@ 200 seat air @-@ conditioned Heritage Theatre where live shows are performed daily , await our guests in the Medieval Faire . "
The section is entered through a fortresses ' walls , over a castle moat . The front facade of Wonderland Theatre , previously Canterbury Theatre , was designed as a castle , and the other buildings were designed to fit the same time period .
Artist and inventor Bill Lishman created two sculptures for this section of the park , as well as some smaller works for application to the buildings . The most prominent is a dragon at the entrance to the Dragon Fire , which had originally been intended to hold a sign , but the park management decided they liked it enough for it to be a standalone sculpture . Lishman was allowed to design it from scratch , as opposed to follow preset designs established before he was hired , taking him and assistant Richard Van Heuvelan two months to complete . The other main sculpture was the wild boar at Wild Beast , both this and the dragon being built at his home in Blackstock , Ontario , for about $ 75 @,@ 000 . Signs by Lishman included Sherwood Florist , Boo Boo 's Buggys , an ice cream cone , and for a popcorn counter .
Near to the First Aid building is the Medieval Faire washrooms . Initially themed in a medieval style , the thatched cottage was marked " Lords " and " Ladies " . Publicist Mike Filey told the press that many were confused by the doors , or even where washrooms were , and this was to be fixed for the second park season . In the opening year , an information and ticket booth was located in front of Arthur 's Baye ; tickets have since been phased out . Two designated smoking areas are in the section , one at the wall area next to the Prime Time Building , and the other by the Boar at the entrance to the Wild Beast .
= = Rides = =
This section of the park originally opened with five rides : Dragon Fyre , Wilde Beast , Viking 's Rage , Quixote 's Kettles , and Wilde Knight Mares . Steel roller coaster Dragon Fyre includes 4 inversions , and is now the only Arrow Dynamics coaster in existence to have counter @-@ clockwise turning corkscrews . Out and back wooden roller coaster Wilde Beast has 3000 feet of track , while Wilde Night Mares is a standing Enterprise ride featuring ten four @-@ seater gondolas rises 60 feet , tilting 90 degrees . Viking 's Rage , was the first of three pendulum rides the park operated ; unlike the now removed Jet Scream , the boat ride does not go upside down . Quixote 's Kettles features spinning kettles on a tilted platform . ( Two years before opening , Dragon Fire was simply called the Looping Corkscrew , and another ride was to be the Wildcat . )
In May 1981 , Canada 's Wonderland Director of Rides and Ground Services Jim Wilson told the Toronto Star that The Wilde Beast ( along with two of the other original coasters at the park , Scooby 's Ghoster Coaster , and the Mighty Canadian Minebuster ) was wooden thanks to the apparent popularity of different styles of rides . " Experiments " found that steel coasters weren 't as popular or enjoyable to the public , " the sound and feel all contribute to the thrill of the ride . People just didn 't like steel roller coasters . "
Early promotion for the Dragon Fyre highlighted all the safety measures , from an indirect reference to centrugal force to x @-@ raying welds . The most popular attraction in Medieval Faire , lines for Dragon Fyre were about half @-@ hour at their peak in 1982 , considered at the time the longest of any attraction at the park .
Over the years , only four major attractions were added to Medieval Faire . Added in 1987 , The Bat was a backwards looping roller coaster , including one loop and two lifts . The park addition included a shop named the Belfry . Later additions were Speed City Raceway ( 1997 ) , Drop Zone ( 1997 ) , and Cliffhanger ( 2000 ) .
During the 1990s , almost all the rides were renamed : Dragon Fyre , Wilde Beast , Quixote 's Kettles , Wilde Night Mares , and Viking 's Rage became Dragon Fire , Wild Beast , Spinovator , Nightmares , and The Rage . When the park was sold to Cedar Fair , Paramount @-@ specific ride names disappeared with Cliffhanger , Drop Zone becoming Riptide , Drop Tower , respectively .
In 2012 , the Leviathan joined the similarly named Behemoth at Canada 's Wonderland , stripping the Behemoth of its titles as tallest ride in Canada and fastest ride in Canada . It was the first new ride in Medieval Faire in more than a decade . Leviathan is ranked as the seventh tallest , and the eighth fastest roller coaster in the world . It is Canada 's Wonderland 's 16th roller coaster . The addition came quickly after the launch of the 230 @-@ foot @-@ tall Behemoth roller coaster in 2008 , and the 301 @-@ foot @-@ tall swing ride WindSeeker in the 2011 season .
= = Entertainment = =
There was initially a variety of street theatre present in the section : both a " town rustic " performing magic and " a wily wizard performing slight of hand " , a juggling jester , Robin Hood , and a singing Maid Marian who accompanied herself on the autoharp . Some outdoors performers existed in the section until at least 1987 . While Peanuts characters appear on International Street and in Planet Snoopy , and Halloween programming includes walk @-@ around characters , all regular season unlicensed atmosphere characters and entertainment have been removed from the park .
= = = Wonderland Theatre = = =
Established as the Canterbury Theatre , this castle @-@ fronted theatre spent a few years as the Paramount Theatre , and has gone from hosting Broadway @-@ style productions to ice shows , during the regular season , and adult @-@ targeted musicals during Halloween Haunt .
Early resources conflicted on the size of the theatre : most sources suggest 1100 seats , but a 1982 program suggested 1200 . The theatre is formatted as proscenium , and was considered ' ultra @-@ modern ' upon opening .
In the first season , Canterbury hosted Those Magnificent Movies ; " ... a salute to Hollywood " . The stage show lasted 45 minutes , with eight sets for eight segments , 20 singer @-@ dancers , and a crew of 18 . After an opening medley , a fantasy segment features " On the Good Ship Lollipop " , " Yellow Submarine " , " The Candy Man " , and " Be a Clown " . The next segment focused on the 1930s and 1940s , with " As Time Goes By " , " Cheek to Cheek " , and " I Got Rhythm " . A western segment includes a tribute to Oklahoma ! , while the sci @-@ fi segment features " Star Wars ( Main Theme ) " ( 1977 ) , John Williams ' " Superman Theme " from the 1978 Superman film , a segment from the Academy Award- nominated score of Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) , and " Cantina Band " from Star Wars . The modern segment included " The Rose " , made famous by Bette Midler 's 1979 film of the same name , and Academy Award winning song " Fame " , from the 1980 film of the same name . The finale included " All I Need Is The Girl " from stage musical Gypsy : A Musical Fable and " Get Happy " , a 1930 song most associated with Judy Garland in Summer Stock ( 1950 ) . In all , there were 200 costumes . Entry to the show was a D ticket , or $ 1 @.@ 50 , and shows were performed by high school students . On some days , 1950s musical revue Rock Around The Clock would perform there , as opposed to Labatt 's International Showplace .
Later stage shows included Those Magnificent Movies , Fantasy , Superstars , Hot Ice , and School of Rock : Live in Concert . A cassette of recordings by the cast of Best of Broadway was released under the Taft Attractions label . At some point in the 1990s , a skating production was held at the theatre .
During Paramount ownership , the theatre was known as Paramount Theatre . Eventually , the Paramount Theatre stage was converted to an artificial ice surface , and renamed Wonderland Theatre . Two ice shows were presented , titled Endless Summer on Ice ( 2007 – 2009 ) and Snoopy Rocks ! on Ice ( 2010 – 2011 ) . The first production included Scooby @-@ Doo and outfits like s 'mores , while Snoopy , Charlie Brown , Lucy and Linus appeared in sequences of the latter . The show appeared at various other former Paramount Parks , and in each situation , the sequenced did vary between the Scooby @-@ anchored and Peanuts @-@ anchored productions .
Cirque Ambiente opened in Wonderland in 2012 ; located at Wonderland Theatre . The show is produced by Les Productions Haut @-@ Vol , who also produces the Wonder Mountain dive show and the shows in Arthur 's Baye . This isn 't the first " cirque " act at the park . Quebec 's Cirque du Tonnerre , featuring a contortionist from Cirque du Soleil , made an " exclusive Toronto appearance " at Wonderland in 1990 .
Of all the shows over the years , Wonderland estimates there have been 1300 performers . Jersey Boys choreographer Sergio Trujillo , television actor Matt Austin , and stage actress Erica Peck among them .
= = = Arthur 's Baye = = =
A large pond in the Medieval Faire has always hosted free performances , the shows have remained largely similar over the years , alternating only in choreography from year – to – year , as opposed to premise . In planning documents , the water was originally called Medieval Lake .
Labatt 's initially presented the Arthur 's Baye show , " The Plight of the Land Locked Pirates " . Described in the Guidebook , the " melodramatic stunt spectacular " was set on a " privateer ship " called the Sea Sceptre . Reports in 1980 suggested that the lake would have " ancient – looking sailing ships . " The show would feature two sets of actors battling in a show of acrobatics and pyrotechnics . Billy , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old hero of the show ( played by a 20 – year – old trampolinist ) , is kidnapped from the audience on shore and taken to the boat . Pirate Captain Evil Medieval and Billy 's mother , played by a teenaged boy , were the two other primary characters . The trapeze and trampoline show ends with the mother lowering the pirate flag and raising a heart flag .
In 2009 the show was re – titled simply as the Arthur 's Baye Dive Show , including trampoline and diving demonstrations , but no overarching plot . In 2011 , they were nominated for an IAAPA Brass Ring Award 2011 in the Live Entertainment category for Best Overall Production $ 50 @,@ 001 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 . In 2012 it was re – branded completely as Kinet – X. The show was produced by Les Productions Haut @-@ Vol from 2002 to 2010 .
= = Food = =
The largest facility in this area of the park is The Marketplace – International Buffet , originally called All 's Well Hall . In planning documents , it was simply called " Medieval Pub " . In the park 's opening season guidebook , the facility is listed as selling " bratwurst , sausages , beef and mushroom pie , smoked sausage , grilled frankfurter , sauerkraut , mashed potatoes , soft pretzels , pastries , with beer , wine , coffee , tea , milk , and soft drinks . " The self – serve restaurant had table service on request , and seated 528 ; Ginza Gardens in Grande Exposition of 1890 was the only other restaurant in the park with table service . A review of the restaurant in The Toronto Star describes the facility as the park 's flagship eatery , but it received mixed reviews . " The $ 2 @.@ 50 beef and mushroom pie has a good crust and as much beef as potato . Tiny mushrooms , but big on flavor . " Conversely , 50 cent pretzels " are strictly for teething tots – too cheewy . " The Marketplace currently serves an all – you – can – eat buffet , self described as " upscale " , offering meats like roast beef and fried chicken , pasta , a salad bar , a desert station , varied international cuisine , and other options . Marketplace has served a Mortal Meal , along with the Backlot Cafe elsewhere in the park , during Halloween Haunt in recent seasons .
While largely out of site from the bay for which it is named , Arthur 's Baye Mill & Bakery shared a building with store called The Market Place . The retail is now The Fun Shoppe , with the generically named Medieval Funnel Cakes . There is a Coca @-@ Cola Freestyle location at the funnel cake store .
Other original outlets were :
Yee Ribb Pytt : Barbecque ribs , smoked meat sandwich , and fries . Made by McCain , the fries were dubbed potato logs and Rubble spuds elsewhere in the park . Also listed in the guidebook were garden salad , coleslaw , melon , fruit drinks , soft drinks , and coffee .
Arthur 's Baye Mill & Bakery : Solely serving funnel cakes , at 90 cents . Teens taken to the park told the Star that " they look worse than they taste . "
Yorkshire Yogurt : " Freshly @-@ made frozen yoghurt with a touch of vanilla " , available in a cone , or with fresh fruit in a cup .
French Fryes and Shrymps : Battered and fried shrimp , a dozen served in a paper cone . " What a cruel fate for such healthy food , " suggested a Star food writer .
The introduction of Leviathan to the section in 2012 lead to an expansion of Thrill Burger 's front service counter and kitchen , to handle the expected increased volume of traffic to the section . Thrill Burger offers " our basic good quality burgers and fries " , along with chicken fingers and onion rings . The Mixitup Icee station was remade into the " Leviathan Icee Yard " , featuring even larger drink containers than previously , emulating the size of the new ride . A truck positioned outside the Flight Deck roller coaster in Action Zone was rethemed and moved to Medieval Faire . Other current food locations include a Dairy Queen , a Subway , and Medieval Funnel Cakes which shares a space with Fun Shoppe .
Used for corporate catering and other large groups , Courtyard was originally known as King 's Courtyard , until at least 1998 . Public entry to the area is through a gate located between Wonderland Theatre and Riptide . Occasionally , other events are held at the Courtyard : in June 1998 , the section hosted Alligators Alive ! , an educational show about the Floridian animals .
= = Other = =
The area features a variety of games , including an arcade . The park 's First Aid and Security Building , now home only to the First Aid Centre , is located in the Medieval Faire section beside the games . Along with Hanna – Barbera Land , this section of the park was recreated at Australia 's Wonderland .
= Barry Voight =
Barry Voight ( born 1937 ) is an American volcanologist and engineer . He is also the brother of actor Jon Voight and songwriter Chip Taylor , and the uncle of actress Angelina Jolie . After attending a five @-@ year intensive dual @-@ degree program at the University of Notre Dame , Voight became a teaching assistant there while pursuing his Master 's degree . He studied at Cornell University and Columbia University , earning his Ph.D. in geology at the latter in 1965 . He worked as a professor of geology at several universities , including Pennsylvania State University , where he taught from 1964 until his retirement in 2005 . Voight 's publication on avalanches and other mass movements attracted the attention of United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) employee Rocky Crandell , who asked him to look at an expanding bulge at Mount St. Helens in Washington . Voight foresaw the bulge 's failure , followed by the collapse of the mountain 's north flank as well as a powerful eruption . His predictions came true as St. Helens erupted in 1980 ; Voight was then hired by the USGS to investigate the avalanche that marked the eruption . After his work at St. Helens brought him international recognition , Voight continued researching and guiding monitoring efforts at several active volcanoes throughout his career , including Nevado del Ruiz , Mount Merapi , and Soufrière Hills . For his research , publications , and disaster prevention work as a volcanologist and engineer , Voight has been honored with several awards and citations as a lecturer .
= = Early life and education = =
Voight was born in Yonkers , New York in 1937 . His brothers are actor Jon Voight and songwriter Chip Taylor , and actress Angelina Jolie is his niece .
Voight pursued a 5 @-@ year intensive dual @-@ degree program at the University of Notre Dame , receiving undergraduate degrees in geology ( 1959 ) and in civil engineering ( 1960 ) . He also received his Master 's degree in civil engineering from Notre Dame in 1961 . Voight attributes his interest in science to his mentors at Notre Dame , professors Ray Gutschick and Erhard Winkler . After spending one year studying at Cornell University , Voight transferred to Columbia University , where he graduated with a Ph.D. in geology in 1965 , studying under Fred Donath . While at Columbia , Voight was named a President 's Fellow .
= = Teaching career = =
Voight began teaching in 1961 , serving as a teaching assistant ( TA ) at the University of Notre Dame while pursuing his master 's degree in civil engineering . From 1961 − 1963 , he also served as a TA at Cornell and Columbia . In 1964 , he joined the faculty at Pennsylvania State University ( Penn State ) as an assistant professor of geology , becoming a regular professor of geology and geotechnical engineering in 1978 . He remained at Penn State for more than four decades , retiring in June 2005 . While working at Penn State , Voight had a joint affiliation with the school 's Department of Mineral Engineering , teaching two courses , " Physical Geology for Engineers " and " Volcanology " . During his career , Voight also taught as a guest professor at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands in 1972 . He was a visiting professor at the University of Toronto in 1973 and at the University of California , Santa Barbara in 1981 . As of 2009 , he remains an emeritus professor at Penn State .
= = Volcanological work and research = =
= = = Early assignments = = =
Voight began his career as a geologist in 1971 , working for the United States Bureau of Mines . In 1978 , he published the first volume of a publication on avalanches , titled Rockslides and Avalanches . After the second volume was released in 1980 , the work became a benchmark in studying avalanches and other forms of mass movement .
Prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , Voight was contacted by Rocky Crandell , a United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) employee working at the mountain . Crandell sought Voight 's expertise in landslides , hoping Voight would opine on a growing bulge , 270 feet ( 82 m ) in length , which had emerged on the mountain 's north face . In his report to Crandell and his associates , Voight insisted that the bulge could fail and collapse the volcano 's entire north sector . He suggested they begin monitoring the rate of movement of the bulge , worried that the collapse could trigger an eruption . He also advised hiring a local surveyor to take measurements , offending several of the geologists . Shortly after , Voight left the mountain and returned to teaching classes at Penn State . Just before the eruption , he published a paper summarizing his predictions , depicting the failure of the bulge and the collapse of the mountain 's north side followed by a violent eruption , all of which came true . After a magnitude 5 @.@ 1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide at 8 : 32 a.m. , the volcano erupted , causing USD $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damage and killing 57 people . After the eruption , Voight accepted a position as a consultant for the USGS . He led the investigation into the volcano debris avalanche which had occurred during the volcano 's eruption , guiding other volcanologists including Harry Glicken , who built upon Voight 's preliminary research to create his report " Rockslide @-@ Debris Avalanche of May 18 , 1980 , Mount St. Helens Volcano , Washington " ( 1996 ) . Voight 's work won him international renown , and he later cited his experiences there as " career @-@ changing " . Although Voight already had a growing interest in volcanology , the eruption at Mount St. Helens propelled him to switch careers and dedicate himself to the field . His work helped to reinvigorate widespread interest in landslides and other phenomena at volcanoes which potentially pose a threat to life . After Mount St. Helens , Voight began work analyzing the volcanic hazards from several other active volcanoes .
In 1985 , Voight responded to the Armero tragedy , where more than 23 @,@ 000 died from an eruption from the Nevado del Ruiz volcano , by blaming human error . He felt that while totally accurate predictions of volcanic eruptions were impossible , unpreparedness for the disaster and inaction in preventing it exacerbated the death toll . In January 1986 , Voight visited Nevado del Ruiz responding to concerns from the Colombian government that the northeastern section of the volcano might cave in , causing another eruption . He established a monitoring network of reflectors and used laser ranging to track how the distances to these reflectors changed over time . When one reflector indicated lots of movement and large cracks became visible from the air , Voight began contemplating evacuation , but waited . By March 1986 , he realized the widening cracks were caused by the creep ( gradual shifting ) of one of the volcano 's glaciers , rather than rocks . After leaving Ruiz , Voight compiled the 14 @-@ page report " Countdown to Catastrophe " ( 1988 ) , which analyzed how volcanic hazard management had failed at Armero .
= = = Later studies = = =
When Voight began research at Mount Merapi in Java , Indonesia in 1988 , it was hardly known by volcanologists . It had been omitted in the Smithsonian Institution 's 1981 publication Volcanoes of the World , despite having close to a million people on its slopes as of 1996 . Voight set up meters to record movement within the volcano , and educated local scientists on volcanic monitoring . In July 1989 , he obtained a USD $ 250 @,@ 000 grant from the National Science Foundation 's Division of Natural and Manmade Hazard Mitigation for his proposal to predict eruptions at Merapi . After his funding ran out , he temporarily abandoned his research . An eruption from the volcano in 1994 produced pyroclastic flows that killed 63 people , including guests of a wedding ceremony . 23 people survived the eruption . Returning to Merapi the following year , Voight compared data from the dead and survivors including the extent of their burn areas , clothing worn , and lung damage . He concluded that protective , long @-@ sleeved clothing and masks enhance chances of survival when exposed to eruptive activity .
In April 1989 , Voight returned to Colombia to the volcano Galeras after being contacted by the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization . People in Pasto , located at the foot of the volcano , became alarmed by noises and shaking from Galeras . While Galeras proved far easier to climb than Nevado del Ruiz , land mines planted to hinder guerrilla forces dotted the slopes of the mountain . With USGS geologist Dick Janda , Voight drew a hazard map which included several populated areas within the danger zone . Before Voight left Galeras , the volcano underwent an unexpected phreatic eruption , which Voight and his team failed to predict . Although Pasto was unaffected , six scientists attending a United Nations workshop for natural disaster relief were killed . After reviewing deformation data from the day before the eruption , Voight discovered that no acceleration in the deformation process had occurred . He surmised that phreatic eruptions do not exhibit an acceleration in deformation before taking place and left after confirming that the volcano 's monitoring system functioned properly .
Voight 's fulfilled prediction that an avalanche at St. Helens could provoke a lateral eruption , an eruption from the volcano 's flank rather than its summit , attracted the attention of the government of Montserrat . Worried about an expanding lava dome at the Soufrière Hills volcano in March 1996 , the island 's government asked Voight to assess its potential for an avalanche that could generate an eruption . Voight thought it was unlikely that the crater would collapse , but expressed concern over a possible pyroclastic flow that could reach the city of Plymouth in approximately three minutes . The city of Plymouth and a village on the mountain were evacuated , and within three years , pyroclastic flows overtook the abandoned sites . Following these eruptions , Voight served as a member of the Risk Assessment Panel that advised Montserrat 's government , and co @-@ established the Caribbean Andesite Lava Island Precision Seismo @-@ geodetic Observatory ( CALIPSO ) with a team of scientists . Voight continued research at the island with Steven Sparks , a geoscientist at the University of Bristol , establishing SEA @-@ CALIPSO , an attempt to analyze Soufrière Hills utilizing seismic waves and explosions in the ocean . Amongst other findings , this effort detected a major fault trending north − west under Montserrat 's western side .
With his students , Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows , volcanically @-@ induced seismicity , volcanic debris avalanches , and volcanic eruption prediction . Voight also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams , tunnels , and nuclear power plants , helping plan engineering projects in France , India , Ireland , Somalia , Papua New Guinea , Canada , and Turkey , as well as the United States . Voight 's research interests in lava dome collapses , stratovolcanoes , monitoring of active volcanoes , and pyroclastic flows have taken him to Iceland , Columbia , Japan , the Kamchatka Peninsula , Indonesia , the West Indies , Italy , and Chile . Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts , Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery ( ASR ) method for measuring stress on deep rock . With a team of geologists , he also derived the material failure forecast method ( FFM ) , which predicts eruption times for volcanoes based on changes in the mountain 's surrounding seismic and deformation data . He currently serves as a member of the United States Geological Survey 's Volcano Hazards Response Team , and has responded to potentially eruptive volcanoes in Japan , the Philippines , Indonesia , and Chile .
= = Recognition and legacy = =
Throughout his career , Voight has received multiple accolades and citations , for his research as a professor and for his professional work as a geologist and volcanologist . In 1984 , the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the George Stevenson Medal , recognizing one of his articles among " the best work published in [ their ] journals " . The same year , Voight earned an award for " significant original contribution to research in rock mechanics " from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics . For his help monitoring the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines in 1985 , he was granted a key to Legazpi , Albay , which had been threatened by Mayon 's impending eruption . 1989 saw another major year of honors for Voight , as he was named a MacQuarie Research Scholar and again garnered an award from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics for his original findings . Voight has appeared as a distinguished lecturer several times , including at the University of Utah 's College of Mining Engineering ( 1990 ) , the University of California , Santa Barbara ( 1992 ) , and the Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists ( 1992 ) . For his service as a professor at Penn State , Voight has been given two awards , specifically for his research . In 1991 , he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for " Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering " . In 1990 , he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research . For " his research , teaching and consulting work " , the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice
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Award . In 2013 he received the Thorarinsson Medal of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior .
Recalling a conference which he attended where Voight appeared , Bill McGuire , Emeritus Professor of Geophysical & Climate Hazards at University College London , describes Voight as " an illustrious expert on volcano instability and landslides " . Citing Voight for his Distinguished Practice Award , colleague Richard Gray names him among his " profession 's brightest and productive members " . When Voight published his prediction mechanism , USGS geologist Robert I. Tilling praised it for being " a significant refinement in the interpretation of monitoring data " .
= = Major publications = =
In addition to many papers , Voight has authored at least 14 books since 1965 , some of his co @-@ authors including W. D. Gunther , R. T. Chase , Mary A. Voight , and George Stephens . His most recent book was published in 2012 .
Belousov , Alexander , Voight , Barry , and Belousova , Marina , 2007 , Directed blasts and blast @-@ generated pyroclastic density currents — A comparison of the Bezymianny 1956 , Mount St. Helens 1980 , and Soufrière Hills , Montserrat 1997 eruptions and deposits : Bulletin of Volcanology , v. 69 , pp. 701 – 740 .
Ida , R. , and B. Voight , eds . Models in Volcanology , Harry Glicken Memorial Volume . J. Vol , . Geochem . Res. 66 : 1 – 4 , 1995 .
Voight , B. , and D. Elsworth . Failure of volcano slopes . Geotechnique 46 ( 4 ) : 1 – 40 , 1997 .
Voight , B. , et al . Magma flow instability and cyclic activity at Soufriere Hills Volcano , Montserrat , B. W. I. Science , 1999 .
Voight , B. , et al . Remarkable cyclic ground deformation monitored in real time on Montserrat and its use in eruption forecasting . Geophys . Res. Lett . 25 ( 18 ) : 3405 – 3408 , 1998 .
Young , S. , B. Voight , S. R. J. Sparks , et al . ( co @-@ conv . ) . Eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano , Montserrat , B. W. I. Special Section , Geophy . Res. Lett . 25 ( 18 ) : 3387 – 3340 , and 25 ( 19 ) : 3651 – 3700 , 1998 .
= Sarcosphaera =
Sarcosphaera is a fungal genus within the Pezizaceae family . It is a monotypic genus , containing the single species Sarcosphaera coronaria , commonly known as the pink crown , the violet crown @-@ cup , or the violet star cup . It is a whitish or grayish cup fungus , distinguished by the manner in which the cup splits into lobes from the top downward . It is commonly found in the mountains in coniferous woods under humus on the forest floor , and often appears after the snow melts in late spring and early summer . The fungus is widespread , and has been collected in Europe , Israel and the Asian part of Turkey , North Africa , and North America . In Europe , it is considered a threatened species in 14 countries . Although several taxa have been described as Sarcosphaera species since the introduction of the genus in 1869 , most lack modern descriptions , have been transferred to the related genus Peziza , or are considered synonymous with S. coronaria .
The fruit body , typically found partially buried in soil , is initially like a fleshy hollow ball , and may be mistaken for a puffball . Unlike the latter , it splits open from the top downwards to form a cup with five to ten pointed rays , reaching up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter . It is lavender @-@ brown on the inside surface , and whitish outside , but usually dingy from adhering soil . Characteristic microscopic features include asci that are amyloid ( so their tips stain blue at the tip with iodine ) , and smooth , blunt @-@ ended , ellipsoid spores with large oil droplets . Sarcosphaera coronaria — once thought to be a good edible — is not recommended for consumption , after several reports of poisonings causing stomach aches , and in one instance , death . The fruit bodies are known to bioaccumulate the toxic metalloid arsenic from the soil .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and phylogeny = =
The genus was first described by Bernhard Auerswald in 1869 , to accommodate the species then known as Peziza macrocalyx . Sarcosphaera coronaria was originally named Peziza coronaria by the Dutch scientist Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1778 , and underwent several name changes before being assigned its current name in 1908 by Joseph Schröter . The Greek genus name means " flesh ball " ; the Latin specific epithet , coronaria , refers to the crown @-@ like form of the open fruit body . The species is commonly known by various names , including the " crown fungus " , the " pink crown " , the " violet crown @-@ cup " , or the " violet star cup " .
Several taxa have been named as belonging to the genus Sarcosphaera over the years , but most lack modern descriptions and have not been reported since their original collections . For example , Sarcosphaera funerata was renamed by Fred Jay Seaver in 1930 based on the basionym Peziza funerata , originally described by Cooke in 1878 . Sarcosphaera gigantea was a species collected from Michigan , originally described as Pustularia gigantea by Heinrich Rehm in 1905 , and considered distinct from S. coronaria on the basis of its smaller spore size . Sarcosphaera ulbrichiana was described by Wilhem Kirschstein in 1943 . Other taxa have been reduced to synonymy with S. coronaria , or transferred to other genera . Sarcosphaera eximia ( originally Peziza eximia Durieu & Lév . 1848 , and later transferred to Sarcosphaera by René Maire ) , Sarcosphaera crassa ( considered by Zdeněk Pouzar in a 1972 publication to be the correct name for S. coronaria ) and Sarcosphaera dargelasii ( originally Peziza dargelasii Gachet 1829 , transferred to Sarcosphaera by Nannfeldt ) are now considered synonyms of S. coronaria . Sarcosphaera ammophila ( originally Peziza ammophila Durieu & Mont . ) and Sarcosphaera amplissima ( originally Peziza amplissima Fr . 1849 ) have since been transferred back to Peziza . The 10th edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi ( 2008 ) considers Sarcosphaera to be monotypic , and Index Fungorum has only Sarcosphaera coronaria confirmed as valid .
In 1947 , Helen Gilkey described the genus Caulocarpa based on a single collection made in Wallowa County , Oregon . The type species , C. montana , was thought to be a truffle ( formerly classified in the now @-@ defunct Tuberales order ) because of its chambered fruit body and subterranean growth habit . It was later noted by mycologist James Trappe to strongly resemble Sarcosphaera . Thirty years later , Trappe revisited the original collection site in eastern Oregon and found fresh specimens that closely matched Gilkey 's original description . Some specimens , however , had opened up similar to Sarcosphaera , suggesting that the original specimens had " simply not emerged and often not opened due to habitat factors . " Microscopic examination of the preserved type material revealed the species to be Sarcosphaera coronaria ( then called S. crassa ) , and Caulocarpa is now considered a generic synonym of Sarcosphaera .
Sarcosphaera is classified in the family Pezizaceae of the order Pezizales . Phylogenetic analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences suggests that Sarcosphaera forms a clade with the genera Boudiera and Iodophanus , and that the three taxa are a sister group to Ascobolus and Saccobolus ( both in the family Ascobolaceae ) . Species in the families Pezizaceae and Ascobolaceae are distinct from other Pezizalean taxa in the positive iodine reaction of the ascus wall . In a more recent ( 2005 ) phylogenetic analysis combining the data derived from three genes ( the large subunit ribosomal rRNA ( LSU ) , RNA polymerase II ( RPB2 ) , and beta @-@ tubulin ) , Sarcosphaera was shown to be closely related to the truffle genus Hydnotryopsis , corroborating earlier results that used only the LSU rDNA sequences .
= = Description = =
Sarcosphaera is partly hypogeous ( fruiting underground ) and emerges from the ground as a whitish to cream @-@ colored hollow ball . Young specimens are covered entirely by an easily removed thin protective membrane . As it matures , it splits open to expose the inner spore @-@ bearing layer ( hymenium ) . The cup is up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter , roughly spherical initially but breaking up into a series of five to ten raylike projections , which give the fruit body the shape of a crown . The outer surface of the cup is white , while the inner surface is lilac @-@ gray , although in age the color may fade to a brownish @-@ lavender color . The flesh is white , thick , and fragile . Some specimens may have a short , stubby stalk .
The spores are hyaline ( translucent ) , smooth , and ellipsoid with the ends truncate . They have dimensions of 11 @.@ 5 – 20 by 5 – 9 µm , and usually contain two large oil drops . The paraphyses ( sterile , filamentous cells interspersed among the asci , or spore @-@ producing cells ) are 5 – 8 µm wide at the tip , branched , septate ( with partitions that divide the cells into compartments ) , and constricted at the septa . The asci are cylindrical , and measure 300 – 360 by 10 – 13 µm ; the tips of the asci stain blue with Melzer 's reagent . The finely cylindrical paraphyses have slightly swollen tips and are forked at the base .
= = = Similar species = = =
Immature , unopened fruit bodies can be mistaken for truffles , but are distinguished by their hollow interior . Mature specimens somewhat resemble the " earthstar scleroderma " ( Scleroderma polyrhizum ) , but this yellowish @-@ brown species does not have the purple coloration of Sarcosphaera coronaria . Peziza ammophila ( formerly classified in the genus Sarcosphaera ) has an exterior surface that is colored brown to dark brown , and when young it is cup @-@ shaped . Neournula puchettii also has a pinkish @-@ colored hymenium , but it is smaller and always cup @-@ shaped . Geopora sumneriana is another cup fungus that superficially resembles S. coronaria in its form and subterranean growth habit ; however , the surface of its hymenium is cream @-@ colored with ochraceous tinges , and its outer surface is covered with brown hairs . Geopora sepulta may also be included as a potential lookalike to S. coronaria , as it is macroscopically indistinguishable from G. sumneriana .
= = = Edibility = = =
Sarcosphaera coronaria has no distinctive taste or odor , although one source says that as it gets older the odor becomes " reminiscent of rhubarb " . Although older literature describes it as a good edible species , modern literature does not recommended it for consumption . It gives some individuals gastrointestinal discomfort , reputedly similar to poisoning symptoms caused by morels . A number of poisonings attributed to this species have been reported from Europe , including one fatal poisoning in the Jura area in 1920 , following which a warning was issued not to eat it raw or in salads . Although the fruit bodies are edible after cooking , they are rarely collected by mushroom pickers , and have no commercial value .
The chemical composition of fruit bodies collected from Turkey has been analyzed , and the dried fruit bodies determined to contain the following nutritional components : protein , 19 @.@ 46 % ; fat , 3 @.@ 65 % ; ash , 32 @.@ 51 % ; carbohydrates , 44 @.@ 38 % ( including 6 @.@ 71 % as non @-@ digestible cellulose ) . Fresh fruit bodies have a moisture content of 84 @.@ 4 % . The mushrooms are a good source of the element vanadium , shown in a 2007 study to be present at a concentration of 0 @.@ 142 mg / kg ( dry weight ) .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Historically , Sarcosphaera coronaria has been assumed to be saprobic , acquiring nutrients from breaking down decaying organic matter . The fungus , however , is only found with trees known to form mycorrhiza , and it is often locally abundant where it occurs , year after year in the same location , indicative of a mycorrhizal lifestyle . The results of a 2006 study of Pezizalean fungi further suggest that the species is an ectomycorrhizal symbiont , and more generally , that the Pezizales include more ectomycorrhizal fungi than previously thought .
The fruit bodies are found singly , scattered , or clustered together in broad @-@ leaf woods favoring beech , less frequently with conifers . A preference for calcareous soils has been noted , but they will also grow on acidic bedrock . Because their initial development is subterranean , young fruit bodies are easy to overlook , as they as usually covered with dirt or forest duff . They are more common in mountainous locations , and occur most frequently in the spring , often near melting snow . The fungus is distributed in 23 European countries , North Africa , and North America , from British Columbia eastward to Michigan and New York , south to Veracruz , Mexico . It has also been collected from Israel and the Asian part of Turkey . In Europe , the fungus is red @-@ listed in 14 countries , and is considered a threatened species by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi . It is short @-@ listed for inclusion in the Bern Convention by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi . Threats to the species include loss and degradation of habitats due to clearcutting and soil disturbance .
= = Bioaccumulation = =
The fruit bodies can bioaccumulate the toxic heavy metal arsenic from the soil in the form of the compound methylarsonic acid . Although less toxic than arsenic trioxide , it is still relatively dangerous . Concentrations over 1000 mg / kg ( dry weight ) are often reached . As reported in one 2004 publication , a mature specimen collected near the town of Český Šternberk in the Czech Republic was found to have an arsenic content of 7090 mg / kg dry weight , the highest concentration ever reported in a mushroom . Typically , the arsenic content of mycorrhizal mushrooms collected from unpolluted areas is lower than 1 mg / kg . In a 2007 Turkish study of 23 wild edible mushroom species ( collected from areas not known to be polluted ) , S. coronaria had the highest concentration of arsenic at 8 @.@ 8 mg / kg dry weight , while the arsenic concentration of the other tested mushrooms ranged from 0 @.@ 003 mg / kg ( in Sarcodon leucopus ) to 0 @.@ 54 mg / kg ( in Lactarius salmonicolor ) .
= = = Cited books = = =
Jordan M. ( 2004 ) . The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe . London , UK : Frances Lincoln . ISBN 0 @-@ 7112 @-@ 2378 @-@ 5 .
Kirk PM , Cannon PF , Minter DW , Stalpers JA ( 2008 ) . Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th ed . ) . Wallingford , UK : CABI . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 826 @-@ 8 .
= Eden Hazard =
Eden Michael Hazard ( French pronunciation : [ edɛn azaʁ ] ; born 7 January 1991 ) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays for Chelsea and the Belgium national team . He primarily plays as an attacking midfielder and a winger . Hazard 's creativity , speed , and technical ability are widely acknowledged . He has been described as " a superb passer " and has earned critical acclaim for his playing style , which has led to the media , coaches , and players drawing comparisons to FIFA Ballon d 'Or winners Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo . Hazard is often ranked by coaches , colleagues , and commentators as one of the best players in the world .
Hazard is the son of former Belgian footballers and began his football career in Belgium playing for local clubs Royal Stade Brainois and Tubize . In 2005 , he moved to France joining first division club Lille . Hazard spent two years in the club 's academy and , at the age of 16 , made his professional debut in November 2007 . He went on to become an integral part of Lille under manager Rudi Garcia , racking up over 190 appearances . In his first full season as a starter , he won the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Young Player of the Year award becoming the first non @-@ French player to win the award . In the 2009 – 10 season , Hazard captured the award again becoming the first player to win the award twice . He was also named to the league 's Team of the Year .
In the 2010 – 11 season , he was a part of the Lille team that won the league and cup double and , as a result of his performances , was named the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year becoming the youngest player to win the award . Hazard was also given the Bravo Award by Italian magazine Guerin Sportivo for his performances during the 2010 – 11 season . In June 2012 , after spending over eight years at Lille , Hazard signed for English club Chelsea , where he went on to win the UEFA Europa League in his first season and the PFA Young Player of the Year in his second . In the 2014 – 15 season , he helped Chelsea win the League Cup and Premier League , earning him the FWA Footballer of the Year and the PFA Players ' Player of the Year awards .
Hazard is a Belgium international , having represented his nation at under @-@ 17 and under @-@ 19 level . Hazard made his senior international debut in November 2008 , aged 17 , in a friendly match against Luxembourg . Nearly three years after his debut , Hazard scored his first international goal against Kazakhstan in October 2011 . He has since earned 70 caps , and was a member of the Belgian squad which reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 2014 FIFA World Cup .
= = Early life = =
Hazard was born in La Louvière and grew up in Braine @-@ le @-@ Comte . His mother , Carine , and father , Thierry , were both footballers . His father spent most of his career playing at semi @-@ professional level with La Louvière in the Belgian Second Division . He played mainly as a defensive midfielder . His mother played as a striker in the Belgian Women 's First Division and stopped playing when she was three months pregnant with Eden . After playing football , both parents became sports teachers . Thierry retired from his position in 2009 in order to devote more time to his children .
Hazard is the eldest of four children . He has three brothers , all of whom play football , including Thorgan , who joined him at Chelsea in 2012 and had previously progressed through the youth ranks of Lille 's biggest rivals Lens . Hazard 's other younger brothers are Kylian and Ethan . On 15 July 2013 , Kylian joined White Star Bruxelles , but now plays for Zulte Waregem , while Ethan remains playing in the youth academy of Eden 's former club Tubize .
Hazard and his three brothers were raised in a comfortable environment with their parents ensuring they had whatever they needed to excel . The family lived " no more than three metres " from a football training ground and the brothers often ventured onto a training pitch through a small hole in order to hone and develop their skills .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hazard began his football career playing for hometown club Royal Stade Brainois at the age of four . During his time at the club , one of his youth coaches described him as a " gifted " player . He added : " He knew everything . I had nothing to teach him " . Hazard spent eight years at the club before moving to Tubize . While at Tubize , he was spotted by a Lille scout while playing in a local tournament with the club . The scout 's subsequent report on the player prompted club officials to meet with Hazard 's father and offer the young player an aspirant ( youth ) contract .
Hazard 's parents accepted the offer from Lille with hopes that the training facilities in France would be better . Hazard 's father later admitted that the decision to let Eden and , later Thorgan , join clubs in the North of France was the best solution stating " They remained so close to home and , at the same time , they integrated at structures where they could grow , because in Belgium , unfortunately , it 's a little empty for the training of youth " .
= = = Lille = = =
Hazard joined Lille in 2005 and spent two years developing in the club 's local sports school , due to its youth academy in Luchin not being in operation at that time . On 28 May 2007 , he signed his first professional contract agreeing to a three year deal with Lille . At the start of the 2007 – 08 season , at the age of 16 , Hazard was promoted to the club 's reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth level of French football , though he still played with Lille 's under @-@ 18 team in its league and the Coupe Gambardella . Hazard made his amateur debut on 1 September 2007 in a league match against Racing Club de France appearing as a second @-@ half substitute in a 3 – 1 defeat . He made his first start a week later in the team 's 1 – 0 defeat to Lesquin .
After spending the majority of October and the early part of November playing with the club 's under @-@ 18 team , on 14 November , due to several players being on international duty , Hazard was called up to the senior team by manager Claude Puel to participate in a friendly match against Belgian club Bruges on 16 November . He appeared as a substitute in the match and , as a result of his performance , was included in the 18 @-@ man squad to face Nancy in a league match on 24 November . Hazard , subsequently , made his professional debut in the match coming on as a substitute in the 78th minute .
Hazard returned to the club 's reserve team and spent December playing with the squad . Following the winter break , Hazard returned to the first team in January and made substitute appearances in three league matches against Metz , Sochaux , and Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Following the match against Paris Saint @-@ Germain , he was demoted back to amateur level where he played concurrently with the reserve team in the fourth division and the under @-@ 18 team in the Coupe Gambardella . On 17 May 2008 , he scored his first amateur goal in a 3 – 2 victory over Vitré . Hazard finished his amateur career with 11 appearances and one goal , helping the reserve team finished in fifth place , which was first among professional clubs ' reserve teams playing in the group .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
For the 2008 – 09 season , Hazard was given the number 26 shirt after playing with the number 33 shirt in his debut season . He was also promoted to the senior team permanently by new manager Rudi Garcia . Early on , he made substitute appearances regularly making his season debut as a substitute on 14 September 2008 against Sochaux in a 1 – 1 draw . One of his substitute appearances proved beneficial against Auxerre on 20 September . With Lille trailing 2 – 1 in the waning minutes of the match , Hazard , after Lille took a corner kick , quickly scooped up a short clearance from Auxerre and took a right @-@ footed shot just outside the box . It beat the keeper and drew the score 2 – 2 in the 88th minute . With Lille 's confidence high , the club won the match 3 – 2 in injury time following a goal from Tulio de Melo . Hazard 's first career goal resulted in him becoming the youngest goalscorer in the club 's history .
Four days after scoring his first professional goal , Hazard made his first professional start in a 4 – 2 defeat on penalties to Montpellier in the Coupe de la Ligue . After featuring as a substitute in the team 's next five league matches , on 15 November , Hazard made his first professional league start against Saint @-@ Étienne . He capped the appearance by scoring the opening goal in the club 's 3 – 0 victory . His assured performances with the club resulted in Lille offering him a three year contract extension , which he agreed to on 18 November 2008 , tying him to the club until 2012 .
After featuring as a substitute in December , Hazard returned to the starting lineup in January . On 23 January , he scored the second goal in a 3 – 0 win over amateur club Dunkerque in Round of 32 of the Coupe de France . Two weeks later , he scored the match @-@ winning goal in a league match against Sochaux and , on 22 February , assisted on the winner against Monaco . In the Round of 16 of the Coupe de France , Hazard netted a goal in a 3 – 2 win over the competition 's defending champions Lyon . On 26 April , he scored the opening goal against Marseille , though Lille lost the match 2 – 1 . In the final ten league matches of the campaign , Hazard started eight and contributed to the team finishing in fifth place , which resulted in Lille qualifying for the newly created UEFA Europa League . After the season , he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Young Player of the Year , becoming the first international player to achieve the honor .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
Following the 2008 – 09 season , constant media speculation occurred in numerous countries regarding Hazard 's availability on the transfer market . Despite Lille chairman Michel Seydoux declaring the player off limits and Hazard stating that he wanted to remain at the club for at least another season , several clubs declared interest in the player . These included English clubs Arsenal and Manchester United , Italian club Internazionale , and Spanish clubs Barcelona and Real Madrid . French football legend Zinedine Zidane personally recommended the player to the latter club .
Hazard began the 2009 – 10 season on a positive note scoring in Lille 's first competitive match of the season . The goal , contributing to the team 's 2 – 0 victory , came against Serbian club FK Sevojno in the first leg of the club 's third qualifying round match in the UEFA Europa League . On 27 August , he scored his second career European goal in the club 's second leg tie in the playoff round against Belgian club Genk . It was Lille 's final goal in the club 's 4 – 2 victory . The 6 – 3 aggregate scoreline assured the club progression to the Europa League group stage .
On 22 October , Hazard scored a goal in Lille 's important 3 – 0 victory over Italian club Genoa in the 84th minute after entering as a substitute 10 minutes prior . Upon receiving the ball on the left wing , Hazard proceeded to dash through the midfield dribbling past six Genoa defenders before finishing at the 18 @-@ yard box . A month later , Hazard was instrumental in Lille 's 5 – 1 thrashing of Czech club Slavia Prague as he was partly responsible for the opening goal — slicing through the defense and delivering a cross near post , which went off Slavia player Marek Suchý resulting in an own goal .
On 20 December , Hazard scored his first league goal of the season in the club 's 3 – 0 win over Le Mans . He also provided both the assists on the other two goals . On 30 January , Hazard scored the only goal in Lille 's win over Derby du Nord rivals Lens . The victory helped the club achieve stability in the league by keeping them in the UEFA Champions League places . It also ended a disaster of a week which saw Lille suffer elimination from both of France 's cup competitions . Five days later , Hazard and Lille reached an agreement on a contract extension , which will keep the player at the club until 2014 . On 11 March , Hazard scored the only goal in Lille 's victory over English club Liverpool in the first leg of the club 's UEFA Europa League tie converting a free kick in the 83rd minute . Three weeks later , Hazard provided two assists in the club 's 4 – 1 win over fellow title contenders Montpellier . The two passes brought his league tally to seven , tied for second in the league . For his impressive displays in the month of March , Hazard was given the UNFP Player of the Month award .
On 29 April , Hazard was nominated for the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year award . He was also nominated , for the second consecutive season , for the Young Player of the Year award . On 9 May , Hazard was awarded the UNFP Young Player of the Year trophy for the second consecutive season . He became the first player since its inception in 1994 to win the award twice . Hazard lost out on the Player of the Year award , which was awarded to Lyon striker Lisandro López .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Hazard began the 2010 – 11 campaign as a starter featuring in Lille 's first six league matches of the season , as well as matches in the UEFA Europa League . On 29 August 2010 , he scored his first goal of the season in a 1 – 1 draw with Nice . In late September , Hazard began to struggle with inconsistency and was benched by Garcia in an effort to " allow him ( Hazard ) to breathe and learn that his performances were insufficient " . Hazard , subsequently , appeared as a substitute in the team 's 2 – 1 defeat to Portuguese club Sporting in the Europa League and as a substitute in the next three league matches against Toulouse , Montpellier , and Lyon . Hazard later admitted that his first bout of inconsistency affected him stating " The first two months were a bit tough . I wouldn ’ t say that I began doubting my abilities , but I definitely went through a really patchy spell " .
On 7 October , Belgium national team manager Georges Leekens , citing Hazard 's recent spell on the bench at Lille , said that the player needed to work harder , both physically and mentally , to regain his past year 's form . The team 's assistant coach , Marc Wilmots , also stated that Hazard often displayed a lazy mentality while training with the national team . Garcia responded to Leekens comments the following day stating that he thought they were " excessive " and that " Eden is only 19 years old " and can still " make more progress in all areas . " Following Belgium 's match against Kazakhstan , in which Hazard failed to start or even appear on the substitute 's bench , Leekens responded to Garcia 's comments declaring that he would stand by his previous comments and that players must think about the team and not themselves . Hazard , himself , later reflected on Leekens and Garcia comments in February 2011 stating " I learned a lot during those few weeks , mentally speaking . And since then things have got better . The national side has had a fair bit to do with that – I get a lot out of being a part of it " .
Following the international break , Hazard recaptured his scoring form netting the final goal in Lille 's 4 – 1 victory over Caen in the Coupe de la Ligue on 27 October . Ten days later , he scored his second league goal of the season in a 3 – 1 win against the league table leaders Brest . On 21 November , Hazard assisted on both Lille 's goals in a 2 – 1 win over Monaco . The victory continued the club 's domestic unbeaten streak , which led to Lille topping the league table following an emphatic 6 – 3 victory against Lorient on 5 December . At the turn of the calendar year , Hazard scored in the team 's first match against amateur club Forbach in the Coupe de France . Lille won the match 3 – 1 . In the team 's following match , he assisted on goals scored by Moussa Sow and Gervinho in a 2 – 0 league victory over Nice .
On 19 January , Hazard scored the second goal in a 3 – 0 victory over Nancy . On 4 March , Lille officials confirmed that Hazard had added an extra year to his contract . The new deal tied him to the club until 2015 and also made him the highest paid player in Ligue 1 beginning with the 2011 – 12 season . In his first match after the news , Hazard scored the opening goal in Lille 's 2 – 1 away win over title rivals Marseille . The goal was scored on a left @-@ footed shot from almost 35 metres ( 38 yd ) out and was clocked at 95 km / h ( 59 mph ) .
On 2 April , Hazard capped his 100th league appearance with Lille by scoring the second goal in a 3 – 1 win over Caen . The goal tied his career @-@ high for goals in a season and also moved Lille eight points clear at the top of the league table . For his performances in the month of March , Hazard was named the UNFP Player of the Month for the second time in his career . On 19 April , after appearing as a first @-@ half substitute , he scored the opening goal in Lille 's 2 – 0 Coupe de France semi @-@ final victory over Nice . The victory inserted the club into the 2011 Coupe de France Final ; the club 's first appearance in the competition 's final since 1955 . On 7 May , Hazard converted a game @-@ winning free @-@ kick goal in the team 's 1 – 0 win over Nancy . Three days later , he was nominated for the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year award for the second consecutive season .
In the Coupe de France final , Hazard played 89 minutes as Lille defeated Paris Saint @-@ Germain 1 – 0 at the Stade de France . A week later , Lille clinched the Ligue 1 title by drawing 2 – 2 away to Paris Saint @-@ Germain , achieving the club 's first league championship since the 1953 – 54 season and the club 's first double since the 1945 – 46 season . The domestic cup and league title were the first two honours in Hazard 's career . On the day after Lille won the league , Hazard was named the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year becoming the youngest player ever to win the award . He was also rewarded with a place in the organization 's Team of the Year for the second consecutive season .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Ahead of the 2011 – 12 season , Hazard switched to the number 10 shirt . In Lille 's first competitive match of the season against Marseille in the 2011 Trophée des Champions , Hazard scored the team 's second goal , which put Lille up 2 – 0 . Marseille would later come back to win the match 5 – 4 . On 20 August , in the team 's third league match of the season , Hazard assisted on Lille 's opening goal , scored by Benoît Pedretti , in a 2 – 1 win over Caen . A month later on 10 September , he scored two goals in a 3 – 1 away victory against Saint @-@ Étienne . Fours days after , Hazard made his UEFA Champions League debut in a 2 – 2 group stage draw with Russian club CSKA Moscow .
In Lille 's next league match following his Champions League debut , he converted a penalty in a 2 – 2 draw with Sochaux . Three days after , Hazard scored the equalizing goal in a 1 – 1 draw against Bordeaux . Against Turkish outfit Trabzonspor on 27 September , he assisted on Lille 's only goal , scored by Moussa Sow , in a 1 – 1 draw . After going over two months without scoring a league goal , on 3 December , Hazard came on as a substitute and scored the match @-@ winning goal in a win over Ajaccio converting a penalty — described as an " Antonín Panenka @-@ style chipped penalty " . Two days later , Hazard was among several players nominated for the Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) Team of the Year for the 2011 calendar year .
In Lille 's final match before the winter break , Hazard tied his career @-@ high for league goals in a season by scoring the team 's third goal in a 4 – 4 draw with Nice . After scoring the goal , Hazard celebrated by paying tribute to Molami Bokoto , a former Lille youth academy player who had died a day prior . In Lille 's first match following the 2011 – 12 winter break , Hazard scored his ninth goal of the campaign in a 6 – 0 away win over amateur club Chantilly in the Coupe de France . In the following month , Lille were defeated 2 – 0 by league rivals Marseille and eliminated from both national cup competitions .
On 28 January , Hazard scored the team 's opening goal converting a penalty in a 3 – 0 win over Saint @-@ Étienne . Two weeks later , he converted a free kick goal against Bordeaux . Lille had been trailing 4 – 1 prior to the goal and eventually recovered to draw the match at 4 – 4 , however , Bordeaux scored in injury time to secure a 5 – 4 win . On 3 March , Hazard scored both team goals in a 2 – 2 draw with Auxerre .
On 18 March , Hazard scored a goal and assisted on two others in a 4 – 0 win over local rivals Valenciennes . In Lille 's next match against Evian , Hazard converted a penalty and assisted on a goal by Dimitri Payet in a 3 – 0 win . The following week , on 1 April 2012 , Hazard converted a first @-@ half penalty and later assisted on another Payet goal to cap a 2 – 1 victory over Toulouse .
On 15 April , Hazard marked his 100 consecutive Ligue 1 appearance , which to date , is the longest current run in the French top flight , by scoring a goal and assisting on another in a 4 – 1 win over Ajaccio . A week later , Hazard scored another goal , this time in a 2 – 0 win over Dijon . On 29 April , in a vital league fixture against Paris Saint @-@ Germain , he converted his ninth penalty of the season to draw the match at 1 – 1 canceling out a goal from Javier Pastore . Hazard later contributed to Lille 's game @-@ winning goal after delivering a rabona @-@ style cross into the box , which was laid onto the path of striker Nolan Roux who , subsequently , converted the goal to give Lille a 2 – 1 win .
On 28 April , for the third consecutive season , Hazard was nominated for the UNFP Player of the Year award . Two weeks later , he was awarded the prestigious honour ahead of the likes of Olivier Giroud and Younès Belhanda . After capturing the award , Hazard became the second player in the awards ' history after former Paris Saint @-@ Germain striker Pauleta to achieve the honour in consecutive seasons . He was also included in the Team of the Year for the third straight season . On 20 May , Hazard appeared in his final match as a Lille player , coincidentally , against Nancy , the club he made his professional debut against . In the match , Hazard recorded his first professional hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 1 win .
= = =
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Penns Park , the road was originally known as the Fox Chase and Huntingdon Valley Turnpike or the Second Street Turnpike , a turnpike that connected farms in Bucks County to Philadelphia . In 1928 , PA 232 was designated between PA 532 in Northeast Philadelphia and PA 32 in New Hope , while PA 163 was designated onto current PA 232 between PA 73 in Philadelphia and PA 63 in Bethayres . PA 232 was rerouted south along PA 163 by 1940 and extended to the Oxford Circle by 1960 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Philadelphia = = =
PA 232 begins at Oxford Circle , where it intersects with Roosevelt Boulevard ( US 1 / US 13 ) and Cheltenham Avenue in Northeast Philadelphia . The Oxford Circle is a modified traffic circle that has direct access to the local lanes of the Roosevelt Boulevard , with the express lanes passing under it . Here the route continues north on Oxford Avenue , a two @-@ lane undivided surface road . The road passes through urban areas of businesses before turning northwest into areas of rowhomes . Upon reaching Har Nebo Cemetery , the route turns north through locations of homes and businesses and passes to the east of Naval Support Activity Philadelphia .
After passing the naval facility , Oxford Avenue continues northeast at the intersection with Robbins Street / Martins Mill Road . PA 232 runs north through the residential Lawncrest neighborhood and reaches an intersection with Cottman Avenue ( PA 73 ) in the Burholme neighborhood . From this junction , the route passes a mix of urban residential and commercial establishments as it comes to a bridge over CSX ’ s Trenton Subdivision at the Bleigh Avenue intersection and continues into the Fox Chase neighborhood , crossing SEPTA ’ s Fox Chase Line near the Fox Chase train station . Upon reaching the Rhawn Street intersection in the downtown area of Fox Chase , the road makes a turn to the northwest .
= = = Montgomery County = = =
Leaving Philadelphia at the Filmore Avenue intersection , PA 232 crosses into Montgomery County in the borough of Rockledge . Here the name of the road changes to Huntingdon Pike as it passes suburban homes and businesses . Upon intersecting Fox Chase Road / Shady Lane , the route turns north and widens to four lanes as it heads into Abington Township . Here , the road passes between the Hollywood neighborhood to the west and a shopping center to the east . Farther north , PA 232 runs through wooded residential areas as it comes to the Susquehanna Road intersection . The road turns northeast at this point and passes near more homes prior to running to the southeast of Holy Redeemer Hospital , at which point it widens into a divided highway . PA 232 crosses over the Pennypack Creek and the abandoned Fox Chase @-@ Newtown rail line as it enters Lower Moreland Township at the Moreland Road intersection . Here , the route passes over SEPTA ’ s West Trenton Line near the Bethayres Train Station and crosses Welsh Road / Philmont Avenue ( PA 63 ) in the community of Huntingdon Valley .
Past the PA 63 intersection , PA 232 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road and is lined with homes before passing a few businesses . The road continues into Bryn Athyn and runs through wooded residential areas before passing between the Bryn Athyn Cathedral to the west and Bryn Athyn College to the east . The route continues into less dense wooded residential development as it briefly forms the border between Lower Moreland Township to the west and Bryn Athyn to the east before fully entering Lower Moreland Township again . The road turns northeast as it passes near a few businesses at the Byberry Road intersection before heading through wooded residential subdivisions .
= = = Bucks County = = =
PA 232 crosses County Line Road and enters Upper Southampton Township , Bucks County . Here , the road is named Second Street Pike and it heads north into business areas as a three lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , passing over Norfolk Southern ’ s Morrisville Line before crossing over the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) . The route crosses the abandoned Fox Chase @-@ Newtown rail line again near the former Southampton Station before intersecting Street Road ( PA 132 ) in the community of Southampton .
After this intersection , the road narrows back to two lanes and turns northeast into residential areas . PA 232 makes a curve to the north as it crosses Bristol Road into Northampton Township . The route turns northeast again and continues past more housing developments with a few businesses . At Richboro , the road passes shopping centers and businesses as Bustleton Pike merges into Second Street Pike and PA 232 continues due north . The route widens to four lanes and passes more commercial development as it crosses PA 332 . Following the PA 332 junction , the road narrows to two lanes and passes more residential areas . As the route approaches the Sacketts Ford Road intersection , the settings become more rural as the road passes near farms and woods with some homes .
The road crosses the Neshaminy Creek and turns northeast in Wrightstown Township . The road continues through agricultural areas and passes to the east of a quarry following the Swamp Road intersection . PA 232 curves north again and passes a mix of rural areas and residential and commercial development prior to crossing Durham Road ( PA 413 ) in the community of Penns Park . Now signed as Windy Bush Road , the road continues past wooded areas of homes . After the Pine Lane / Pineville Road intersection , the route enters Upper Makefield Township and continues through woodland before heading into farmland .
A short distance past the Street Road intersection , PA 232 passes into Solebury Township and crosses the Pidcock Creek . The road continues through a mix of farms and woods with some residential areas . As the route approaches Aquetong Road , the surroundings become more forested and the road parallels Dark Hollow Run , briefly passing through farm fields . The road enters the borough of New Hope , where it terminates at a junction with Main Street ( PA 32 ) .
= = History = =
In colonial times , the current alignment of PA 232 was referred to as the Middle Road because it was roughly midway between Old York Road and Bustleton Pike . What is now PA 232 in Montgomery County was originally chartered in 1846 as the Fox Chase and Huntingdon Valley Turnpike . This road was a turnpike that connected the Fox Chase area and ran through eastern Montgomery County to County Line Road at the Bucks County border . Further south into Philadelphia , the road was known variously as Oxford Avenue , Oxford Pike , and Oxford Turnpike . The Fox Chase and Huntingdon Valley Turnpike was also known as the Second Street Turnpike . The Second Street Pike continued the Huntington Pike north from the border of Montgomery and Bucks counties to Wrightstown in Bucks County and served as a route for farmers into Philadelphia .
In 1928 , PA 232 was designated between PA 532 in Northeast Philadelphia and PA 32 in New Hope , following Welsh Road to PA 63 in Bethayres before turning north along its current alignment . The present @-@ day route from PA 63 south to PA 73 in Philadelphia was designated as PA 163 . PA 232 was rerouted to head south and replace PA 163 by 1940 . The route was extended further south down Oxford Avenue to the Oxford Circle by 1960 . Since then , there have been no alignment changes to PA 232 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 232 Alternate Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 232 Alternate Truck is a truck route around a weight @-@ restricted bridge over a branch of Mill Creek in Wrightstown Township , on which trucks over 30 tons and combination loads over 35 tons are prohibited . The route follows Swamp Road , Worthington Mill Road , and PA 413 . It was signed in 2013 .
= Cunard Line =
Cunard Line is an Anglo @-@ American cruise line based at Carnival House at Southampton , England , operated by Carnival UK and owned by Carnival Corporation & plc . It has been a leading operator of passenger ships on the North Atlantic , celebrating 175 years of operation in 2015 .
In 1839 , Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard was awarded the first British trans @-@ Atlantic steamship mail contract , and the next year formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam @-@ Packet Company together with Robert Napier , the famous Scottish steamship engine designer and builder , to operate the line 's four pioneer paddle steamers on the Liverpool – Halifax – Boston route . For most of the next 30 years , Cunard held the Blue Riband for the fastest Atlantic voyage . However , in the 1870s Cunard fell behind its rivals , the White Star Line and the Inman Line . To meet this competition , in 1879 the firm was reorganized as Cunard Steamship Company , Ltd to raise capital .
In 1902 , White Star joined the American owned International Mercantile Marine Co. and the British Government provided Cunard with substantial loans and a subsidy to build two superliners needed to retain its competitive position . Mauretania held the Blue Riband from 1909 to 1929 . The sinking of her running mate Lusitania in 1915 was one of the causes of the United States ' entering the First World War . In the late 1920s , Cunard faced new competition when the Germans , Italians and French built large prestige liners . Cunard was forced to suspend construction on its own new superliner because of the Great Depression . In 1934 , the British Government offered Cunard loans to finish Queen Mary and to build a second ship , Queen Elizabeth , on the condition that Cunard merged with the then ailing White Star line to form Cunard @-@ White Star Ltd . Cunard owned two @-@ thirds of the new company . Cunard purchased White Star 's share in 1947 ; the name reverted to the Cunard Line in 1950 .
Upon the end of World War II , Cunard regained its position as the largest Atlantic passenger line . By the mid @-@ 1950s , it operated 12 ships to the United States and Canada . After 1958 , trans @-@ Atlantic passenger ships became increasingly unprofitable because of the introduction of jet airliners . Cunard withdrew from its year round service in 1968 to concentrate on cruising and summer transatlantic voyages for vacationers . The Queens were replaced by Queen Elizabeth 2 ( QE2 ) , which was designed for the dual role .
In 1998 , Cunard was acquired by the Carnival Corporation , and accounted for 8 @.@ 7 % of that company 's revenue in 2012 . Five years later , QE2 was replaced on the transAtlantic runs by Queen Mary 2 ( QM2 ) . The line also operates Queen Victoria ( QV ) and Queen Elizabeth ( QE ) . At the moment , Cunard is the only shipping company to operate a scheduled passenger service between Europe and North America .
= = History = =
= = = Early years : 1840 – 1850 = = =
The British Government started operating monthly mail brigs from Falmouth , Cornwall , to New York in 1756 . These ships carried few non @-@ governmental passengers and no cargo . In 1818 , the Black Ball Line opened a regularly scheduled New York – Liverpool service with clipper ships , beginning an era when American sailing packets dominated the North Atlantic saloon @-@ passenger trade that lasted until the introduction of steamships . A Committee of Parliament decided in 1836 that to become more competitive , the mail packets operated by the Post Office should be replaced by private shipping companies . The Admiralty assumed responsibility for managing the contracts . Famed Arctic explorer , Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed as Comptroller of Steam Machinery and Packet Service in April 1837 . Nova Scotians led by their young Assembly Speaker , Joseph Howe lobbied for steam service to Halifax . On his arrival in London in May 1838 , Howe discussed the enterprise with fellow Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard ( 1787 – 1865 ) , a shipowner who was also visiting London on business . Cunard and Howe were associates and Howe also owed Cunard £ 300 . ( £ 24 @,@ 360 in 2015 ) , Cunard returned to Halifax to raise capital , and Howe continued to lobby the British government . The Rebellions of 1837 were ongoing and London realized that the proposed Halifax service was also important for the military .
That November , Parry released a tender for North Atlantic monthly mail service to Halifax beginning in April 1839 using steamships with 300 horsepower . The Great Western Steamship Company , which had opened its pioneer Bristol – New York service earlier that year , bid £ 45 @,@ 000 for a monthly Bristol – Halifax – New York service using three ships of 450 horsepower . While British American , the other pioneer transatlantic steamship company did not submit a tender , the St. George Steam Packet Company , owner of Sirius , bid £ 45 @,@ 000 for a monthly Cork @-@ Halifax service and £ 65 @,@ 000 for a monthly Cork – Halifax – New York service . The Admiralty rejected both tenders because neither bid offered to begin services early enough .
Cunard , who was back in Halifax , unfortunately did not know of the tender until after the deadline . He returned to London and started negotiations with Admiral Parry , who was Cunard 's good friend from when Parry was a young officer stationed in Halifax 20 years earlier . Cunard offered Parry a fortnightly service beginning in May 1840 . While Cunard did not then own a steamship , he had been an investor in an earlier steamship venture , Royal William , and owned coal mines in Nova Scotia . Cunard 's major backer was Robert Napier , who was the Royal Navy 's supplier of steam engines . He also had the strong backing of Nova Scotian political leaders at the time when London needed to rebuild support in British North America after the rebellion .
Over Great Western 's protests , in May 1839 Parry accepted Cunard 's tender of £ 55 @,@ 000 for a three @-@ ship Liverpool – Halifax service with an extension to Boston and a supplementary service to Montreal . The annual subsidy was later raised £ 81 @,@ 000 to add a fourth ship and departures from Liverpool were to be monthly during the winter and fortnightly for the rest of the year . Parliament investigated Great Western 's complaints , and upheld the Admiralty 's decision . Napier and Cunard recruited other investors including businessmen James Donaldson , Sir George Burns , and David MacIver . In May 1840 , just before the first ship was ready , they formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company with initial capital of £ 270 @,@ 000 , later increased to £ 300 @,@ 000 . ( £ 24 @,@ 428 @,@ 873 in 2015 ) , Cunard supplied £ 55 @,@ 000 . Burns supervised ship construction , McIver was responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day operations , and Cunard was the " first among equals ' in the management structure . When MacIver died in 1845 , his younger brother Charles assumed his responsibilities for the next 35 years . ( For more detail of the first investors in the Cunard Line and also the early life of Charles Maciver , see Liverpool Nautical Research Society 's Second Merseyside Maritime History , pp. 33 – 37 1991 . )
In May 1840 the coastal paddle steamer Unicorn made the company 's first voyage to Halifax to begin the supplementary service to Montreal . Two months later the first of the four ocean @-@ going steamers of the Britannia Class , departed Liverpool . By coincidence , the steamer ’ s departure had patriotic significance on both sides of the Atlantic : she was named the Britannia , and sailed on July 4 . Even on her maiden voyage , however , her performance indicated that the new era she heralded would be much more beneficial for Britain than the US . At a time when the typical packet ship might take several weeks to cross the Atlantic , the Britannia reached Halifax in 12 days and 10 hours , averaging 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ) , before proceeding to Boston . Such relatively brisk crossings quickly became the norm for the Cunard Line : during 1840 – 41 , mean Liverpool – Halifax times for the quartet were 13 days 6 hours to Halifax and 11 days 4 hours homeward . Two larger ships were quickly ordered , one to replace the Columbia , which sank at Seal Island , Nova Scotia in 1843 without loss of life . By 1845 , steamship lines led by Cunard carried more saloon passengers than the sailing packets . Three years later , the British Government increased the annual subsidy to £ 156 @,@ 000 so that Cunard could double its frequency . Four additional wooden paddlers were ordered and alternate sailings were direct to New York instead of the Halifax @-@ Boston route . The sailing packet lines were now reduced to the immigrant trade .
From the beginning Cunard 's ships used the line 's distinctive red funnel with two or three narrow black bands and black top . It appears that Robert Napier was responsible for this feature . His shipyard in Glasgow used this combination previously in 1830 on Thomas Assheton Smith 's private steam yacht " Menai " . The renovation of her model by Glasgow Museum of Transport revealed that she had vermilion funnels with black bands and black top .
Cunard 's reputation for safety was one of the significant factors in the firm 's early success . Both the first two transatlantic lines failed after major accidents . British and American collapsed after the President foundered in a gale and Great Western after Great Britain stranded because of a navigation error . Cunard 's orders to his masters were , " Your ship is loaded , take her ; speed is nothing , follow your own road , deliver her safe , bring her back safe – safety is all that is required . " In particular , Charles MacIver 's constant inspections were responsible for the firm 's safety discipline .
= = = New Competition : 1850 – 1879 = = =
In 1850 the American Collins Line and the British Inman Line started new Atlantic steamship services . The American Government supplied Collins with a large annual subsidy to operate four wooden paddlers that were superior to Cunard 's best , as they demonstrated with three Blue Riband @-@ winning voyages between 1850 and 1854 . Meanwhile , Inman showed that iron @-@ hulled , screw propelled steamers of modest speed could be profitable without subsidy . Inman also became the first steamship line to carry steerage passengers . Both of the newcomers suffered major disasters in 1854 . The next year , Cunard put pressure on Collins by commissioning its first iron @-@ hulled paddler , Persia . That pressure may well have been a factor in a second major disaster suffered by the Collins Line , the loss of its steamer Pacific . The Pacific sailed out of Liverpool just a few days before the Persia was due to depart on her maiden voyage , and was never seen again ; it was widely assumed at the time that the captain had pushed his ship to the limit in order to stay ahead of the new Cunarder , and had likely collided with an iceberg during what was a particularly severe winter in the North Atlantic . A few months later the Persia inflicted a further blow to the Collins Line , regaining the Blue Riband with a Liverpool – New York voyage of 9 days 16 hours , averaging 13 @.@ 11 knots ( 24 @.@ 28 km / h ) .
During the Crimean War Cunard supplied 11 ships for war service . Every British North Atlantic route was suspended until 1856 except Cunard 's Liverpool @-@ Halifax @-@ Boston service . While Collins ' fortunes improved because of the lack of competition during the war , it collapsed in 1858 after its subsidy for carrying mail across the Atlantic was reduced by the US Congress . Cunard emerged as the leading carrier of saloon passengers and in 1862 commissioned Scotia , the last paddle steamer to win the Blue Riband . Inman carried more passengers because of its success in the immigrant trade . To compete , in May 1863 Cunard started a secondary Liverpool @-@ New York service with iron @-@ hulled screw steamers that catered for steerage passengers . Beginning with China , the line also replaced the last three wooden paddlers on the New York mail service with iron screw steamers that only carried saloon passengers .
When Cunard died in 1865 , the equally conservative Charles MacIver assumed Cunard 's role . The firm retained its reluctance about change and was overtaken by competitors that more quickly adopted new technology . In 1866 Inman started to build screw propelled express liners that matched Cunard 's premier unit , the Scotia . Cunard responded with its first high speed screw propellered steamer , Russia which was followed by two larger editions . In 1871 both companies faced a new rival when the White Star Line commissioned the Oceanic and her five sisters . The new White Star record @-@ breakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines . White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins . Inman rebuilt its express fleet to the new standard , but Cunard lagged behind both of its rivals . Throughout the 1870s Cunard passage times were longer than either White Star or Inman .
In 1867 responsibility for mail contracts was transferred back to the Post Office and opened for bid . Cunard , Inman and the German Norddeutscher Lloyd were each awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services . The fortnightly route to Halifax formerly held by Cunard went to Inman . Cunard continued to receive a £ 80 @,@ 000 subsidy ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 388 @,@ 398 in 2015 ) , while NDL and Inman were paid sea postage . Two years later the service was rebid and Cunard was awarded a seven @-@ year contract for two weekly New York mail services at £ 70 @,@ 000 per annum . Inman was awarded a seven @-@ year contract for the third weekly New York service at £ 35 @,@ 000 per year .
The Panic of 1873 started a five @-@ year shipping depression that strained the finances of all of the Atlantic competitors . In 1876 the mail contracts expired and the Post Office ended both Cunard 's and Inman 's subsidies . The new contracts were paid on the basis of weight , at a rate substantially higher than paid by the United States Post Office . Cunard 's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing . Every Tuesday , Thursday and Saturday a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York .
= = = Cunard Steamship Company Ltd : 1879 – 1934 = = =
To raise additional capital , in 1879 the privately held British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was reorganised as a public stock corporation , the Cunard Steamship Company , Ltd . Under Cunard 's new chairman , John Burns ( 1839 – 1900 ) , son of one of the firm 's original founders , Cunard commissioned four steel @-@ hulled express liners beginning with Servia of 1881 , the first passenger liner with electric lighting throughout . In 1884 , Cunard purchased the almost new Blue Riband winner Oregon from the Guion Line when that firm defaulted on payments to the shipyard . That year , Cunard also commissioned the record @-@ breakers Umbria and Etruria capable of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ) . Starting in 1887 , Cunard 's newly won leadership on the North Atlantic was threatened when Inman and then White Star responded with twin screw record @-@ breakers . In 1893 Cunard countered with two even faster Blue Riband winners , Campania and Lucania , capable of 21 @.@ 8 knots ( 40 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
No sooner had Cunard re @-@ established its supremacy than new rivals emerged . Beginning in the late 1860s several German firms commissioned liners that were almost as fast as the British mail steamers from Liverpool . In 1897 Kaiser Wilhelm der Große of Norddeutscher Lloyd raised the Blue Riband to 22 @.@ 3 knots ( 41 @.@ 3 km / h ) , and was followed by a succession of German record @-@ breakers . Rather than match the new German speedsters , White Star – a rival which Cunard line would merge with – commissioned four very profitable Celtic @-@ class liners of more moderate speed for its secondary Liverpool @-@ New York service . In 1902 White Star joined the well @-@ capitalized American combine , the International Mercantile Marine Co . ( IMM ) , which owned the American Line , including the old Inman Line , and other lines . IMM also had trade agreements with Hamburg – America and Norddeutscher Lloyd .
This was the Dreadnought era and British prestige was at stake . The British Government provided Cunard with an annual subsidy of £ 150 @,@ 000 plus a low interest loan of £ 2 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to £ 243 million in 2015 ) , to pay for the construction of the two superliners , the Blue Riband winners Lusitania and Mauretania , capable of 26 @.@ 0 knots ( 48 @.@ 2 km / h ) . In 1903 the firm started a Fiume – New York service with calls at Italian ports and Gibraltar . The next year Cunard commissioned two ships to compete directly with the Celtic @-@ class liners on the secondary Liverpool @-@ New York route . In 1911 Cunard entered the St Lawrence trade by purchasing the Thompson line , and absorbed the Royal line five years later .
Not to be outdone , both White Star and Hamburg – America each ordered a trio of superliners . The White Star Olympic @-@ class liners at 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ) and the Hapag Imperator @-@ class liners at 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ) were larger and more luxurious than the Cunarders , but not as fast . Cunard also ordered a new ship , Aquitania , capable of 24 @.@ 0 knots ( 44 @.@ 4 km / h ) , to complete the Liverpool mail fleet . Events prevented the expected competition between the three sets of superliners . White Star 's Titanic sank on its maiden voyage , both White Star 's Britannic and Cunard 's Lusitania were war losses , and the three Hapag super @-@ liners were handed over to the Allied powers as war reparations .
In 1916 Cunard Line completed its European headquarters in Liverpool , moving in on 12 June of that year . The grand neo @-@ Classical Cunard Building was the third of Liverpool 's Three Graces . The headquarters were used by Cunard until the 1960s .
Due to First World War losses , Cunard began a post @-@ war rebuilding programme including eleven intermediate liners . It acquired the former Hapag Imperator ( renamed the Berengaria ) to replace the lost Lusitania as the running mate for Mauretania and Aquitania , and Southampton replaced Liverpool as the British destination for the three @-@ ship express service . By 1926 Cunard 's fleet was larger than before the war , and White Star was in decline , having been sold by IMM .
Despite the dramatic reduction in North Atlantic passengers caused by the shipping depression beginning in 1929 , the Germans , Italians and the French commissioned new " ships of state " prestige liners . The German Bremen took the Blue Riband at 27 @.@ 8 knots ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ) in 1933 , the Italian Rex recorded 28 @.@ 9 knots ( 53 @.@ 5 km / h ) on a westbound voyage the same year , and the French Normandie crossed the Atlantic in just under four days at 30 @.@ 58 knots ( 56 @.@ 63 km / h ) in 1937 . In 1930 Cunard ordered an 80 @,@ 000 ton liner that was to be the first of two record @-@ breakers fast enough to fit into a two @-@ ship weekly Southampton @-@ New York service . Work on hull 534 was halted in 1931 because of the economic conditions .
= = = Cunard @-@ White Star Ltd : 1934 – 1949 = = =
In 1934 , both the Cunard Line and the White Star Line were experiencing financial difficulties . David Kirkwood , MP for Clydebank where the unfinished hull 534 had been sitting idle for two and a half years , made a passionate plea in the House of Commons for funding to finish the ship and restart the dormant British economy . The government offered Cunard a loan of £ 3 million to complete hull 534 and an additional £ 5 million to build a second ship , if Cunard merged with White Star . The merger was accomplished by forming a new company , Cunard White Star , Ltd with Cunard owning about two @-@ thirds of the capital . Due to the surplus tonnage of the new combined Cunard White Star fleet many of the older liners were sent to the scrapyard ; these included the ex @-@ Cunard liner Mauretania and the ex @-@ White Star liners Olympic and Homeric . In 1936 the ex @-@ White Star Majestic was sold when hull 534 , now named Queen Mary , replaced her in the express mail service . Queen Mary reached 30 @.@ 99 knots ( 57 @.@ 39 km / h ) on her 1938 Blue Riband voyage . Cunard @-@ White Star started construction on Queen Elizabeth , and a smaller ship , the second Mauretania , joined the fleet and could also be used on the Atlantic run when one of the Queens was in drydock . The ex @-@ Cunard liner Berengaria was sold for scrap in 1938 after a series of fires .
During the 1939 – 45 Second World War the Queens carried over two million servicemen and were credited by Churchill as helping to shorten the war by a year . All four of the large Cunard @-@ White Star express liners , the two Queens , Aquitania and Mauretania survived , but many of the secondary ships were lost . Both Lancastria and Laconia were sunk with heavy loss of life .
In 1947 Cunard purchased White Star 's interest , and by 1949 the company had dropped the White Star name and was renamed Cunard Line . Also in 1947 the company commissioned five freighters and two cargo liners . Caronia , was completed in 1949 as a permanent cruise liner and Aquitania was retired the next year . Cunard was in an especially good position to take advantage of the increase in North Atlantic travel during the 1950s and the Queens were a major generator of US currency for Great Britain . Cunard 's slogan , " Getting there is half the fun " , was specifically aimed at the tourist trade . Beginning in 1954 , Cunard took delivery of four new 22 @,@ 000 @-@ GRT intermediate liners for the Canadian route and the Liverpool @-@ New York route . The last White Star motor ship , Britannic of 1930 , remained in service until 1960 .
In 1960 a government @-@ appointed committee recommended the construction of project Q3 , a conventional 75 @,@ 000 GRT liner to replace Queen Mary . Under the plan , the government would lend Cunard the majority of the liner 's cost . However , some Cunard stockholders questioned the plan at the June 1961 board meeting because trans @-@ Atlantic flights were gaining in popularity . By 1963 the plan had been changed to a dual @-@ purpose 55 @,@ 000 GRT ship designed to cruise in the off @-@ season . Ultimately , this ship came into service in 1969 as the 70 @,@ 300 GRT Queen Elizabeth 2 .
Within ten years of the introduction of jet airliners in 1958 , most of the conventional Atlantic liners were gone . Mauretania was retired in 1965 , the Queen Mary and Caronia in 1967 , and the Queen Elizabeth in 1968 . Two of the new intermediate liners were sold by 1970 and the other two were converted to cruise ships . Cunard tried operating scheduled air services to North America , the Caribbean and South America by forming BOAC @-@ Cunard Ltd in 1962 with the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) , but this venture lasted only until 1966 .
= = = Trafalgar House years : 1971 – 1998 = = =
In 1971 , when the line was purchased by the conglomerate Trafalgar House , Cunard operated cargo and passenger ships , hotels and resorts . Its cargo fleet consisted of 42 ships in service , with 20 on order . The flagship of the passenger fleet was the two @-@ year @-@ old Queen Elizabeth 2 . The fleet also included the remaining two intermediate liners from the 1950s , plus two purpose @-@ built cruise ships on order . Trafalgar acquired two additional cruise ships and disposed of the intermediate liners and most of the cargo fleet . During the Falklands War , QE2 and Cunard Countess were chartered as troopships while Cunard 's container ship Atlantic Conveyor was sunk by an Exocet missile .
Cunard acquired the Norwegian America Line in 1983 , with two classic ocean liner / cruise ships . Also in 1983 , the Trafalgar attempted a hostile takeover of P & O , another large passenger and cargo shipping line , which was formed the same year as Cunard . P & O objected and forced the issue to the British Monopolies and Mergers Commission . In their filing , P & O was critical of Trafalgar 's management of Cunard and their failure to correct QE2 's mechanical problems . In 1984 , the Commission ruled in favour of the merger , but Trafalgar decided against proceeding . In 1988 , Cunard acquired Ellerman Lines and its small fleet of cargo vessels , organising the business as Cunard @-@ Ellerman , however , only a few years later , Cunard decided to abandon the cargo business and focus solely on cruise ships . Cunard 's cargo fleet was sold off between 1989 and 1991 , with a single container ship , the second Atlantic Conveyor , remaining under Cunard ownership until 1996 . In 1993 , Cunard entered into a 10 @-@ year agreement to handle marketing , sales and reservations for the Crown Cruise Line , and its three vessels joined the Cunard fleet under the Cunard Crown banner . In 1994 Cunard purchased the rights to the name of the Royal Viking Line and its Royal Viking Sun . The rest of Royal Viking Line 's fleet stayed with the line 's owner , Norwegian Cruise Line .
By the mid @-@ 1990s Cunard was ailing . The company was embarrassed in late 1994 when the QE2 experienced numerous defects during the first voyage of the season because of unfinished renovation work . Claims from passengers cost the company US $ 13 million . After Cunard reported a US $ 25 million loss in 1995 , Trafalgar assigned a new CEO to the line , who concluded that the company had management issues . In 1996 the Norwegian conglomerate Kværner acquired Trafalgar House , and attempted to sell Cunard . When there were no takers , Kværner made substantial investments to turn around the company 's tarnished reputation .
= = = Carnival : from 1998 = = =
In 1998 , the cruise line conglomerate Carnival Corporation acquired 68 % of Cunard for US $ 425 million . The next year Carnival acquired the remaining stock for US $ 205 million . Ultimately , Carnival sued Kværner claiming that the ships were in worse condition than represented and Kværner agreed to refund USD $ 50 million to Carnival . Each of Carnival 's cruise lines is designed to appeal to a different market , and Carnival was interested in rebuilding Cunard as a luxury brand trading on its British traditions . Under the slogan " Advancing Civilization Since 1840 , " Cunard 's advertising campaign sought to emphasise the elegance and mystique of ocean travel . Only the QE2 and Caronia continued under the Cunard brand and the company started Project Queen Mary to build a new ocean liner / cruise ship for the transatlantic route .
By 2001 Carnival was the largest cruise company , followed by Royal Caribbean and P & O Princess Cruises , which had recently separated from its parent P & O. When Royal Caribbean and P & O Princess agreed to merge , Carnival countered with a hostile takeover bid for P & O Princess . Carnival rejected the idea of selling Cunard to resolve antitrust issues with the acquisition . European and US regulators approved the merger without requiring Cunard 's sale . After the merger was completed , Carnival moved Cunard 's headquarters to the offices of Princess Cruises in Santa Clarita , California so that administrative , financial and technology services could be combined .
With the opening of Carnival House in Southampton in 2009 , executive control of Cunard Line was subsequently transferred from Carnival Corporation in the United States , to Carnival UK , the primary operating company of Carnival plc . As the UK @-@ listed holding company of the group , Carnival plc had executive control of all Carnival Group activities in the UK , with the headquarters of all UK @-@ based brands , including Cunard , in offices at Carnival House .
In 2004 the 36 @-@ year @-@ old QE2 was replaced on the North Atlantic by Queen Mary 2 . Caronia was sold and QE2 continued to cruise until she was retired in 2008 . In 2007 Cunard added a large cruise ship , Queen Victoria . She is not a sister for the QM2 , being ordered by Carnival as a Vista class cruise ship for the Holland America Line . To reinforce Cunard traditions , the QV has a small museum on board . Cunard commissioned a second Vista class cruise ship , Queen Elizabeth in 2010 .
In 2010 Cunard appointed its first female commander , Captain Inger Klein Olsen .
In 2011 all three Cunard ships in service changed vessel registry to Hamilton , Bermuda , the first time in the 171 @-@ year history of the company that it had no ships registered in the United Kingdom . The captains of ships registered in Bermuda , but not in the UK , can marry couples at sea ; weddings at sea are a lucrative market .
On 25 May 2015 , the three Cunard ocean liners - Queen Mary 2 , Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria - sailed up the Mersey into Liverpool to commemorate the 175th anniversary of Cunard . The ships performed manoeuvres , including 180 @-@ degree turns , as the Red Arrows performed a flypast . Just over a year later Queen Elizabeth returned to Liverpool under Captain Olsen to take part in the celebrations of the centenary of the Cunard Building on 2 June 2016 .
= = Fleet = =
The Cunard fleet , all built for Cunard unless otherwise indicated , consisted of the following ships in order of acquisition :
= = = 1840 – 1850 = = =
All ships of this period had wooden hulls and paddle wheels
= = = 1850 – 1879 = = =
Only Arabia had a wooden hull and only Arabia , Persia and Scotia had paddle wheels
= = = 1879 – 1934 = = =
= = = 1934 – 1971 = = =
See also : White Star Line 's Olympic , Homeric , Majestic , Doric , Laurentic , Britannic and Georgic
= = = 1971 – 1998 = = =
= = = 1998 @-@ current = = =
= Chris Massey ( lacrosse ) =
Christopher G. " Chris " Massey is a retired lacrosse attackman who played professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1995 through 1998 , where he earned three United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American recognitions , four Ivy League championships , and three national championships . He holds the Princeton lacrosse scoring records for consecutive games with a goal and ranks second in career goals . As a professional , he paid his way through law school as the MLL 's only part @-@ time law student / lawyer . In high school he was a two @-@ time All @-@ American and a state champion .
= = Background = =
Massey is from Garden City , New York on Long Island . Massey was a member of the Garden City High School New York State Public High School Athletic Association Class B lacrosse championship team in 1994 . At Garden City , Massey was a two @-@ time high school All @-@ American in lacrosse .
= = College career = =
Massey was part of a trio of revered attackmen who were Princeton classmates along with Jesse Hubbard and Jon Hess . As starters , the trio of All @-@ Americans , which retired second ( Hess ) , third ( Hubbard ) and fourth ( Massey ) career points at Princeton , had a 43 – 2 record and combined for 618 points . He was a second team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1998 and third team selection in 1996 and 1997 . He was also first team All @-@ Ivy League in 1997 and 1998 and an honorable mention selection in 1996 . The 1995 team , which earned the school 's sixth consecutive NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitation , was Ivy League co @-@ champion , while the 1996 – 1998 teams were 6 – 0 undefeated outright conference champions . These undefeated league champions won the 1996 , 1997 and 1998 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championships , becoming the first team to threepeat since Syracuse from 1988 – 90 and the first to be recognized to have done so without an NCAA scandal since Johns Hopkins from 1978 – 80 .
In the 1996 NCAA championship quarterfinals , he scored five goals in the 22 – 6 victory over Towson State . In the 1996 semifinals , he scored a game @-@ high six goals in an 11 – 9 victory over Syracuse , including a key goal after Syracuse tied the score at 9 . In the 1997 semifinals , he scored a game @-@ high three goals in the 10 – 9 come @-@ from @-@ behind victory over Duke , including the tenth one as they erased a 9 – 7 deficit . He scored three goals in the 19 – 7 1997 championship game victory against Maryland . The 1997 team is regarded as the best in school history with a record number of wins during its 15 – 0 season . He served as co @-@ captain of the 1998 team , and he scored a goal during the 1998 Championship game against Maryland . Massey holds the Princeton record for consecutive games with a goal ( 46 ) and remains second to Hubbard in career goals ( 146 vs. 163 ) at Princeton .
= = Professional career = =
Massey played with the New York Saints during the 1999 and 2000 NLL seasons . Although the MLL has many part @-@ time players who work in other professions on off days , Massey was the first lawyer . Massey began his MLL career with the Boston Cannons during the 2001 MLL season after being drafted in the third round of the 2001 MLL Inaugural Team Draft . Massey joined the New Jersey Pride later that season and played with them during the 2002 MLL season as well . He then played with the Long Island Lizards from 2003 through 2007 after they acquired him along with Jay Jalbert . He finished his career at the end of the 2007 season with the Los Angeles Riptide . The Lizards considered him to be the 16th best player and the trade to acquire him to be " perhaps the greatest trade " in the franchise 's first ten seasons . Massey helped the Lizards win the 2003 MLL Steinfeld Cup championship . He works in the corporate litigation department at the New York and New Jersey offices of Bressler , Amery & Ross . After graduating from Princeton , in 1998 , he started at Brooklyn Law School in 2001 and worked at Bressler for the first two summers . He passed the New York and New Jersey bar examinations during the 2004 MLL season and subsequently began full @-@ time employment at Bressler in September 2004 .
= = Personal = =
Massey was a regular surfer on the Jersey Shore during his time at Princeton .
= Action of 30 May 1798 =
The Action of 30 May 1798 was a minor naval engagement between a small British squadron and a small French squadron off the coast of Normandy , France during the French Revolutionary Wars . A British blockadeing force , which had been conducting patrols in the region in the aftermath of the battle of St Marcou earlier in the month , encountered two French vessels attempting to sail unnoticed between Le Havre and Cherbourg . Closing with the French , the British commander Sir Francis Laforey sought to bring the French ships to battle as they attempted to turn back to Le Havre before the British squadron could attack . The French were unable to escape , and Laforey 's ship , the fifth rate HMS Hydra , engaged the French corvette Confiante , while two smaller British ships chased the Vésuve .
After a brief exchange of fire , their crews ran both French ships onshore close to the mouth of the River Dives , where several of the landing barges that had survived the attack on the British @-@ held Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf were sheltering . Confiante was badly damaged and boarding parties from Hydra and the other ships were able to board and burn her the following morning . Vésuve had suffered less than the Confiante and troops onshore were able to protect her from further attack until her crew could bring her into the nearby harbour of Sallenelles . There she was repaired and eventually she returned to Le Havre .
= = Background = =
By 1798 the British Royal Navy had successfully contained the French Navy within its own harbours , employing a strategy of close blockade to ensure dominance at sea during the French Revolutionary Wars . The strategy was particularly effective in the English Channel , where the proximity of British bases and the importance in limiting the movements of the French invasion forces stationed around Boulogne focused British attention on the Normandy coast . This was essential to prevent the concentration of a large force of invasion barges that had been constructed at various harbours under the guidance of a Captain Muskein . To improve the Royal Navy 's ability to observe French movements on the Normandy coast , a force under the command of Captain Sir Sidney Smith seized , garrisoned , and fortified the uninhabited Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf in 1795 .
During the spring of 1798 , Muskein concentrated over 50 of the landing barges in Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue and on 6 May launched an attack on the Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf while a combination of wind and tide prevented the blockade squadron from intervening . The fortified islands were too well @-@ defended however and over 900 French soldiers died in the ensuing battle before the French abandoned the attack . The French subsequently dispersed the remaining landing barges to various ports on the Normandy coast . In response the Royal Navy increased its patrols in the region with the intention of intercepting the convoys and destroying the barges . French movements along the coast were not solely confined to landing barges : on 29 May 1798 two warships , the 20 or 24 @-@ gun Confiante under captain de vaisseau Etienne Pévrieu , and the 20 @-@ gun Vésuve under lieutenant de vaisseau Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Louis Lecolier , sailed from Le Havre , travelling westwards across the Baie de la Seine to Cherbourg , accompanied by a small , armed cutter .
= = Battle of 30 May = =
= = = Engagement at sea = = =
On the morning of 30 May , a British squadron sailing off La Havre spotted the French ships pulling to the west and gave chase , Captain Laforey leading in the 38 @-@ gun HMS Hydra , followed by the bomb vessel HMS Vesuvius , under Captain Robert Fitzgerald , and the 12 @-@ gun cutter HMS Trial , under Lieutenant Henry Garrett . Discovering the British in pursuit , Pevrieux ordered his squadron to retreat towards the shore , tacking in front of Hydra and opening an ineffective fire at long range . Laforey continued his approach , and a 06 : 00 successfully tacked Hydra into a position between Confiante and Vésuve , which had turned back towards the shore . Although the British frigate came under fire from both French ships , their attacks had little impact . Laforey was able to concentrate his broadside against Vésuve and rapidly forced the French corvette to turn inshore , pursued by Vesuvius and Trial . Laforey then set off in pursuit of Confiante , which was attempting to turn back towards Le Havre . The French cutter was unable to escape the British pursuit and its crew deliberately drove it ashore near the mouth of the Dives River .
At 06 : 30 , Hydra caught up with Pevrieux on the Confiante and began a heavy fire , which the French warship returned when possible . The exchange continued for 45 minutes until 07 : 15 , when Confiante , having suffered serious damage , drove aground on a sandbank near Beuzeval , a village a short distance to the west of the mouth of the Dives . As Confiante struck the sandbank , her mainmast collapsed , rending further manoeuvre under hostile fire impossible . Vésuve too drove ashore to avoid the British attack , Lieutenant Lecolier managing to beach his ship within the Dives estuary itself . As the rising tide brought the corvette off the beach , Lecolier made a brief attempt to escape westwards towards Caen , but Trial and Vesuvius were alert and drove Vésuve back to the shore . There the two small British vessels opened up a distant fire on the corvette , as did Hydra to the west against Confiante . At 09 : 30 , the falling tide forced the British ships to retreat off @-@ shore , Laforey gathering his vessels approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of the beached French convoy .
= = = Attack by boats = = =
During the day , the French strengthened the positions of both battered ships , soldiers from the surrounding area gathering on the beaches to deter any boat attacks on the grounded vessels . Among the soldiers were men taken from several of Muskein 's landing barges that were sheltering in the Dives River . These troops were identified by Trial , which briefly closed with Confiante to determine her condition and was fired on by the remaining guns in operation on the frigate . With their evacuation covered from the shore , most of the crew were removed from Confiante , including all the wounded . The French eventually abandoned the wrecked corvette in the evening . Vésuve was in better condition and remained well protected . Her crew shored up their vessel at low tide to prevent her falling over and prepared to heave the ship off as the tide rose . Due to the strong French military presence , Laforey decided to delay any operation against the beached vessels until circumstances were more favourable .
At 10 : 00 on the morning of 31 May , Laforey sent the boats from his squadron inshore to attack the grounded Confiante . Coming alongside the wreck at 12 : 45 , the British boarding party , under Lieutenants George Acklom and William J. Simonds , found no one alive on the ship , but counted a large number of French dead still on board . Removing the French colours and paperwork , the boarding party started fires in the bow and stern of the corvette before withdrawing , despite a steady but ineffective musket fire from French troops overlooking the beach and a force of cavalry moving along the shore . The fire rapidly destroyed Confiante and the British boarding party retired without casualties .
As the British attack proceeded against Confiante , the crew of Vésuve succeeded in refloating her and soon had their ship anchored under the protection of gun batteries at Sallenelles . These defences were augmented by additional batteries set up by 200 soldiers under Captain Muskein , drawn from the barges that had been trapped in the town by the British blockade . By the time Confiante had been destroyed , the mouth of the Dives had been heavily fortified and even the arrival of the 38 @-@ gun frigate HMS Diamond under Captain Sir Richard Strachan on 1 June was insufficient to counterbalance French numerical superiority . Eventually Laforey was forced to retire from the blockade of Sallenelles , and while he was absent Vésuve managed to get underway and reach Le Havre without further incident .
= = Aftermath = =
French casualties in the engagement are uncertain due to the circumstances of Confiante 's destruction , but based on Acklom 's report from the boarding party they were believed to be heavy . British losses were negligible , with not one man killed or seriously wounded and only minor damage inflicted on Hydra and none on the smaller vessels . The conduct of Lieutenant Lecolier was the subject of much criticism in France after the battle ; in the French history Victories et Conquêtes , Lecolier was accused of failing to support Pevrieux and grounding his ship while the outcome of the battle was still undecided . British historian William James is less critical of Lecolier , focusing much of the blame for the French defeat on the more senior Pevrieux . The restriction of French movement along their own coastline had serious effects for the development of the French forces in the region and played a significant role in the failure of the French to pose a realistic invasion threat to Britain .
= Disgraced =
Disgraced is a 2012 play by novelist and screenwriter Ayad Akhtar . It premiered in Chicago and has had Off @-@ Broadway and Off West End engagements . The play , which won the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Drama , opened on Broadway at the Lyceum Theater , with previews that began on September 27 , 2014 . Disgraced has also been recognized with a 2012 Joseph Jefferson Award for New Work – Play or Musical and a 2013 Obie Award for Playwriting . It is Akhtar 's first stage play . The 2014 Broadway transfer earned a Tony Award for Best Play nomination in 2015 .
The play is centered on sociopolitical themes such as Islamophobia and the self @-@ identity of Muslim @-@ American citizens . It focuses on a dinner party between four people with very different backgrounds . As discussion turns to politics and religion , the mood quickly becomes heated . Described as a " combustible powder keg of identity politics , " the play depicts racial and ethnic prejudices that " secretly persist in even the most progressive cultural circles . " It is also said to depict the challenge for upwardly mobile Muslim Americans in the post @-@ 9 / 11 America . Productions have included performances by Aasif Mandvi and Erik Jensen .
= = Plot = =
In the 90 @-@ minute , one @-@ act play , lawyer Amir Kapoor and his wife Emily host an Upper East Side dinner . Amir is an American @-@ born , Muslim @-@ raised Manhattan mergers and acquisitions lawyer , while Emily is an up @-@ and @-@ coming artist who focuses on Islamic themes in her art . Amir has cast aside his Muslim heritage for the sake of his career , but is at times drawn toward it nonetheless . Emily , who has an affinity for Islamic artistic traditions , serves as his muse and an influence on his Islamic connection . Prior to the dinner , Amir , who is on the partner track , becomes involved in a controversial case . Amir 's assimilated nephew , Abe ( born Hussein Malik ) , has concerns regarding the propriety of the arrest of a local imam who is imprisoned on charges that may be trumped @-@ up of financing terrorist @-@ supporting groups , leading him to question whether it is religious persecution . Emily encourages the reluctant Amir to appear in court in support of the imam , in an unofficial capacity that gets mentioned in The New York Times . The case becomes dinner conversation when he hosts Jory , a colleague from work , and her husband , Isaac , who is Emily 's Jewish art dealer . In all , the dinner table assembly includes an ex @-@ Muslim , an African @-@ American , a Jew and a WASP dining over the topic of religious
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= = Development = =
Ubisoft Montreal 's success inspired the company to continue its Canadian expansion , and a new studio , Ubisoft Toronto , was announced on July 6 , 2009 . Headed by Jade Raymond , the studio focuses on the creation of triple @-@ A video games and intellectual property . It worked on a new installment of the Splinter Cell series , which was in parallel development with an unnamed project , and the Toronto team was made up of Ubisoft Montreal 's core Conviction team . Maxime Béland , who had worked on Conviction , was the game 's creative director , and in November 2010 Raymond confirmed that her studio was developing Splinter Cell 6 . Ubisoft Toronto was the game 's lead developer , with assistance from Ubisoft Montreal . Ubisoft Shanghai developed the game 's co @-@ operative multiplayer mode . The Toronto studio focused on the game 's Windows , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions , with the Wii U version developed by Ubisoft Shanghai .
In 2010 , the series ' fifth installment , Conviction , was released . Although it received generally positive reviews , it was criticized by series fans for lacking some features . Béland considered Conviction a " stepping stone " for him when he prepared for the development of Blacklist . The development team studied Conviction 's reviews and feature lists , deciding to discard its " black @-@ and @-@ white " stealth approach , and also deciding to bring back the Spies vs. Mercs mode introduced in Pandora Tomorrow . Béland called the mode 's return " the easiest decision of [ his ] life " , since the team considered its absence Conviction 's greatest misstep . Ubisoft sent questionnaires through Uplay to thousands of players to collect feedback on Conviction 's new features . When players called Conviction 's campaign weak and short , the team added a stronger storyline and greater character depth by introducing the Fourth Echelon and Fisher as a leader ( a series first ) . To encourage repeat play the team introduced the aircraft hub and the strategic mission interface , a player menu .
According to Ubisoft Toronto founder Jade Raymond , the series had become too grueling and complicated for modern gamers , and its popularity had suffered relative to Ubisoft flagship franchises such as Assassin 's Creed and Far Cry . The Toronto studio hoped to introduce the franchise to a broader audience , while remaining tactical and hardcore for long @-@ term series fans . It introduced a perfectionist mode , significantly increasing the game 's difficulty by removing some of Fisher 's abilities . The team also introduced accessible , action @-@ oriented gameplay segments which would suit new players , crafting open @-@ ended levels which could be reached with different approaches to broaden the variety of play . The developers re @-@ worked the controls to increase gameplay fluidity , allowing players to automatically leap over objects and traverse a simplified environment .
During Blacklist 's development , its team faced a variety of challenges . The first was to create stealth which was satisfying and fun for players . According to the team , players gain satisfaction from stealth with freedom and choices which allow them to develop a plan . Players must experiment , with each decision having consequences . Game director Patrick Redding compared it to the development of an ecosystem ; the team designed a dynamic artificial intelligence which would react differently to players ' actions , making levels feel alive and adding randomness . Encouraging the " panther " style of play ( aggressive stealth ) , the team incorporated elements from the original Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell ( where one mistake would abort a mission ) and Conviction ( where stealth seamlessly becomes combat ) . This approach , the team thought , could help players to feel like elite , silent predators .
Series veteran Michael Ironside did not reprise his role as the voice of Sam Fisher . His part was played by Eric Johnson , who also performed the motion capture . In a Blacklist developer diary , Ironside said that he was passing the torch to another actor . According to Ubisoft executives the change was made to take advantage of new performance @-@ capture technology to enrich the game experience , and Ironside assisted Johnson with the role . Elias Toufexis , voice and performance @-@ capture actor for Andriy Kobin in Splinter Cell : Conviction , said that he would return for the new game .
Unlike Conviction , the game would have no interactive torture sequences . Instead , players could choose whether to kill or incapacitate a target after interrogation . The system was not complex , and it was hoped that players would choose based on instinct . According to Béland , every player choice is gray and there are no right or wrong choices . However , the game demo has an interactive torture scene in which players can decide how deeply a knife penetrates a person 's shoulder . After a mixed @-@ to @-@ negative response , Ubisoft removed the scene from its final product .
= = = Marketing = = =
Splinter Cell : Blacklist was introduced at E3 2012 's Microsoft press conference on June 4 , 2012 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . In February 2013 , a Wii U version was rumored to be in development , and Ubisoft confirmed the report two months later . Originally scheduled for release in early 2013 , the game was pushed back to August on January 16 , 2013 . On August 3 , 2013 , Ubisoft confirmed that the game had been declared gold , indicating that it was being prepared for duplication and release . Splinter Cell : Blacklist was released in North America on August 20 and in Europe three days later for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , Wii U , and Xbox 360 .
The Paladin Collector 's Edition , a limited edition of the game , has a remote @-@ controlled plane , the graphic novel Splinter Cell Echoes , a Billionaire 's Yacht co @-@ op map , an Upper Echelon pack with a Dead Coast map , gold sonar goggles , and a limited @-@ edition poster . Splinter Cell : Blacklist - Spider Bot , a 2D puzzle game tie @-@ in , was released for Android and iOS platforms on June 10 , 2013 and is available on Google Play and the App Store respectively . Homeland , downloadable content for the game , was released on September 26 , 2013 . It added a crossbow , several new costumes , and two new missions which can be completed alone or with another player .
= = Reception = =
= = = Before release = = =
Although Joystiq 's Mike Schramm praised Blacklist 's early screenshots and videos for removing Conviction 's monochromatic visuals , its new voice actor was not received well by some fans . Ubisoft responded with a statement that Ironside was not returning as Fisher because an actor " physically capable " of a motion @-@ capture performance was needed , and Johnson was hired for the role .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Blacklist received positive reviews . The review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic rated the PlayStation 3 version at 85 % and 84 out of 100 , the Xbox 360 version 84 % and 82 out of 100 , the PC version 80 % and 82 out of 100 , and the Wii U version 79 % and 75 out of 100 .
The game 's design was praised by most reviewers . Ryan McCaffrey of IGN praised the gameplay 's variety and player options , which he thought made Blacklist the best installment in the series since Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Chaos Theory . According to McCaffrey , the game was a satisfying stealth experience and an excellent , capable shooter ( increasing its replay value ) . He noted that several segments forced players to use the Mark and Execute feature , frustrating players who favored stealth over action . Ben Reeves of Game Informer praised the return and refinement of Mark and Execute , which he found satisfying , and praised the game 's intense , varied mission design . Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer disliked the game 's direction , particularly its action elements ( which he compared to 2012 's Hitman : Absolution ) .
Blacklist 's campaign was also generally praised . According to IGN 's McCaffrey , the game 's story is superior to those of its predecessors : well @-@ balanced and believable . He criticized Sam Fisher 's new voice actor , whom he thought failed to replicate Ironside 's charm . Ben Reeves praised the story 's plot twists and sympathetic characters . On the Joystiq blog , Xav De Matos liked the game 's narrative urgency and engaging plot twists but criticized its rushed ending . Simon Miller of VideoGamer.com called the game forgettable and boring , with Fisher 's new voice actor failing to bring personality to the character . Eurogamer 's Bramwell also criticized the game 's lack of character development .
Its multiplayer features were praised ; according to McCaffrey , the co @-@ operative multiplayer mode had enough content for a separate game . Although he appreciated Spies vs. Mercs ' faster pace , he found the mode less innovative than its predecessor . Reeves partially agreed , describing the revived Spies vs. Mercs mode as refreshing , intense , and bloody . De Matos wrote that it was one of the best multiplayer modes he had ever experienced , and the Blacklist version had evolved and modernized while remaining creative . Daniel Bloodworth of GameTrailers praised the game 's satisfying co @-@ op design , which tasks players to plan and coordinate strategy .
Blacklist 's graphics and lack of difficulty were criticized . McCaffrey found the visuals unimpressive and most character models to be ugly ; he also noted technical problems , such as screen @-@ tearing and frame rate issues . Bloodworth criticized the game 's invisible wall and unresponsive controls in certain segments , although he thought those minor issues did not drag down its overall experience . McCaffrey noted that even when the game is played in perfectionist mode , it is less challenging than its predecessors . He thought Blacklist gave players too many rewards , making its universal @-@ economy system a useless feature . Bloodworth was puzzled by the game 's unlock system , which he said hindered its credibility .
= = = Sales = = =
Ubisoft hoped that Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Blacklist would sell at least five million copies . The game debuted at number two on the UK retail software sales chart in its first week of release , behind Saints Row IV . It was August 's fourth @-@ bestselling game in the United States . On October 16 , 2013 Ubisoft announced that Blacklist had failed to meet sales expectations , and on November 13 it was announced that the game had sold two million copies worldwide .
= Aradia , or the Gospel of the Witches =
Aradia , or the Gospel of the Witches is a book composed by the American folklorist Charles Godfrey Leland that was published in 1899 . It contains what he believed was the religious text of a group of pagan witches in Tuscany , Italy that documented their beliefs and rituals , although various historians and folklorists have disputed the existence of such a group . In the 20th century , the book was very influential in the development of the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca .
The text is a composite . Some of it is Leland 's translation into English of an original Italian manuscript , the Vangelo ( gospel ) . Leland reported receiving the manuscript from his primary informant on Italian witchcraft beliefs , a woman Leland referred to as " Maddalena " and whom he called his " witch informant " in Italy . The rest of the material comes from Leland 's research on Italian folklore and traditions , including other related material from Maddalena . Leland had been informed of the Vangelo 's existence in 1886 , but it took Maddalena eleven years to provide him with a copy . After translating and editing the material , it took another two years for the book to be published . Its fifteen chapters portray the origins , beliefs , rituals , and spells of an Italian pagan witchcraft tradition . The central figure of that religion is the goddess Aradia , who came to Earth to teach the practice of witchcraft to peasants in order for them to oppose their feudal oppressors and the Roman Catholic Church .
Leland 's work remained obscure until the 1950s , when other theories about , and claims of , " pagan witchcraft " survivals began to be widely discussed . Aradia began to be examined within the wider context of such claims . Scholars are divided , with some dismissing Leland 's assertion regarding the origins of the manuscript , and others arguing for its authenticity as a unique documentation of folk beliefs . Along with increased scholarly attention , Aradia came to play a special role in the history of Gardnerian Wicca and its offshoots , being used as evidence that pagan witchcraft survivals existed in Europe , and because a passage from the book 's first chapter was used as a part of the religion 's liturgy . After the increase in interest in the text , it became widely available through numerous reprints from a variety of publishers , including a 1999 critical edition with a new translation by Mario and Dina Pazzaglini .
= = Origins = =
Charles Godfrey Leland was an American author and folklorist , and spent much of the 1890s in Florence researching Italian folklore . Aradia was one of the products of Leland 's research . While Leland 's name is the one principally associated with Aradia , the manuscript that makes up the bulk of it is attributed to the research of an Italian woman that Leland and Leland 's biographer , his niece Elizabeth Robins Pennell , referred to as " Maddalena " . According to folklorist Roma Lister , a contemporary and friend of Leland 's , Maddalena 's real name was Margherita , and she was a " witch " from Florence who claimed a family lineage from the Etruscans and knowledge of ancient rituals . Professor Robert Mathiesen , as a contributor to the Pazzaglini translation of Aradia , mentions a letter from Maddalena to Leland , which he states is signed " Maddalena Talenti " ( the last name being a guess as the handwriting is difficult to decipher ) . However , pagan scholar Raven Grimassi presented a document at the Pantheacon convention on February 17 , 2008 , revealing that Maddalena 's last name was actually Taluti . This document was reproduced from The International Folklore Congress : Papers and Transactions , 1892 , page 454 .
Leland reports meeting Maddalena in 1886 , and she became the primary source for his Italian folklore collecting for several years . Leland describes her as belonging to a vanishing tradition of sorcery . He writes that " by long practice [ she ] has perfectly learned ... just what I want , and how to extract it from those of her kind . " He received several hundred pages worth of material from her , which was incorporated into his books Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition , Legends of Florence Collected From the People , and eventually Aradia . Leland wrote that he had " learned that there was in existence a manuscript setting forth the doctrines of Italian witchcraft " in 1886 , and had urged Maddalena to find it . Eleven years later , on 1 January 1897 , Leland received the Vangelo by post . The manuscript was written in Maddalena 's handwriting . Leland understood it to be an authentic document of the " Old Religion " of the witches , but explains that he did not know if the text came from written or oral sources . Maddalena 's correspondence with Leland indicated that she intended to marry a man named Lorenzo Bruciatelli and emigrate to the United States , and the Vangelo was the last material Leland received from her . Author Raven Grimassi , at the Pantheacon convention on February 17 , 2008 , presented a copy of a letter written by Leland ( housed in The Library of Congress ) . The letter states that Maddalena did not follow through with her plans , but instead left her husband and worked in Genoa for a period of time before returning to Florence .
Leland 's translation and editing was completed in early 1897 and submitted to David Nutt for publication . Two years passed , until Leland wrote requesting the return of the manuscript in order to submit it to a different publishing house . This request spurred Nutt to accept the book , and it was published in July 1899 in a small print run . Wiccan author Raymond Buckland claims to have been the first to reprint the book in 1968 through his " Buckland Museum of Witchcraft " press , but a British reprint was made by " Wiccens " [ sic ] Charles " Rex Nemorensis " and Mary Cardell in the early 1960s . Since then the text has been repeatedly reprinted by a variety of different publishers , including as a 1998 retranslation by Mario and Dina Pazzaglini with essays and commentary .
= = Contents = =
After the eleven @-@ year search , Leland writes that he was unsurprised by the contents of the Vangelo . It was largely what he was expecting , with the exception that he did not predict passages in " prose @-@ poetry " . " I also believe that in this Gospel of the Witches " , comments Leland in the appendix , " we have a trustworthy outline at least of the doctrine and rites observed at [ the witches ' Sabbat ] . They adored forbidden deities and practised forbidden deeds , inspired as much by rebellion against Society as by their own passions . "
Leland 's final draft was a slim volume . He organised the material to be included into fifteen chapters , and added a brief preface and an appendix . The published version also included footnotes and , in many places , the original Italian that Leland had translated . Most of the content of Leland 's Aradia is made up of spells , blessings , and rituals , but the text also contains stories and myths which suggest influences from both the ancient Roman religion and Roman Catholicism . Major characters in the myths include the Roman goddess Diana , a sun god called Lucifer , the Biblical Cain as a lunar figure , and the messianic Aradia . The witchcraft of " The Gospel of the Witches " is both a method for casting spells and an anti @-@ hierarchical " counter @-@ religion " to the Catholic church .
= = = Themes = = =
Entire chapters of Aradia are devoted to rituals and magic spells . These include enchantments to win love ( Chapter VI ) , a conjuration to perform when finding a stone with a hole or a round stone in order to turn it into an amulet for Diana 's favour ( Chapter IV ) , and the consecration of a ritual feast for Diana , Aradia , and Cain ( Chapter II ) . The narrative material makes up less of the text , and is composed of short stories and legends about the birth of the witchcraft religion and the actions of their gods . Leland summarises the mythic material in the book in its appendix , writing " Diana is Queen of the Witches ; an associate of Herodias ( Aradia ) in her relations to sorcery ; that she bore a child to her brother the Sun ( here Lucifer ) ; that as a moon @-@ goddess she is in some relation to Cain , who dwells as prisoner in the moon , and that the witches of old were people oppressed by feudal lands , the former revenging themselves in every way , and holding orgies to Diana which the Church represented as being the worship of Satan " . Diana is not only the witches ' goddess , but is presented as the primordial creatrix in Chapter III , dividing herself into darkness and light . After giving birth to Lucifer , Diana seduces him while in the form of a cat , eventually giving birth to Aradia , their daughter . Diana demonstrates the power of her witchcraft by creating " the heavens , the stars and the rain " , becoming " Queen of the Witches " . Chapter I presents the original witches as slaves that escaped from their masters , beginning new lives as " thieves and evil folk " . Diana sends her daughter Aradia to them to teach these former serfs witchcraft , the power of which they can use to " destroy the evil race ( of oppressors ) " . Aradia 's students thus became the first witches , who would then continue the worship of Diana . Leland was struck by this cosmogony : " In all other Scriptures of all races , it is the male ... who creates the universe ; in Witch Sorcery it is the female who is the primitive principle " .
= = = Structure = = =
Aradia is composed of fifteen chapters , the first ten of which are presented as being Leland 's translation of the Vangelo manuscript given to him by Maddalena . This section , while predominantly made up of spells and rituals , is also the source of most of the myths and folktales contained in the text . At the end of Chapter I is the text in which Aradia gives instructions to her followers on how to practice witchcraft .
The first ten chapters are not entirely a direct translation of the Vangelo ; Leland offers his own commentary and notes on a number of passages , and Chapter VII is Leland 's incorporation of other Italian folklore material . Medievalist Robert Mathiesen contends that the Vangelo manuscript actually represents even less of Aradia , arguing that only Chapters I , II , and the first half of Chapter IV match Leland 's description of the manuscript 's contents , and suggests that the other material came from different texts collected by Leland through Maddalena .
The remaining five chapters are clearly identified in the text as representing other material Leland believed to be relevant to the Vangelo , acquired during his research into Italian witchcraft , and especially while working on his Etruscan Roman Remains and Legends of Florence . The themes in these additional chapters vary in some details from the first ten , and Leland included them partly to " [ confirm ] the fact that the worship of Diana existed for a long time contemporary with Christianity " . Chapter XV , for example , gives an incantation to Laverna , through the use of a deck of playing cards . Leland explains its inclusion by a note that Diana , as portrayed in Aradia , is worshipped by outlaws , and Laverna was the Roman goddess of thievery . Other examples of Leland 's thoughts about the text are given in the book 's preface , appendix , and numerous footnotes .
In several places Leland provides the Italian he was translating . According to Mario Pazzaglini , author of the 1999 translation , the Italian contains misspellings , missing words , and grammatical errors , and is in a standardised Italian rather than the local dialect one might expect . Pazzaglini concludes that Aradia represents material translated from dialect to basic Italian and then into English , creating a summary of texts , some of which were mis @-@ recorded . Leland himself called the text a " collection of ceremonies , ' cantrips , ' incantations , and traditions " and described it as an attempt to gather material , " valuable and curious remains of ancient Latin or Etruscan lore " that he feared would be lost . There is no cohesive narrative even in the sections that Leland attributes to the Vangelo . This lack of cohesion , or " inconsistency " , is an argument for the text 's authenticity , according to religious scholar Chas S. Clifton , since the text shows no signs of being " massaged ... for future book buyers . "
= = Claims questioned = =
Leland wrote that " the witches even yet form a fragmentary secret society or sect , that they call it that of the Old Religion , and that there are in the Romagna entire villages in which the people are completely heathen " . Accepting this , Leland supposed that " the existence of a religion supposes a Scripture , and in this case it may be admitted , almost without severe verification , that the Evangel of the Witches is really a very old work ... in all probability the translation of some early or later Latin work . "
Leland 's claim that the manuscript was genuine , and even his assertion that he received such a manuscript , have been called into question . After the 1921 publication of Margaret Murray 's The Witch @-@ cult in Western Europe , which hypothesised that the European witch trials were actually a persecution of a pagan religious survival , American sensationalist author Theda Kenyon 's 1929 book Witches Still Live connected Murray 's thesis with the witchcraft religion in Aradia . Arguments against Murray 's thesis would eventually include arguments against Leland . Witchcraft scholar Jeffrey Russell devoted some of his 1980 book A History of Witchcraft : Sorcerers , Heretics and Pagans to arguing against the claims in Aradia , Murray 's thesis , and Jules Michelet 's 1862 La Sorcière , which also theorised that witchcraft represented an underground religion . Historian Elliot Rose 's A Razor for a Goat dismissed Aradia as a collection of incantations unsuccessfully attempting to portray a religion . In his Triumph of the Moon , historian Ronald Hutton summarises the controversy as having three possible extremes :
The Vangelo manuscript represents a genuine text from an otherwise undiscovered religion .
Maddalena wrote the text , either with or without Leland 's assistance , possibly drawing from her own background with folklore or witchcraft .
The entire document was forged by Leland .
Hutton himself is a sceptic , not only of the existence of the religion that Aradia claims to represent , but also of the existence of Maddalena , arguing that it is more likely that Leland created the entire story than that Leland could be so easily " duped " by an Italian fortune @-@ teller . Clifton takes exception to Hutton 's position , writing that it amounts to an accusation of " serious literary fraud " made by an " argument from absence " ; one of Hutton 's main objections is that Aradia is unlike anything found in medieval literature .
Mathiesen also dismisses this " option three " , arguing that while Leland 's English drafts for the book were heavily edited and revised in the process of writing , the Italian sections , in contrast , were almost untouched except for corrections of " precisely the sort that a proofreader would make as he compared his copy to the original " . This leads Mathiesen to conclude that Leland was working from an extant Italian @-@ language original that he describes as " authentic , but not representative " of any larger folk tradition . Anthropologist Sabina Magliocco examines the " option one " possibility , that Leland 's manuscript represented a folk tradition involving Diana and the Cult of Herodias , in her article Who Was Aradia ? The History and Development of a Legend . Magliocco writes that Aradia " may represent a 19th @-@ century version of [ the legend of the Cult of Herodias ] that incorporated later materials influenced by medieval diabolism : the presence of ' Lucifero , ' the Christian devil ; the practice of sorcery ; the naked dances under the full moon . "
= = Influence on Wicca and Stregheria = =
Magliocco calls Aradia " the first real text of the 20th century Witchcraft revival " , and it is repeatedly cited as being profoundly influential on the development of Wicca . The text apparently corroborates the thesis of Margaret Murray that early modern and Renaissance witchcraft represented a survival of ancient pagan beliefs , and after Gerald Gardner 's claim to have encountered religious witchcraft in 20th @-@ century England , the works of Michelet , Murray , and Leland helped support at least the possibility that such a survival could exist .
The Charge of the Goddess , an important piece of liturgy used in Wiccan rituals , was inspired by Aradia 's speech in the first chapter of the book . Parts of the speech appeared in an early version of Gardnerian Wicca ritual . According to Doreen Valiente , one of Gardner 's priestesses , Gardner was surprised by Valiente 's recognising the material as having come from Leland 's book . Valiente subsequently rewrote the passage in both prose and verse , retaining the " traditional " Aradia lines . Some Wiccan traditions use the name Aradia , or Diana , to refer to the Goddess or Queen of the Witches , and Hutton writes that the earliest Gardnerian rituals used the name Airdia , a " garbled " form of Aradia . Hutton further suggests that the reason that Wicca includes skyclad practice , or ritual nudity , is because of a line spoken by Aradia :
And as the sign that ye are truly free ,
Ye shall be naked in your rites , both men
And women also : this shall last until
The last of your oppressors shall be dead ;
Accepting Aradia as the source of this practice , Robert Chartowich points to the 1998 Pazzaglini translation of these lines , which read " Men and Women / You will all be naked , until / Yet he shall be dead , the last / Of your oppressors is dead . " Chartowich argues that the ritual nudity of Wicca was based upon Leland 's mistranslation of these lines by incorporating the clause " in your rites " . There are , however , earlier mentions of ritual nudity among Italian witches . Historian Ruth Martin states that it was a common practice for witches of Italy to be " naked with their hair loose around their shoulders " while reciting conjurations . Jeffrey Burton Russell notes that " A woman named Marta was tortured in Florence about 1375 : she was alleged to have placed candles round a dish and to have taken off her clothes and stood above the dish in the nude , making magical signs " . Historian Franco Mormando refers to an Italian witch : " Lo and behold : in the first hours of sleep , this woman opens the door to her vegetable garden and comes out completely naked and her hair all undone , and she begins to do and say her various signs and conjurations ... " .
The reception of Aradia amongst Neopagans has not been entirely positive . Clifton suggests that modern claims of revealing an Italian pagan witchcraft tradition , for example those of Leo Martello and Raven Grimassi , must be " match [ ed ] against " , and compared with the claims in Aradia . He further suggests that a lack of comfort with Aradia may be due to an " insecurity " within Neopaganism about the movement 's claim to authenticity as a religious revival . Valiente offers another explanation for the negative reaction of some neopagans ; that the identification of Lucifer as the God of the witches in Aradia was " too strong meat " for Wiccans who were used to the gentler , romantic paganism of Gerald Gardner and were especially quick to reject any relationship between witchcraft and Satanism .
Clifton writes that Aradia was especially influential for leaders of the Wiccan religious movement in the 1950s and 1960s , but that the book no longer appears on the " reading lists " given by members to newcomers , nor is it extensively cited in more recent Neopagan books . The new translation of the book released in 1998 was introduced by Wiccan author Stewart Farrar , who affirms the importance of Aradia , writing that " Leland 's gifted research into a ' dying ' tradition has made a significant contribution to a living and growing one . "
Author Raven Grimassi has written extensively about Aradia in his popularization of Stregheria , presenting what he admits is his own personal rendering of her story . He differs from Leland in many ways , particularly in portraying her as a witch who lived and taught in 14th @-@ century Italy , rather than a goddess . In response to Clifton , he states that similarity or dissimilarity to Leland 's Aradia material cannot be a measure of authenticity , since Leland 's material itself is disputed .
Therefore it cannot effectively be used to discredit other writings or views on Italian witchcraft , nor is it a representative ethnographic foundation against which other writings or views " must " be compared . The Aradia material is , unfortunately , a disputed text with problems of its own when compared to the usually accepted folklore , folk traditions , and folk magic practices of Italy .
He agrees with Valiente that the major objection of Neopagans to this material is its " inclusion of negative stereotypes related to witches and witchcraft " , and suggests that comparisons between this material and religious witchcraft are " regarded as an insult by many neo @-@ pagans " .
= University of Michigan basketball scandal =
The University of Michigan basketball scandal or Ed Martin scandal was a series of National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) rules violations that resulted in a six @-@ year investigation of the relationship between the University of Michigan , its men 's basketball program , and basketball team booster Ed Martin . As a result of the investigation , the Wolverine men 's basketball program was punished with sanctions . The violations principally involved payments booster Martin made to several players to launder money from an illegal gambling operation . It is one of the largest incidents involving payments to college athletes in American collegiate history . An initial investigation by the school was joined by the NCAA , Big Ten Conference , Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) , and the United States Department of Justice ( DOJ ) .
The case began when the investigation of an automobile accident during Mateen Cleaves 's 1996 recruiting trip revealed a curious relationship between Martin and the Wolverine basketball program dating back to the 1980s . Several Michigan basketball players were implicated over the next few years and by 1999 some were called before a federal grand jury . Four eventual professional basketball players — Chris Webber , Maurice Taylor , Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock — were discovered to have borrowed a total of $ 616 @,@ 000 from Martin . During the investigation , Webber claimed not to have had any financial relationship with Martin , but eventually confessed to taking loans from Martin . He was both fined in the legal system and briefly suspended by the National Basketball Association after performing public service .
In 1997 , coach Steve Fisher was fired for his involvement in violations relating to the scandal . Subsequently , the NCAA investigation did not find him culpable of significant wrongdoing related to the scandal . By the fall of 2002 , it was obvious that the four players were in fact guilty of taking money from Martin , and had thus compromised their amateur status . In response , Michigan placed the basketball program on two years ' probation . It also withdrew from postseason consideration for the 2002 – 03 season , vacated all or part of five past seasons and removed the players ' names and achievements from its record book . A few months later , the NCAA accepted these punishments , doubled both the probation period and the post @-@ season ineligibility , penalized the school one scholarship for four seasons , and ordered Michigan to disassociate from the three living guilty players until 2012 ( Webber 's ban extended through 2013 , and a fourth player included in this sanction , Traylor , has since died ) . The punishment cost the 2002 – 2003 team its post @-@ season eligibility , cost past teams the 1997 National Invitation Tournament and the 1998 Big Ten Tournament championships as well as appearances in the 1992 and 1993 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament Final Fours . It cost Chris Webber his All @-@ American 1993 honors , Traylor his MVP awards in the 1997 NIT and 1998 Big Ten Tournament , as well as Bullock 's standing as the school 's third all @-@ time leading scorer and all @-@ time leader in free throws and the Big Ten 's all @-@ time leader in 3 @-@ point field goals ( surpassed in 2011 ) . The additional year of post @-@ season ineligibility was overturned on appeal . Mandatory disassociations with the surviving players ended on May 8 , 2013 .
= = Background = =
In the early morning of February 17 , 1996 , a Ford Explorer driven by either Taylor or Traylor , depending on the source , went out of control while returning along M @-@ 14 from a party in Detroit , 40 miles ( 64 km ) east of Michigan 's campus in Ann Arbor . Among the passengers was high school star Mateen Cleaves , who was on his official recruiting visit . When an investigation revealed that the trip included a visit to Ed Martin 's home , the University investigated his relationship with the basketball program . Martin was reportedly returning to Ann Arbor from Detroit with Traylor , Taylor , Cleaves , Willie Mitchell , Bullock , and Ron Oliver after a party that included drugs , strippers and alcohol . Accounts of the party vary . By some accounts the party was hosted by Martin , but by other accounts Martin 's house was a stop on the way to a party at Detroit 's Westin Hotel . Martin , a retired Ford Motor Company electrician , provided all the players with money . During the rollover accident , Traylor broke his arm and was lost for the season . Mitchell transferred from Michigan to the University of Alabama @-@ Birmingham after his junior season ( 1995 – 1996 ) . Bullock , Cleaves ( who eventually signed with rival Michigan State ) , Taylor , and Traylor all went on to be drafted by National Basketball Association ( NBA ) teams . Bullock played in various foreign leagues but never in the NBA .
The NCAA uses a statute of limitations of four years . Thus , at any time the NCAA can open or re @-@ open an investigation for an infraction occurring within the last four years . However , NCAA convention is to date violations based on when they learned about the infraction . Thus , events that had occurred far more than four years prior to the investigation came under its purview . The initial accident reports revealed several inconsistencies and violations that induced expanded investigation .
Michigan admitted to the secondary NCAA violation of transporting a recruit more than 30 miles ( 48 km ) from campus . Questions were immediately raised about whether Taylor actually owned the sport utility vehicle . The NCAA asked for leasing documentation of Taylor 's vehicle and Michigan investigated the registrations of its players ' vehicles . The University soon required that all the vehicles driven by its players be part of a special vehicle registration program .
= = Martin 's relationship with the program = =
In March 1997 , Michigan and the Big Ten released the results of an investigation of Martin 's relationship with the school . The investigation determined that Martin had nurtured a relationship that involved some minor violations . The violations that were published were that Martin was present at a recruit 's home during a visit by head coach Fisher ; and he 'd given a U @-@ M player a birthday cake . Fisher prevented Martin from committing serious additional violations by keeping him from placing a deposit on an apartment for a player . He also stopped Martin from buying airplane tickets for another player 's family . A second October 1997 private investigation also failed to reveal any large violations .
= = = 1980s = = =
Martin befriended Perry Watson , coach for Southwestern High School of Detroit , and provided gifts to the team 's players . When Michigan 's Bill Frieder recruited a Southwestern High School prospect , Martin was present . Martin then began attending Michigan games with the prospect 's father when the student enrolled . Martin also attended games and practices with Watson . Martin also developed a relationship with George Raveling who regularly recruited from Detroit high schools for the Iowa Hawkeyes . He also received complimentary tickets to Iowa games while Raveling was coach . Martin attempted to give gifts and cash to Frieder recruit Terry Mills .
After Frieder left Michigan in 1989 , Martin immediately formed an equally close relationship with his successor , Fisher . Martin gave Fisher 's family gifts .
= = = Webber = = =
Martin noticed Webber during a middle school game . Martin attended Webber 's church , where Webber 's father was deacon and began fostering a relationship by making frequent visits to the Webber family home . Between 1988 and 1993 Martin gave Webber about $ 280 @,@ 000 . Eventually , Webber would confess to having received and repaid only $ 38 @,@ 200 , an amount identified via a specific transaction tied to Webber .
= = = 1990s = = =
In September 1996 , athletic director Joe Roberson learned that during the previous month Martin had tried to place deposits on apartments for Traylor and Louis Bullock . Martin had also offered airline tickets to Bullock 's parents so they could attend a tournament in Puerto Rico . It emerged that Fisher had known about Martin 's actions at the time . While Fisher had ordered the deposits retrieved and made sure the tickets weren 't used , he didn 't tell anyone in the athletic or compliance offices , as he was required to do . As a result of Roberson 's findings , he ordered interviews of the basketball team and team coaches .
The March 1997 Big Ten report showed that official University phone records documented that the coaching staff called Martin 's home 39 times . Between the 1991 – 92 and the 1993 – 94 seasons , records showed that Martin received 97 tickets to Michigan basketball games either for free or under his special arrangement to have tickets made available for purchase . Watson joined the Michigan basketball coaching staff in 1991 . The October 1997 investigation revealed that Fisher had provided Martin with passes for sixteen complimentary tickets from 1994 to 1997 , and that his secretary and other clerical workers made out ten more such passes . In addition , six passes were signed with the PW initials of departed coach Watson . Watson denied making such passes available and a handwriting analysis matched five of the six to Fisher . Fisher was fired when the investigation became public on October 10 , 1997 , just a week before the start of basketball practices .
In June 1997 , the Detroit Free Press revealed sources that claimed both Chris Webber and Taylor had received at least $ 100 @,@ 000 from Martin , but that Webber had repaid the money after turning pro . A pattern of Martin befriending young basketball stars eventually became clear . Martin paid $ 280 @,@ 000 to Webber from 1988 ( when he was a ninth @-@ grader at Detroit Country Day School ) to 1993 ( his sophomore year at Michigan , after which he turned pro ) . Martin also befriended Traylor as a freshman in high school . Martin was at Traylor 's home when Fisher made a recruiting visit . Between 1994 ( his senior year at Murray @-@ Wright High School in Detroit ) and 1998 ( his junior year at Michigan , after which he turned pro ) , Martin gave Traylor about $ 160 @,@ 000 . Martin befriended Taylor when he was in high school . Between 1995 and 1998 ( during his time at Michigan ) , Martin gave Taylor about $ 105 @,@ 000 . Since Bullock went to high school in Maryland , he did not know Martin before coming to Michigan . Martin gave Bullock about $ 71 @,@ 000 during his four years at Michigan which ended in 1999 .
Roberson also learned that during the 1992 Final Four , Fisher made two of the limited supply of team rooms available to Martin . Martin gave one hotel room paid for by Michigan to Webber 's father — a violation of NCAA rules . For his part , Martin denied any wrongdoing when questioned by an NCAA enforcement representative . However , he later refused to cooperate with the University or the NCAA , forcing Michigan to ban him from any contact with the athletic program in March 1997 .
= = Raid and subpoenas = =
After the Michigan / Big Ten investigation and the private investigation , no serious violations arose . For example , Robert Traylor , Chris Webber , Jalen Rose , and Maurice Taylor were cleared in October 1997 . In April 1999 , the FBI and IRS raided several Detroit @-@ area homes to stop a numbers game operation in the area 's Ford plants . Martin 's home was one of the targets ; on April 28 , he was found with a loaded gun , gambling records and $ 20 @,@ 000 in cash in his home . The authorities were investigating Martin 's alleged numbers game operation at Ford plants and whether Martin had provided Michigan basketball players with money and gifts . Another item that they seized was a Western Union MoneyGram from Martin to Traylor . In the course of a federal investigation , evidence turned up that Martin had given cash payments and other benefits to several Michigan players and Detroit @-@ area high school prospects starting in the early 1980s . As a result of the investigations , in May 1999 a federal grand jury subpoenaed several Michigan basketball players to investigate the relationship between Martin and the basketball program .
Former Michigan basketball player Albert White was implicated in early investigations for having accepted US $ 37 @,@ 000 , but he was not named in later indictments . It was not clear how much of the money White received directly and how much was given to his friends and family to influence his decision to attend Michigan . Although White was one of several players captured on federal wiretaps and interviewed by both the FBI and IRS , he cooperated fully and did not need to hire a lawyer . Although he was not implicated , he transferred from Michigan to play for the Missouri Tigers men 's basketball team after clashing with Steve Fisher .
= = Federal indictments = =
= = = Ed Martin = = =
In late 1999 , Martin originally agreed to a plea bargain in which he agreed to disclose information about the payments . The agreement with the United States Attorney 's office , whose Assistant U.S. Attorney Richard Convertino led the prosecution case against Martin , was nearly finalized in January 2000 . The paperwork for the plea agreement was to be finalized in March 2000 for the former Ford Motor Company employee to plead guilty to one count of federal gambling and one count of income tax evasion . He and his son , Carlton , backed out in May 2000 , preferring to take their chances at trial due to the likelihood of light punishment for first @-@ time offenders . Under the plea agreement in which they would have forfeited $ 100 @,@ 000 and faced 6 – 15 months in prison , they would have been able to keep their homes . If found guilty at trial , they could have received up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of $ 250 @,@ 000 per count , but they would not have to agree to cooperate with the University investigation .
Less than a week after Martin backed out of his plea agreement , several former players were subpoenaed to testify before grand juries . In August 2000 , Traylor and Bullock , by this time professional basketball players in the NBA and Italy respectively , were confirmed to have taken payments from Martin . Many of the payments came after the 1997 banning of Martin from contact with the team and the firing of Steve Fisher . The two players cooperated with federal authorities and admitted to receiving money . Traylor , Bullock , Webber , Rose and Taylor all testified before the grand jury . Fisher , the current San Diego State University coach , testified before a federal grand jury investigating Martin . Also testifying were former Michigan assistants Perry Watson , Brian Dutcher and Scott Perry . Martin and Watson had been close friends when Watson was head coach at Detroit Southwestern High School , with Martin often sitting on the bench along with assistant coaches . Perry , who had arranged Cleaves ' recruiting trip , had known Martin since 1977 and coached under Fisher from 1993 – 1997 . Many players and observers believed Martin was Watson 's uncle , leading to Martin 's schoolyard nickname of " Uncle Ed . " Martin and Watson had a falling @-@ out in the early 1990s , shortly after Watson joined the Michigan staff . Webber 's father also gave sealed testimony before the grand jury .
On March 21 , 2002 — after almost three years of testimony — the grand jury returned an eight @-@ count indictment charging Martin , his wife Hilda and their friend Clarence Malvo with running an illegal gambling business at the Ford River Rouge plant , money laundering and conspiracy to launder money . According to the indictment , Martin made illicit loans totalling $ 616 @,@ 000 to Webber , Taylor , Bullock and Traylor to launder money from an illegal numbers game at Detroit – area auto plants . The loans were made with the understanding that they would be repaid once the players turned pro . Martin was indicted for having paid Webber a total of $ 280 @,@ 000 between 1988 – 1993 , which included time from Webber 's freshman year at Detroit Country Day School in Birmingham , Michigan to his sophomore year at Michigan .
Martin , his wife , Hilda , and Clarence Malvo were under federal indictment for conspiracy to engage in illegal gambling and could have faced up to five years in prison and a $ 250 @,@ 000 fine if convicted . Mr. Martin had also been charged with seven additional counts : having an illegal gambling business , conspiracy to launder money , three counts of laundering money and two counts of using money from illegal activities . The charge against Hilda Martin was dropped as part of a plea agreement . On April 8 , 2002 , Malvo pleaded guilty to grand jury perjury for testifying that he did not work for Martin . On May 28 , 2002 Martin pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to launder money . He agreed to cooperate with investigations by the government , Michigan and the NCAA . The other seven charges against Martin were dropped in addition to those against Hilda . Furthermore , Martin was barred from associating with the team by a ban , which made any continuing financial relationship with him in violation of NCAA rules and to be considered a new violation .
= = = Chris Webber = = =
In September 2002 , Webber was indicted on five charges , including obstruction of justice and lying to a federal grand jury , for having misrepresented his relationship with Martin . Each charge was punishable by five years in prison and a $ 250 @,@ 000 fine . He vowed to fight the charges .
Martin pleaded guilty to running an illegal lottery at the Ford Motors plant he worked at to provide proceeds for the players . Martin testified that he paid Webber $ 280 @,@ 000 in cash and gifts , but as of January 2003 Webber denied receipt of money from Martin and maintained that he had testified truthfully to a grand jury in 2000 on such matters . Martin stated that there was always an understanding that the money would be repaid after the players became professionals . In the 2000 grand jury investigation , Webber had been asked about whether his off @-@ campus apartment rent had been paid by Martin and whether he had received spending money , jewelry , clothing or a stereo . Webber generally responded by saying either that he could not recall or that he did not think he had received such gifts . However , prosecutors say that Webber , after turning professional , gave Martin ' ' a significant sum of money , in cash , as a partial repayment . ' ' In December 2002 , Webber 's father admitted he had accepted gifts and a small loan from Martin , which contradicted earlier statements . Prosecutors also accused Webber 's aunt of lying about a meeting she had with Martin in the updated filing .
Chris Webber , his father , Mayce Webber , and aunt , Charlene Johnson , were also indicted on charges of having lied to a federal grand jury regarding dealings with Martin . The University had attempted three previous investigations and was not successful at gathering enough evidence to proceed further until the federal government got involved . In January 2003 , the federal prosecutors filed more detailed indictments against Webber and his relatives for obstruction of justice and perjury .
Ed Martin died of a suspected pulmonary embolism on February 14 , 2003 . He was awaiting sentencing at the time of his death . Malvo , who confessed to taking bets and paying off winning wagers for Martin , pleaded guilty April 8 , 2002 to lying before a federal grand jury . He admitted to telling a grand jury in October 1999 that he bet money but did not work for Martin . He was sentenced in August 2002 to two years ' probation .
Martin 's death largely took the air out of the federal perjury case against Webber . In July 2003 , on the day before jury selection in the case was due to begin , Webber pleaded guilty to the reduced charge of criminal contempt in order to avoid a possible jail sentence . He admitted to having received and repaid $ 38 @,@ 200 . The deal was subject to a discretionary fine and possible classification of the infraction as a felony by the United States District Court Judge Nancy Edmunds who would rule in September 2003 . In exchange for the plea all other charges were dropped against him as were all charges against his father . The charges against Webber 's aunt had been dropped after Martin 's death .
= = Sanctions = =
= = = Self @-@ imposed = = =
By the fall of 2002 , it had become clear that Michigan 's basketball program was guilty of major violations . In response , Michigan decided to impose its own sanctions on the program . Initially , Michigan announced it would forfeit every game in which the four players appeared . On November 7 , 2002 ; Michigan president Mary Sue Coleman and athletic director Bill Martin announced that the school was imposing sanctions of its own on the basketball program . Among them :
No postseason play in 2002 – 03 , even though the players who took Martin 's money were no longer at the school .
The school vacated the entire 1992 – 93 season and every game it played from the 1995 – 96 season through the 1998 – 99 season . This included the 1997 National Invitation Tournament title and the 1998 Big Ten Tournament title . It also vacated its two Final Four games in 1992 and its entire NCAA tournament record in 1993 , 1996 and 1998 . There is a difference between forfeiting a game and vacating a game ; a vacated game does not result in the other school being credited with a win . This included virtually the entire career of Fisher 's successor , Brian Ellerbe . However , it did not include all games that Webber played or was eligible because all but the final two games of his freshman year were retained .
Returning $ 450 @,@ 000 received from the NCAA for postseason play in 1992 , 1993 , 1996 and 1998
Banners commemorating the 1992 and 1993 Final Four runs , the 1997 NIT title and 1998 Big Ten Tournament title would be removed from the rafters at Crisler Arena .
Two years ' probation .
Coleman described what happened as " wrong , plain and simple . " She also said , " I am determined that nothing like this will ever happen again at Michigan . "
At 8 : 00 A.M. that same day , the four banners were removed from the rafters . Four days later , the athletic department officially deleted all mention of Webber , Taylor , Traylor and Bullock from the school 's athletic records . These included Traylor 's MVP awards in the 1997 NIT and 1998 Big Ten Tournament , as well as Bullock 's standing as the Big Ten 's all @-@ time leader in 3 @-@ point field goals and the school 's third all @-@ time leading scorer and all @-@ time leader free throws made . The deletions came because the payments may have compromised their amateur status . Several players not implicated in the scandal continue to be listed among the school 's honorees such as Rob Pelinka ( Walter Byers Scholarship , 1993 ) , Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose ( All @-@ American , 1994 ) and Jerod Ward ( Big Ten All @-@ Tournament Team , 1998 ) .
Michigan finished the 2002 – 2003 season with a 17 – 13 record , but sat out both that year 's NCAA and NIT tournaments due to the self @-@ imposed postseason ban .
= = = NCAA = = =
On May 8 , 2003 ; the NCAA accepted Michigan 's sanctions . It also imposed an additional two years of probation and docked the school one scholarship a year from 2004 – 2005 until 2007 – 2008 . It also ordered the school to disassociate itself from Traylor ( who has since died ) , Taylor and Bullock until 2012 , and Webber until 2013 . The NCAA also barred Michigan from postseason play for the 2003 – 04 season ( later overturned on appeal ) . Infractions committee chairman Thomas Yeager , who had come very close to imposing the " death penalty " on the University of Alabama football program a few months earlier , called the Martin / Michigan affair " one of the three or four most egregious violations of NCAA bylaws " ever . The disassociation meant that Michigan could not accept donations or recruiting assistance from any of the players for ten years . Webber 's sanction ended on May 8 , 2013 . The NCAA criticized Fisher for allowing Martin access to the program , but did not sanction him . The University announced its intention to appeal the additional one @-@ year suspension from post @-@ season play . As a result of the sanctions , Ellerbe 's successor , Tommy Amaker , received a four @-@ year contract extension to compensate for the duties while under probation , and Bernard Robinson , Jr. had the right to transfer without sitting out a year because , as the only scholarship senior , the ineligibility extended for his entire remaining scholarship tenure .
= = = Vacated and forfeited games = = =
The following is the official NCAA record of affected games :
* The 1996 team gained 1 win by forfeit .
= = Fallout = =
In September 2003 , the NCAA reversed its decision to add a second year of postseason ineligibility after hearing an appeal by the University ; the Wolverines went on to become champions of the 2004 National Invitation Tournament . Also in September 2003 , Judge Edmunds deferred sentencing until she could monitor Webber 's service of 300 hours of community service at a middle @-@ school literacy program for two summers that she ordered . The literacy program is a six @-@ week program and Webber was expected to work at least 150 hours each summer . Also in September the University announced it sought $ 695 @,@ 000 in restitution from Webber . Webber was the only involved athlete that the University sought restitution from in part because he was the only one who confessed to lying to a grand jury . Webber stated that he did not feel the University 's request was appropriate because he had not stolen from the University .
During the 2003 @-@ 04 NBA season , Webber was on the disabled list until February . When he returned , the NBA suspended him for three games for his guilty plea . In September 2005 , Judge Edmunds ruled that the conviction should be treated as a misdemeanor and that Webber should pay the maximum fine for such an offense , which was $ 100 @,@ 000 . This ruling came after Webber served 330 hours of public service and accumulated $ 78 @,@ 000 of related out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses .
The Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) , following the release of court testimony , requested that Webber 's high school , Detroit Country Day ( DCD ) , forfeit the three state titles won with Webber in the lineup ( 1989 – 91 ) . DCD conducted its own investigation , then called a press conference on March 2 , 2004 , to announce there was no " credible evidence " Webber 's amateur status had been violated . When the MHSAA gave them the option of forfeiting games Webber played they decided not to . Traylor 's alma mater , Murray @-@ Wright High , forfeited its entire 1994 – 95 season — Traylor 's senior year .
= = Expiration of disassociation = =
The disassociations with Chris Webber , Maurice Taylor and Louis Bullock ended on May 8 , 2013 ( Robert Traylor , as noted above , died before his disassociation could end . ) Michigan athletic director David Brandon has stated that he welcomes the opportunity to reassociate with the players : " I 've never met any of those guys , and I am looking forward to meeting them , ... If any of those guys are interested in meeting with me , that would be great . " Both Bullock and Taylor immediately stated that they look forward to their re @-@ affiliation with the university . At the stroke of midnight when the disassociation ended , Webber tweeted " OK ! ! ! "
There were many vocal opinions on what should happen following the end of the disassociation . An article on Bleacher Report stated that the University should retire Webber 's Jersey . When asked whether the National finalist banners would ever be rehung , University President Mary Sue Coleman said not during her tenure , but she noted that " Some day , I won 't be president anymore , and maybe someone else will have a different view " .
= Oregon ( Awake ) =
" Oregon " is the fifth episode of the American police procedural drama television series Awake . The episode first premiered on March 29 , 2012 in the United States on NBC , was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on June 1 , 2012 . It was written by consulting producer Lisa Zwerling , and directed by Aaron Lipstadt . " Oregon " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written and that the episode was the " strongest outing " since " Pilot " broadcast on March 1 , 2012 . Upon airing , the episode garnered 3 @.@ 18 million viewers in the United States and a 1 @.@ 0 / 3 rating @-@ share in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It ranked second in its timeslot , behind The Mentalist on CBS .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In this episode , Michael deals with a case involving a serial killer Gemini , who had killed another person in the " green reality " . FBI agent Elizabeth Santoro ( Megan Dodds ) insists that he is dead , as she killed him herself after he had committed a huge crime . Gemini pretends to be a police officer , and frames Michael , pretending that he was with him . Agent Santoro thinks that he is involved in the case due to this frame , and other reasons . Gemini enjects Santoro , and then takes her to a place outside . He starts to cut Santoro 's wrist off , and Michael and his partner in the " green reality " , Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) get her . Meanwhile in the " red reality " , Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) states that Michael and his wife Hannah Britten ( Laura Allen ) ' s marriage is falling apart . However , Hannah admits that she was " embarrassed " about wanting to move to Oregon .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive and Rex is not from the car accident ) , and Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) is jogging around Los Angeles . When Michael gets home , he talks to his wife Hannah ( Laura Allen ) , who is in Oregon looking at a university . Later in the " green reality " ( where Rex is alive and Hannah is not ) , Michael and Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) are stuck in traffic , and Michael is later called into work . His partner in the " green reality " , Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) talks to Michael , then Michael goes for a run at the Griffith Park . He goes to the top of a hill overlooking the city , while a dog appears from behind a bush and barks at him . Michael notices human flesh in him , and goes to investigate , where he finds a corpse sitting against a tree . Michael goes to the police station , and shows Captain Harper similar cases starting in 1999 . In each case , a killer , nicknamed Gemini ( Salvator Xuereb ) , vertically slashed the victim 's wrists and carved a Roman numeral in their chests . The murders have taken place all across the United States , but everyone believes that Gemini is dead after an FBI agent Elizabeth Santoro ( Megan Dodds ) had shot him . Michael wants to cover the area as much as they can and Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) agrees , telling Michael to pick up the profiler that the FBI has sent . Michael goes to Brentwood and meets with FBI agent Elizabeth Santoro . They discuss his history and she admits that she has been focused solely on the " Gemini Killer " for the last 12 years . Michael confirms that they did not find one on the body , so she figures that it is a copycat . Michael goes to the crime scene , while Bird is already there . The partners go over the hillside and find the dog . They take him to Dr. Banks ( Chris McGarry ) and have him check his stomach , where he finds a United States two @-@ dollar bill in it . When Michael takes the evidence to Harper and Santoro , Santoro insists that it only means that someone with classified information to the case is involved . She suggests they check anyone who has recently laid off law enforcement officers with psych problems . Bird and Santoro create a database if the killer is alive . Santoro lets Harper decide and she tells the detectives to pull the files on law officers . As Santoro leaves , Michael approaches her and says that he understands the implications if the man she shot was Gemini . Meanwhile , the killer prepares a set of medical tools , a wad of two @-@ dollar bills , and a syringe .
Later in the " green reality " , Michael suggests they check cheap motels in the area , since Gemini set up base a couple miles from the sites of his murders . Later , Michael talks to the manager at one hotel . After he leaves the hotel , Michael sees a secret place closed and Michael breaks in , drawing his gun . He spots the " Gemini Killer " inside , but he ran away when Michael identified himself as a police officer . Soon after , the CSI team investigates , and Harper and Santoro wonder why Michael was there . He says that he was checking out motels and thought the building looked suspicious , and Santoro claimed that Michael is a " suspect " . They are unaware that the killer is listening to them from a nearby vent . Michael leaves the investigation , and as he goes to his car , the killer is seen dressed in a police uniform , as he is starting at him . Later at the station , Harper tells him that they got a call from someone claiming to be their guy . She plays a recording and Gemini addresses Michael as his friend . Harper tells Michael that they traced the call to his home phone . Later , Michael meets with Bird and the two find out that the killer was going to eject and then murder Agent Santoro . Later , the " Gemini Killer " begins to cut the FBI agent 's wrist . Minutes later , Michael and Bird try to find the killer , and the agent . They find her and she is taken to the hospital . Her family comes and sees her . Later , Michael tells Hannah what he 's learned about the movers and Oregon . She shares her secrets , claimed that she was " embarrassed " , and they talk .
Michael 's shrink in the " green reality " , Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) , cites that one reality will begin the scene as a fantasy . As Michael leaves in the car , Gemini calls Michael and explains that he was intrigued by Michael 's success in tracking him down . He broke into Evans ' office , read her files , and asks Michael if he is awake or asleep . However , Gemini says that the world needs people like him and Michael ; people who can see it sideways . As he takes a flight to Portland , Gemini says that he hopes Michael doesn 't wake up and then hangs up .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by consulting producer Lisa Zwerling , and directed by Aaron Lipstadt ; it was Zwerling and Lipstadt 's first writing credit , and was Lipstadt 's first directing credit on the series . This is the second episode that was not written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen , with the last episode he wrote being " Guilty " . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States . Although it was the fifth broadcast episode , it was originally scheduled to be the fourth episode of the season , with the production code being " 1ATR03 " due to NBC 's decision to change the broadcasting order .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode featured guest performances from many actors including Laura Innes as Tricia Harper , Michael 's captain officer in the series , Chris McGarry as Dr. Banks , a doctor working at the Los Angeles Police Department , Salvator Xuereb as Gemini , and Megan Dodds as Elizabeth Santoro , an FBI agent . Frank Gallegos was cast as DaSalva , Hal Havins was cast as hotel manager Brett London , and Erin Woods was cast as Santoro 's daughter . Damian Poitier also appeared , but as a police uniform officer .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Oregon " was originally broadcast on March 29 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. , preceded by Up All Night . Upon airing , the episode garnered 3 @.@ 18 million viewers in the United States , and ranked second in its timeslot despite airing simultaneously with The Mentalist on CBS , and a rerun of Private Practice on ABC . It acquired a 1 @.@ 0 / 3 rating @-@ share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings had dropped from the previous episode , " Kate Is Enough " , which obtained one million less in viewers . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on June 1 , 2012 . The episode obtained 228 @,@ 000 million viewers in the United Kingdom , making it the fourth most @-@ watched program for that week on the channel behind Smash , Hit & Miss , and Game of Thrones . The episode 's ratings had slightly dropped from the previous episode .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Oregon " was well received by most television commentators , who praised its storylines . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a good review . He claimed that the episode " felt like a bit of a stand @-@ alone story focusing on Britten 's heightened anxiety over Rex 's grief " , and that the episode also " stepped in and launched the series forward , introducing one of Britten 's worlds to a rather apropos serial killer " . He also liked the episode 's " ambition " . Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode an " 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 " , classifying it as " great " . Nick McHatton from TV Fanatic also praised the episode . He claimed that the Britten family will not move to Oregon in the " red reality " , as it is " already complex enough as it is " . McHatton concluded his review by giving the episode a score of " 4 @.@ 8
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macht in early January 1940 . In 1941 , Krupp built prototype vehicles armed with the 105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 18 / 1 L / 28 ( light field howitzer 18 / 1 L / 28 , abbreviated leFH 18 / 1 L / 28 ) cannon based on a modified Panzer IV chassis . The prototypes were fitted with a smaller six @-@ cylinder Maybach HL66P engine , which had a power capacity of 188 hp ( 140 kW ) . Although 200 vehicles were ordered , Krupp completed only 10 prototypes in the final four months of 1942 . These saw service on the Eastern Front .
= = = Prototypes = = =
The design phase of the Heuschrecke began in 1942 , when Krupp conceived a new type of self @-@ propelled artillery . In 1943 , Krupp produced three prototypes , with serial numbers from 582501 to 582503 , which were designated as either Heuschrecke 10 or Heuschrecke IVb .
The Heuschrecke designed by Krupp was similar in design to a vehicle built by Alkett and Rheinmetall @-@ Borsig , the 105 mm leFH 18 / 40 / 2 auf Geschützwagen III / IV , which was ready in March 1944 . The competing Rheinmetall @-@ Borsig model had overall slightly better performance than that of Krupps ' vehicle . It was decided , however , to utilize an alternate chassis on the Rheinmetall @-@ Borsig model , that of the Panzer IV . Production was to start in October 1944 , but the chassis choice was changed to that of the Geschützwagen IV in December 1944 . Production , in Magdeburg , was then intended to commence in February 1945 , but none were produced .
= = = Cancellation = = =
The Nazi high command thought that the production of the Heuschrecke would disrupt the production of the needed Panzers . The quantity of materials required for the construction of weapon @-@ carriers were so great that companies like Krupp were told to halt production . The majority of weapon @-@ carriers never left the production stage . The Heuschrecke was seen as interesting by the General Inspector of the Panzer Troops , Heinz Guderian , however , Guderian agreed that their development was not worth the disruption to tank production . The development of the Heuschrecke was therefore canceled in February 1943 .
= = Design = =
= = = Turret = = =
The distinguishing feature of the Heuschrecke was its removable turret . A lifting gantry attached to the chassis could remove the turret for use on concrete fortifications or the ground . Although the howitzer could equally be fired from the chassis , the vehicle was designed to carry the artillery piece to a firing emplacement for removal before usage . The turretless vehicle could be used as an ammunition carrier or recovery vehicle . The prototype turret was armed with the 105 mm leFH 18 / 1 L / 28 . The production models , however , were to have the 105 mm leFH 43 L / 28 .
= = = Chassis and Engine = = =
The Heuschrecke consisted of a welded steel hull , with thickness ranging from 10 to 25 millimeters , and sloped armour to deflect incoming fire more effectively . It had a large ammunition stowage , making it one of the chosen ammunition @-@ carriers to help alleviate losses of ammunition that could not otherwise be transported . The original prototype engine was the twelve @-@ cylinder Maybach HL90 , but for the production models , the twelve @-@ cylinder Maybach HL100 was chosen .
= = Surviving vehicle = =
It is believed only one Heuschrecke 10 survived the war . This sole survivor was originally on display at Aberdeen Proving Grounds . It was transferred from there to the Fort Sill Field Artillery Museum in Fort Sill , Oklahoma along with several other World War II self @-@ propelled guns . Shortly after its arrival at Fort Sill in 2012 , the Grasshopper 10 was restored by the Fort Sill Directorate of Logistics paint shop .
= = Specification comparison = =
= German destroyer Z3 Max Schultz =
The German destroyer Z3 Max Schultz was a Type 1934 destroyer built for the Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . Shortly before the beginning of World War II , the ship accidentally rammed and sank a German torpedo boat . Max Schultz spent the following month under repair . In mid @-@ February 1940 , while proceeding into the North Sea to search for British fishing trawlers , one of her sisters , Z1 Leberecht Maass , was bombed and sunk by a patrolling German bomber . While trying to rescue survivors , Max Schultz struck a British mine and sank with all hands .
= = Design and description = =
Max Schultz had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 223 long tons ( 2 @,@ 259 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 156 long tons ( 3 @,@ 207 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 PS ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) , but her maximum speed was 38 @.@ 7 knots ( 71 @.@ 7 km / h ; 44 @.@ 5 mph ) . Max Schultz carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots .
The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . Max Schultz carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 7 July 1934 and laid down at Deutsche Werke , Kiel , on 2 January 1935 as yard number K244 . She was launched on 30 November 1935 and completed on 8 April 1937 . She was named after Max Schultz who commanded the torpedo boat V69 and was killed in action in January 1917 . Korvettenkapitän Martin Balzer was appointed as her first captain . Max Schultz was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Division on 26 October 1937 and made a port visit to Ulvik , Norway in April 1938 , together with her sisters Z2 Georg Thiele and Z4 Richard Beitzen . Upon her return she was taken in hand by Deutsche Werke to have her bow rebuilt to reduce the amount of water that came over the bow in head seas . This increased her length by .3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) . The ship participated in the August Fleet Review and the following fleet exercise . In December , Max Schultz , together with her sisters Leberecht Maass , Georg Thiele , and Richard Beitzen , sailed to the area of Iceland to evaluate their seaworthiness in a North Atlantic winter with their new bows . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , the ship was one of the destroyers that escorted Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean , as the flagship of Rear Admiral Günther Lütjens , and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
Days before the outbreak of World War II , in the early morning hours of 27 August 1939 , the destroyer accidentally collided with and sank the torpedo boat Tiger near Bornholm . Two men were killed and six were wounded aboard the torpedo boat , while no one was injured aboard Max Schultz . The latter 's bow was severely damaged and she had to be towed , stern @-@ first , by Z2 Georg Thiele . Two tugboats arrived a half @-@ hour later and took over the tow to Swinemünde at a speed of 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) . Max Schultz was under repair until late September and did not participate in the Polish Campaign .
She patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods during October . While returning from one such patrol on 28 October , one of the ship 's turbines exploded , causing boiler room No. 1 to flood and knocking out the ship 's power . Attempts to tow her failed , but the ship eventually managed to restore power and she sailed to Kiel for repairs . Max Schultz , Beitzen and Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt laid 110 magnetic mines in the Shipwash area , off Harwich , on 9 / 10 February 1940 that sank six ships of 28 @,@ 496 gross register tons ( GRT ) and damaged another .
On 22 February , Max Schultz and five other destroyers , Z1 Leberecht Maass , Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z6 Theodor Riedel , Z13 Erich Koellner and Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , sailed for the Dogger Bank to intercept British fishing vessels in " Operation Wikinger " . En route , the flotilla was erroneously attacked by a Heinkel He 111 bomber from Bomber Wing ( Kampfgeschwader ) 26 . Leberecht Maass was hit by at least one bomb , lost steering , and broke in half , sinking with the loss of 280 of her crew . During the rescue effort , Max Schultz hit a mine and sank with the loss of her entire crew of 308 . Hitler ordered a Court of Inquiry to be convened to investigate the cause of the losses and it concluded that both ships that been sunk by bombs from the He 111 . The Kriegsmarine had failed to notify its destroyers that the Luftwaffe was making anti @-@ shipping patrols at that time and had also failed to inform the Luftwaffe that its destroyers would be at sea . Postwar evidence revealed that one or both ships struck a British minefield laid by the destroyers Ivanhoe and Intrepid .
= Battle of Lang Vei =
The Battle of Lang Vei ( Vietnamese : Trận Làng Vây ) began on the evening of 6 February and concluded during the early hours of 7 February 1968 , in Quảng Trị Province , South Vietnam . Towards the end of 1967 the 198th Tank Battalion , Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) 203rd Armored Regiment , received instructions from the North Vietnamese Ministry of Defense to reinforce the 304th Division as part of the Route 9 @-@ Khe Sanh Campaign . After an arduous journey down the Ho Chi Minh trail in January 1968 , the 198th Tank Battalion linked up with the 304th Division for a major offensive along Highway 9 , which stretched from the Laotian border through to Quảng Trị Province . On 23 January , the VPA 24th Regiment attacked the small Laotian outpost at Bane Houei Sane , under the control of the Royal Laos Army BV @-@ 33 ‘ Elephant ’ Battalion .
In that battle the 198th Tank Battalion failed to reach the battle on time because its tank crews struggled to navigate their tank equipment through the rough local terrain . However , as soon as the PT @-@ 76 tanks of the 198th Tank Battalion turned up at Bane Houei Sane , the Laotian soldiers and their families panicked and retreated into South Vietnam . After Bane Houei Sane was captured , the 24th Regiment prepared for another attack which targeted the U.S. Special Forces Camp at Lang Vei , manned by Detachment A @-@ 101 of the 5th Special Forces Group . On 6 February , the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment , again supported by the 198th Tank Battalion , launched their assault on Lang Vei . Despite fighting with air and artillery support , the U.S.-led forces conceded ground and the North Vietnamese quickly dominated their positions . By the early hours of 7 February the command bunker was the only position still held by allied forces , but they were besieged by North Vietnamese soldiers above ground . During the entire ordeal , U.S. and indigenous Civilian Irregular Defense Group ( CIDG ) forces trapped inside the command bunker had to endure North Vietnamese harassment , which came in the form of fragmentation and tear gas grenades . To rescue the American survivors inside the Lang Vei Camp , a counter @-@ attack was mounted , but the Laotian soldiers , who formed the bulk of the attack formation , refused to fight the North Vietnamese . Later on , U.S. Special Forces personnel were able to escape from the camp , and were rescued by a U.S. Marine task force . { 242 , Stanton , The Rise and fall of an American Army }
= = Background = =
= = = North Vietnam = = =
The task of capturing Lang Vei was entrusted to the 24th Regiment , Vietnam People 's Army 304th Division , led by Colonel Le Cong Phe . The regiment was to be supported by the 2nd Battalion ( part of the 101D Regiment , 325th Division ) , the 2nd Artillery Battalion ( part of the 675th Artillery Regiment ) , one tank company ( part of the 198th Tank Battalion , 203rd Armored Regiment ) , two sapper companies , one anti @-@ aircraft gun company , and one flamethrower platoon . One of the most important features of the North Vietnamese formation were the elements of the 203rd Armoured Regiment ; the Route 9 @-@ Khe Sanh Campaign marked the first time the Vietnam People ’ s Army deployed its armored forces on the battlefield . In 1964 , soldiers of North Vietnam ’ s first armored unit — the 202nd Armored Regiment — was sent into South Vietnam without their T @-@ 34 main battle tanks , because their prime mission was to learn enemy armor tactics in order to prepare for future missions . On 22 June 1965 , the North Vietnamese Ministry of Defense passed Resolution 100 / QD @-@ QP , to establish the 203rd Armored Regiment , and Resolution 101 / QD @-@ QP to create an Armored Force Command .
For North Vietnamese commanders , the creation of an independent armored force command represented a significant milestone in the development of their army , because it enabled them to respond to the circumstances on the battlefield with a modern armored force . To prepare for their upcoming mission , the 203rd Armored Regiment undertook a series of combined @-@ arms training with infantry and artillery units in different types of terrain , in order to operate in Vietnam ’ s rough mountainous and jungle conditions . On 5 August 1967 , the Ministry of Defense ordered the 203rd Armored Regiment to form a sub @-@ unit , namely the 198th Tank Battalion equipped with 22 PT @-@ 76 amphibious tanks , to bolster the strength of the 304th Division in South Vietnam . From their base in Luong Son , Hòa Bình Province , the 198th Tank Battalion began their arduous 1 @,@ 350 kilometers ( 840 mi ) journey down the Ho Chi Minh trail under constant U.S. air @-@ strikes . In January 1968 , the 198th Tank Battalion arrived on the field where it joined the 304th Division for an attack on the Laotian outpost of Ban Houei Sane .
= = = United States = = =
The Lang Vei Special Forces Camp was placed under the control of the United States Army 's Detachment A @-@ 101 , Company C , 5th Special Forces Group , to train and equip locally recruited Vietnamese through the Civilian Irregular Defense Group ( CIDG ) program . Detachment A @-@ 101 had originally been established in July 1962 at Khe Sanh . In 1966 , Detachment A @-@ 101 moved to its first site at an area near the village of Lang Vei , when the United States Marines took control of Khe Sanh as part of an American military build @-@ up in South Vietnam ’ s northern provinces . However , the first camp at Lang Vei proved to be only temporary , when the North Vietnamese army attacked the camp on May 4 , 1967 . Even though the North Vietnamese attack had been repelled , damage to the camp was extensive . Since the original camp site had lacked good observation and fields of fire beyond the barbed @-@ wire perimeter , the 5th Special Forces Group commander decided to move the camp to a more suitable area , about 1 @,@ 000 meters to the west . The new camp , situated on Highway 9 about 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) to the west of Khe Sanh , was completed in 1967 .
In 1967 , Captain Franklin C. Willoughby assumed command of Detachment A @-@ 101 at Lang Vei , which had a tactical area of responsibility of 220 square kilometers ( 85 sq mi ) , and was one of nine operational CIDG camps in I Corps Tactical Zone . From Lang Vei , U.S Special Forces personnel worked jointly with a 14 @-@ man South Vietnamese special forces contingent and six interpreters ; they were responsible for border surveillance , interdiction of enemy infiltration and assistance in the Revolutionary Development Program . To accomplish those tasks Willoughby had one Montagnard company , three South Vietnamese rifle companies and three combat reconnaissance platoons at his disposal . Early in January 1968 , Detachment A @-@ 101 received reinforcements in the form of a Mobile Strike Force Company , consisting of 161 Hre tribesmen , along with six U.S. Special Forces advisors . Elements of this Mobile Strike Force Company operated from a fortified bunker about 800 meters west of the camp , which served as an observation post . During the day the Hre tribesmen of the Mobile Strike Force conducted patrols ; at night they took up ambush positions in the vicinity of the camp .
Prior to the battle , Willoughby placed Company 101 of 82 Bru Montagnard tribesmen , on the northeastern flank of the camp , with the 3rd Combat Reconnaissance Platoon positioned just behind it . Company 104 was placed in the southern end of the camp ; Company 102 , consisting of 42 men , was positioned at the opposite end about 450 meters to the west , while the 43 @-@ man Company 103 was positioned further south . The 1st and 2nd Combat Reconnaissance Platoons were placed at the northern and southern perimeters respectively , about 200 meters apart . Individually , the CIDG personnel carried M1 and M2 carbines with nearly 250 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , and each company was also equipped with one 81mm mortar . Among heavy weapons , there were two 106mm recoilless rifles , two 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortars and nineteen 60mm mortars positioned around the camp . For close @-@ in support , the CIDG personnel were furnished with 100 disposable M @-@ 72 anti @-@ tank weapons . If necessary , Willoughby could also request support from at least two rifle companies from the United States 24th Marines Regiment based at Khe Sanh , along with artillery support from other locations within range .
= = Prelude = =
Following the construction of the new camp site west of Lang Vei , Willoughby and his CIDG soldiers concentrated their efforts on strengthening the camp ’ s defenses , and they made relatively few contacts with the North Vietnamese . However , unbeknown to Willoughby , the North Vietnamese 304th Division had assembled on the battlefield , reinforced by the 198th Tank Battalion , with the following orders : the 66th Regiment was given the task of capturing Khe Sanh village , part of Huong Hoa District , to begin their Route 9 @-@ Khe Sanh Campaign ; the 24th Regiment was ordered to destroy the enemy strongholds of Ban Houei Sane and Lang Vei ; while the 9th Regiment was ordered to destroy any reinforcements that may try to relieve those bases areas . From December 1967 , CIDG soldiers operating from Lang Vei began to report more frequent contacts with the North Vietnamese . By mid @-@ January , U.S. military intelligence also reported movements of North Vietnamese formations across the Xe Pone River from Laos into South Vietnam . At the same time , the North Vietnamese began to harass the Lang Vei Special Forces Camp with mortar and artillery fire at least two or three times a week , and North Vietnamese patrols even probed the camp ’ s perimeters .
On January 21 , 1968 , the North Vietnamese 66th Regiment began their attack on Khe Sanh village , seat of the local Huong Hoa government . At that time , Khe Sanh village was defended by the South Vietnamese Regional Force 915th Company and the U.S. Marines Combined Action Company Oscar . Throughout the night , the combined U.S and South Vietnamese forces held their position , but at the first daylight U.S. soldiers on the ground called in air strikes and artillery support from the Khe Sanh Combat Base . Fighting in and around Khe Sanh village continued throughout the day and into the following night , and was finally captured at 09 : 30 on 22 January . At 11 : 00am Colonel David Lownds ordered Delta Company , of 1 / 26th Marines Regiment , to relieve the defenders inside Khe Sanh village , but reversed his orders after second thoughts about North Vietnamese ambushes . Later , the South Vietnamese Regional Force 256th Company was destroyed by the enemies ’ 9th Regiment as they marched towards Khe Sanh village . The North Vietnamese 66th Regiment paid a heavy price for their victory with 154 killed and 496 wounded .
On the evening of 23 January , one day after the fall of Khe Sanh village , the North Vietnamese 304th Division moved against their next target , the small Laotian outpost at Ban Houei Sane . Prior to 1968 , Laotian forces at Ban Houei Sane had played an important role in the war , watching North Vietnamese infiltration into South Vietnam from a section of the Ho Chi Minh Trail running through Laos . The outpost was manned by 700 Laotian soldiers of BV @-@ 33 ‘ Elephant ’ Battalion , Royal Laos Army , led by Lieutenant Colonel Soulang Phetsampou . As night fell , the North Vietnamese 3rd Battalion of the 24th Regiment began attacking the outpost . The 198th Tank Battalion , which was tasked with supporting the 24th Regiment , was delayed as their tank crews tried to navigate their PT @-@ 76 amphibious tanks through the rough local terrain . However , confusion quickly descended on the Laotian defenders as North Vietnamese PT @-@ 76 tanks turned up outside their outpost . After three hours of fighting , Soulang decided to abandon his outpost , so he radioed the Lang Vei Special Forces Camp and requested helicopters to evacuate his men and their families . However , as helicopters were unavailable , the Laotians decided to move eastward by foot along Highway 9 , in an attempt to reach Lang Vei just across the border in South Vietnam .
Following the collapse of both Khe Sanh village and Ban Houei Sane , thousands of civilian refugees made their way towards Lang Vei village and the Special Forces Camp . With an estimated 8 @,@ 000 non @-@ combatants within a thousand meters of his camp , Willoughby radioed Da Nang for assistance . This arrived on January 25 in the form of food and medical supplies , along with a six @-@ man Special Forces augmentation team . The Laotian soldiers of BV @-@ 33 , with assistance from the new Special Forces team , were given materials to restore the old Lang Vei Camp , where they would remain until further orders were issued from Da Nang . The Laotian soldiers and their families brought with them stories of a North Vietnamese attack supported by tanks , which was a cause for concern for Willoughby , because Ban Houei Sane was only 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) away across the border . On January 30 , Willoughby 's fears were confirmed when a North Vietnamese deserter , Private Luong Dinh Du , surrendered himself to the U.S. Special Forces in Lang Vei . Under interrogation , Private Du revealed that tracked vehicles had positioned near his unit , but a planned attack was canceled twice for unknown reasons .
= = Battle = =
In response to the threat posed by the North Vietnamese , Willoughby stepped up daytime patrols and night ambushes around his camp . On the afternoon of February 6 , Lieutenant Colonel Daniel F. Shungel — commander of Company C , 5th Special Forces — flew into Lang Vei from Da Nang as a diplomatic gesture towards the Laotian commander Phetsampou . At 23 : 30 , North Vietnamese artillery started pounding the Lang Vei Special Forces Camp , which covered the movement of the 24th Regiment and the 3rd Battalion , 101D Regiment . From an observation post above the tactical operations centre , Sergeant Nickolas Fragos saw the first North Vietnamese tanks moving along Lang Troai road , attempting to breach the barbed @-@ wires just in front of Company 104 . He immediately went down to the tactical operations center and described what he had witnessed to Willoughby ; Shungel then advised Willoughby to concentrate all available artillery and air support on the North Vietnamese formation just in front of Company 104 . Soon afterwards , three North Vietnamese PT @-@ 76 tanks were knocked out by a 106mm recoilless rifle manned by Sergeant First Class James W. Holt , but the barbed wire in front of Company 104 was quickly overcome by the combined North Vietnamese tank @-@ infantry attack .
Meanwhile , from inside the tactical operations center , Willoughby was busy calling in air and artillery support . He also radioed the 26th Marines Regiment at Khe Sanh to request the deployment of two rifle companies as part of the reinforcement plan , but his request was denied . Believing that the attack on Company 104 was the enemy ’ s main effort , Willoughby concentrated his artillery support there during the early stages of the battle . About 10 minutes after the artillery had begun firing , a U.S. Air Force forward air @-@ controller arrived over Lang Vei along with a flareship and an AC @-@ 119 Shadow gunship . Willoughby then requested air strikes on the ravines located north of the camp , on Lang Troai road , and the areas west of the early warning outpost manned by the Hre soldiers of the Mobile Strike Force . Despite the ferocity of the air strikes and artillery fire , the North Vietnamese managed to break through the Company 104 area , forcing the defenders to retreat into the 2nd and 3rd Combat Reconnaissance Platoon positions behind them . By 01 : 15 , the North Vietnamese had captured the entire eastern end of the Special Forces Camp and , from the Company 104 area , began pouring fire on Company 101 .
At the opposite end of the camp , three North Vietnamese PT @-@ 76 tanks rolled through the barbed @-@ wire barrier in front of Company 102 and 103 . From point blank , North Vietnamese tank crews destroyed several bunkers with their guns , forcing the soldiers of Company 102 and 103 to abandon their positions . Those who survived the onslaught either retreated to the reconnaissance positions , or along Highway 9 , toward Khe Sanh in the east . About 800 meters to the west , Sergeant First Class Charles W. Lindewald , an adviser to the Mobile Strike Force , also reported back to Willoughby that the early warning outpost was in danger of being overrun . To save it , Lindewald directed artillery strikes on the North Vietnamese troops moving up towards his outpost , but he later died from a gunshot wound to the stomach as the North Vietnamese overran the outpost . At about 01 : 30 , Shungel and his hastily organized tank @-@ killer teams were busy engaging the North Vietnamese tanks that were roaming the Company 104 area ; on many occasions the M @-@ 72 rockets fired by the Americans either missed completely , jammed , misfired , or simply failed to knock out the enemy tanks . By 02 : 30 , the North Vietnamese had broken through the inner perimeter of the camp , and began harassing the soldiers trapped inside the tactical operations center , which included Willoughby along with seven other Americans , three South Vietnamese special forces , and 26 CIDG soldiers .
Above ground , American and Vietnamese soldiers who had escaped death or capture tried to escape from the North Vietnamese . From the team house , a group of four Americans and about 50 CIDG soldiers held a quick conference and decided that they would leave the camp through the northern perimeter , where there was no visible sign of the North Vietnamese . Without much difficulty , the Americans and the CIDG soldiers were able to make it through the barbed @-@ wire barrier , but North Vietnamese soldiers on the eastern side of the camp had detected their movement and began firing on the group . Ultimately , only two Americans and about 10 Vietnamese soldiers managed to escape from the camp , taking refuge in a dry creek bed that offered some cover and concealment . At around 03 : 30 am , Willoughby made another request for the Marines at Khe Sanh to send reinforcements , but again his request was turned down . In an attempt to save the defenders at Lang Vei , Company C Headquarters in Da Nang tried to call for reinforcements from the Marines at Khe Sanh , but its request was also turned down . Finally , Company C Headquarters placed another Mobile Strike Force Company and a company @-@ sized unit on standby alert in Da Nang , to be airlifted into battle as soon as helicopters were available .
Back in Lang Vei , the North Vietnamese continued to harass the small force of soldiers still trapped in the command bunker with hand grenades , explosives and bursts of gunfire down the stairwell that led into the bunker . Shortly after 06 : 00 am , the North Vietnamese threw several fragmentation grenades and tear gas grenades down the stairwell , causing panic amongst the defenders . Then , a voice called down the stairwell in Vietnamese , demanding the American @-@ led forces give up at once . Following a quick discussion with his CIDG soldiers , the South Vietnamese special forces commander led his troops up the stairwell to surrender but were killed by North Vietnamese soldiers , leaving behind their American counterparts . After the South Vietnamese had gone up , there was another short verbal exchange between the Americans in the bunker and the North Vietnamese in English , which was followed by another fire @-@ fight when the Americans refused surrender . At 06 : 30 am , the North Vietnamese successfully blasted a hole on the northern wall , gaining direct access into the command bunker . However , instead of launching a direct attack on the last American stronghold , the North Vietnamese continued to throw grenades through the wall .
At dawn , Sergeant First Class Eugene Ashley , Jr. assembled about 100 Laotian soldiers of BV @-@ 33 at the old Lang Vei Camp in order to launch a rescue operation and , if possible , recapture the Special Forces Camp from the North Vietnamese . Even though Phetsampou had initially refused to take part in the operation , the Americans held him to his earlier promise of providing them with troops . After Ashley had formed the Laotian soldiers into a skirmish line , he radioed the forward air @-@ controllers overhead to direct strafing runs on the Special Forces Camp to soften up the enemy . Ashley was killed after making several attempts to rescue the soldiers trapped in the Command bunker , and he was postumously awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor .
Meanwhile , as General William C. Westmoreland learned of the North Vietnamese attack on Lang Vei and Lownd ’ s refusal to send a relief force , he ordered the U.S. Marines to supply enough helicopters to airlift a 50 @-@ man strike force with the aim of rescuing the survivors . Subsequently , Colonel Jonathan F. Ladd — commanding officer of the 5th Special Forces Group — and Major General Norman J. Anderson , commander of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing — were directed to formulate a rescue plan . While Willoughby and his men waited for help in the command bunker , Ashley and his Laotian contingent cautiously entered the Special Forces Camp .
The Laotian soldiers were evidently reluctant to advance on the enemy , and only inched forward when the Americans ordered them to do so . In their first attempt to break through North Vietnamese lines , Ashley and his men were beaten back . Undeterred , the American @-@ led forces tried to penetrate North Vietnamese positions several times , and only stopped after Ashley was shot in the chest and later killed by an exploding artillery round . The Laotians , who feared the North Vietnamese , disengaged from the fight and fled . After Ashley 's final attack had failed , Willoughby and his men made the decision to abandon their position . However , after Specialist Four James L. Moreland was mortally wounded , Captain Willoughby decided to leave him in the bunker , because the remaining Americans were in no physical condition to carry out the wounded man . Under the cover of U.S. air strikes , Willoughby and other American survivors ran towards the old Lang Vei Camp , which was evacuated by U.S. Marine CH @-@ 46 from HMM @-@ 262 , which lifted in a 50 @-@ man reaction force . By 17 : 30 on 7 February , all known survivors had been evacuated to Khe Sanh .
= = Aftermath = =
The fight for Lang Vei , though short in duration , was a costly endeavor for both sides . In their efforts to hold the camp , the combined Montagnard and South Vietnamese CIDG soldiers suffered 309 killed , 64 wounded , and 122 captured . Of the original 24 Americans who took part in the battle , seven were killed in action , 11 sustained injuries , and three were captured . Nearly all of the camp ’ s weaponry and equipment were either destroyed or captured by enemy forces . In contrast , for North Vietnam , the battle for Lang Vei marked the first successful use of armor in the war . In terms of human casualties , the North Vietnamese claimed to have lost 90 soldiers killed in action , and 220 wounded . On the evening of February 7 , though the fight was over for the military forces , the ordeal continued for the civilians who were caught in the fighting . An estimated 6 @,@ 000 survivors from the old Lang Vei Camp that included South Vietnamese soldiers and their families , Montagnard tribesmen and the Laotians , followed the Americans and descended on the Khe Sanh Combat Base .
However , when they reached the American compound , Lownds refused to give them entry because he feared that North Vietnamese soldiers may have mingled with the crowd . Instead , Lownds ordered his soldiers to herd the civilians into bomb craters , disarmed the local soldiers , and kept them under guard even though North Vietnamese artillery shells continued to rain down on the base . No food or medical aid was given to the civilians as they were kept outside the wires of the American compound . Frustrated by the lack of support and poor treatment by the Americans , Phetsampou complained that his people were being treated more like an enemy . On 10 February , Laotian civilian refugees started walking back to Laos along Highway 9 , because they feared for their lives and preferred to die in their own country . On February 15 , through arrangements made by the Laotian embassy in Saigon , the Laotian commander and his soldiers were flown back to their country on a Royal Laotian Air Force C @-@ 47 transport aircraft .
= = Video = =
Battle of Ta May @-@ Lang Vei ( In Vietnamese ) on YouTube
Special Forces : Untold Stories - The U.S. Green Beret : The Battle of Lang Vei
= 2006 Gator Bowl =
The 2006 Gator Bowl was a college football bowl game between the Louisville Cardinals and the Virginia Tech Hokies at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , United States , on January 2 , 2006 . The game was the final contest of the 2005 football season for each team and resulted in a 35 – 24 Virginia Tech victory . Louisville represented the Big East Conference ( Big East ) , and Virginia Tech represented the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) in the competition .
Virginia Tech was selected as a participant in the 2006 Gator Bowl following a 10 – 2 regular season that included wins over 15th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech and traditional rivals Virginia and West Virginia . A loss to Florida State in the inaugural ACC Championship Game gave Tech a position in the Gator Bowl instead of the more prestigious Bowl Championship Series @-@ run Orange Bowl game . Facing the 12th @-@ ranked Hokies were the 15th @-@ ranked Louisville Cardinals , who finished 9 – 2 during the regular season of their first year in the Big East Conference . Louisville won its last five games before the Gator Bowl and participated in the Liberty Bowl at the end of the previous season . Pre @-@ game media coverage of the game focused on Virginia Tech 's fall from being a contender for the national championship , Louisville 's loss of star quarterback Brian Brohm to injury , the fact that both teams were playing under new conference affiliations , and the rise of Virginia Tech quarterback Marcus Vick , younger brother of NFL star Michael Vick .
The 2006 Gator Bowl began on January 2 , 2006 , at 12 : 30 p.m. EST in Jacksonville . Louisville led for much of the game , beginning with an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass in the first quarter by backup quarterback Hunter Cantwell , who filled in for the injured Brohm . Tech 's offense replied with a field goal , but Louisville was able to add another touchdown before the end of the quarter , extending its lead to 14 – 3 . In the second quarter , Virginia Tech fought back and narrowed Louisville 's lead to a single touchdown . At halftime , the score was 17 – 10 in Louisville 's favor . In the second half , Virginia Tech 's offense began to have success . Tech earned the only points of the third quarter — a 28 @-@ yard field goal from kicker Brandon Pace — to narrow Louisville 's lead to 17 – 13 . In the fourth quarter , the game fully turned in the Hokies ' favor . Though Louisville scored a touchdown early in the quarter , Virginia Tech scored 22 unanswered points in the final 13 minutes of the game to take a 35 – 24 lead and earn the win .
Tailback Cedric Humes was named the most valuable player of the game for Virginia Tech , and quarterback Hunter Cantwell was named the Cardinals ' most valuable player . Tech punter Nic Schmitt set Gator Bowl records for punt yardage and average punt distance , kicking the ball six times for 300 yards , an average of 50 yards per kick . Virginia Tech 's win was marred by excessive penalties and unsportsmanlike conduct that resulted in the ejection of one player . Following the game , Virginia Tech quarterback Marcus Vick was released from the team as a result of several incidents of misconduct , including a stomp on Louisville defender Elvis Dumervil 's leg during the game . Several players who participated in the game , including Dumervil , later went on to careers in the National Football League .
= = Team selection = =
In the 2005 college football season , the Atlantic Coast Conference had an automatic bid to the Gator Bowl . By contract , the Gator Bowl Association — which produces the game — possessed the first pick of bowl @-@ eligible ACC teams after the winner of the ACC Championship Game was given a spot in a Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) game . This was the final year that the Gator Bowl had first pick of eligible ACC teams , as contract renegotiations later resulted in the Gator Bowl slipping to the third selection , beginning with the 2006 college football season . Virginia Tech , losers of the 2005 ACC Championship Game , were chosen by the Gator Bowl Association to participate as the ACC 's representative to the 2006 Gator Bowl .
The other half of the matchup would consist of either Notre Dame or the first selection from the Big East Conference after that conference 's automatic BCS bid . Because Notre Dame was selected to play in the 2006 Fiesta Bowl , a BCS game , the Gator Bowl Association was required to select the Big East 's Louisville Cardinals , which , like Virginia Tech , finished second in their conference .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies football team began the 2005 college football season as reigning Atlantic Coast Conference football champions . The Hokies also played in the 2005 Sugar Bowl against the third @-@ ranked Auburn Tigers , losing 16 – 13 in a close contest . Expectations were high for the Hokies to repeat their ACC championship performance the next year , and a preseason poll of media covering ACC football resulted in Virginia Tech being picked to face Florida State in the inaugural ACC Championship Game .
In its first game of the season , however , eighth @-@ ranked Virginia Tech almost let those expectations fall short . At North Carolina State , the Hokies trailed at halftime and were tied at the beginning of the fourth quarter before eking out a 20 – 16 win in the final minutes . The Hokies bounced back from the close contest in their second game of the season — against the Duke Blue Devils — as Tech raced to a 45 – 0 victory . The Hokies held Duke to just 35 yards of total offense , Tech 's best defensive performance in the modern era .
The win over Duke was followed by several others in succession . Heading into their ninth game of the season , the Hokies were 8 – 0 record and the third @-@ ranked college football team in the country . Against the fifth @-@ ranked Miami Hurricanes , however , Virginia Tech suffered its first defeat of the season , falling 27 – 7 . Tech recovered by winning its next two games , earning a spot in the inaugural Atlantic Coast Conference Championship Game , held in Jacksonville , Florida . There , the Hokies lost , 27 – 22 , to the Florida State Seminoles . The Seminoles earned an automatic bid to a Bowl Championship Series game by virtue of the victory — had Virginia Tech won the game , it would have been awarded the bid . The day after Tech lost the ACC Championship Game , the Gator Bowl extended a formal invitation to Virginia Tech , which the Hokies accepted . Ninth @-@ ranked Miami , the same team that beat the Hokies 27 – 7 earlier in the season , was considered for selection , but the Gator Bowl Association took into consideration Virginia Tech 's history of having a large fan base travel to its bowl games , and selected the Hokies on those grounds .
= = = Louisville = = =
The Louisville Cardinals football team came into the 2005 season having gone 11 – 1 the previous season , including a season @-@ ending 44 – 40 victory over Boise State in the 2004 Liberty Bowl . In addition , Louisville was also entering a new conference — the Big East — after departing Conference USA following the end of the 2004 season . In a poll of media members covering the Big East prior to the 2005 season , Louisville was predicted to win the Big East championship its first year in the conference .
In their first and second games of the season , the Cardinals lived up to that expectation . At in @-@ state rival Kentucky , Louisville earned a 31 – 24 victory to win the Governor 's Cup . This was followed the next week by a 63 – 27 victory over non @-@ conference opponent Oregon State . Unfortunately for the Cardinals , their first Big East conference game of the season — and of school history — did not go as well . At South Florida , the ninth @-@ ranked Cardinals were outscored 45 – 14 , the first time in 13 games Louisville 's offense was held to less than 30 points .
Following the loss , Louisville recovered , scoring 61 points and 69 points , respectively , in non @-@ conference wins over Florida Atlantic University and North Carolina , returning to their previous offensive success . Again , however , Louisville faltered against a Big East opponent . The Cardinals ' second Big East game , at West Virginia University , was another Louisville loss , 46 – 44 . West Virginia later went on to finish 11 – 1 for the season , winning the Big East championship and defeating the Georgia Bulldogs in the 2006 Sugar Bowl .
Louisville , meanwhile , returned to its winning ways . The Cardinals , following their loss to the Mountaineers , won their first Big East game in school history the next week , over the Cincinnati Bearcats , 46 – 22 . The rout of Cincinnati sparked a five @-@ game winning streak , which concluded on December 3 with a 30 – 20 victory over the University of Connecticut Huskies . Unfortunately for the Cardinals , starting quarterback Brian Brohm , who had the sixth @-@ best season ( in terms of passing yards ) in Louisville history , suffered a season @-@ ending knee injury . With West Virginia having won the Big East championship and an automatic Bowl Championship Series game bid , Big East second @-@ place Louisville was selected by the Gator Bowl even before the victory over Connecticut .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Pregame media and fan interest surrounding the game focused largely on Louisville 's top @-@ ranked offense and Virginia Tech 's first @-@ ranked scoring defense . Other major points of media coverage included the two teams ' quarterbacks : Louisville 's Hunter Cantwell , who replaced starter Brian Brohm after Brohm suffered a season @-@ ending knee injury ; and Virginia Tech 's Marcus Vick , brother of National Football League star Michael Vick . Also a concern for Louisville was the health of star running back Michael Bush , who missed two games in November due to an injury . On a wider note , there was also interest in the conference @-@ level showdown between a new Big East team ( Louisville ) and a team that left the Big East for the ACC after the 2003 season ( Virginia Tech ) . For Virginia Tech , there was also the hope of overcoming the disappointment of a season that saw the Hokies ranked third in the country and in the hunt for the national championship before failing to even win the Atlantic Coast Conference and missing a bid to a Bowl Championship Series game .
When betting on the game opened , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech by 10 points . Five days after betting opened , the point spread narrowed to 7 @.@ 5 , still in favor of Virginia Tech . Two weeks later , the point spread remained at 7 @.@ 5 in favor of Virginia Tech .
= = = Offensive matchup = = =
= = = = Louisville offense = = = =
Heading into the Gator Bowl , Louisville 's scoring offense was ranked third in the country — averaging 45 @.@ 2 points per game — and was held under 30 points just once in their preceding 21 games . The high @-@ powered Cardinals ' offense was predicted to pose a challenge for the Virginia Tech defense .
With star quarterback Brian Brohm having undergone surgery to repair a torn anterior cruciate ligament , there were some questions as to how backup Hunter Cantwell would perform under pressure . Cantwell played well in the Cardinals ' season @-@ ending contest against Connecticut , but some commentators predicted that Virginia Tech 's quicker defense would pose problems for him . In that contest , Cantwell completed 16 of 25 passes for 271 yards and a touchdown . In high school , Cantwell passed for 7 @,@ 272 yards and 70 touchdowns . His .606 career completion percentage ranked 11th in Kentucky state history .
Running back Michael Bush was predicted to return to form after suffering a foot injury that kept him out of two games in November . Bush ran for 121 yards and three touchdowns against Connecticut , his first game back from the injury . Heading into the Gator Bowl , Bush earned a school @-@ record 24 touchdowns and led the country in scoring . He ran for 1 @,@ 049 yards in nine games . He was also a capable receiver , catching 20 passes for 245 yards and a touchdown . But with Brohm on the sidelines , it was expected the Cardinals would rely on Bush 's legs more than usual , in an effort to minimize the need for the inexperienced Cantwell to pass the ball .
Louisville wide receiver Mario Urrutia , who caught 31 passes for 702 yards and six touchdowns during the regular season , stirred a bit of controversy in the final days leading up to the Gator Bowl after he declared that Virginia Tech 's first @-@ ranked defense was " mostly hype " .
= = = = Virginia Tech offense = = = =
Virginia Tech quarterback Marcus Vick was considered the key player for the Virginia Tech offense heading into the Gator Bowl . The younger brother of first @-@ overall NFL Draft pick Michael Vick — who also played for Tech — Marcus led the league in passing efficiency ( 141 @.@ 6 rating ) , completed 166 of 268 passes ( 60 @.@ 3 percent ) for 2 @,@ 190 yards and 15 touchdowns , with ten interceptions . On the ground , he ran for 370 yards and six touchdowns . Prior to the Gator Bowl , he pledged that he would return for another season at Virginia Tech before entering the NFL draft . " The NFL is tough . It 's the real deal . You 've got to be ready for it . You just don 't want to rush into just throwing yourself out there because of the money or anything like that . You 've got to really be prepared for it " , he said .
On the ground , two different Tech players were predicted to share time running the ball . Senior running back Cedric Humes was predicted to get the bulk of the carries in the game , but redshirt freshman Branden Ore was also predicted to see some plays at times . Humes rushed the ball 140 times for 639 yards and ten touchdowns during the regular season . Ore , meanwhile , ran the ball for 591 yards and six touchdowns .
Wide receiver Josh Morgan was also considered a key component of the Hokie offense . Morgan finished the season with 28 receptions for 471 yards and four touchdowns . Prior to the game , Morgan predicted that if the Hokies executed their plays well , they would emerge the victors .
Backup guard Brandon Gore broke his ankle during the Hokies ' loss to Florida State and would not be able to participate . Senior Tech running back Mike Imoh , who shared time running the ball during the regular season with Ore and Humes , was also out after undergoing surgery to repair an injured ankle . Adding to the injury situation for Virginia Tech was offensive tackle Jimmy Martin , who suffered a sprained knee ligament in practice leading up to the game . Martin started 45 consecutive games prior to the Gator Bowl , a streak that was broken when he was replaced by Brandon Frye on the day of the game .
= = = Defensive matchup = = =
= = = = Louisville defense = = = =
Shortly after Louisville was selected to the 2006 Gator Bowl , Cardinals defensive end Elvis Dumervil was awarded the Bronko Nagurski Trophy , given annually to the top defensive college football player in the United States . Dumervil also earned several other honors in the weeks leading up to the game , including being named Big East Defensive Player of the Year , an Associated Press All @-@ American and earning the Ted Hendricks Award , given annually to the best defensive end in the country . Dumervil led the nation in sacks ( 20 ) and forced fumbles ( 10 ) during the regular season . Prior to the game , he announced that he was looking forward to the contest , saying , " To me , I wanted to play the best possible team in the Gator Bowl , and I think that 's what we 've got " .
A week and a half after Dumervil won the Nagurski Trophy , senior defensive tackle Montavious Stanley , who was a leader on defense for Louisville , underwent surgery to repair a torn pectoral muscle . Stanley was the Cardinals ' best run @-@ stopper on defense , amassing 48 tackles and 5 @.@ 5 sacks during the season .
= = = = Virginia Tech defense = = = =
Coming into the Gator Bowl , the Virginia Tech defense was ranked first in total defense , second in pass defense , fourth in rushing defense , and third in scoring defense , allowing an average of just over 12 points per game . The Virginia Tech defense was led by defensive end Darryl Tapp , a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC pick , an American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) All @-@ American , a finalist for the Lott Trophy , and a finalist for the Ted Hendricks Award . Tapp was considered a natural leader both on and off the field and led the Hokies ' defensive workouts during practice . Tapp finished the regular season with 45 tackles ( including 12 @.@ 5 for a loss ) and ten sacks . He was also named a second @-@ team Associated Press All @-@ American , and he won the Dudley Award , given annually to the best college football player in the state of Virginia .
Tech cornerback Jimmy F. Williams , considered a cornerstone of the Hokie defense , was a finalist for the Nagurski Trophy that season , but lost to Louisville 's Elvis Dumervil . Williams was Tech 's sole first @-@ team Associated Press All @-@ American and also was named to the American Football Coaches Association , Football Writers Association of American and Walter Camp All @-@ America teams . He recorded 44 tackles and an interception for the Hokies in the regular season . Williams had foregone entering the NFL draft after the 2004 college football season in order to return to Virginia Tech for his senior season , and he was expected to be a high draft pick upon graduation .
= = Game summary = =
The 2006 Gator Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on January 2 , 2006 in Jacksonville , Florida . Official attendance for the game was listed as 63 @,@ 780 , placing it at 34th ( out of 62 ) on the list of Gator Bowls in terms of attendance . At kickoff , the weather was mostly cloudy with
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1860s , a sulphur spring was discovered at the forks of the Thames River while industrialists were drilling for oil . The springs became a popular destination for wealthy Ontarians , until the turn of the 20th century when a textile factory was built at the site , replacing the spa .
Long before the Royal Military College of Canada was established in 1876 , there were proposals for military colleges in Canada . Staffed by British Regulars , adult male students underwent a 3 month long military courses from 1865 at the School of Military Instruction in London . Established by Militia General Order in 1865 , the school enabled Officers of Militia or Candidates for Commission or promotion in the Militia to learn Military duties , drill and discipline , to command a Company at Battalion Drill , to Drill a Company at Company Drill , the internal economy of a Company and the duties of a Company 's Officer . The school was not retained at Confederation , in 1867 .
= = = Development = = =
Sir John Carling , Tory MP for London , gave three events to explain the development of London in a 1901 speech . They were : the location of the court and administration in London in 1826 ; the arrival of the military garrison in 1838 ; and the arrival of the railway in 1853 .
In 1875 , London 's first iron bridge , the Blackfriars Street Bridge , was constructed . It replaced a succession of flood @-@ failed wooden structures that had provided the city 's only northern road crossing of the river . A rare example of a bowstring truss bridge , the Blackfriars remains open to pedestrian and bicycle traffic , though it is currently closed indefinitely to vehicular traffic due to various structural problems . The Blackfriars , amidst the river @-@ distance between the Carling Brewery and the historic Tecumseh Park ( including a major mill ) , linked London with its western suburb of Petersville , named for Squire Peters of Grosvenor Lodge . That community joined with the southern subdivision of Kensington in 1874 , formally incorporating as the municipality of Petersville . Although it changed its name in 1880 to the more inclusive " London West " , it remained a separate municipality until ratepayers voted for amalgamation with London in 1897 , largely due to repeated flooding . The most serious flood was that of July 1883 , which resulted in serious loss of life and property devaluation . This area retains much original and attractively maintained 19th @-@ century tradespeople 's and workers ' housing , including Georgian cottages as well as larger houses , and a distinct sense of place .
London 's eastern suburb , London East , was ( and remains ) an industrial centre , which also incorporated in 1874 . Attaining the status of town in 1881 , it continued as a separate municipality until concerns over expensive waterworks and other fiscal problems led to amalgamation in 1885 . The southern suburb of London , including Wortley Village , was collectively known as " London South " . Never incorporated , the South was annexed to the city in 1890 , although Wortley Village still retains a distinct sense of place . By contrast , the settlement at Broughdale on the city 's north end had a clear identity , adjoined the university , and was not annexed until 1961 .
On 24 May 1881 , the ferry SS Victoria capsized in the Thames River , drowning approximately 200 passengers , the worst disaster in London 's history . Two years later , on 12 July 1883 , the first of the two most devastating floods in London 's history killed 17 people . The second major flood , on 26 April 1937 , destroyed more than a thousand houses and caused over $ 50 million in damages , particularly in West London . After repeated floods the Upper Thames River Conservation Authority in 1953 built Fanshawe Dam on the North Thames to control the downstream rivers . Financing for this project came from the federal , provincial , and municipal governments . Other natural disasters include a 1984 tornado that led to damage on several streets in the White Oaks area of South London .
London 's role as a military centre continued into the 20th century during the two World Wars , serving as the administrative centre for the Western Ontario district . In 1905 , the London Armoury was built and housed the First Hussars until 1975 . A private investor purchased the historic site and built a new hotel ( Delta London Armouries , 1996 ) in its place preserving the shell of the historic building . In the 1950s , two reserve battalions amalgamated and became London and Oxford Rifles ( 3rd Battalion ) , The Royal Canadian Regiment . This unit continues to serve today as 4th Battalion , The Royal Canadian Regiment . The Regimental Headquarters of The Royal Canadian Regiment remains in London at Wolseley Barracks on Oxford Street . The barracks are home to the First Hussars militia regiment as well .
= = = Annexation to present = = =
London annexed many of the surrounding communities in 1961 , including Byron and Masonville , adding 60 @,@ 000 people and more than doubling its area . After this amalgamation , suburban growth accelerated as London grew outward in all directions , creating expansive new subdivisions such as Westmount , Oakridge , Whitehills , Pond Mills , White Oaks and Stoneybrook .
In 1992 , London annexed nearly the entire township of Westminster , a large , primarily rural municipality directly south of the city , including the police village of Lambeth . With this massive annexation , London almost doubled in area again , adding several thousand more residents . London now stretches south to the boundary with Elgin County .
The 1993 annexation made London one of the largest urban municipalities in Ontario . Intense commercial and residential development is presently occurring in the southwest and northwest areas of the city . Opponents of this development cite urban sprawl , destruction of rare Carolinian zone forest and farm lands , replacement of distinctive regions by generic malls , and standard transportation and pollution concerns as major issues facing London . The City of London is currently the eleventh @-@ largest urban area in Canada , eleventh @-@ largest census metropolitan area in Canada , and the sixth @-@ largest city in Ontario .
= = Geography = =
The area was formed during the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age , which produced areas of marshland , notably the Sifton Bog ( which is actually a fen ) , as well as some of the most agriculturally productive areas of farmland in Ontario . The Thames River dominates London 's geography . The North and South branches of the Thames River meet at the centre of the city , a location known as " The Forks " or " The Fork of the Thames . " The North Thames runs through the man @-@ made Fanshawe Lake , located in northeast London . Fanshawe Lake was created by Fanshawe Dam , constructed to protect the downriver areas from the catastrophic flooding which affected the city in 1883 and 1937 .
= = = Climate = = =
London has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , though due to its downwind location relative to Lake Huron and elevation changes across the city , it is virtually on the Dfa / Dfb ( hot summer ) boundary favouring the former climate zone to the southwest of the confluence of the South and North Thames Rivers , and the latter zone to the northeast ( including the airport ) . Because of its location in the continent , London experiences large seasonal contrast , tempered to a point by the surrounding Great Lakes . The summers are usually warm to hot and humid , with a July average of 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( 69 @.@ 4 ° F ) , and temperatures above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) occur on average 10 days per year . In 2012 , however , temperatures at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) occurred a total of 27 times . The city is affected by frequent thunderstorms due to hot , humid summer weather , as well as the convergence of breezes originating from Lake Huron and Lake Erie . The same convergence zone is responsible for spawning funnel clouds and the occasional tornado . London is located in Canada 's Tornado Alley . Spring and autumn in between are not long , and winters are cold but witness frequent thaws . Annual precipitation averages 1 @,@ 011 @.@ 5 mm ( 39 @.@ 82 in ) . Its winter snowfall totals are heavy , averaging about 194 cm ( 76 in ) per year . The majority of it comes from lake effect snow and snow squalls originating from Lake Huron , some 60 km ( 37 mi ) to the northwest , which occurs when strong , cold winds blow from that direction . From 5 December 2010 , to 9 December 2010 , London experienced record snowfall when up to 2 m ( 79 in ) of snow fell in parts of the city . Schools and businesses were closed for three days and bus service was cancelled after the second day of snow .
The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 41 @.@ 1 ° C ( 106 ° F ) on 6 August 1918 . The lowest temperature ever recorded was − 32 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 26 ° F ) on 20 January 1892 .
= = = Parks = = =
London has a number of parks . Victoria Park in downtown London is a major centre of community events , attracting an estimated 1 million visitors per year . Other major parks include Harris Park , Gibbons Park , Fanshawe Conservation Area ( Fanshawe Pioneer Village ) , Springbank Park , and Westminster Ponds . The city also maintains a number of gardens and conservatories .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the city of London had a population of 366 @,@ 151 people , a 3 @.@ 9 % increase from the 2006 population . Children under five accounted for approximately 5 @.@ 2 percent of the resident population of London . The percentage of the resident population in London of retirement age ( 65 and over ) is 13 @.@ 7 , also the percentage for Canada as a whole . The average age is 38 @.@ 2 years of age , compared to 39 @.@ 9 years of age for all of Canada .
Between 2006 and 2011 , the population of metropolitan London grew by 3 @.@ 7 percent , compared with an increase of 5 @.@ 7 percent for Ontario as a whole .
According to the 2011 census , the majority of Londoners profess a Christian faith , which accounts for 62 @.@ 8 percent of the population ( Roman Catholic : 27 @.@ 0 % , Protestant : 25 @.@ 0 % , other Christian : 9 @.@ 0 % ) . Other religions include Islam ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , and Judaism ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) , with 29 @.@ 9 percent of the population reporting no religious affiliation .
According to the 2011 census , 82 @.@ 0 percent of the population of London are European , 2 @.@ 7 percent are Latin American , 2 @.@ 6 percent are Arab , 2 @.@ 4 percent are Black , 2 @.@ 2 percent are South Asian , 2 @.@ 0 percent are Chinese Canadian , 1 @.@ 9 percent are Aboriginal , 1 @.@ 0 percent are Southeast Asian , 0 @.@ 8 percent are West Asian , 0 @.@ 8 percent are Korean Canadian , 0 @.@ 6 percent are Filipino , and 0 @.@ 7 percent belong to other groups . In the 2011 census , the predominant ethnic origins of Londoners were English ( 30 @.@ 5 % ) , Canadian ( 26 @.@ 0 % ) , Scottish ( 20 @.@ 8 % ) , Irish ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) , German ( 11 @.@ 5 % ) , French ( 10 @.@ 1 % ) , Dutch ( 6 @.@ 2 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 7 % ) , Polish ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Portuguese ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) , and Ukrainian ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) .
In February 2015 , Statistics Canada published a population estimate of the London CMA of 502 @,@ 360 , as of July 1 , 2014 .
= = Economy = =
London 's economy is dominated by medical research , insurance , manufacturing , and information technology . Much of the life sciences and biotechnology @-@ related research is conducted or supported by the University of Western Ontario , which adds about C $ 1 @.@ 5 billion to the London economy annually .
The headquarters of the Canadian division of 3M are located in London . The London Life Insurance Company was founded there , as was Imperial Oil ( in 1880 ) and both the Labatt and Carling breweries . The Libro Financial Group was founded in London 1951 and is the second largest credit union in Ontario and employs over 550 people.Canada Trust was also founded in London in 1864 . The TD @-@ Canada Trust tower is still one of the tallest buildings in London , and has been home to two nesting peregrine falcons for more than a decade .
General Dynamics Land Systems builds armoured personnel carriers in the city . GDLS has a 14 @-@ year $ 15 @-@ billion deal to supply light armoured vehicles to Saudi Arabia . There are 2 @,@ 000 workers at GDLS Canada . A $ 223 million expansion project in 1984 temporarily made Kellogg 's Canada 's 106 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 sq ft ) London plant one of the most technologically advanced manufacturing facilities in the Kellogg Company . In late 2013 , Kellogg 's announced the closure of this plant by end of 2014 , resulting in 500 jobs lost ( production to move to Belleville and Michigan plants ) .
A portion of the city 's population work in factories outside of the city limits , including the General Motors automotive plant CAMI , and a Toyota plant in Woodstock . A Ford plant in Talbotville became one of the casualties of the economic crisis in 2011 .
In 1999 , the Western Fair Association introduced slot machines . Currently , 750 slot machines operate at the fair grounds year @-@ round . McCormick Canada , formerly Club House Foods , was founded in 1883 and currently employs more than 500 Londoners .
London 's city centre mall , Galleria , renamed Citi Plaza in 2009 , has suffered since the 2000 collapse of Eaton 's and the loss of its Hudson 's Bay Company store . The large space left empty by the departure of the Bay has since been filled by London 's central library . Other sections of Galleria / Citi Plaza have also lost businesses , which have been replaced by campuses for London 's major post @-@ secondary education schools , Fanshawe College and the University of Western Ontario . London Mews , another downtown mall , was demolished in 2001 and replaced by parking lots .
11 December 2009 , Minister of State Gary Goodyear announced a new $ 11 @-@ million cargo terminal at the London International Airport .
= = Culture = =
The city is home to many festivals , funded by the London Arts Council , including Sunfest , the Home County Folk Festival , the London Fringe Theatre Festival , the Expressions in Chalk Street Painting Festival , Rock the Park , Western Fair , the London Ontario Live Arts Festival ( LOLA ) and The International Food Festival ] ] . The London Rib @-@ Fest , where barbecue ribs are cooked and served , is the second largest barbecue rib festival in North America . Pride London Festival is the 11th largest Pride festival in Ontario . Sunfest , a World music festival , is the second biggest in Canada after Caribana in Toronto , and is among the top 100 summer destinations in North America .
Musically , London is home to Orchestra London , the London Youth Symphony , noise music pioneers the Nihilist Spasm Band , and the Amabile Choirs of London , Canada . London is home to several museums , including Museum London , which is located at the Forks of the Thames . Museum London exhibits art by a wide variety of local , regional and national artists . London is also home to the Museum of Ontario Archaeology , owned by the University of Western Ontario ( UWO ) . Its main feature is Canada 's only on @-@ going excavation and partial reconstruction of a prehistoric village of the Neutral Nation ( Lawson Site ) . Other museums include the London Regional Children ’ s Museum , the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum , and the Secrets of Radar Museum . The Guy Lombardo museum closed to the public in 2007 but its collection remains in London .
London is also home to the McIntosh Gallery , an art gallery on the UWO campus , and the Grand Theatre , a professional theatre . The Open House Arts Collective is involved in promoting cultural activities in London . The London Public Library also hosts art exhibitions and author readings . The Writers Resource Center is the home of the Canadian Poetry Association London Chapter . The Forest City Gallery is one of Canada 's first artist run centres .
Eldon House is the former residence of the prominent Harris Family and oldest surviving such building in London . The entire property was donated to the city of London in 1959 and is now a heritage site . An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected by the province to commemorate The Eldon House 's role in Ontario 's heritage . The Banting House National Historic Site of Canada is the house where Sir Frederick Banting thought of the idea that led to the discovery of insulin . Banting lived and practiced in London for ten months , from July 1920 to May 1921 . London is also the site of the Flame of Hope , which is intended to burn until a cure for diabetes is discovered .
For famous people born in London , Ontario see List of people from London , Ontario .
= = Sports = =
London is currently the home of the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League , who play at the Budweiser Gardens ( previously known as the John Labatt Centre ) . The Knights were both 2004 @-@ 2005 OHL and Memorial Cup Champions . During the summer months , the London Majors of the Intercounty Baseball League play at Labatt Park . London City of the Canadian Soccer League , is the highest level of soccer in London . The club was founded in 1973 ; it is the oldest active professional soccer franchise in North America . The squad plays at Cove Road Stadium at the German Canadian Club . Other sports teams include the London Silver Dolphins Swim Team , the Forest City Volleyball Club , London Cricket Club , the London St. George 's Rugby Club , the London Aquatics Club , the London Rhythmic Gymnastics Club , London City Soccer Club and Forest City London .
Football teams include the London Beefeaters ( Ontario Football Conference ) .
London 's basketball team , the London Lightning plays at Budweiser Gardens as members of the National Basketball League of Canada . Finishing their inaugural regular season at 28 @-@ 8 , the Lightning would go on to win the 2011 @-@ 12 NBL Canada championship , defeating the Halifax Rainmen in the finals three games to two .
There are also a number of former sports teams that have now either moved or folded . London 's four former baseball teams are the London Monarchs ( Canadian Baseball League ) , the London Werewolves ( Frontier League ) , the London Tecumsehs ( International Association ) and the London Tigers ( AA Eastern League ) . Other former sports teams include the London Lasers ( Canadian Soccer League ) and the London Nationals ( Western Ontario Hockey League ) .
In March 2013 , London hosted the 2013 World Figure Skating Championships .
The University of Western Ontario teams play under the name Mustangs . The university 's football team plays at TD Waterhouse Stadium . Western 's Rowing Team rows out of one of two National Training Centres at Fanshawe Lake . Fanshawe College teams play under the name Falcons . The Women 's Cross Country team has won 3 consecutive Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association ( CCAA ) National Championships . In 2010 , the program cemented itself as the first CCAA program to win both Men 's and Women 's National team titles , as well as CCAA Coach of the Year .
The Western Fair Raceway , about 85 acres harness racing track and simulcast centre , operates year @-@ round . The grounds include a coin slot casino , a former IMAX theatre , and Sports and Agri @-@ complex . Labatt Memorial Park the world 's oldest continuously used baseball grounds was established as Tecumseh Park in 1877 ; it was renamed in 1937 , because the London field has been flooded and rebuilt twice ( 1883 and 1937 ) , including a re @-@ orientation of the bases ( after the 1883 flood ) . The Forest City Velodrome , located at the former London Ice House , is the only indoor cycling track in Ontario and the third to be built in North America , opened in 2005 .
= = = Current franchises = = =
= = Law and government = =
London 's municipal government is divided among fourteen councillors ( one representing each of London 's fourteen wards ) and the mayor . Matt Brown was elected mayor in the 2014 municipal election , officially taking office on 1 December 2014 . Prior to Brown 's election , London 's most recent elected mayor was Joe Fontana ; following Fontana 's resignation on 19 June 2014 , city councillor Joe Swan served as acting mayor until councillor Joni Baechler was selected as interim mayor 24 June . Until the elections in 2010 , there was a Board of Control , consisting of four controllers and the mayor , all elected city @-@ wide .
The composition of London City Council was challenged by two ballot questions during the civic election of 2003 . A proposal to restructure the municipal government would have seen the council reduced to ten wards and the Board of Control eliminated . The council could not come to a determination and as a result decided to put two questions on the ballot for the fall 2003 election : whether city council should be reduced in size and whether the Board of Control should be eliminated . While the " yes " votes prevailed in both instances , the voter turnout failed to exceed 50 per cent and was therefore insufficient to make the decisions binding under the Municipal Act . When the council voted to retain the status quo , Imagine London , a citizens group , petitioned the Ontario Municipal Board ( OMB ) to change the ward composition of the city from seven wards in a roughly radial pattern from the downtown core , to 14 wards defined by communities of interest .
The OMB ruled for the petitioners in December 2005 and , while the city sought leave to appeal the OMB decision via the courts , leave was denied on 28 February 2006 , in a decision of Superior Court 's Justice McDermid . In response , the city conceded change , but asked for special legislation from the province to ensure that there will only be one councillor in each of the 14 new wards , not two . 1 June 2006 , the Ontario bill received royal assent , which guarantees that London will have one councillor per ward .
Although London has many ties to Middlesex County , it is now " separated " and the two have no jurisdictional overlap . The exception is the Middlesex County courthouse and former jail , as the judiciary is administered directly by the province .
In the provincial government , London is represented by Liberal Deb Matthews ( London North Centre ) ; Progressive Conservative Jeff Yurek ( Elgin — Middlesex — London ) , and NDPs : Teresa Armstrong ( London — Fanshawe ) and Peggy Sattler ( London West ) . In the federal government , London is represented by Conservative Karen Vecchio ( Elgin — Middlesex — London ) , Liberals Peter Fragiskatos ( London North Centre ) and Kate Young ( London West ) , and NDP Irene Mathyssen ( London — Fanshawe ) .
= = = Serial killing = = =
Between 1959 and 1984 , London contained the largest concentration of serial killers in the world , as the city was startled by 29 murders . During that time period , up to six serial killers may have been operating in London , though three were convicted for 13 of the killings : Gerald Thomas Archer ( the " London Chamber Maid Slayer " ) , Christian Magee ( the " Mad Slasher " ) and Russell Johnson ( the " Balcony Killer " ) , with the other 16 murders still unsolved as of August 2015 .
= = = Civic initiatives = = =
The City of London initiatives in Old East London are helping to create a renewed sense of vigour in the East London Business District . Specific initiatives include the creation of the Old East Heritage Conservation District under Part V of the Ontario Heritage Act , special Building Code policies and Facade Restoration Programs .
London is home to heritage properties representing a variety of architectural styles , including Queen Anne , Art Deco , Modern , and Brutalist
Londoners have become protective of the trees in the city , protesting " unnecessary " removal of trees . The City Council and tourist industry have created projects to replant trees throughout the city . As well , they have begun to erect metal trees of various colours in the downtown area , causing some controversy .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Road transportation = = =
London is at the junction of Highway 401 that connects the city to Toronto and Detroit , and Highway 402 to Sarnia . Also , Highway 403 , which diverges from the 401 at nearby Woodstock , Ontario , provides ready access to Brantford , Hamilton , the Golden Horseshoe area , and the Niagara Peninsula . Many smaller two @-@ lane highways also pass through or near London , including Kings Highways 2 , 3 , 4 , 7 and 22 . Many of these are " historical " names , as provincial downloading in the 1980s and 1990s put responsibility for most provincial highways on municipal governments . Nevertheless , these roads continue to provide access from London to nearby communities and locations in much of Western Ontario , including Goderich , Port Stanley and Owen Sound .
Since the 1970s , London has improved urban road alignments that eliminated " jogs " in established traffic patterns over 19th @-@ century street mis @-@ alignments . The lack of a municipal freeway ( either through or around the city ) as well as the presence of two significant railways ( each with attendant switching yards and few over / under @-@ passes ) are the primary causes of rush hour congestion , along with construction and heavy snow . Thus , traffic times can be significantly variable , although major traffic jams are rare . Wellington Road between Commissioners Road E and Southdale Road E is London 's busiest section of roadway , with more than 46 @,@ 000 vehicles using the span on an average day City council rejected early plans for the construction of a freeway , and instead accepted the Veterans Memorial Parkway to serve the east end . Some Londoners have expressed concern that the absence of a local freeway may hinder London 's economic and population growth , while others have voiced concern that such a freeway would destroy environmentally sensitive areas and further contribute to London 's already uncontrolled suburban sprawl . Road capacity improvements have been made to Veterans Memorial Parkway ( formerly named Airport Road and Highway 100 ) in the industrialized east end . However , the Parkway has received criticism for not being built as a proper highway ; a recent city @-@ run study suggested upgrading it by replacing the intersections with interchanges .
London 's public transit system is run by the London Transit Commission , which has 38 bus routes throughout the city . The Transit Commission has been improving bus service over the years , but not enough to cope with the city 's growing number of riders during peak periods . Bus service is currently the only mode of public transit available to the public in London , with no ground light rail or rapid transit networks like those used in other Canadian cities . London does have several taxi and for @-@ hire limousine services . Recently , London has constructed cycleways along some of its major arteries in order to encourage a reduction in automobile use .
= = = Intercity transport = = =
London is on the Canadian National Railway main line between Toronto and Chicago ( with a secondary main line to Windsor ) and the Canadian Pacific Railway main line between Toronto and Detroit . Via Rail operates regional passenger service through London station as part of the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , with connections to the United States . Via Rail 's London terminal is the fourth @-@ busiest passenger terminal in Canada .
London is also a destination for inter @-@ city bus travellers . London is the seventh @-@ busiest Greyhound Canada terminal in terms of passengers , and connecting services radiate from London throughout Southwestern Ontario and through to the American cities of Detroit , Michigan and Chicago , Illinois .
Aboutown Transportation is a diversified transportation company based in the city that operates the North Link , intercity bus service from Owen Sound , and six transit bus routes between Kings and Brescia Colleges , and the main campus at the University of Western Ontario .
London International Airport ( YXU ) is the 12th busiest passenger airport in Canada and the 11th busiest airport in Canada by take @-@ offs and landings . It is served by airlines including Air Canada Jazz , United Airlines and WestJet , and provides direct flights to both domestic and international destinations , including Toronto , Chicago , Las Vegas , Orlando , Ottawa , Winnipeg , Calgary and Cancún .
= = = Plans = = =
The city of London is considering light rail ( LRT ) , bus rapid transit ( BRT ) and / or high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) to help it achieve its long @-@ term transportation plan . Additional cycleways are planned for integration in road @-@ widening projects , where there is need and sufficient space along routes . An expressway / freeway network is possible along the eastern and western ends of the city , from Highway 401 ( and Highway 402 for the western route ) past Oxford Street , potentially with another highway , joining the two in the city 's north end .
A parclo interchange between Highway 401 and Wonderland Road has been planned to move traffic more efficiently through the city 's southwest end . It will probably be built when the Ontario Ministry of Transportation widens Highway 401 from four to six lanes between Highway 4 and Highway 402 and reconstructs the outdated cloverleaf interchange with nearby Colonel Talbot Road . Construction will begin in 2013 .
The City of London has assessed the entire length of the Veterans Memorial Parkway , identifying areas where interchanges can be constructed , grade separations can occur , and where cul @-@ de @-@ sacs can be placed . Upon completion , the Veterans Memorial Parkway would no longer be an expressway , but a freeway , for the majority of its length .
A high @-@ speed rail station has been proposed for London , connecting it to a future high @-@ speed rail line along the Quebec City @-@ Windsor corridor . It would run along the Canadian National rail right of way through the city .
= = Education = =
London public elementary and secondary schools are governed by four school boards – the Thames Valley District School Board , the London District Catholic School Board and the French first language school boards ( the Conseil scolaire Viamonde and the Conseil scolaire catholique Providence or CSC ) . The CSC has a satellite office in London .
There are also more than twenty private schools in the city .
London is home to London Central Secondary School , the highest ranking academic school in Ontario .
The city is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions : the University of Western Ontario ( UWO ) and Fanshawe College , a college of applied arts and technology . UWO , founded in 1878 , has about 3500 full @-@ time faculty and staff members and almost 30 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate students . It placed tenth in the 2008 Maclean 's magazine rankings of Canadian universities . The Richard Ivey School of Business , part of UWO , was formed in 1922 and ranked among the best business schools in the country by the Financial Times in 2009 . UWO has three affiliated colleges : Brescia University College , founded in 1919 ( Canada 's only university @-@ level women 's college ) ; Huron University College , founded in 1863 ( also the founding college of UWO ) and King 's University College , founded in 1954 . All three are liberal arts colleges with religious affiliations : Huron with the Anglican Church of Canada , King 's and Brescia with the Roman Catholic Church . London is also home to Lester B. Pearson School for the Arts one of few of its kind .
Fanshawe College has an enrollment of approximately 15 @,@ 000 students , including 3 @,@ 500 apprentices and over 500 international students from over 30 countries . It also has almost 40 @,@ 000 students in part @-@ time continuing education courses . Fanshawe 's Key Performance Indicators ( KPI ) have been over the provincial average for many years now , with increasing percentages year by year .
The Ontario Institute of Audio Recording Technology ( OIART ) is also in London . Founded in 1983 , it offers recording studio experience for audio engineering students .
Westervelt College is also located in London . This private career college was founded in 1885 and offers several diploma programs .
= = Sister cities = =
London currently has one sister city :
Nanjing , China
= Ventus ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Ventus ( Japanese : ヴェントゥス , Hepburn : Ventusu ) , commonly referred to as Ven ( ヴェン ) , is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . Having first made cameos in Kingdom Hearts II and other related titles , Ventus was introduced in the 2010 prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as one of the three protagonists . In its story , Ventus is introduced as the youngest apprentice of Master Eraqus who trains him alongside his best friends , Terra and Aqua , to become experienced warriors with the Keyblade . When Terra goes on a mission to find Master Xehanort , Ventus follows him , having also become concerned about his fate . As Ventus journeys through various worlds , he learns about his origins as well as his relation with Xehanort and his apprentice Vanitas .
Ventus was designed by director Tetsuya Nomura who wanted to create a character with an important connection with the series ' main character Sora . Ventus bears a strong resemblance to the character of Roxas , both of whom are voiced by Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and Jesse McCartney in English . After Ventus ' first cameo , Nomura had to state that both of them are different characters , and the reason for such connection would be revealed in Birth by Sleep . Video game websites also commented on Ventus ' first appearance , initially confusing him for Roxas during the development of Birth by Sleep , but has since been well received .
= = Appearances = =
Before being introduced in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Ventus first made cameos in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and its re @-@ release , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , which depicted him and his friends Terra and Aqua battling Master Xehanort and Vanitas . Ventus is also shown in a cameo in Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days when Xion , a replica of Roxas , appears as Ventus while fighting Xigbar from Organization XIII . Ventus is also constantly referenced by Xigbar in Kingdom Hearts II and 358 / 2 Days while Xemnas , the Nobody of Xehanort , is in search of him in Castle Oblivion .
Prior to the start of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Ventus was the apprentice of Master Xehanort , who trained him to complete the legendary χ @-@ blade ( pronounced as " key blade " ) . However , due to Ventus ' reluctance to use darkness , Xehanort extracted it from his heart , resulting in the creation of Vanitas , but also leaving his heart incomplete and on the verge of collapse . He is brought by Xehanort to Destiny Islands , where his heart merges with that of the newborn Sora to keep it safe . Having lost his memories , Ventus is placed in the care of Master Eraqus as his youngest Keyblade apprentice alongside Terra and Aqua . At the games beginning , Vanitas taunts Ventus into following Terra who is on a quest to find Xehanort . Ventus travels through various worlds , fighting mysterious creatures called the Unversed and meeting various people . Vanitas attacks Ventus during his journey to test his strength , but he is defeated when Ventus is aided by the Keyblade apprentice Mickey . Upon meeting Xehanort , Ventus is forced to remember his purpose as being used to create the χ @-@ blade . Ventus refuses to battle Vanitas to avoid creating the χ @-@ blade , but is forced to after Vanitas threatens to kill Terra and Aqua if he does refuse . They battle within the Keyblade Graveyard , where Vanitas merges with Ventus and obtains the χ @-@ blade . However , this fusion is incomplete , which allows Ventus to destroy Vanitas within his heart and Aqua to destroy the χ @-@ blade . As a result , Ventus loses his heart and his body is placed within Castle Oblivion by Aqua until he awakens . Ventus ' wandering heart is able to find its way back to the young Sora , who accepts Ventus ' heart into his body . In the game 's secret ending , he is seen in the Land of Departure with Terra , and the two utter Sora 's name with newfound hope .
Ventus is mentioned in the secret ending of Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , when Mickey reveals he has learned where Ventus ' heart is , having searched for his whereabouts for the past ten years . In Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , Sora briefly takes the form of Ventus during a dream , and when his heart is wounded , Ventus ' armor appears to protect his body . In the ending of the game , Ventus is shown in Castle Oblivion , still in his catatonic state , his face drawn into a smile .
= = Creation and development = =
When first designing Ventus , Tetsuya Nomura already decided the character should look like Sora or Roxas , and decided to choose the latter when thinking that Vanitas being revealed to have Sora 's appearance would give a big impact to the gamers . Nomura wanted Ventus ' personality to more closely resemble Sora 's , which led to his outgoing personality , yet at the same time he wanted him to become more serious as the game progressed to make them distinct . Ventus was first shown in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and its rerelease Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix . Ventus ' name first appeared as a code in a 2006 Tokyo Game Show promotional video of the games . While making Final Mixs ending , Nomura had only developed the backstory for Terra , Aqua and Ventus and not their appearances , but had to finish their design for the end of game cameo . Nomura did not reveal their identities , and only stated that the three character were from the chronological past of the Kingdom Hearts series . Following their release , Nomura stated that his nickname was Ven . Ventus was first mentioned by the character Lingering Sentiment in Final Mix as Ven , while his full name was still unrevealed . He also mentioned a connection between him and Xemnas but wanted to leave it up to people 's imaginations as he still could not reveal his identity .
Nomura commented that , despite how similar they are , Roxas and Ventus are not the same character . Additionally , he stated that by playing Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , players will be able to distinguish Roxas from Ventus and that the game explores his true personality . In another interview , Nomura implied both characters are related , specifically to Sora , but he wanted fans to imagine reasons for such connection . The guidebook Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Ultimania clarified the connection , stating that Roxas and Ventus look alike because Ventus ' heart entered Sora 's body and Roxas ' birth allowed Ventus ' heart to reside in Roxas . In early versions of development , Nomura planned to have Ventus ' broken heart be healed by the heart of Sora before he was born , but after negative feedback from overseas coworkers it was abandoned . Like Roxas , Ventus has been voiced Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and Jesse McCartney in English .
Ventus ' name means " wind " in Latin ; both it and his Keyblade are called Wayward Wind , known in Japan as Fresh Breeze ( フレッシュブリーズ , Furesshu Burīzu ) , and have a " sky " theme similar to that of Sora 's . During development of Birth by Sleep , the Osaka team in charge of developing the game suggested that Ventus should be related with Vanitas , something which Nomura liked as he wanted to add more connections within the story , so Vanitas ' name was made to sound similar to Ventus ' name . Nomura had trouble designing the armor for Ventus , Terra and Aqua since the gameplay mechanism for activating their armor had not been fleshed out . Therefore , an " X " was added to their clothes as a way to activate the armors as well as due to the fact it was one of the game 's keywords . Ever since development of Birth by Sleep started , the staff already decided that Ventus ' , Aqua 's and Terra 's stories would be told in separate scenarios , with Ventus ' story being the second one written . They also wanted emphasize the lack of coincidences in the series , leading to the interaction between the three scenarios . In gameplay perspective , Ventus was designed to be the easiest character to play with in Birth by Sleep , although Nomura recommended to players that Ventus should be the second character to play with in order to understand the story better . Additionally , the way Ventus handles his Keyblade backwards is meant to show the gameplay differences between his and Terra 's and Aqua 's scenarios . Nomura also remarked Ventus ' encounter with the characters Lea and Isa as an important event from the game , hoping both newcomers and older gamers will also find it important from Ventus ' perspective .
= = Reception = =
Due to his resemblance with Roxas , video game publications initially thought that Roxas would be one of the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep when seeing one of Ventus ' images . However , when it was revealed that the two were different , publications continued to discuss how similar they were and if there was a connection between them . GamesRadar particularly thought that there would be an eventual connection between the two of them and Sora . Amanda L. Kondolojy from Cheat Code Central also commented on speculations regarding the similarities between both of them , but mentioned that due to the existence of Nobodies in series , it is hard to find them as coincidences . When Jesse McCartney confirmed he was working on the English localization of Birth by Sleep , sites thought that he would voice Ventus , as he also voiced Roxas in previous titles . The character 's story and actions shown in the demonstrations were praised for being the " most original take on Kingdom Hearts " and yet " frustratingly traditional " . Upon Ventus ' introduction in Birth by Sleep , X @-@ Play found the character to be very similar to Sora 's due to his friendly attitude . Kevin VanOrd from the same site gave praise to Ventus ' character for his " well @-@ meaning " and yet not " annoying " personality . The site also said that the time players spend playing with Ventus would be " rewarding " and commented on the English voice acting . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Thomas Williams found the trio of Ventus , Terra and Aqua as welcome additions to the franchise , finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds . On the other hand , PALGN found the three characters unappealing , labelling Ventus as " just a Roxas clone , but without his personality . " In contrast to 1UP 's comments towards Ventus ' actions in Cinderella 's world , VanOrd commented that such interactions to be " more bothersome than boisterous . " Writing for GamesRadar , Chris Antistaer called Ventus a " Roxas @-@ clone " , and did not understand why he was briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II .
= ( You Drive Me ) Crazy =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . Written and produced by Max Martin , Per Magnusson and David Kreuger , with additional writing by Jörgen Elofsson and remix by Martin and Rami Yacoub , it was released as the album 's third single on August 23 , 1999 , by JIVE Records . It was remixed for the soundtrack of Drive Me Crazy . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a pop song . The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , some of whom praised its simple formula and noted similarities to Spears ' debut single , " ... Baby One More Time " .
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was a commercial success , and peaked inside the top ten on the singles charts of seventeen countries . In the United Kingdom , it became Spears ' third consecutive single to peak inside the top five , while it reached number 10 in the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 , and peaked at number one in Belgium ( Wallonia ) . An accompanying music video , directed by Nigel Dick , and portrayed Spears as a waitress of a dance club , and performed a highly choreographed dance routine with the other waitresses . The video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video special , and featured cameo appearances of actors Melissa Joan Hart and Adrian Grenier . As part of promotion for the song , Spears performed the song at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and 1999 Billboard Music Awards . It has also been included on five of her concert tours .
= = Background = =
Before recording her debut album , Spears had originally envisioned it in style of " Sheryl Crow music , but younger [ and ] more adult contemporary " . However , the singer agreed with her label 's appointment of producers , who had the objective to target a teenage audience at the time . She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was written by Jörgen Elofsson , while song production and additional songwriting was done by Martin , Per Magnusson and David Kreuger . Spears recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998 , at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Martin . Esbjörn Öhrwall and Johan Carlberg played the guitar , while bass guitar was done by Thomas Lindberg . Keyboards and programming was done by Kreuger , and additional keyboards by Magnusson . Background vocals were provided by Jeanette Söderholm , Martin , Yacoub and THE FANCHOIR , formed by Chatrin Nyström , Jeanette Stenhammar , Johanna Stenhammar , Charlotte Björkman and Therese Ancker . In May 1999 , Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City , New York , to re @-@ record the vocals of the track , due to the fact that a remixed version called " The Stop ! Remix " was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack of the film Drive Me Crazy ( 1999 ) . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was released as a remix package as the third single from ... Baby One More Time on August 23 , 1999 .
= = Composition = =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a pop song . The song 's composition follows a simple formula and infuses edgy synthesized instruments , including a recurring cowbell , and having a roughly similar sound to Spears ' debut single " ... Baby One More Time " ( 1999 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is composed in the key of C minor and runs through a moderately slow dance beat infused metronome of 92 beats per minute . Spears ' vocals were deemed as heavily processed when compared to the ones of her previous single , " Sometimes " . Her vocal range spans over an octave , from the low @-@ key of G3 to the high @-@ note of D ♭ 5 . The song 's primary chord progression is Cm – A ♭ -G ( vi @-@ IV @-@ III ) , with a few deviations .
= = Critical reception = =
The song garnered positive reviews from music critics . Kyle Anderson for MTV considered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " as " a similar @-@ sounding anthem [ to ' ... Baby One More Time ' ] with some streamlined rock guitar taking center stage ( there 's even a solo ) . It 's catchy enough . " Spence D. of IGN considered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " a " [ Max ] Martin 's glossy grown @-@ up pop " song , while Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone called " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " a " further hit " from ... Baby One More Time , along with " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " and " Sometimes " . Music critic Walt Mueller wrote " When Spears starts to sing on this one , she sounds a lot like Janet Jackson . " Christy Lemire of the Associated Press noted that the song and " Stronger " are " so lamely feel @-@ good " tracks that they " could have been the theme song to a ' Karate Kid ' sequel . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called it a " lightly dorky " song , and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic deemed it as a " fluffy dance @-@ pop at its best . " In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was ranked ninth in a list of Spears ' best songs . During the 2001 BMI Pop Awards , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was honored with the award of Most Performed BMI Song .
= = Chart performance = =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was a commercial success . The song peaked at number two on the European Hot 100 Singles , being held off the top spot by R. Kelly 's " If I Could Turn Back the Hands of Time " . In the United Kingdom , it was Spears ' third consecutive single to reach a top five position . The track debuted and peaked at number five on the chart issue dated October 2 , 1999 , and stayed on the chart for a total of eleven weeks . It was eventually certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipments over 200 @,@ 000 units . According to The Official Charts Company , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is Spears ' seventh best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom , with sales over 275 @,@ 000 physical units . The song peaked at number two in France and number four in Germany , being certified Gold in both countries for shipping over 250 @,@ 000 units . It also peaked at number one in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , finishing the year of 1999 as the 17th best @-@ selling single . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was also able to peak inside the top five in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and Switzerland , while reaching top ten positions in Denmark and Italy . Later in 2012 , the song managed to peak at number 65 in Czech Republic due to high airplay .
In the United States , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " peaked at number ten on Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated November 13 , 1999 , and became Spears ' second single to peak inside the top ten in the country . On the same week , it peaked at number four on the Pop Songs component chart . On the chart compiled by RPM magazine , the song peaked at number three in Canada . However , on the Canadian Hot 100 compiled by Nielsen Soundscan , it peaked at number 13 . The latter revealed that " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was the 44th best @-@ selling single of 1999 in the country . The track peaked at number five in New Zealand , but failed to reach the top ten in Australia , where it peaked at number 12 on the chart issue dated November 12 , 1999 . However , the single was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and was one of the best @-@ selling singles of 2000 in the country . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " performed poorly in Japan , where it peaked at number 80 , and stayed on the chart for two weeks only . Despite the low sales , it is Spears ' 12th best @-@ selling CD release in the country .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Nigel Dick . Spears conceptualized the video 's treatment , and explained during an interview with MTV in 1999 that " it would be cool to be in a club , and we 're dorky waitresses , and we break out and start dancing . " At the time , Spears expected that the video would take her " to the next level " . To promote the film Drive Me Crazy , actors Adrian Grenier and Melissa Joan Hart were invited to make cameo appearances in the video , since the song had been included on the film 's soundtrack , however , Grenier did not want to participate . Dick commented on the issue , saying , " I was given instructions to ring him up and make sure he appeared in the video . I said , ' You know what , Adrian , I just think it would be great for your career , and Britney 's a great girl and she 's fun to work with . ' Eventually he came around . " Dick also revealed that he was impressed by the singer 's work ethic , adding that she " came to the set completely rehearsed . " The music video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video special that aired on July 18 , 1999 .
The video opens with Spears as a waitress of a dance club . She then goes with other waitresses to their dressing room , where they finish their make @-@ up and change costumes . Spears , now wearing a green sparkly outfit , goes through the corridor to the dance floor with her friends , and starts to perform a high profile choreography , including a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson 's " Miss You Much " video , which Spears also referenced in live performances of the song on the " Crazy 2K Tour " . Scenes of Spears singing in front of a shining orange sign with the word " CRAZY " are also seen throughout the video . On August 24 , 1999 , the music video debuted at number four on Total Request Live . It is the longest running by a female artist on TRL , staying on the top ten for seventy @-@ three days . The video was nominated on the category of Best Dance Video on the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards ; it lost , however , to Jennifer Lopez 's " Waiting for Tonight " ( 1999 ) . An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV commented , " the alternate audio gives the feel of Spears singing the song as a round , where the beat is in sync but one layer of her vocals is just slightly ahead of the other . "
= = Live performances and covers = =
As part of promotion for " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " ' s release as a single , Spears performed it at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and at the 1999 Billboard Music Awards . It was also performed on five concert tours , the first being the ... Baby One More Time Tour ( 1999 ) . The show began with a dance introduction by Spears ' dancers among smoke effects . She appeared shortly after at the top of the staircase wearing a hot pink vinyl tube top and white vinyl pants with pink knee patches . During the 2000 leg of the tour , entitled Crazy 2k Tour , Spears changed the opening sequence of the show ; the show started with a skit in which the dancers came out of lockers and stayed in the stage until a bell rang . They all sat until a female teacher voice started calling their names . After the teacher called Spears , she emerged at the top of the staircase in a cloud of smoke , wearing a top and white stretch pants , to perform a short dance mix of " ... Baby One More Time " . She then entered one of the lockers and appeared in another one on the opposite side of the stage to perform " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , which included a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson 's " Miss You Much " music video that ended with Spears saying " Is that the end ? " , quoting Jackson 's phrase from the video . The song was once again performed in a dance @-@ oriented form on the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 ) , while in 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour , the performance featured Spears being captured by her dancers . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) . For the tour , the song was remixed with elements of latin percussion . " Crazy " would not be performed by Spears for another nine years until it was included on the setlist of her Las Vegas residency show Britney : Piece of Me .
In 2003 , American musician Richard Cheese covered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " and included it on his album Tuxicity . American pop band Selena Gomez & the Scene performed a homage to Spears during their 2011 We Own the Night Tour . They performed " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " along with a medley of hits that included " ... Baby One More Time " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " Toxic " and " Hold It Against Me " , mixed similar to the Chris Cox Megamix included in Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . In the 2012 Glee episode " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " , the characters of Marley Rose and Jake Puckerman performed a medley of the track with Aerosmith 's " Crazy " ( 1993 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " are taken from the single 's liner notes .
Technical
Recorded and mixed at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden .
Additional recording at Battery Studios in New York City , New York .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= M @-@ 331 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 331 is an unsigned state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan located within the city of Kalamazoo . It runs from the southern city limits north into downtown Kalamazoo . This was one of many highways to be established or realigned as a result of a rationalization process initiated in 1998 during the tenure of Governor John Engler . M @-@ 331 uses streets in Kalamazoo that were once part of US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) before a freeway was built that bypassed the downtown area .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 331 runs along Westnedge Avenue from the intersection of Kilgore Road on the Kalamazoo – Portage city limit near an exit with Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . It runs north from this endpoint , which is unconnected to the rest of the trunkline system , to the vicinity of Crane Park in Kalamazoo along Westnedge Avenue . M @-@ 331 runs west of Blanche Hull Park and east of the Kalamazoo Country Club . It also passes immediately next to the Mt . Ever @-@ Rest Cemetery . From Crane Park northward , Park Street carries the northbound traffic while Westnedge Avenue is restricted to the southbound traffic . Along this pairing of one @-@ way streets , M @-@ 331 passes South Westnedge Park and meets Bronson Park at the intersection of Michigan Avenue ( eastbound Business Loop Interstate 94 / M @-@ 43 and northbound Business US Highway 131 ) downtown . The M @-@ 331 designation ends at Michigan Avenue , and Westnedge Avenue and Park Street continue north as Bus . US 131 .
= = History = =
The current alignment of M @-@ 331 was part of the long @-@ time alignment of US 131 before that highway was relocated onto a freeway west of Kalamazoo in the 1960s . The trunkline was designated on October 1 , 1998 as part of a rationalization process started by Governor John Engler designed to transfer control of roads and streets in Michigan of economic importance to the state . The highway is not shown on the official state map published by the Michigan Department of Transportation , but it is labeled on the truck operator 's map as an " unsigned state highway " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Kalamazoo , Kalamazoo County .
= Lee 's Ferry =
Lees Ferry ( also known as Lee 's Ferry , Lee Ferry , Little Colorado Station and Saints Ferry ) is a site on the Colorado River in Coconino County , Arizona in the United States , about 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) southwest of Page and 9 miles ( 14 km ) south of the Utah – Arizona border .
Due to its unique geography – the only place in hundreds of miles from which one can easily access the Colorado River from both sides – it historically served as an important river crossing and starting in the mid @-@ 19th century was the site of a ferry operated by John Doyle Lee , for whom it is named . Boat service at Lees Ferry continued for over 60 years before being superseded by a bridge in the early 20th century , which allowed for much more efficient automobile travel .
Lees Ferry served as a military outpost for 19th @-@ century settlements in Utah , a center of limited gold seeking and since the 1920s the principal point at which river flow is measured to determine water allocations in the 246 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 640 @,@ 000 km2 ) Colorado River basin . Lees Ferry demarcates the boundary between the Upper and Lower Basins of the Colorado River ; the states which make up each basin are legally allocated one @-@ half of the river 's natural flow . Glen Canyon Dam impounds the Colorado a short distance upstream and completely regulates the river flow past Lees Ferry . Lees Ferry has long been a focal point of American Southwest water disputes , and has been called " both the physical and spiritual heart of water history in the arid West " . Today Lees Ferry is a well @-@ known fishing and boat launching point , including for whitewater rafting trips through the Grand Canyon .
= = Geography and geology = =
Lees Ferry is located in northern Arizona , at the point where the Paria River joins the Colorado from the north . Lying in an open valley directly downstream from Glen Canyon and shortly above Marble Canyon ( the uppermost section of the Grand Canyon ) , it is the only place in more than 260 miles ( 420 km ) where the Colorado is not hemmed in by sheer canyon walls . This made it an important crossing point before the construction of Navajo and Glen Canyon Bridges in the 20th century . Here , the Colorado River is also much smoother and calmer than the stretches that lie above and below . In the past , another crossing was the former Glen Canyon reach , but it is now flooded under Lake Powell , formed by Glen Canyon Dam 16 miles ( 26 km ) upstream . Lees Ferry is designated within the southwesternmost extreme of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and is considered the northernmost end of Grand Canyon National Park . It lies 689 miles ( 1 @,@ 109 km ) upstream of the Colorado 's mouth at the Gulf of California , at the approximate halfway mark of the river 's length .
The surrounding valley formed because of a swell in the underlying rock of the Colorado Plateau that caused the regional elevation to intersect the Chinle and Moenkopi Formations , deposited in the Triassic about 208 – 245 million years ago . This area contains sandstone , siltstone , shale and limestone formed by the sediments on ancient seabeds and later alluvial deposits made by the Colorado and Paria Rivers . Because these are more easily eroded than the rock layers that lie above and below them , the Colorado Plateau gradually slopes down to river level at Lees Ferry through a series of flat benchlands .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants and explorers = = =
In pre @-@ Columbian times , the Lees Ferry area was inhabited first by Paleo @-@ Indians , who populated the region beginning about 11 @,@ 500 years ago , followed by the Archaic culture , which appeared on the Colorado Plateau about 8 @,@ 000 years ago . The Anasazi , Paiute and Navajo peoples , who left more evidence of habitation in the valley , arrived only in the last 1 @,@ 000 years or so . Evidence , including the discovery of two ruins nearby on the Paria River , suggests that the Anasazi utilized the area sometime in the 12th century A.D. Nonetheless , indigenous peoples generally did not make extensive use of the Lees Ferry area and other canyon stretches of the Colorado River , preferring the open plains above for hunting . However , Lees Ferry did later become a disputed territory between the Navajos and Paiutes , who recognized it as a valuable livestock watering point .
The first Europeans who happened upon Lees Ferry were members of the 18th @-@ century Dominguez @-@ Escalante Expedition , an attempt to find an overland route through the Southwest between Spanish settlements in present @-@ day New Mexico and California , and in the process , to convert as many Southwestern Native Americans as possible to Christianity . In late 1776 , the party ran out of supplies in what is now southern Utah and having decided to turn back towards Santa Fe , had to find a way to cross the Colorado River . Their Native American guides told them of two regional fords of the river , one at the site of Lees Ferry and the other at Glen Canyon . When the explorers arrived at Lees Ferry in October , they found the river too wide and deep and had no choice but to head for the second ford more than 40 miles ( 64 km ) upstream . Almost two weeks later they successfully crossed the river , and made it back to Santa Fe on January 2 , 1777 . This point , now submerged under Lake Powell , is named Crossing of the Fathers after Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , the two Franciscan priests who headed the expedition .
During the 19th century , Lees Ferry served as a gateway for the expansion of white settlement from Utah south into Arizona . Most of the settlers were Mormons , who had been long established in the Utah Valley near present @-@ day Salt Lake City , and were looking for additional land . Although the river at Lee 's Ferry is too deep to ford for most of the year , its relatively calm current presented an attractive site for crossing by boat . Jacob Hamblin successfully crossed the river here in 1864 , and during the next few years the Mormon presence swelled to the scale of a small military outpost ( Fort Meeks ) in order to defend against Navajo raids . However , these works eventually fell into disrepair as a result of not being able to sustain themselves in the valley .
= = = John D. Lee and the ferry ( 1870 – 1876 ) = = =
John D. Lee , for whom Lees Ferry is now named , came to the crossing in 1870 with the goal of setting up a permanent ferry service for Mormon settlers heading south to Arizona . In 1857 , Lee had taken part in the Mountain
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college recruiter , a poet @-@ in @-@ the @-@ schools , and an arts administrator , and has maintained a strong commitment to community and literary causes . In 1998 she established the Macondo Writers Workshop , which provides socially conscious workshops for writers , and in 2000 she founded the Alfredo Cisneros Del Moral Foundation , which awards talented writers connected to Texas . Cisneros currently resides in San Antonio , Texas .
= = Early life = =
Cisneros was born in Chicago , Illinois on December 20 , 1954 , the third of seven children . The only surviving daughter , she considered herself the " odd number in a set of men " . Cisneros 's great @-@ grandfather had played the piano for the Mexican president and was from a wealthy background , but he gambled away his family 's fortune . Her paternal grandfather was a veteran of the Mexican Revolution , and he used what money he had saved to give her father , Alfredo Cisneros de Moral , the opportunity to go to college . However , after failing classes due to what Cisneros called his " lack of interest " in studying , Alfredo ran away to the United States to escape his father 's anger . While roaming the southern United States with his brother , Alfredo visited Chicago where he met Elvira Cordero Anguiano . After getting married , the pair settled in one of Chicago 's poorest neighborhoods . Cisneros 's biographer Robin Ganz writes that she acknowledges her mother 's family name came from a very humble background , tracing its roots back to Guanajuato , Mexico , while her father 's was much more " admirable " .
Taking work as an upholsterer to support his family , Cisneros 's father began " a compulsive circular migration between Chicago and Mexico City that became the dominating pattern of Cisneros 's childhood . " Their family was constantly moving between the two countries , which necessitated their finding new places to live as well as schools for the children . Eventually the instability caused Cisneros 's six brothers to pair off in twos , leaving her to define herself as the isolated one . Her feelings of exclusion from the family were exacerbated by her father , who referred to his " seis hijos y una hija " ( " six sons and one daughter " ) rather than his " siete hijos " ( " seven children " ) . Ganz notes that Cisneros 's childhood loneliness was instrumental in shaping her later passion for writing . Cisneros ’ s one strong female influence was her mother , Elvira , who was a voracious reader and more enlightened and socially conscious than her father . According to Ganz , although Elvira was too dependent on her husband and too restricted in her opportunities to fulfill her own potential , she ensured her daughter would not suffer from the same disadvantages as she did .
Her family made a down @-@ payment on their own home in Humboldt Park , a predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood on Chicago 's West Side when she was eleven years old . This neighborhood and its characters would later become the inspiration for Cisneros 's novel The House on Mango Street . For high school , Cisneros attended Josephinum Academy , a small Catholic all @-@ girls school . Here she found an ally in a high @-@ school teacher who helped her to write poems about the Vietnam War . Although , Cisneros had written her first poem around the age of ten , with her teacher 's encouragement she became known for her writing throughout her high @-@ school years . In high school she wrote poetry and was the literary magazine editor , but , according to herself , she did not really start writing until her first creative writing class in college in 1974 . After that it took a while to find her own voice . She explains , " I rejected what was at hand and emulated the voices of the poets I admired in books : big male voices like James Wright and Richard Hugo and Theodore Roethke , all wrong for me . "
Cisneros was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree from Loyola University Chicago in 1976 , and received a Master of Fine Arts degree from the Iowa Writers ' Workshop at the University of Iowa in 1978 . It was while attending the Workshop that Cisneros discovered how the particular social position she occupied gave her writing a unique potential . She recalls being suddenly struck by the differences between her and her classmates : " It wasn 't as if I didn 't know who I was . I knew I was a Mexican woman . But , I didn 't think it had anything to do with why I felt so much imbalance in my life , whereas it had everything to do with it ! My race , my gender , and my class ! And it didn 't make sense until that moment , sitting in that seminar . That 's when I decided I would write about something my classmates couldn 't write about . " She cast aside her attempt to conform to American literary canons and adopted a writing style that was purposely opposite that of her classmates , realizing that instead of being something to be ashamed of , her own cultural environment was a source of inspiration . From then on , she would write of her " neighbors , the people [ she ] saw , the poverty that the women had gone through . "
Cisneros says of this moment :
So to me it began there , and that 's when I intentionally started writing about all the things in my culture that were different from them — the poems that are these city voices — the first part of Wicked Wicked Ways — and the stories in House on Mango Street . I think it 's ironic that at the moment when I was practically leaving an institution of learning , I began realizing in which ways institutions had failed me .
Drawing on Mexican and Southwestern popular culture and conversations in the city streets , Cisneros wrote to convey the lives of people she identified with . Literary critic Jacqueline Doyle has described Cisneros 's passion for hearing the personal stories that people tell and her commitment to expressing the voices of marginalized people through her work , such as the " thousands of silent women " whose struggles are portrayed in The House on Mango Street .
Five years after receiving her MFA , she returned to Loyola University Chicago , where she had previously earned a BA in English , to work as an administrative assistant . Prior to this job , she worked in the Chicano barrio in Chicago teaching to high school dropouts at Latino Youth High School . Through these jobs , she gained more experience with the problems of young Latino Americans .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = Teaching = = =
In addition to being an author and poet , Cisneros has held various academic and teaching positions . In 1978 , after finishing her MFA degree , she taught former high @-@ school dropouts at the Latino Youth High School in Chicago . The 1984 publication of The House on Mango Street secured her a succession of Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence posts at universities in the United States , teaching creative writing at institutions such as the University of California , Berkeley and the University of Michigan . She was subsequently a Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence at Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio , Texas . Cisneros has also worked as a college recruiter and an arts administrator .
= = = Family = = =
Cisneros currently resides in San Miguel de Allende , a city in central Mexico , but for years she lived and wrote in San Antonio , Texas , in her briefly controversial " Mexican @-@ pink " home with " many creatures little and large . " In 1990 when Pilar E. Rodríguez Aranda asked Cisneros in an interview for the Americas Review why she has never married or started a family , " I 've never seen a marriage that is as happy as my living alone , " Cisneros replied . " My writing is my child and I don 't want anything to come between us . " She has elaborated elsewhere that she enjoys living alone because it gives her time to think and write . In the introduction to the third edition of Gloria E. Anzaldúa 's Borderlands / La Frontera : The New Mestiza , Cisneros wrote : " It 's why I moved from Illinois to Texas . So that the relatives and family would allow me the liberty to disappear into myself . To reinvent myself if I had to . As Latinas , we have to ... Because writing is like putting your head underwater . "
= = = Writing process = = =
Cisneros 's writing is often influenced by her personal experiences and by observations of the people in her community . She once confided to other writers at a conference in Santa Fe that she writes down " snippets of dialogue or monologue — records of conversations she hears wherever she goes . " These snippets are then mixed and matched to create her stories . Names for her characters often come from the San Antonio phone book ; " she leafs through the listings for a last name then repeats the process for a first name . " By mixing and matching she is assured that she is not appropriating anyone 's real name or real story , but at the same time her versions of characters and stories are believable .
Cisneros once found herself so immersed in the characters of her book Woman Hollering Creek that they began to infiltrate her subconscious mind . Once while she was writing the story " Eyes of Zapata , " she awoke " in the middle of the night , convinced for the moment that she was Ines , the young bride of the Mexican revolutionary . Her dream conversation with Zapata then became those characters 's dialogue in her story . "
Her biculturalism and bilingualism are also very important aspects of her writing . Cisneros was quoted by Robin Ganz as saying that she is grateful to have " twice as many words to pick from ... two ways of looking at the world , " and Ganz referred to her " wide range of experience " as a " double @-@ edged sword . " Cisneros 's ability to speak two languages and to write about her two cultures gives her a unique position from where she is able to tell not just her story , but also the stories of those around her .
= = = Community legacy = = =
Cisneros has been instrumental in building a strong community in San Antonio among other artists and writers through her work with the Macondo Foundation and the Alfredo Cisneros del Moral Foundation . The Macondo Foundation , which is named after the town in Gabriel García Márquez 's book One Hundred Years of Solitude , " works with dedicated and compassionate writers who view their work and talents as part of a larger task of community @-@ building and non @-@ violent social change . " Officially incorporated in 2006 , the foundation began in 1998 as a small workshop that took place in Cisneros 's kitchen . The Macondo Writers Workshop , which has since become an annual event , brings together writers " working on geographic , cultural , economic , social and spiritual borders " and has grown from 15 participants to over 120 participants in the first 9 years . Currently working out of Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio , the Macondo Foundation makes awards such as the Gloria E. Anzaldúa Milagro Award honoring the memory of Anzaldúa , a fellow Chicana writer who died in 2004 , by providing Chicano writers with support when they are in need of some time to heal their " body , heart or spirit " and the Elvira Cordero Cisneros Award which was created in memory of Sandra Cisneros 's mother . Macondo offers services to member writers such as health insurance and the opportunity to participate in the Casa Azul Residency Program . The Residency Program provides writers with a furnished room and office in the Casa Azul , a blue house across the street from where Cisneros lives in San Antonio , which is also the headquarters of the Macondo Foundation . In creating this program , Cisneros " imagined the Casa as a space where Macondistas could retreat from the distractions of everyday life , and have a room of his / her own for the process of emotional , intellectual and spiritual introspection . "
Cisneros founded the Alfredo Cisneros del Moral Foundation in 2000 . Named in the memory of her father , the foundation " has awarded over $ 75 @,@ 500 to writers born in Texas , writing about Texas , or living in Texas since 2007 " . Its intention is to honour Cisneros 's father 's memory by showcasing writers who are as proud of their craft as Alfredo was of his craft as an upholsterer .
= = = Chicano literary movement = = =
Literary critic Claudia Sadowski @-@ Smith has called Cisneros " perhaps the most famous Chicana writer " , and she has been acknowledged as a pioneer in her literary field as the first female Mexican @-@ American writer to have her work published by a mainstream publisher . In 1989 , The House on Mango Street , which was originally published by the small Hispanic publishing company Arte Público Press , was reissued in a second edition by Vintage Press ; and in 1991 Woman Hollering Creek was published by Random House . As Ganz observes , previously only male Chicano authors had successfully made the crossover from smaller publishers . That Cisneros had garnered enough attention to be taken on by Vintage Press said a lot about the possibility for Chicano literature to become more widely recognized . Cisneros spoke of her success and what it meant for Chicana literature in an interview on National Public Radio on 19 September 1991 :
I think I can 't be happy if I 'm the only one that 's getting published by Random House when I know there are such magnificent writers — both Latinos and Latinas , both Chicanos and Chicanas — in the U.S. whose books are not published by mainstream presses or whom the mainstream isn 't even aware of . And , you know , if my success means that other presses will take a second look at these writers ... and publish them in larger numbers then our ship will come in .
As a pioneer Chicana author , Cisneros filled a void by bringing to the fore a genre that had previously been at the margins of mainstream literature . With her first novel , The House on Mango Street , she moved away from the poetic style that was common in Chicana literature at the time and began to define a " distinctive Chicana literary space " , challenging familiar literary forms and addressing subjects such as gender inequality and the marginalization of cultural minorities . According to literary critic Alvina E Quintana , The House on Mango Street is a book that has reached beyond the Chicano and Latino literary communities , and is now read by people of all ethnicities . Quintana states that Cisneros 's writing is accessible for both Anglo- and Mexican @-@ Americans alike since it is free from anger or accusation , presenting the issues ( such as Chicana identity and gender inequalities ) in an approachable way . Cisneros ’ s writing has been influential in shaping both Chicana and feminist literature . Quintana sees her fiction as a form of social commentary , contributing to a literary tradition that resembles the work of contemporary cultural anthropologists in its attempt to authentically represent the cultural experience of a group of people , and acknowledges Cisneros 's contribution to Chicana feminist aesthetics by bringing women to the center as empowered protagonists in much of her work .
= = Writing style = =
= = = Bilingualism = = =
Cisneros often incorporates Spanish into her English writing , substituting Spanish words for English ones where she feels that Spanish better conveys the meaning or improves the rhythm of the passage . However , where possible she constructs sentences so that non @-@ Spanish speakers can infer the meaning of Spanish words from their context . In Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories Cisneros writes : " La Gritona . Such a funny name for such a lovely arroyo . But that 's what they called the creek that ran behind the house . " Even if the English @-@ speaking reader does not initially know that arroyo means creek , Cisneros soon translates it in a way that does not interrupt the flow of the text . She enjoys manipulating the two languages , creating new expressions in English by literally translating Spanish phrases . In the same book Cisneros writes : " And at the next full moon , I gave light , Tía Chucha holding up our handsome , strong @-@ lunged boy . " Previous sentences inform the reader that a baby is being born , but only a Spanish speaker will notice that " I gave light " is a literal translation of the Spanish " dí a luz " which means " I gave birth . " Cisneros joins other Hispanic @-@ American US writers such as Gloria Anzaldúa , Piri Thomas , Giannina Braschi , and Junot Díaz who create playful linguistic hybrids of Spanish and English . Cisneros noted on this process : " All of a sudden something happens to the English , something really new is happening , a new spice is added to the English language . " Spanish always has a role in Cisneros 's work , even when she writes in English . As she discovered , after writing The House on Mango Street primarily in English , " the syntax , the sensibility , the diminutives , the way of looking at inanimate objects " were all characteristic of Spanish . For Cisneros , Spanish brings to her work not only colourful expressions , but also a distinctive rhythm and attitude .
= = = Narrative modes , diction , and apparent simplicity = = =
Cisneros 's fiction comes in various forms — as novels , poems , and short stories — by which she challenges both social conventions , with her " celebratory breaking of sexual taboos and trespassing across the restrictions that limit the lives and experiences of Chicanas " , and literary ones , with her " bold experimentation with literary voice and her development of a hybrid form that weaves poetry into prose " . Published in 1991 , Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories is a collection of twenty @-@ two short stories that form a collage of narrative techniques , each serving to engage and affect the reader in a different way . Cisneros alternates between first person , third person , and stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narrative modes , and ranges from brief impressionistic vignettes to longer event @-@ driven stories , and from highly poetic language to brutally frank realist language . Some stories lack a narrator to mediate between the characters and the reader ; they are instead composed of textual fragments or conversations " overheard " by the reader . For example , " Little Miracles , Kept Promises " is composed of fictional notes asking for the blessings of patron saints , and " The Marlboro Man " transcribes a gossiping telephone conversation between two female characters .
Works by Cisneros can appear simple at first reading , but this is deceptive . She invites the reader to move beyond the text by recognizing larger social processes within the microcosm of everyday life : the phone conversation in " The Marlboro Man " is not merely idle gossip , but a text that allows the reader to dig into the characters ' psyches and analyze their cultural influences . Literary critics have noted how Cisneros tackles complex theoretical and social issues through the vehicle of apparently simple characters and situations . For example , Ramón Saldívar observes that The House on Mango Street " represents from the simplicity of childhood vision the enormously complex process of the construction of the gendered subject " . In the same vein , Felicia J. Cruz describes how each individual will interact differently with Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , thus eliciting such varied reader responses as " it is about growing up " , to " it 's about a Chicana 's growing up " , to " it is a critique of patriarchal structures and exclusionary practices " . Cisneros ’ s writing is rich not only for its symbolism and imagery , deemed by critic Deborah L Madsen to be " both technically and aesthetically accomplished " , but also for its social commentary and power to " evoke highly personal responses " . this helped her achieve the way she taught .
= = Literary themes = =
= = = Place = = =
When Cisneros describes the aspirations and struggles of Chicanas , the theme of place often emerges . Place refers not only to her novels ' geographic locations , but also to the positions her characters hold within their social context . Chicanas frequently occupy Anglo @-@ dominated and male @-@ dominated places where they are subject to a variety of oppressive and prejudicial behaviors ; one of these places that is of particular interest to Cisneros is the home . As literary critics Deborah L. Madsen and Ramón Saldívar have described , the home can be an oppressive place for Chicanas where they are subjugated to the will of male heads @-@ of @-@ household , or in the case of their own home , it can be an empowering place where they can act autonomously and express themselves creatively . In The House on Mango Street the young protagonist , Esperanza , longs to have her own house : " Not a flat . Not an apartment in back . Not a man 's house . Not a daddy 's . A house all my own . With my porch and my pillow , my pretty purple petunias . My books and my stories . My two shoes waiting beside the bed . Nobody to shake a stick at . Nobody 's garbage to pick up after . " An aspiring writer , Esperanza yearns for " a space for myself to go , clean as paper before the poem . " She feels discontented and trapped in her family home , and witnesses other women in the same position . According to Saldívar , Cisneros communicates through this character that a woman needs her own place in order to realize her full potential — a home which is not a site of patriarchal violence , but instead " a site of poetic self @-@ creation . " One source of conflict and grief for Cisneros 's Chicana characters is that the male @-@ dominated society in which they live denies them this place . Critics such as Jacqueline Doyle and Felicia J. Cruz have compared this theme in Cisneros 's work to one of the key concepts in Virginia Woolf 's famous essay " A Room of One 's Own " , that " a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction , " or put another way , " economic security " and personal liberty are necessary for " artistic production . "
Cisneros explores the issue of place in relation not only to gender but also to class . As Saldívar has noted , " Aside from the personal requirement of a gendered woman 's space , Esperanza recognizes the collective requirements of the working poor and the homeless as well . " He refers to Esperanza 's determination not to forget her working @-@ class roots once she obtains her dream house , and to open her doors to those who are less fortunate . Esperanza says " Passing bums will ask , Can I come in ? I 'll offer them the attic , ask them to stay , because I know how it is to be without a house . " According to Saldívar , this statement of Esperanza 's alludes to " the necessity for a decent living space " that is fundamental to all people , despite the different oppressions they face .
= = = Construction of femininity and female sexuality = = =
As Madsen has described , Cisneros 's " effort to negotiate a cross @-@ cultural identity is complicated by the need to challenge the deeply rooted patriarchal values of both Mexican and American cultures . " The lives of all Cisneros ’ s female characters are affected by how femininity and female sexuality are defined within this patriarchal value system and they must struggle to rework these definitions . As Cisneros has said : " There 's always this balancing act , we 've got to define what we think is fine for ourselves instead of what our culture says . "
Cisneros shows how Chicanas , like women of many other ethnicities , internalize these norms starting at a young age , through informal education by family members and popular culture . In The House on Mango Street , for example , a group of girl characters speculate about what function a woman ’ s hips have : " They ’ re good for holding a baby when you ’ re cooking , Rachel says ... You need them to dance , says Lucy ... You gotta know how to walk with hips , practice you know . " Traditional female roles , such as childrearing , cooking , and attracting male attention , are understood by Cisneros 's characters to be their biological destiny . However , when they reach adolescence and womanhood , they must reconcile their expectations about love and sex with their own experiences of disillusionment , confusion and anguish . Esperanza describes her " sexual initiation " — an assault by a group of Anglo @-@ American boys while awaiting her friend Sally at the fairground . She feels stricken and powerless after this , but above all betrayed ; not only by Sally , who was not there for her , but " by all the women who ever failed to contradict the romantic mythology of love and sex " . Cisneros illustrates how this romantic mythology , fueled by popular culture , is often at odds with reality in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , where multiple references to romantic telenovelas obsessively watched by the female characters are juxtaposed with the abuse and poverty they face in their own lives .
When Cisneros addresses the subject of female sexuality , she often portrays negative scenarios in which men exert control over women through control over their sexuality , and explores the gap she perceives between the real sexual experiences of women and their idealized representation in popular culture . However , Cisneros also describes female sexuality in extremely positive terms , especially in her poetry . This is true , for example , of her 1987 volume of poetry My Wicked , Wicked Ways . According to Madsen , Cisneros refers to herself as " wicked " for having " reappropriated , taken control of , her own sexuality and the articulation of it – a power forbidden to women under patriarchy " . Through these poems she aims to represent " the reality of female sexuality " so that women readers will recognize the " divisive effects " of the stereotypes that they are expected to conform to , and " discover the potential for joy in their bodies that is denied them " .
Cisneros breaks the boundary between what is a socially acceptable way for women to act and speak and what is not , using language and imagery that have a " boisterous humor " and " extrovert energy " and are even at times " deliberately shocking " . Not all readers appreciate this " shocking " quality of some of Cisneros ’ s work . Both female and male readers have criticized Cisneros for the ways she celebrates her sexuality , such as the suggestive photograph of herself on the My Wicked , Wicked Ways cover ( 3rd Woman Press , 1987 ) . Cisneros says of this photo : " The cover is of a woman appropriating her own sexuality . In some ways , that ’ s also why it ’ s wicked : the scene is trespassing that boundary by saying ' I defy you . I 'm going to tell my own story . ' " Some readers " failed to perceive the transgressive meaning of the gesture " , thinking that she was merely being lewd for shock value , and questioned her legitimacy as a feminist . Cisneros ’ s initial response to this was dismay , but then she reports thinking " Wait a second , where ’ s your sense of humor ? And why can ’ t a feminist be sexy ? "
= = = Construction of Chicana identity = = =
The challenges faced by Cisneros ’ s characters on account of their gender cannot be understood in isolation from their culture , for the norms that dictate how women and men ought to think and behave are culturally determined and thus distinct for different cultural groups . Through her works , Cisneros conveys the experiences of Chicanas confronting the " deeply rooted patriarchal values " of Mexican culture through interactions not only with Mexican fathers , but the broader community which exerts pressure upon them to conform to a narrow definition of womanhood and a subservient position to men .
A recurrent theme in Cisneros ’ s work is the triad of figures that writer and theorist Gloria Anzaldúa has referred to as " Our Mothers " : the Virgen de Guadalupe , La Malinche and La Llorona . These symbolic figures are of great importance to identity politics and popular culture in Mexico and the southwest United States , and have been used , argues theorist Norma Alarcón , as reference points " for controlling , interpreting , or visualizing women " in Mexican @-@ American culture .
Many theorists , including Jacqueline Doyle , Jean Wyatt , Emma Perez and Cordelia Candelaria , have argued that the gender identity of Mexican and Chicana women is complexly constructed in reference to these three figures . La Virgen de Guadalupe , a Catholic icon of the manifestation of the Virgin Mary in the Americas , is revered in Mexico as a " nurturing and inspiring mother and maiden " . La Malinche , the indigenous mistress and intermediary of conquistador Hernán Cortés , has according to Wyatt " become the representative of a female sexuality at once passive , " rapeable , " and always already guilty of betrayal " . Cisneros describes the problematic dichotomy of the virgin and the whore presented by these two figures : " We ’ re raised in a Mexican culture that has two role models : La Malinche and la Virgen de Guadalupe . And you know that ’ s a hard route to go , one or the other , there ’ s no in @-@ betweens . " Madsen has noted that these ' good ' and ' bad ' archetypes are further complicated by the perception , held by many Chicana feminists , that they would be guilty of betraying their people , like La Malinche , if they attempt to define their femininity in more " Anglo " terms . Through her work , Cisneros critiques the pressures Chicanas face to suppress their sexuality or channel it into socially acceptable forms so as to not be labeled " Malinchista [ s ] ... corrupted by gringa influences which threaten to splinter [ their ] people " .
The third figure , La Llorona , who derives from a centuries @-@ old Mexican / Southwestern folktale , is " a proud young girl [ who ] marries above her station and is so enraged when her husband takes a mistress of his own class that she drowns their children in the river " . She dies grief @-@ stricken by the edge of the river after she is unable to retrieve her children and it is claimed that she can be heard wailing for them in the sound of the wind and water . These entities , from the gentle and pure Virgen de Guadalupe , to the violated and treacherous la Malinche , to the eternally grieving la Llorona give rise to a " fragmentary subjectivity " often experienced by Chicanas , and their need to come to terms with them , renegotiate them on their own terms , or reject them altogether .
The three " Mothers " come out most clearly in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories . In the stories " Never Marry a Mexican " and " Woman Hollering Creek " , the female protagonists grapple with these " Mexican icons of sexuality and motherhood that , internalized , seem to impose on them a limited and even negative definition of their own identities as women " . The protagonist in " Never Marry a Mexican " is haunted by the myth of la Malinche , who is considered a whore and a traitor , and defies la Malinche 's passive sexuality with her own aggressive one . In " Woman Hollering Creek " the protagonist reinvents the la Llorona myth when she decides to take charge of her own future , and that of her children , and discovers that the grito of the myth , which is the Spanish word for the sound made by la Llorona , can be interpreted as a " joyous holler " rather than a grieving wail . It is the borderland , that symbolic middle ground between two cultures , which " offers a space where such a negotiation with fixed gender ideals is at least possible " .
= = = Borderland = = =
Even though that Cisneros does not explicitly locate her stories and novels on the Mexico @-@ U.S. border , Sadowski @-@ Smith identifies the concept as perhaps Cisneros 's most salient theme due to the constant border crossings , both real and metaphorical , of characters in all of her works . The House on Mango Street takes place in Chicago where the narrator lives , and in Mexico City where she visits extended family . Caramelo primarily takes place in those settings as well , but part of the book details the narrator 's experiences as a teenager in San Antonio , TX . Various characters in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories also make trips to Mexico to reunite with family members . However , to quote literary critics Jesús Benito and Ana María Manzanas , the " image of the border has become fully meaningful not only when we consider it as a physical line but when we decenter it and liberate it from the notion of space to encompass notions of sex , class , gender , ethnicity , identity , and community . " Cisneros frequently divorces the border from its strictly geographic meaning , using it metaphorically to explore how Chicana identity is an amalgamation of both Mexican and Anglo @-@ American cultures . The border represents the everyday experiences of people who are neither fully from one place nor the other ; at times the border is fluid and two cultures can coexist harmoniously within a single person , but at other times it is rigid and there is an acute tension between them . Literary critic Katherine Payant has analyzed the border metaphor in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , which manifests in references to the Chicana / o characters ' Mexican roots and the ( im ) migration between the two countries , the recurrence of overlapping pre @-@ Columbian , mestizo and Southwestern Chicano myths , and the portrayal of Chicanas / os as " straddling two or three cultures . " Payant makes use of Gloria Anzaldúa 's concept of living " on the borderlands " to describe the experience of Cisneros 's Chicana characters who , in addition to their struggle to overcome patriarchal constructs of their gender and sexual identity , must negotiate linguistic and cultural boundaries .
= = Awards = =
Sandra Cisneros received fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts in 1981 and 1988 , and in 1985 was presented with the American Book Award by the Before Columbus Foundation for The House on Mango Street . Subsequently she received a Frank Dobie Artists Fellowship , and came first and second in the Segundo Concurso Nacional del Cuento Chicano , sponsored by the University of Arizona .
She has further received the Quality Paperback Book Club New Voices Award , the Anisfield @-@ Wolf Book Award , the PEN Center West Award for best fiction , and the Lannan Foundation Literary Award for Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories . This book was selected as the noteworthy book of the year by both The New York Times and The American Library Journal , and an anthology of erotic poetry , Loose Woman , won the Mountain & Plains Booksellers ' Award .
Cisneros was recognized by the State University of New York , receiving an honorary doctorate from Purchase in 1993 and a MacArthur fellowship in 1995 . In 2003 , Caramelo was highly regarded by several journals including The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , the San Francisco Chronicle , the Chicago Tribune , and The Seattle Times , which led to her Premio Napoli Award in 2005 ; the novel also was shortlisted for the Dublin International IMPAC award , and was nominated for the Orange Prize in England . In 2003 , Cisneros became part of the second group of recipients of the newly formed Texas Cultural Trust 's Texas Medal of Arts . In 2016 , the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill awarded Cisneros an honorary Doctor of Letters .
The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College holds some of her papers .
= = = Books = = =
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1980 ) . Bad boys . San Jose : Mango . OCLC 7339707 .
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1984 ) , The House on Mango Street , Houston : Arte Público , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 934770 @-@ 20 @-@ 0 . Second edition : Cisneros , Sandra ( 1989 ) , The House on Mango Street , New York : Vintage , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 73477 @-@ 2 .
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1987 ) , My Wicked , Wicked Ways , Bloomington , IN : Third Woman Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 943219 @-@ 01 @-@ 1
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1991 ) , Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , New York : Random House , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 57654 @-@ 1
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1994 ) , Hairs = Pelitos , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 89007 @-@ 2
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1994 ) , Loose Woman : Poems , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 41644 @-@ 9
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2002 ) , Caramelo , or , Puro cuento , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 4150 @-@ 3
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2004 ) , Vintage Cisneros , New York : Vintage , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 3405 @-@ 5
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2011 ) , Bravo Bruno , Italy : La Nuova Frontiera ( Italian )
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2012 ) , Have You Seen Marie ? , New York : Vintage
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2015 ) , A House of My Own , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 35133 @-@ 1
= = = Contributions = = =
Days and Nights of Love and War ( 2000 ) . By Eduardo Galeano . Contribution by Sandra Cisneros .
Family Pictures / Cuadros de Familia ( 2005 ) . By Carmen Lomas Garza . Introduction by Sandra Cisneros
Emergency Tacos : Seven Poets Con Picante ( 2007 ) . By Carlos Cumpian , Sandra Cisneros , Carlos Cortez , Beatriz Badikian , Cynthia Gallaher , Margarita Lopez @-@ Castro , Raul Nino .
Things We Do Not Talk About : Exploring Latino / a Literature through Essays and Interviews ( 2014 ) . By Daniel Olivas . Interview of Sandra Cisneros featured in book .
= = = Essays and reporting = = =
Cisneros , Sandra ( Autumn 2009 ) . " An ofrenda for my mother " . Granta ( 108 ) : 219 – 224 .
= Glory and Gore =
" Glory and Gore " is a song by New Zealand singer Lorde from her debut studio album , Pure Heroine ( 2013 ) . The song was released on 11 March 2014 as the album 's fifth single by Lava Records and Republic Records . The track was written by Lorde and its producer , Joel Little . " Glory and Gore " is an electropop song influenced by chillwave and hip hop music . It speaks about modern society 's fascination with violence and celebrity culture . The song was met with a mixed reception from critics , and reached numbers sixty @-@ eight and nine on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Rock Songs , respectively . In 2014 , " Glory and Gore " was used in an advertisement for the second season of the History television series Vikings .
= = Composition = =
As with the rest of Pure Heroine , " Glory and Gore " was written by Lorde and Joel Little , recorded at Golden Age Studios and produced , mixed and engineered by Little . " Glory and Gore " is a chillwave and hip hop @-@ influenced electropop ballad , instrumented by pulsing synthesisers . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , it is set in a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F minor , and follows the chord progression A ♭ – Fm – Cm – B ♭ m . Lorde 's vocals range from E ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 . Throughout the song , she uses black satire to express disdain towards modern emphasis on violence , and compares celebrity culture to gladiatorial combat . This is exemplified in the lyric " Glory and gore go hand @-@ in @-@ hand / That 's why we 're making headlines . " It continues the derision of popular culture of " Team " , the preceding song on Pure Heroine . " Glory and Gore " also portrays an empowerment theme ; PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey described it as a " dark " version of Katy Perry 's " Roar " ( 2013 ) .
= = Release = =
" Glory and Gore " was sent to United States modern rock radio by Lava Records and Republic Records on 11 March 2014 as the fourth US single from Pure Heroine , following " Royals " , " Team " and " No Better " . A US adult album alternative ( AAA ) release followed on 7 April 2014 . " Glory and Gore " serves as the fifth single overall from Pure Heroine , as " Tennis Court " was released outside the US in 2013 . Originally , " Tennis Court " was going to be the third US single , but the record labels changed to " Glory and Gore " instead after it was featured in History 's promotional campaign for the second season of its historical television series , Vikings . However , the 8 April 2014 US contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) scheduled release of " Glory and Gore " was cancelled , and " Tennis Court " eventually impacted US CHR on 22 April 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a review of Pure Heroine , Larry Day from The 405 called the track " single @-@ worthy " . Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz called Lorde 's vocals during the song 's hook " contagious " . Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound wrote that " Glory and Gore " did not fit in with the minimal production found in the majority of Pure Heroine . Pitchfork Media 's Lindsay Zoladz criticised the song for having too many lyrics forced into each line . John Murphy from musicOMH was critical of the latter half of Pure Heroine , writing " by the time ' Glory and Gore ' and ' Still Sane ' roll around , the template 's starting to sound a bit tired . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the release of Pure Heroine , " Glory and Gore " appeared at number seventeen on the New Zealand Artists Singles Chart dated 7 October 2013 . Prior to its single release , the song entered the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 88 on the week of 8 March 2014 , with sales of about 32 @,@ 000 copies that week — almost double the sales of the previous week . The following week " Glory and Gore " sold 47 @,@ 000 copies ( up 46 % ) and became the Hot 100 's " Digital Gainer " as it moved up to number 68 on the chart . The song peaked at number 30 on the US Digital Songs chart , number seventeen on the US Alternative Songs , and number nine on the main Hot Rock Songs . As of April 2014 , " Glory and Gore " has sold 307 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US .
= = Live performances = =
On 24 September 2013 , Lorde performed the track , among others , at The Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles , California . On 3 October 2013 , Lorde held a concert at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn and performed the song among other tracks from the album . Lorde performed " Glory and Gore " at Silo Park , Auckland on 29 January 2014 as part of her make @-@ up show for the 2014 Laneway Festival , with The New Zealand Herald 's Chris Schulz calling the performance a " highlight " . In 2014 , Lorde opened her show at Roseland Ballroom and her Coachella Festival set with the song , and performed it at Lollapalooza in São Paulo , Brazil .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Dragon Challenge =
Dragon Challenge ( known as Dueling Dragons from 1999 to 2010 ) is a pair of intertwined inverted roller coasters in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter area of Universal Studios ' Islands of Adventure in Orlando , Florida , U.S .. The ride is themed to two chasing dragons , one side being Chinese Fireball and the other Hungarian Horntail . It features a layout in which the two trains share adjacent lift hills but then traverse two unique courses . The ride was designed by Bolliger & Mabillard of Switzerland . The Chinese Fireball dragon reaches a top speed of 60 mph , and the Hungarian Horntail dragon reaches a top speed of 55 mph . Both versions feature five inversions . The total ride time is about two minutes and 25 seconds .
When Islands of Adventure opened on May 28 , 1999 , the ride was called Dueling Dragons and was located in The Lost Continent area with the two sides named Fire and Ice . During much of the ride 's history , the trains were dispatched simultaneously , providing three near @-@ miss encounters along the courses . However , after two injuries related to loose objects hitting riders on the other coaster , the roller coasters are now dispatched separately . After a renovation period , the attraction reopened in mid @-@ March 2010 , and was officially renamed as Dragon Challenge with The Wizarding World of Harry Potter grand opening on June 18 , 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Dueling Dragons ( 1999 – 2010 ) = = =
Dueling Dragons was one of Islands of Adventure 's original attractions , opening with the theme park on May 28 , 1999 , in the park 's The Lost Continent area . At the time , it was the only fully inverted dueling roller coaster in the world . The ride was themed to two dueling dragons , with one track named Ice and the other named Fire .
During construction , Superior Rigging & Erection was responsible for erecting the supports and track of the two roller coasters .
= = = Dragon Challenge ( 2010 – present ) = = =
In May 2007 , Universal announced plans to construct The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , a new section devoted to the popular Harry Potter book and film series . Dueling Dragons , as well as the adjacent Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster , were shown to be included in the new section . Universal later announced that the attraction would be renamed Dragon Challenge upon the re @-@ opening of the attraction and that the two roller coasters would be renamed as Hungarian Horntail and Chinese Fireball .
Construction on re @-@ theming the queue began in the third quarter of 2009 . In the first quarter of 2010 , the ride closed in order to refurbish the attraction to incorporate the Harry Potter theme . In mid @-@ March 2010 , the roller coasters reopened to the public . On June 18 , 2010 , with the opening of the entire The Wizarding World of Harry Potter section , the ride officially became Dragon Challenge .
During the summer of 2011 , there were two accidents ( one serious ) caused by what is believed to be loose objects hitting riders while riding the roller coaster . The most serious accident was when a man got struck with an object and had to get his eye removed due to the amount of damage . On the same day that the man got hit , Universal Studios announced that the coasters would not duel until an investigation was completed . For two months the coasters were dispatched separately and in mid @-@ October 2011 , Universal made the decision to remove the dueling aspect of the ride permanently without any explanation to what caused the injuries . No injuries have been reported since .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
When first entering the queue , guests are taken past a number of banners for the Triwizard Tournament showing support for the four contestants . After passing the Weasleys ' crashed flying Ford Anglia , they enter the Champions ' Tent . From there guests pass a large pedestal with the Triwizard Cup glowing at the top , and several dark " tunnels " which lead to both coaster 's stations . Just before entering the station guests must choose which coaster they want to ride : Chinese Fireball to the left or Hungarian Horntail to the right . Once in the station , on the ceiling , there is a projection of the dragons .
The queue before the Harry Potter refurbishment was set as a ruined castle where the Fire and Ice dragons lived . The queue passed through dungeons and included human skeletons , torches , and cobwebs . Just like the present queue , to ride Fire , guests would go left while riders wanting to ride Ice would go right at the intersection point .
In April 2015 , metal detectors were installed as a permanent fixture to the entrance . The attraction now officially has metal detectors , security with metal detecting wands , and a zero tolerance policy for cell phones , wallets , coins , watches , cameras , anything that can be placed in one 's pockets ; all pockets must be absolutely empty prior to boarding . Persons in violation will be sent to the lockers or possibly ejected from the park without a refund .
= = = Track layout = = =
= = = = Chinese Fireball = = = =
Upon departing from the station , the train makes a slight left turn leading into the transfer track section before beginning to climb the 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) lift hill . Once at the top and after going through a pre @-@ drop , the train makes a sharp 115 @-@ foot ( 35 m ) left @-@ hand drop back to the ground . Then , the train goes back up , through an Immelmann followed by a slight downward right turn before entering an air @-@ time hill ( this was the first of three near @-@ miss points with the Hungarian Horntail train when the roller coasters duelled ) . Next , the train drops back down turning left slightly leading into a second Immelmann . After a downward right helix and a short section of straight track , the train goes through the second former near @-@ miss point with the other train , a vertical loop . After the loop and another section of straight track , the train makes a right turn leading into the third and final former near @-@ miss element which is a corkscrew . Then , the train makes a left turn followed by a small drop leading into another section of straight track before entering the final element in the coaster layout , another corkscrew . The train then make a left turn into the final brake run . Following a left turn , the train returns to the station where the riders unload and the next riders load .
= = = = Hungarian Horntail = = = =
Upon departing from the station , the train makes a slight right turn leading into the transfer track section before beginning to climb the 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) lift hill . Once at the top and after going through a pre @-@ drop , the train makes a sharp 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) right @-@ hand drop back to the ground . Then , the train goes through a 270 degree right overbanked turn before entering a Zero @-@ gravity roll which was the first of three former near @-@ miss points with the Chinese Fireball train . Then , the train makes a slight right turn heading straight into a wall before entering a Cobra roll . After a straight section of track , the train enters the second former near @-@ miss point with the other train , a vertical loop . The train then makes a right turn into the final former near @-@ miss point , a corkscrew . Next , the train makes a right turn followed by a left turn leading into the final brake run . Following a right turn , the train returns to the station where the riders unload and the next riders load .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is approximately 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 980 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 125 feet ( 38 m ) for both roller coasters . The first drop for Chinese Fireball is 115 feet ( 35 m ) while Hungarian Horntail 95 feet ( 29 m ) . Chinese Fireball 's track is red and Hungarian Horntail 's is blue . Both coaster 's supports are white .
= = = Trains = = =
Dragon Challenge operates with several steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars with four seats for a total of 32 riders per train . All the Hungarian Horntail trains resemble a blue ice dragon while all the Chinese Fireball trains resemble a red fire dragon .
When the coaster cars duelled , in order to make the trains meet at each of the three near @-@ miss points along the layout , the trains would be weighed once they were loaded at the station to adjust the dispatch times . For example , if the Chinese Fireball train weighed more than the Hungarian Horntail train , the Fireball would be dispatched after the Horntail .
= = Reception = =
Dragon Challenge has generally been well received , with most riders preferring the Chinese Fireball track .
In the annual Amusement Today Golden Ticket Awards for the Top Steel Roller Coasters , Dragon Challenge ranked in the top 50 every year between 2000 and 2012 . It peaked at position 11 in 2002 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the two tracks are ranked separately . In every year that the steel roller coaster poll has been held , Chinese Fireball has ranked higher than the Hungarian Horntail . In 1999 , Chinese Fireball and Hungarian Horntail peaked at positions 9 and 18 , respectively .
These poll results are supported by a review by Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy . Thompson ranks the Chinese Fireball a B- and the Hungarian Horntail a C + ; only The Incredible Hulk and Jurassic Park River Adventure are ranked higher . Thompson also made comparisons between the ride in its generic @-@ themed state versus the Harry Potter theme added in 2010 stating the " roller coaster has also lost a certain poetic quality that made the original so pleasurable " . The loss of the dueling function also contributed to the lower ranking .
= Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta =
Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta ( Polish : Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta na wieży katedry w roku 1521 w Krakowie , English : The Hanging of the Sigismund bell at the Cathedral Tower in 1521 in Kraków ) is a painting by Jan Matejko finished in 1874 . It depicts the installation of the Sigismund Bell in the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków in 1521 . The bell was installed in the Sigismund Tower and rung for the first time on 13 July 1521 . The bell is considered to be one of the national symbols of Poland . This painting is one of a number of historical paintings by Matejko . It shows a crowd of people , with a number of identifiable figures of historical importance . It conveys the Golden Era of the Polish Renaissance , and the power of the Kingdom of Poland .
There are several alternative names for the painting . They include The consecrating of the Sigismund bell ... ( Poświęcenie dzwonu Zygmunta ... ) , as proposed by Mieczysław Treter , The raising of the Sigismund bell ... , King Sigismund 's Bell , or just Sigismund Bell ( Dzwon Zygmunta ) .
= = History = =
The Sigismund Bell painting was created in 1874 . During his work , Matejko commissioned craftsmen to create a replica of a scaffolding that was used to move the bell , and he identified its likely original location , in order for it to be portrayed realistically .
There are numerous anecdotes associated with this painting . Matejko used his family for models , and likely the painting contains nearly all the members of his family . The painting was well received by contemporaries , and Stanisław Tarnowski published an extensive and positive review in 1875 in Przegląd Polski . The work was displayed in Paris in 1875 , and probably contributed to Matejko 's recognition by the Académie française ; three years later it was displayed there again , during the Exposition Universelle ( 1878 ) , and ( together with two other paintings – the Unia lubelska ( Union of Lublin ) and Wacław Wilczek ) yielded him an honorary golden medal .
The painting is in the collection of the National Museum , Warsaw .
= = Composition and significance = =
Matejko was deeply interested in the era of the Renaissance in Poland , and this painting is one of a number of historical paintings that he set in that period . The composition is very colorful , yet realistic . It conveys the Golden Era of Polish Renaissance , and the power of the contemporary Kingdom of Poland , both its elites and the common people . The left side of the painting is focused on the richness and glory of the era , while the right notes the hard work of ordinary people that made this greatness possible . Although the painting is usually known as the The hanging of the Sigismund bell .. , in fact it shows not the moment of hanging but the moment of the bell 's emergence from the mold in which it was cast .
The painting shows a crowd , with a number of identifiable figures of historical importance . On the left , there is the royal court , but only the king , Sigismund I , his family ( including queen Bona Sforza ) , and the court jester , Stańczyk , can be identified . Sigismund , the patron of the Sigismund Bell , and his son Sigismund August , were Polish kings that inspired other works of Matejko , including The Babin Republic ( 1881 ) and The Founding of the Lubranski Academy in Poznań ( 1886 ) . Sigismund I 's portrayal on the Hanging ... painting is the one where Matejko shows him with pride and respect . Other figures in the court include banker Jan Boner , merchant and official Seweryn Bethman , and castellan and voivode Stanisław Kmita . Bishop Jan Chojeński is also shown on the painting , consecrating the bell , with canon Grzegorz Lubrański nearby .
Outside the court , master bell @-@ founder Hans Beham is seen above the bell . Between him and the court there are two dark @-@ clad figures . These are the Wawel architect Bartolommeo Berrecci , and a musician , Valentin Bakfark , who according to a legend threw a string from his instrument into the melted bronze ( in fact , he arrived in Poland two decades after the bell was cast ) . In the background , Wawel Castle can be seen .
As he would often do , Matejko included people whom he considered significant for the era , but who could not be present in the scene , like Sigismund I 's son , Sigismund II August , who would have been only one year old . In 1885 Matejko would paint a sequel @-@ like picture , Zygmunt I słuchający Dzwonu Zygmunta ( Sigismund I listening to the Sigismund Bell ) , showing an older Sigismund and Stańczyk , contemplating the passing of their era .
= Kirtlandian =
The Kirtlandian is a North American land @-@ vertebrate faunal age of the Cretaceous period , following the Judithian and succeeded by the Edmontonian . It lasted about 2 million years , ca 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 Mya and is characterized by the ceratopsian Pentaceratops sternbergii , which lived throughout the Kirtlandian . It was first named by R.M. Sullivan and S.G. Lucas in 2003 as a faunal age for the Kirtland and Fruitland formations . Previously , only five land @-@ vertebrate ages were identified from the Late Cretaceous. as identified by Loris S. Russell in 1975 , they include the Paluxian , Aquilan , Judithian , Edmontonian , and the Lancian . Before the naming of the Kirtlandian , three gaps , between the Paluxian and Aquilan , the Aquilan and the Judithian , and the Judithian and Edmontonian , were identified but not named .
The Fruitland Formation measures 97 to 107 metres ( 318 to 351 ft ) thick , and with the 594 metres ( 1 @,@ 949 ft ) of the Kirtland Formation , the Kirtlandian consists of 701 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of sediments . The rock types within the formations are primarily coal beds , but also include sandstone , siltstone , mudstone , and shale . Within the sediments with a Kirtlandian age , two local faunas , the Hunter Wash local fauna , and the Willow Wash local fauna , have been identified . The currently accepted date of the Kirtlandian is 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Kirtlandian is an age of fauna that lasted for 2 million years . It is Campanian in age , and is placed between the Judithian age , which is characterized by older taxa , and the Edmontonian faunal age , characterized by the appearance of Edmontosaurus regalis and Pachyrhinosaurus canadensis . The geological formations found to date or persist from the Kirtlandian are the Bearpaw , the upper Kaiparowits Formation , the Kirtland , Fruitland , Williams Fork , Fort Crittenden , Ringbone , Corral de Enmedio , Packard , and El Gallo formations , and possibly the lower part of the Cerro del Pueblo Formation and upper region of the Aguja Formation . These formations are exposed in Alberta and Montana , Utah , New Mexico , New Mexico , Colorado , Arizona , New Mexico , Sonora , Baja California , Baja California , and possibly Coahuila , and Texas , respectively .
= = = Stratigraphy = = =
The stratigraphy of the Kirtlandian was studied by Robert M. Sullivan and Spencer G. Lucas in 2003 , Sullivan in 2006a , Lucas and Sullivan in 2006b , and Nicholas R. Longrich in 2010 .
= = = = Local faunas = = = =
Two local faunas are known from the Kirtlandian faunal age . They include the Hunter Wash local fauna and the Willow Wash local fauna . The Hunter Wash local fauna was defined as the vertebrates " obtained from the upper 40 feet of the Fruitland Formation and the lower 55 feet of the lower shale of the Kirtland Shale ( now a formation ) in Hunter Wash ( member ) . " The Hunter Wash fauna therefore includes all taxa from the Bisti region of the Bisti / De @-@ Na @-@ Zin Wilderness , and the animals from the Fossil Forest and Ah @-@ shi @-@ sle @-@ pah Wash . The Willow Wash fauna was named for all the fauna of the De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation . The majority of the fauna from the Willow Wash were originally thought to belong to the Alamo Wash local fauna of the Ojo Alamo Formation , until it was found that the entire fauna was in fact from the older Kirtland Formation .
= = = = Thickness = = = =
The Kirtland and Fruitland formations both consist of the major formations in the Kirtlandian age . The Fruitland Formation was measured in 2003 to be between 97 and 107 metres ( 318 and 351 ft ) thick , and the Kirtland was measured at 594 metres ( 1 @,@ 949 ft ) thick . Together they measured 691 to 701 metres ( 2 @,@ 267 to 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . Later in 2010 , a different study found more precise measurements . It found the Fruitland Formation to be 100 metres ( 330 ft ) thick , and the Kirtland Formation to be around 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) thick . These thicknesses combine to give the formation a height of 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) .
= = = = Lithology = = = =
The lithology of the Kirtlandian formations are made up of mostly a combination of coal beds . The Fruitland Formation consists entirely of them , and one fifth of all rocks of the Kirtland Formation are a coal . The other common rocks found in the Kirtland Formation are siltstone , mudstone , shale and most commonly , sandstone . The Bisti Bed of the Hunter Wash Member is made up completely of sandstone , which marks the border between the Kirtland and Fruitland formations .
= = = = Age = = = =
The Kirtland
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= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Diva Search and developmental territories ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Ouellet tried out for World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Diva Search . She made the final cut and was one of the top eight contestants , but was the second person eliminated on July 24 . Despite her elimination , she was invited to observe workouts and the training facility at WWE 's developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , along with Brooke Adams . Ouellet later said that she was " very , very excited " , as it was her " dream to become a WWE Diva " .
Ouellet was officially signed to a WWE developmental contract on August 24 , 2006 and was assigned to OVW for training . She made her in @-@ ring debut at an OVW live event in December 2006 . In March 2007 , she began wrestling in dark matches prior to the OVW television tapings . In mid @-@ 2007 , Ouellet began managing Sylvain Grenier . When Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) opened in mid @-@ 2007 , Ouellet was transferred to the new developmental facility , and on September 25 , she made her FCW debut as the valet of Ryan O 'Reilly along with Lacey Von Erich . Ouellet then started competing in singles and tag team competition , before managing Ted DiBiase , Jr. in December 2007 , and was at ringside when he captured the FCW Southern Heavyweight Championship . She continued making sporadic appearances in FCW until January 2008 .
= = = = SmackDown ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
On the September 22 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Ouellet , known as simply Maryse , was shown on the TitanTron welcoming the Montreal viewers in French to the season premiere of SmackDown ! on the CW Network . Maryse made her first official televised appearance on the May 21 , 2007 episode of Raw to present American rapper Timbaland 's new music video for the single " Throw It on Me " , in which she had appeared .
By the time she began appearing regularly on SmackDown at the beginning of 2008 , she had adopted a snobby attitude and become a villainous character . On the March 7 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , Maryse competed in a swimsuit contest against Victoria , Michelle McCool , Cherry , and Eve Torres , which ended in a brawl between Maryse and Torres . The following week , she was the first eliminated from another swimsuit competition . On March 28 , Maryse competed in a " Wet and Wild " match , teaming with Victoria against Cherry and McCool in a losing effort . On a " SmackDown after the bell " video on WWE 's website , the tag team Deuce ' n Domino dumped Cherry , who had been their manager , and replaced her with Maryse . Maryse then insulted Cherry , only for Cherry to slap her . On the May 16 episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her in @-@ ring debut in a loss to Cherry , though she defeated Cherry in a rematch the following week . On the June 6 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced the creation of the WWE Divas Championship , and that same night the Divas competed in a Golden Dreams match to qualify for the championship match at The Great American Bash , which was won by Natalya . On the July 4 , 2008 episode of SmackDown ! , she competed again in another Golden Dreams match to face Natalya for the championship , however she failed to win . For several weeks , Maryse competed in six @-@ person tag team matches with Victoria and Natalya against Cherry , Michelle McCool and Maria . She suffered a minor broken nose after receiving a bulldog from Maria in August 2008 .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Maryse began a rivalry with Michelle McCool in September 2008 , unsuccessfully challenging her for the WWE Divas Championship at Unforgiven , and in a rematch the following week on SmackDown , but failed to win on both occasions . On the September 23 episode of ECW , Maryse defeated McCool in a non @-@ title match . After a month @-@ long absence , Maryse returned at Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view event in November , participating in a five @-@ on @-@ five Divas elimination tag team match , eliminating Kelly Kelly , Mickie James and Candice Michelle ; Maryse was the sole survivor of her team , but was ultimately eliminated by Beth Phoenix . At the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 14 , Maryse teamed up with Jillian Hall , Victoria and Natalya in a losing effort to McCool , Maria , Kelly Kelly and Mickie James in an Eight @-@ Diva Santa 's Little Helper tag team match . On December 19 , Maryse pinned Maria to become the number one contender for Michelle McCool 's Divas Championship . The following week on SmackDown , Maryse defeated McCool , with Maria as the special guest referee , to win her first Divas Championship . On December 28 , at a house show in Raleigh , North Carolina , Maryse dislocated her knee in a tag team match against The Bella Twins . It was later announced that the injury was not major , and therefore only missed a few weeks action . On the January 23 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Maryse returned and sat at ringside commentating during a Divas ' tag team match . She returned to in @-@ ring action on February 20 , teaming with Michelle McCool in a win against Maria and Eve Torres , where she pinned Torres .
Maryse made her first appearance on Raw on March 2 , as a commentator for a match involving the WWE Women 's Champion Melina , with Maryse attacking her after the match . The following week , Maryse made her in @-@ ring debut on Raw in a champion vs champion lumberjill match , which she defeated Melina . The rivalry extended to a tag team match on SmackDown on March 13 , where Melina and Maria defeated McCool and Maryse . On 27 March episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her first championship defense , losing by disqualification after the returning Gail Kim attacked Maryse and McCool , and thus retained the championship . On April 5 , Maryse competed in a 25 @-@ Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , but she was eliminated by Beth Phoenix and the match was won by Santina Marella ( Santino Marella dressed in drag ) . Maryse made her last appearance on SmackDown on April 24 , retaining her championship against Gail Kim .
As part of the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13 , Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand , and in the process , the Divas Championship became exclusive to Raw . She made her debut for the brand on April 27 , teaming with Beth Phoenix , Rosa Mendes , and Jillian Hall in a loss to Santina Marella , Mickie James , Brie Bella and Kelly Kelly . Maryse then began feuding with Mickie James after she cost James a number one contender 's battle royal , which was eventually won by Kelly Kelly , by spraying hairspray in her eyes . The following week , Maryse lost a championship match against Kelly by disqualification , meaning the championship did not change hands , and won a subsequent rematch by pinfall two weeks later on June 8 . At Night of Champions on July 26 , Maryse lost the Divas Championship to James . Despite being only the second Divas champion , her reign of 216 days remained the longest in the title 's history for nearly five years , until AJ Lee surpassed her reign in January 2014 .
After losing the championship , Maryse underwent knee surgery . She returned on the November 23 episode of Raw , disguised as The Gobbledy Gooker , as the guest timekeeper for a Thanksgiving @-@ themed 6 @-@ Divas tag team match . After the match , she revealed herself by attacking the Divas Champion Melina . The following week , Maryse made her in @-@ ring return teamed with Jillian Hall in a tag team match against Melina and Gail Kim , where Maryse pinned Melina . On the December 7 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Gail Kim , and following the match , Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly but was stopped by Melina .
In early 2010 , a tournament was held for the newly vacated WWE Divas Championship due to Melina 's injury . Maryse entered the tournament , and defeated Brie Bella and Eve Torres in the first round and semi @-@ finals , respectively , to advance to the finals . At Royal Rumble , on January 31 , Maryse teamed up with Katie Lea Burchill , Jillian Hall , Alicia Fox , and Natalya in a untelevised match in a losing effort to Gail Kim , Kelly Kelly , Eve Torres , and The Bella Twins ( Nikki and Brie ) . The tournament 's finals were originally scheduled for Elimination Chamber on February 21 ; instead , the match was changed by the SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero to a interbrand tag team match , where Maryse teamed with her scheduled opponent Gail Kim against LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) , which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match . The following night on Raw , Maryse defeated Kim in the finals to win the championship , becoming the first Diva to have held it twice .
At WrestleMania XXVI , on March 28 , she was part of the winning team of a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match with LayCool , Alicia Fox and Vickie Guerrero against Beth Phoenix , Mickie James , Gail Kim , Eve Torres and Kelly Kelly , but the following night on Raw , she was pinned by Torres in a rematch . Maryse lost the Divas Championship two weeks later to Eve Torres on the April 12 episode of Raw , and was unsuccessful to regain it at Over the Limit pay @-@ per @-@ view in May . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way on June 20 , Maryse failed to regain the title in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match that also involved then @-@ champion Eve , Gail Kim , and Alicia Fox , which Fox would win pinning her to become the champion .
= = = = Managing Ted DiBiase and NXT ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the June 21 episode of Raw , after Ted DiBiase fired Virgil , Maryse became DiBiase 's new personal assistant . At Money in the Bank , on 18 July , Maryse accompanied DiBiase in his Money in the Bank ladder match for the WWE Championship contract , which she tried to pick the briefcase , but was stopped by John Morrison . Along with DiBiase , Maryse was announced as a mentor for Brodus Clay for the fourth season of NXT on November 30 . On Raw , on December 13 , Maryse was involved in a battle royal to determine the winner of the Diva of the Year Slammy Award , but was eliminated by Natalya . Clay traded his mentors , Maryse and DiBiase , for Alberto Del Rio on the January 25 , 2011 episode of NXT . In late September 2010 , Maryse was involved in an storyline with Goldust , in which he stole the Million Dollar Championship from DiBiase , and lost a subsequent mixed tag team match against Goldust and Aksana on October 26 .
On March 8 , Maryse became the co @-@ host of NXT , alongside Matt Striker . As part of NXT Redemption , Maryse was involved in several romantic storylines , most notably with Yoshi Tatsu , Lucky Cannon , and Hornswoggle . In April , DiBiase made an ultimatum to Maryse for her to choose to continue on the NXT or continue with him . The following week , Maryse chose to continue appearing on NXT , disbanding their alliance in the process . In August , Maryse underwent surgery for an abdominal hernia and took time off WWE programming . After two months of inactivity , Maryse was released from her WWE contract on October 28 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2012 ) = = =
On October 5 , 2012 , Maryse appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) event Back 2 Brooklyn , performing live commentary . She began appearing regularly for FWE , where she commentated during women 's matches .
= = = Return to WWE ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On the April 4 , 2016 episode of Raw , Maryse returned during a WWE Intercontinental Championship match between the champion Zack Ryder and her husband , The Miz . During the match , Maryse slapped Ryder 's father , who was in the front row , in order to distract Ryder and allowed Miz to capture the championship for the fifth time , thus becoming his manager in the process . She formally re @-@ introduced herself three days later on the April 7 episode of SmackDown before she once again helped Miz to retain his championship over Ryder . She then began to cut various promos with Miz as his host during the " Miz TV " segments , while calling themselves the " It " Couple .
After a hiatus due to the shoot of a WWE film , Maryse returned to WWE television on the June 27 episode of Raw , where she helped Miz to retain his title from Kane after she faked an ankle injury . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Maryse and Miz were drafted to SmackDown .
= = Other media = =
In April 2007 , she appeared alongside fellow WWE Divas Ashley , Torrie Wilson , Brooke Adams , Layla , and Kelly Kelly in Timbaland 's music video " Throw It On Me " featuring The Hives .
Ouellet also appeared in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness , along with Eve Torres and Michelle McCool . She and John Morrison were interviewed on Eurosport in the same year . She also made a special appearance on Redemption Song , which was hosted by WWE wrestler Chris Jericho , along with Candice Michelle , Mickie James , and Eve Torres . She has also appeared in several newspaper interviews , including Tokyo Headline , and was on the cover of Sessions Magazine in October 2010 .
In 2012 , Maryse was featured on the cover of Le Journal de Montréal , and on MDA Show of Strength with The Miz and other celebrities . In 2015 , Ouellet had roles in Sharknado 3 : Oh Hell No ! and in Santa 's Little Helper , the latter starring Ouellet 's husband , The Miz . In the same year , she appeared on the E ! reality television series WAGS . In 2016 , it was announced that Maryse would appear as a main cast member on the upcoming sixth season of Total Divas , which prompted her return to WWE .
Maryse has appeared in three WWE video games . She made her in @-@ game debut at WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2010 and appears in WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2011 and WWE ' 12 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Web = = =
= = Other endeavors = =
Following her release from WWE in 2011 , Ouellet announced her plans for a clothing and jewelry line named House of Maryse .
Beginning in late 2013 , Ouellet began working as a realtor in Los Angeles after spending a year earning her real estate license .
= = Personal life = =
Ouellet is trilingual ; she is a native speaker of French , fluent in English , and she is able to read Spanish , although she cannot speak it . Ouellet has a tattoo of her late father 's name , Guy , on her left wrist . She has a degree in business administration , and holds a black belt in martial arts . Her favorite actress is Scarlett Johansson , her favorite bands are Simple Plan , Nickleback and she loves techno music . Ouellet is an avid supporter of animal rights and gay rights , and posed for the NOH8 campaign in 2011 . Ouellet is catholic .
Ouellet was inspired to become a professional wrestler by Lita . She cites Lita and Victoria as her dreams opponents .
In July 2011 , Ouellet asked a judge for protection from 61 @-@ year @-@ old " crazed fan " Lee Silber , and filed a request for a permanent restraining order . She claimed that Silber had sent " numerous terrifying letters to [ her ] home and left more than 50 voicemail 's on [ her ] personal cell phone all of which are extremely disturbing and delusional . " In the filed documents and an interview for TMZ , Ouellet stated that she " feared for [ her ] life " . She also explained that she had beefed up her personal security , and noted that Silber was a " crazy stalker ... who needs to either be in a psychiatric hospital or jail ! " . On 3 August , the court granted her the restraining order .
In 2013 , Ouellet got engaged to longtime boyfriend and fellow wrestler Mike Mizanin , best known by his ring name The Miz , and were married in the Bahamas on February 20 , 2014 . The couple reside in Los Angeles , California .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
French Kiss ( Snap or flowing DDT , with theatrics )
French TKO ( Reverse roundhouse kick , to the back of the opponent 's head )
Running knee strike , to the head of a kneeling opponent – 2008
Signature moves
French Pain ( Camel clutch )
Forward Russian legsweep
Hair @-@ pull mat slam
Hair @-@ pull facebuster
Leg choke
Modified sleeper hold
Single leg Boston crab
Spinning backbreaker
Short @-@ arm clothesline
Wrestlers managed
Sylvain Grenier
Ryan O 'Reilly
Deuce ' n Domino
Ted DiBiase
The Miz
Nicknames
" The French @-@ Canadian Beauty "
" The Sexiest of Sexy "
" The Sultry Diva "
" The French Phenom "
" The Ultra @-@ Dangerous Superstar "
Entrance themes
" Pourquoi ? " by Jim Johnston ( 2008 – 2011 ; April 7 , 2016 – present )
" I Came to Play " by Downstait ( w / Hollywood Intro , April 7 , 2016 – present ; used while managing The Miz )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 9 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009 .
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
Divas Championship Tournament ( 2010 )
= Age of Empires II =
Age of Empires II : The Age of Kings is a real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) video game developed by Ensemble Studios and published by Microsoft . Released in 1999 for the Microsoft Windows and Macintosh operating systems , it was the second game in the Age of Empires series . An expansion , The Conquerors , was released in 2000 . A PlayStation 2 version was released by Konami in 2001 , and a Nintendo DS spinoff , Age of Empires : The Age of Kings was developed by Backbone Entertainment in 2006 . A Dreamcast port , by Konami , was canceled .
The Age of Kings is set in the Middle Ages and contains thirteen playable civilizations . Players aim to gather resources , which they use to build towns , create armies , and defeat their enemies . There are five historically based campaigns , which constrict the player to specialized and story @-@ backed conditions . There are three additional single @-@ player game modes , and multiplayer is supported . Despite using the same game engine and similar code to its predecessor , development of The Age of Kings took a year longer than expected , forcing Ensemble Studios to release Age of Empires : The Rise of Rome in 1998 instead . The design team focused on resolving significant issues in Age of Empires , but noted on release that some problems remained .
Reception of The Age of Kings was highly positive . The significant number of new features was praised , as were the gameplay improvements . Some reviewers , however , were critical of the presentation of units — they were seen as bland and uninteresting — while others considered The Age of Kings to be too similar to its predecessor , Age of Empires . Three months after its release , two million copies of The Age of Kings had been shipped , and it topped sales charts in seven countries . The game won multiple awards and is today considered a classic of its type , having had a significant impact on future games in its genre . Both the original Age of Empires II and the expansion pack were later released as " the Gold Edition " .
In April 2013 , Age of Empires II : HD Edition was released on the Steam digital distribution platform for Windows operating systems . The HD Edition includes both the original game and the expansion The Conquerors , as well as updated graphics for high @-@ resolution displays . It also supports user @-@ generated content through the Steam Workshop and multiplayer games provided through the Steam servers . On August 16 , 2013 , Microsoft announced The Forgotten , the first new expansion in nearly 13 years and exclusive to the HD Edition . On November 5 , 2015 , Microsoft released another new expansion to Age of Empires II : HD Edition , The African Kingdoms .
= = Gameplay = =
The Age of Kings focuses on building towns , gathering resources , creating armies and ultimately conquering opponents by destroying their units and buildings . Players conquer rival towns and empires as they advance one of 13 civilizations through four " Ages " : the Dark Age , the Feudal Age , the Castle Age ( being the High Middle Ages ) , and the Imperial Age , reminiscent of the Renaissance — a 1000 @-@ year timeframe . Advancing to a new Age unlocks new units , structures , and technologies , but players must first build certain buildings from their current age and then pay a sum of resources ( typically food and gold ) .
Civilian units , called " villagers " , are used to gather resources ; they are either male or female – gender does not affect their abilities . Resources can be used to train units , construct buildings , and research technologies , among other things ; for example , players can research better armour for infantry units . The game offers four types of resources : food , wood , gold , and stone . Food is obtained by hunting animals , gathering berries , harvesting livestock , farming , and shore fishing and fishing from boats . Wood is gathered by chopping down trees . Gold is obtained from either gold mines , trade or collecting relics in a monastery , and stone is collected from stone mines . Villagers require checkpoints , typically depository buildings ( town center , mining camp , mill , and lumber yard ) , where they can store gathered resources . Each civilization can purchase upgrades that increase the rate of gathering these resources . Players can construct a market for trade ; players can trade wood , stone , and food for gold , and use gold to buy other resources . Market prices fluctuate with every transaction . Furthermore , markets and docks can also generate gold by using trading carts or cogs which are used to visit foreign markets and ports ; once they return to the player 's market / dock , gold is added to the stockpile . The amount of gold a trade unit earns on each trip is related to the distance it had to travel to a foreign market ; more gold is earned on longer trips . It is possible to trade with enemies ' markets or docks , but the player 's trading units may be attacked or destroyed by enemy units in the process . Players do not need to keep trading manually , as once they select the port or market the trading units infinitely continue to trade .
There are five campaigns in The Age of Kings , containing historically based scenarios such as Genghis Khan 's invasion of Eurasia , Barbarossa 's Crusade , or Saladin 's defence of the Holy Land . In the Joan of Arc and William Wallace campaigns , the player can control a unit based on its namesake ; in others , players take orders from guiding spirits representative of the army 's commander .
Additional game modes are available to the player in The Age of Kings . One mode , random map , generates a map from one of several randomly chose map generating scripts , with players starting in the Dark Age with a Town Center , three villagers ( or more depending on civilization ) , and a scout unit . The game can be won through military conquest , by constructing a special building known as a Wonder and keeping it standing for a certain amount of time , or by obtaining control of all relics on the map for a set amount of time . Deathmatch mode allows players to begin with large amounts of resources , creating a focus on military dominance , while in the regicide mode each player is given a king unit , winning by killing all of the other monarchs .
= = = Units and civilizations = = =
Every player has a limit to the number of units they can create — a population limit — but may not immediately use the entire potential population . The population capacity , which can be capped at anywhere between 75 – 200 in intervals of 25 , is based on the number of houses , Castles , or Town Centers — the main building in a player 's town — which have been built . The Age of Kings introduced two significant new features for unit management : the idle villager button , which helps players identify villagers that have not been assigned a task , and the town bell , which sends all a player 's villagers into their Town Center , Castle , or tower for safety ; units garrisoned within these three buildings , especially archers , increase the building 's firepower ( towers fire more arrows with units garrisoned inside ) including the town center , which can not fire anything at all without someone garrisoned there .
The Age of Kings also includes five types of military units : infantry , archers , cavalry , siege weaponry , and naval units . Certain types of infantry , archers , and cavalry are " counter units " with special defenses against other types of unit . The three human classes of military generally follow a rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors model . For example , infantry are generally powerful against buildings but weak against cavalry , thus the infantry counter units — spearmen and pikemen — have attack bonuses against cavalry . Each Civilization in The Age of Kings has one or two special units that are exclusive to that Civilization . For instance , the Britons have access to Longbowmen , an archery unit with increased range . These Civilization @-@ specific units are generally more powerful , but still follow the basic rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors model . The monk is a special kind of military unit that has the ability to convert enemy units to the player 's civilization , and to heal allied units . Monks are also used to collect relics ; relics accumulate gold once held in the player 's monastery — the more relics are captured , the faster the gold is accumulated . Collecting all relics on the map is one method by which a player can win a random map game , depending on the victory setting . Once a player has all in their monasteries , a timer is shown to all players . If an opposing player does not destroy a monastery holding a relic after the set time , then that player wins .
Players choose to play as one of 13 civilizations split into four architectural styles — Western European , Eastern European , Middle Eastern , and East Asian — that determine building appearance in @-@ game . The civilizations have varying strengths and weaknesses with regards to economics , technology , and battle , and each has access to a different , very powerful " Unique Unit " . Additionally , each civilization provides an individual team bonus in team games . To add variety , each civilization has a set of sound bites in its native language that are uttered by units when selected or instructed to perform a task .
= = = Buildings = = =
The buildings in The Age of Kings are split into the economic and military buildings categories . Buildings can research technologies and upgrades that increase economic , military or unit @-@ based efficiency , as well as provide resources for the player .
The most important economic building is the Town Center , where villagers are created , all types of resources can be stored , some technologies are researched , and the player can advance to the next Age . The Town Center can fire arrows at enemy units within range if villagers or archers are garrisoned while under attack . Other economic buildings available include storage buildings for resources , farms , docks ( the dock may also produce several military ships ) , and houses to support a higher population .
Military buildings include unit @-@ producing buildings such as barracks , archery ranges , stables , and castles , as well as defensive buildings such as walls and towers . Military buildings can perform research to improve the abilities of military units , increasing their strength , defensive capabilities , or other attributes . The castle is a military building which can build trebuchets , train the civilization 's " unique unit / s " , and fire arrows at enemy units within range , with garrisoned units firing extra arrows . It can only be built after a player has reached the Castle Age , although in some game options , players can begin with an already @-@ built castle as early as the Dark Age .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The Age of Kings supports multiplayer over the Internet , or via a local area network ( LAN ) . Up to eight players can take part in one game , with all of the single player game modes available . The MSN Gaming Zone supported the game until the service closed on June 19 , 2006 .
= = Development = =
Prior to the completion of Age of Empires , Ensemble Studios had signed a contract with Microsoft for a sequel . The design team chose to set The Age of Kings in the Middle Ages as a logical progression from the ancient era setting of Age of Empires . The design team was conscious of attempting to capture the broad appeal of the first game without making the game 's design too similar . Nonetheless , they attempted to appeal to the vast demographic who played Age of Empires . The Age of Kings 's design team intended to complete the game within a year by using code from the original and reusing the Genie game engine . Several months into the process they found they would not be able to complete a game of the quality they sought in that time . Ensemble Studios informed Microsoft they would need another year and instead created Age of Empires : The Rise of Rome , an easily developed expansion pack of Age of Empires , as a compromise which could be released for Christmas 1998 . To help meet the next year 's deadline , additional programmers , artists , and designers were employed . To overcome another significant objection to Age of Empires — that of path finding — the team completely redesigned the game engine 's movement system .
The original Age of Empires had been criticized for its artificial intelligence ( AI ) . Because the original AI did not " cheat " by attributing itself extra resources or using other techniques the human player could not , it was easier to defeat than in many other real @-@ time strategy games . For The Age of Kings , Ensemble Studios attempted to develop a more powerful AI system that did not compromise by cheating . Industry veteran Mario Grimani led Ensemble Studios in the creation of the new system . The Age of Kings saw the introduction of a triggers system for its scenario editor . The triggers allow messages to be displayed , or actions to take place , based on pre @-@ set criteria or " events " . The scenario editor was also improved by the new AI system . The AI and trigger systems interacted regularly in the single player campaigns .
The team was less successful in resolving other issues ; programmer Matt Pritchard complained following the release of Age of Empires that there was still no process by which patches could be issued . Extensive cheating in multiplayer games of Age of Empires came as a result of several bugs in the game , which resulted in Microsoft promising Ensemble Studios there would be a patch process for The Age of Kings . On release , there were several bugs that needed immediate attention , but the patch process was not yet ready . The first patch was released 11 months later .
Ensemble Studios developed a new terrain system for The Age of Kings , with 3D presentation capabilities that were vastly superior to those of Age of Empires . Pritchard noted an improvement in the team 's artistic abilities following their work on the past two games , and he is noted as saying that " AoK became a showcase for their improved talent " . However , he complained about the lack of an art asset management tool , while other departments gained new tools and automated procedures to assist in design and play testing .
The soundtrack for The Age of Kings was directed by Stephen Rippy , who has since taken that role for all games in the Age of Empires series . Music for the game was split into two categories . For " in game " music , Rippy 's team took musical elements from a variety of cultures and combined them to create a mixed sound . " Pre @-@ game " music was designed to be unique to the civilization in question . Campaigns based on historical figures would include " a theme that will at least be rooted in [ the character 's ] culture " .
A demo of The Age of Kings was released on October 16 , 1999 . It featured the learning campaign , a sample of a random map game , and the ability to play via the MSN Gaming Zone . Much to Ensemble Studios ' disappointment , numerous incomplete versions of the game were leaked . These were picked up by warez sites , and sold illegally throughout the Pacific Rim ; warez versions of the game were even sold outside Microsoft 's offices in South Korea .
= = = High @-@ definition remake = = =
In 2012 , Hidden Path Entertainment began working on a high @-@ definition remake of Age of Empires II , an effort spearheaded by Matt Pritchard , an original Ensemble lead programmer . On March 7 , 2013 , its release was announced , branded as Age of Empires II : HD Edition . It has improved graphics , widescreen support and new multiplayer options through Steam . It was released on April 9 , 2013 , and there was a pre @-@ order available on April 5 .
= = Reception = =
The Age of Kings received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic .
According to Eurogamer 's Geoff Richards , " the list of new features and improvements over the original game is over a page long " . GamePro 's review similarly focused on " new additions to the genre itself " which it argued made The Age of Kings outstanding . These included the idle unit button and town bell . GameSpy 's Carlos Salgado was appreciative of other features ; he praised the ability to create individual profiles for different players and to customize hotkeys . Meanwhile , IGN appreciated the new abilities given to the villager unit — the review stated villagers " now play an important role not only in the collection of resources , but also in town defense and even in combat . "
AllGame 's Michael L. House enjoyed the use of sound bites in civilizations ' native languages , which he said was " very influential in developing an era @-@ enhancing atmosphere " . Eurogamer said this feature " gives [ villagers ] a personality , rather than the standard ' Acknowledged ' grunt of military RTS games " , also stating that the use of female villagers provided a good variety . Game Revolution 's review explained that by being set in a more recent epoch of human history , The Age of Kings was able to " add character to an otherwise impersonal style of gameplay " . Computer and Video Games approved of The Age of Kings ' use of shorter , more focused campaigns , compared to its predecessor , while Game Revolution noted that even in slower sections of the campaign , the historical narrative helped maintain player interest . GameSpot said that with the screen full of units , " you can begin to imagine how their historical equivalents once prospered " , while GameSpy said The Age of Kings presents " realism rarely seen in the RTS genre " . IGN staff argued that while the strengths and weaknesses attributed to different civilizations made the game more realistic , the fact that they were still mostly the same prevented The Age of Kings from " delivering the same battlefield impact of StarCraft or Tiberian Sun " .
House also praised the gameplay interface , which he said " couldn 't be simpler " , as well as the advanced grouping and path @-@ finding systems . Nash Werner of GamePro said that the formation tools were wonderful , and complained only that they could not be assigned to naval units . Computer and Video Games generally agreed , stating that " the controls are very user @-@ friendly and well explained " . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin wrote that despite the game 's improved graphics , " there 's nothing foreign about its appearance " and that most game features will be " immediately recognizable if you 've played a real @-@ time strategy game before " . PC Zone agreed , but in a negative sense — it argued that The Age of Kings " is essentially an update of a two @-@ year @-@ old game " .
Richards was surprised by the quality of The Age of Kings ' graphics , considering they were all bitmapped . However , AllGame complained that units were sometimes difficult to tell apart , a point numerous reviewers agreed on . It also called the sound of The Age of Kings as a negative , but not something significant enough to draw players away from the game 's overall quality . IGN stated that cutscenes were somewhat bland , but that overall the graphics added " an amazing amount of detail to the actual game " . IGN 's main criticism was for the in @-@ game speech used in campaigns ; it rhetorically asked " why can 't they just find a Frenchman to do a French accent ? " Alex Constantides of Computer and Video Games rated the graphics highly , saying that some in @-@ game buildings are " so grand you 'll even feel guilty about burning them to the ground " . Werner agreed ; " the most noticeable graphical advancements " , he wrote , were " the sheer size and scale of things " . Game Revolution stated " AOE2 is the best looking of the 2D RTS games out there right now " .
In January 2000 , three months after its release , Microsoft announced that they had shipped two million copies of The Age of Kings . The game topped sales charts in the United States , Japan , the United Kingdom , Germany , France , Australia , and South Korea . It would spend the next two and a half years on top 20 sales lists . The Age of Kings was top selling game in October 1999 , and the fourth highest selling game in 1999 .
The Age of Kings won GameSpot 's Strategy Game of the Year in 1999 , and was a nominee for Game of the Year . GamePower also named it Strategy Game of the Year , while PC Gamer and Computer Gaming World gave it Editor 's Choice awards . The Age of Kings won Strategy Game of the Year and Computer Game of the Year at the 2000 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awards . It was also nominated for Game of the Year , Outstanding Achievement in Animation , Outstanding Achievement in Game Design , and Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering . IGN ranked The Age of Kings the 53rd best game of all time in 2005 , and the 10th best PC game of all time in 2007 . GameFAQs users placed it 56th in a poll of the best games ever .
The Age of Kings was highly influential on its genre . Star Wars : Galactic Battlegrounds , a 2001 game by LucasArts , shared The Age of Kings ' game engine , and was heavily influenced by its mechanics . Empire Earth 's design was also similar to that of The Age of Kings ; GameSpot said it " borrows most of that game 's controls , interface features , and even some of its keyboard shortcuts " . Rick Goodman , designer of Age of Empires and The Rise of Rome , designed Empire Earth . GameSpot 's Scott Osborne argued that the gameplay of Cossacks : European Wars was heavily based on The Age of Kings .
= = = HD Edition = = =
Age of Empires II : HD Edition received mixed reviews with aggregate review website Metacritic assigning a score of 68 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics . Critics agreed that the HD Edition changed very little from the original game . Daniel Starkey of Destructoid added that the reluctance to change the game features encourages " a much more aggressive , and obsessive style of play " . He highlights the fact that many of the problems of trying to run the original game on a modern computer are gone , and calls its compatibility with Steam 's Workshop " an amazing bonus " .
Paul Dean of Eurogamer was less forgiving ; although he agreed that the Workshop compatibility was a good addition and praised the players in the online community as " remarkably calm and friendly " , he thought that the game should have been updated more , citing its " boring campaign " and poorly @-@ aged gameplay mechanics : " It just doesn 't play very well , and its flaws are more blatant than ever before " . Underscoring his criticisms of the lack of significant changes to the game , he described it as " a mouldy time @-@ capsule that will likely mar your memories of the original " .
= = Sequels = =
An expansion for The Age of Kings , The Conquerors , was released in 2000 . It introduced numerous new game features , including five new civilizations . Two of these , the Aztecs and the Mayans , represent the New World and have new distinctive architectural style . Other new civilizations are the Spanish , Huns , and Koreans . As well as three campaigns similar in concept to those in The Age of Kings , The Conquerors included a " Battles of the Conquerors " campaign which contained several unrelated battles such as those of Agincourt and Hastings . Age of Mythology , released in 2002 , broke away from the historical trend and instead focused on Greek , Egyptian , and Norse mythology . It shared many gameplay elements with The Age of Kings and was considered a spin @-@ off of the main Age of Empires series .
The third historical game in the Age of Empires series , Age of Empires III , was released in 2005 . The game portrayed the European colonization of the Americas . Aside from one significant feature , the home city , the game 's design was similar to that of its predecessor .
In 2012 , a free @-@ to @-@ play title was released in the series , called Age of Empires Online . While the game was freely accessible , it featured premium content which could either be earned through gameplay or purchased , enabling the player to use higher @-@ tier equipment and new game modes . Active development of the game ended on January 1 , 2014 , when executive producer Kevin Perry stated that adding new content was " no longer cost effective , " and announced that the game would be moving from " development phase " to its " support phase " . The game servers were subsequently shut down on July 1 , 2014 .
= = = Age of Empires II HD : The Forgotten = = =
In August 2013 an expansion pack was announced for Age of Empires II HD , entitled The Forgotten . It is based on the fan @-@ made expansion , The Forgotten Empires . The expansion includes five new civilizations , seven new campaigns , two new game modes , twenty @-@ seven new technologies , ludakris map size , Twitch streaming and spectator mode . It was developed by Forgotten Empires and SkyBox Labs and released on November 7 , 2013 .
= = = Age of Empires II HD : The African Kingdoms = = =
A second expansion pack for Age of Empires II HD was announced on April 9 , 2015 , and released later the same year . The focus of the expansion is on African civilizations , thus named The African Kingdoms . On June 23 , 2015 , new details and a tease were released for the The African Kingdoms expansion . The expansion includes four new civilizations , four new fully voice acted campaigns , one new game mode , new generic units and technologies , twenty @-@ three new maps , improved AI , and new scenario editor objects . It was again developed by Forgotten Empires and SkyBox Labs and released on November 5 , 2015 .
= Dwarka =
Dwarka ( ) is a small city and a municipality of Devbhoomi Dwarka district in the state of Gujarat in northwestern India . It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti River . In 2011 it had a population of 38 @,@ 873 . Dwarka is one of the foremost Chardhams , four sacred Hindu pilgrimage sites , and is one of the Sapta Puri , the seven most ancient religious cities in the country . Dwarka is often identified with the Dwarka Kingdom , the ancient kingdom of Krishna , and is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat .
The city 's Dwarkadhish Temple dedicated to Krishna was originally built around 2 @,@ 500 years ago , but was destroyed by Mahmud Begada rulers and subsequently rebuilt in the 16th century . The temple is also the location of Dwaraka maţha , also called Sharada Matha / Peeth and " western peeth " , one of the four peeths ( Sanskrit : " religious center " ) established by Adi Shankaracharya . As an important pilgrimage center for Hindus , Dwarka has several notable temples , including Rukmini Devi Temple , Gomti Ghat , and Bet Dwarka . There is also a lighthouse at the land end point of Dwarka .
Dwarka 's economy relies heavily on pilgrims and tourism but is supplemented by the production of millets , ghee ( clarified butter ) , oilseeds , and salt , which are transported from its port . A long @-@ term development plan was proposed in 2011 by the Government of Gujarat , with investment of ₹ 830 million to refurbish the city of Dwarka and build a bridge connecting the city with Okha and Bet Dwarka . Janmashtami is the main festival that is celebrated during August and September . Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth , Dwarka which runs an arts college in Dwarka . Dwarka was selected as a heritage city by the Indian government 's Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana ( HRIDAY ) initiative .
= = History = =
= = = Puranic traditions = = =
Dwarka is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat . The city 's name literally means the " gateway to heaven " in Sanskrit , as Dwar means " gate " and ka references " Brahma " . Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as " Mokshapuri " , " Dwarkamati " , and " Dwarkavati " . It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric epic period of the Mahabharata . According to legend , Krishna settled here after he defeated and killed his uncle Kansa at Mathura . This mythological account of Krishna 's migration to Dwarka from Mathura is closely associated with the culture of Gujarat . Krishna is also said to have reclaimed 12 yojanas or 96 square kilometres ( 37 sq mi ) of land from the sea to create Dwarka .
It has been argued that Dwarka was established as the capital in Saurashtra by the Aryans during the Puranaic . The Yadavas , who had migrated from Mathura , established their kingdom here when the city was known as " Kaushathali " . It was during this period that the city underwent rebuilding and was named Dwarka . A friendly population of Ahirs also prompted Krishna to settle at Dwarka when he decided , after fighting Jarasandha , the king of Magadh , to retreat from Mathura . The kingdom , also known as the Ahir or Yadav empire , was established by Krishna , and flourished and extended its domain . It is said that Krishna conducted the administration of his kingdom from Dwarka while residing with his family in Bet Dwarka .
= = = Archaeological evidence = = =
Archaeological investigations at Dwarka , both on shore and offshore in the Arabian Sea , have been performed by the Archaeological Survey of India . The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artifacts . Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements , a large stone @-@ built jetty , and triangular stone anchors with three holes . The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls , and fort bastions . From the typological classification of the anchors it is inferred that Dwarka had flourished as a port during the period of the Middle kingdoms of India . Coastal erosion was probably the cause of the destruction of what was an ancient port .
Dwarka is mentioned in the copper inscription dated 574 AD of Simhaditya , the Maitraka dynasty minister of Vallabhi . He was the son of Varahdas , the king of Dwarka . The nearby Bet Dwarka island is a religious pilgrimage site and an important archaeological site of the Late Harappan period , with one thermoluminescence date of 1570 BC .
= = = Early history = = =
In 200 AD , King Vasudev II of Dwarka was defeated by Mahakshatriya Rudradama . Upon the death of Rudradama , his wife , Queen Dheeradevi , invited his brother Pulumavi , seeking guidance to rule . Rudradama had embraced the Vaishnava religion and worshipped Krishna at Dwarka . Vajranabha , his successor , built a chhattri ( an umbrella type monument ) and deified an idol of Krishna in it .
An epigraphic reference ascribed to Garulaka Simhaditya , the son of Varahdas , the king of Dwarka , is inscribed on a copper plate dated to 574 AD , found in Palitana . The Greek writer of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea referred to a place called Baraca , which has been interpreted as present @-@ day Dwarka . A reference made in Ptolemy 's Geography identified Barake as an island in the Gulf of Kanthils , which has also been inferred to mean Dwarka .
One of the four dhams ( religious seats ) , which were founded by Adi Shankaracharya ( 686 – 717 AD ) at the four corners of the country , was established as a monastic center at a time when mainstream Hinduism had still not been accepted ; it forms part of the Dwarka temple complex . In 885 AD , the temple was renovated by Shree Nrushinhaashrma , head of the " Shreemad Jagatguru Shankaracharya pith . "
= = = Middle Ages to present = = =
In 1241 , Mohammad Shah invaded Dwarka and damaged the temple . During this battle , five Brahmins ( Virajee Thakar , Nathu Thakar , Karasan Thakar , Valjee Thakar , and Devasee Thakar ) fought against him , died , and were honoured as martyrs . A shrine was built near the temple in their honor and is known as " Panch Peer " , which is a name of Muslim origin .
In 1473 the Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada sacked the city and destroyed the temple of Dwarka . The Jagat Mandir or the Dwarakadhisa temple was later rebuilt . Vallabha Acharya retrieved an idol of Dwarkadhish , which was revered by Rukmini . He hid it in a stepwell , known as Savitri vav , during the Muslim invasion , before moving it to Ladva village . In 1551 , when Turk Aziz invaded Dwarka , the idol was shifted to the island of Bet Dwarka .
Dwarka , along with the Okhamandal region , was under the rule of Gaekwad of Baroda state during the Indian rebellion of 1857 . A war broke out at Okhamandal in 1858 between the local Vaghers and the British . The Vaghers had won the battle and ruled until September 1859 . Later , after a joint offensive of the British , the Gaekwads , and other princely state troops , the Vaghers were ousted in 1859 . During these operations , led by Colonel Donovan , the temples at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka suffered damage and were looted . A complaint of atrocities by the British was made by the local people of Jamnagar , Porbander , and Kutch , which led to their restoration . In 1861 , Dwarakadheesh Temple was renovated by Maharaja Khanderao and the British , who refurbished the shikara . Maharaja Gaikwad of Baroda added a golden pinnacle to the shikara in 1958 during a refurbishment by Shankaracharya of Dwarka . Since 1960 , the temple has been maintained by the Government of India .
Dwarka is one of 12 heritage cities across the country selected under the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana ( HRIDAY ) scheme of the Government of India to develop civic infrastructure . The Sudama Setu , a bridge over the Gomti River connecting mainland Dwarka ( Dwarkadheesh 's Jagat Mandir ) with Panchkui ( five wells ) thirth ( Sanskrit : " pilgrimage site " ) , was scheduled to be commissioned during the Krishna Janmashtami holiday in 2015 . It is a cable @-@ stayed bridge which is 166 metres ( 545 ft ) in length with a width of 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Dwarka , at the mouth of the Gulf of Kutch , on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula , is on the right bank of the Gomti River which rises from the Bhavda village at a place known as Mul @-@ Gomti , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east . It is now under the newly formed district of Devbhoomi Dwarka at the western end of the Saurashtra ( Kathiawar ) peninsula , facing the Arabian Sea . The Gomti River was a harbour until the 19th century .
Dwarka is well connected to the rest of India by air , rail , and road transport . It is 131 kilometres ( 81 mi ) by State Highway 947 from Jamnagar , where there is a domestic airport . The Dwarka railway station is on the broad gauge railway line that runs from Ahmedabad to Okha at a distance of about 137 kilometres ( 85 mi ) from Jamnagar . Dwarka is 217 kilometres ( 135 mi ) away from Rajkot and 378 kilometres ( 235 mi ) from Ahmedabad .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen @-@ Geiger classification , Dwarka has a subtropical desert / low @-@ latitude arid hot climate . The Holdridge life zones system of bio @-@ climatic classification identifies Dwarka in or near the subtropical thorn woodland biome . On the basis of 40 years of climatic data : The average annual rainfall is 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) spread over a rainy period of 29 days with rainfall limited to the months of June to September ; the average maximum temperature is 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) with a maximum of 42 ° C ( 108 ° F ) and an average minimum temperature of 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) with a minimum of 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) ; the average annual relative humidity is 72 % , with a maximum of 80 % .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2001 Census of India , Dwarka had a population of 33 @,@ 614 ( as per Census 2011 , the population reported is 38 @,@ 873 ) . Males constitute 53 % of the population , and females constitute 47 % . Dwarka has an average literacy rate of 64 % , higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 % ; the male literacy rate is 72 % , and the female literacy rate is 55 % . 13 % of the population is under six years of age .
= = Economy = =
Most of the revenue of Dwarka is derived from tourism , due to it being a site for pilgrims . It is a producer of agricultural produce such as millets , ghee ( clarified butter ) , oilseeds , and salt , which are transported from its port . A long term development plan was proposed in 2011 with investment of ₹ 830 million to refurbish the city of Dwarka and to build a bridge connecting the city with Okha and Bet Dwarka .
A wind farm power generation of 39 @.@ 2 MW , operated near Dwarka by the AES Saurashtra Windfarms Pvt Ltd ( ASW ) , is now run by Tata Power Renewable Energy Ltd ( TPREL ) . Dwarka 's industrial activity mainly centres around cement production .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Temples = = =
Considered a holy city , Dwarka is a well known for its temples and as a pilgrimage centre for Hindus . The Dwarakadhisa Temple , also called Jagat Mandir , located in the heart of Dwarka , is a Vaishnava temple . It was built by Raja Jagat Singh Rathore , hence it is called Jagat Mandir . The temple , facing west , is at an elevation of 12 @.@ 19 metres ( 40 @.@ 0 ft ) above mean sea @-@ level . It is conjectured that this temple location is 2 @,@ 500 years old and is where Krishna built his city and a temple . However , the existing temple is dated to the 16th century ) . It is a five @-@ storied edifice built over 72 pillars ( a sandstone temple with 60 pillars is also mentioned ) . The temple spire rises to a height of 78 metres ( 256 ft ) , and a very large flag with symbols of the sun and moon is hoisted on it . The temple layout consists of a garbhagriha ( Nijamandira or Harigraha ) and an antarala ( an antechamber ) . The main deity deified in the sanctum is of Dwarkadeesh , which is known as the Trivikrama form of Vishnu and is depicted with four arms .
The Dwarakadhisa Temple is also the location of Dvaraka Pitha , also called Sharada Matha / Peeth and " western peeth " ) , one of the four peeths ( Sanskrit : " religious center " ) established by Adi Shankaracharya .
Gomti Ghat consists of steps leading to the Gomti River , which is also a holy place for pilgrims to take a dip in the river , before visiting Dwarakadish temple . The ghat has a number of small shrines dedicated to the Samudra ( God of the Sea ) , Saraswati and Lakshmi . Other notable temples in the ghat area include the Samudra Narayana ( Sangam Narayana ) temple , which is at the confluence of the Gomti River with the sea , the Chakra Narayana temple where there is a stone with an imprint of a chakra as a manifestation of Vishnu , and the Gomati temple , which has an idol of the river goddess Gomati that is said to have been brought to earth by the sage Vasishta .
The Rukmini Devi Temple , dedicated to Rukmini , Krishna 's chief queen , is located 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away from Dwarka . The temple is said to be 2 @,@ 500 years old , but in its present form it is estimated to belong to the 12th century . It is a richly carved temple decorated with sculptures of gods and goddesses on the exterior with the sanctum housing the main image of Rukmini . Carved naratharas ( human figures ) and carved gajatharas ( elephants ) are depicted in panels at the base of the tower .
= = = Lighthouse and lake = = =
There is a lighthouse at the Dwarka Point on the Dwarka peninsula , which provides a panoramic view of the city . It is a fixed light situated 70 feet ( 21 m ) above the sea level , and the light is visible over a distance of 10 miles ( 16 km ) . The lighthouse tower is 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height and is 117 yards ( 107 m ) away from the high water level in the sea . The radio beacon provided on this lighthouse tower is powered by a solar photovoltaic module .
There is a lake or tank called Gopi Talab in the western part of the city .
A similar lake known for Gopi Chandan , meaning " sandal paste from Gopi " , is situated in Bet Dwarka ; this mud is found in the bed of the lake . This fragrant mud is applied as a sanctity symbol by devout Hindus on their forehead .
= = = Bet Dwarka = = =
Bet Dwarka , an island in the Arabian sea off the coast of Dwarka . Considered the original residence of Krishna , Bet Dwarka was the old port during the ancient times of Krishna before the Okha port was developed in Dwarka . The temple built here is credited to the religious Guru Vallabhacharya of the " Pushtimarg Sampradaya " . Rice is the traditional offering here to the deity as it is believed that Sudama offered rice to his childhood friend Krishna . There are also smaller shrines on Bet Dwarka which are dedicated to Shiva , Vishnu , Hanuman and Devi . According to a legend , Vishnu killed the demon Shankhasura on this island . There are temples of Vishnu in the incarnation of matsya , or fish . Other shrines here are of Rukmini , Trivikrama , Devaki , Radha , Lakshmi , Satyabhama , Jambavati , Lakshmi Narayan , and many other gods .
Hanuman Dandi temple is another notable temple located in Bet Dwarka , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) away from Dhwarkadhish Temple , Bet Dwarka . The temple is deified with many images of Hanuman and his son Makardhwaja . The legend associated with the birth of a son to Hanuman , who is considered celibate , is that the sweat of Hanuman was consumed by a fish which then gave birth to a son named Makardhwaja . The Jethwa Rajput clan of Kshatriyas claim their descent from Makardhwaja .
Nageshvara _ Jyotirlinga Mandir is a temple dedicated to Shiva , and one of the twelve Jyotirlingas ( meaning radiant sign of The Almighty ) is deified here in a subterranean cell .
= = Culture and sports = =
= = = Culture = = =
Janmashtami is the main festival that is celebrated during August and September with great fervor and piety as it was in the prehistoric times the abode of Krishna . The festival is marked by several night long celebrations to mark the birth of Krishna . Bhajans and sermons are part of the festivities . At midnight there is reenactment of Krishna 's childhood in the form of Garba and Raas dances . On this occasion , the local boys create a pyramid and a young boy in the costume of Krishna climbs up this pyramid to strike a pot holding butter , an act which Krishna had mischievously performed with the gopis .
Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth , which runs an arts college in Dwarka . The city is also home to the N.D.H. High School and P.V.M Girls ' High School .
= = = Sports = = =
The underwater ancient city off the coast of Bet Dwarka has been proposed to be developed as a scuba diving site . This project is a joint initiative of Adventure Sports Ltd ( ASL ) and the Government of Gujarat , with investment of ₹ 13 crore . This is believed to be the first effort anywhere in the world to exploit a submerged city for tourism . Water and beach sports are also being promoted by the state government , and there are proposals to further promote aero and submarine sports .
= Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul =
Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul , or simply Dictionary of Soul , is the fifth studio album by American soul singer @-@ songwriter Otis Redding and his last solo studio album released before his death . The successful Otis Blue and the following performance at Whisky a Go Go led to his rising fame across the United States . The album has two sides : the first mainly contains cover versions , and the second songs mainly written by Redding .
The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul was released on October 15 , 1966 on the Stax label and peaked at number 73 and at number 5 on the Billboard 200 and the R & B LP charts respectively . The album produced two singles , " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " and " Try a Little Tenderness " . In 2016 , the album was ranked number 254 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
The success of Redding 's third album , Otis Blue , saw a rearrangement of the Stax company . Producer and co @-@ founder of the American label Stax Records , Phil Walden , signed musicians including Percy Sledge , Johnnie Taylor , Clarence Carter and Eddie Floyd , and together with Redding they founded the production companies " Jotis Records " ( derived from Joe Galkin and Otis ) , on which only four recordings were released , two by Arthur Conley and one by Billy Young and Loretta Williams , and Redwal Music ( derived from Redding and Walden ) .
Redding decided to perform at the nightclub Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip in front of a predominantly white audience , becoming one of the first soul artists to play in the western United States . His performance received critical acclaim by the press , and musician Bob Dylan offered an alternative track of his hit song " Just Like a Woman " to him , but he declined his proposal . After his performance there he went back to the Stax studios to continue recording new songs . This would be his final solo studio album .
= = Recording = =
Dictionary of Soul features the Booker T. & the M.G. ' s — organist Booker T. Jones , pianist / guitarist Steve Cropper , bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn , drummer Al Jackson , Jr . — pianist Isaac Hayes , and the Memphis Horns , consisting of tenor saxophonist Joe Arnold , trumpeter Wayne Jackson , tenor saxophonist Andrew Love and baritone saxophonist Floyd Newman .
The album opens with " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " . Derived from the theme of The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question , the song was written by Redding and Cropper and its lyrics are about Redding 's habit to hum or sing the horn lines . David Porter served as the background singer , singing the " fa @-@ fa @-@ fa @-@ fa @-@ fa " part alongside Redding .
The second single on this album , " Try a Little Tenderness " , was written by English songwriter duo Jimmy Campbell , Reg Connelly and American Tin Pan Alley songwriter Harry M. Woods in the early 30s , but it was not until February 1933 when bandleader and clarinetist Ted Lewis ' version became a hit . The first version by a black artist was by Aretha Franklin , who recorded it in 1962 for her The Tender , the Moving , the Swinging Aretha Franklin . Two years later , Sam Cooke recorded it as a part of a medley alongside Tin Pan Alley standard " For Sentimental Reasons " and " You Send Me " on his At The Copa . According to Cropper , Redding listened to the latter two songs , but rearranged it with the help of pianist Hayes . Examples of what the latter arranged and introduced was the tree @-@ part , contrapuntal horn line in the first seconds , which was inspired by Cooke 's " A Change is Gonna Come " strings , and the cymbal break in the peak , which Hayes later featured on his " Theme from Shaft " . The song was recorded on September 13 and released on November 14 , 1966 , charting at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 4 on the Hot R & B chart . Side one features mainly cover versions , including country standard " Tennessee Waltz " and The Beatles ' " Day Tripper " , the latter of which was praised for turning " into a swaggering stomper " as opposed to the original . Parts of the song were later mixed in the Grammy Award @-@ winning
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. Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation . These have been verified to be preyed by large gulls , corvids ( including ravens , crows and magpies ) , wolverines ( Gulo gulo ) , hawks , owls , eagles , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) , American black bears ( Ursus americanus ) and raccoons . If food access is low , parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage thus resulting in less protection . Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree @-@ climbers , but Arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus ) occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island . The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears , having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Population decline and recovery = = =
Once a common sight in much of the continent , the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid @-@ 20th century by a variety of factors , among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide DDT . Bald eagles , like many birds of prey , were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification . DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird , but it interfered with the bird 's calcium metabolism , making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs . Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult , making it nearly impossible for the eggs to hatch . It is estimated that in the early 18th century , the bald eagle population was 300 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 , but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US . Other factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat , as well as both legal and illegal shooting . In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the state of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70 @,@ 000 bald eagles had been shot . Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long @-@ held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons , yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation ( lamb predation is rare , human predation is thought to be non @-@ existent ) . Later illegal shooting was described as " the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles , " according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin . In 1984 , the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting , power @-@ line electrocution , and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths . Bald eagles have also been killed by oil , lead , and mercury pollution , and by human and predator intrusion at nests .
The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty , later extended to all of North America . The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act , approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940 , protected the bald eagle and the golden eagle , prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds . The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967 , and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators . Perhaps most significant in the species ' recovery , in 1972 , DDT was banned from usage in the United States . DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989 , though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s .
With regulations in place and DDT banned , the eagle population rebounded . The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada , particularly near large bodies of water . In the early 1980s , the estimated total population was 100 @,@ 000 individuals , with 110 @,@ 000 – 115 @,@ 000 by 1992 ; the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska , with about 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 , with the next highest population the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 in 1992 . Obtaining a precise count of bald eagles population is extremely difficult . The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006 , when 9789 breeding pairs were reported . For some time , the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida , where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use . Today , the contiguous state with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is Minnesota with an estimated 1 @,@ 312 pairs , surpassing Florida 's most recent count of 1 @,@ 166 pairs . 23 , or nearly half , of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles . In Washington State , there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980 . That number increased by about 30 per year , so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests . 2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nest . Further population increases in Washington may limited by the availability of late winter food , particularly salmon .
The bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government 's list of endangered species on July 12 , 1995 , by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service , when it was reclassified from " Endangered " to " Threatened . " On July 6 , 1999 , a proposal was initiated " To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife . " It was de @-@ listed on June 28 , 2007 . It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List . In the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in Prince William Sound , though the local population returned to its pre @-@ spill level by 1995 .
= = = In captivity = = =
Permits are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States . Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions , and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild . The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities , as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles . Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States . As a rule , the bald eagle is a poor choice for public shows , being timid , prone to becoming highly stressed , and unpredictable in nature . Native American tribes can obtain a " Native American Religious Use " permit to keep non @-@ releasable eagles as well . They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies . The bald eagle can be long @-@ lived in captivity if well cared for , but does not breed well even under the best conditions . In Canada , a license is required to keep bald eagles for falconry .
= = Cultural significance = =
The bald eagle is important in various Native American cultures and , as the national bird of the United States , is prominent in seals and logos , coinage , postage stamps , and other items relating to the U.S. federal government .
= = = Role in Native American culture = = =
The bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures , and its feathers , like those of the golden eagle , are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans . Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures . Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well . Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies , particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans , bustles and head dresses . In the Navajo Tradition an Eagle feather is represented to be a Protector , along with the Feather Navajo Medicine Man use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles . The Lakota , for instance , give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task . In modern times , it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college . The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young . The Choctaw considered the bald eagle , who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun , as a symbol of peace .
During the Sun Dance , which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes , the eagle is represented in several ways . The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held . A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance . Also during the dance , a medicine man may direct his fan , which is made of eagle feathers , to people who seek to be healed . The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient , in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient . The fan is then held up toward the sky , so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator .
Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use . The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely .
The National Eagle Repository , a division of the FWS , exists as a means to receive , process , and store bald and golden eagles which are found dead , and to distribute the eagles , their parts and feathers , to federally recognized Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies .
= = = National bird of the United States = = =
The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America . The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the Roman Republic , in which eagle imagery ( usually involving the golden eagle ) was prominent . On June 20 , 1782 , the Continental Congress adopted the design for the Great Seal of the United States depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with its talons .
The bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government , including the presidential seal , the presidential flag , and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies . Between 1916 and 1945 , the presidential flag ( but not the seal ) showed an eagle facing to its left ( the viewer 's right ) , which gave rise to the urban legend that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace , and towards the arrows in wartime .
Contrary to popular legend , there is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever publicly supported the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) , rather than the bald eagle , as a symbol of the United States . However , in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris , criticizing the Society of the Cincinnati , he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle 's behavior . In the letter Franklin states :
For my own part . I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen the representative of our country . He is a bird of bad moral character . He does not get his living honestly ... besides he is a rank coward : The little king bird not bigger than a sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the district .
Franklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it , with its hereditary membership , as a noble order unwelcome in the newly independent Republic , contrary to the ideals of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus , for whom the Society was named ; his reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus .
= = = Identification = = =
Grant , Peter J. ( 1988 ) " The Co . Kerry Bald Eagle " Twitching 1 ( 12 ) : 379 – 80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white @-@ tailed eagle in juveniles
= = = Video links = = =
Bald eagle videos , photos , and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
Bald eagle photo gallery at VIREO ( Drexel University )
Photo field guide on Flickr
100 + Bald Eagles
= Bratislava =
Bratislava ( / ˌbrætᵻˈslɑːvə / or / ˌbrɑː- / ; Slovak pronunciation : [ ˈbracislaʋa ] ; also known by other names ) is the capital of Slovakia , and with a population of about 450 @,@ 000 , the country 's largest city . The greater metropolitan area is home to more than 650 @,@ 000 people . Bratislava is in southwestern Slovakia , occupying both banks of the River Danube and the left bank of the River Morava . Bordering Austria and Hungary , it is the only national capital that borders two independent countries .
Bratislava is the political , cultural and economic centre of Slovakia . It is the seat of the Slovak president , the parliament and the Slovak Executive . It is home to several universities , museums , theatres , galleries and other important cultural and educational institutions . Many of Slovakia 's large businesses and financial institutions also have headquarters there .
The history of the city has been strongly influenced by people of different nations and religions , namely by Austrians , Croats , Czechs , Germans , Hungarians , Jews , Serbs and Slovaks ( in alphabetical order ) . The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary , a part of the larger Habsburg Monarchy territories , from 1536 to 1783 and has been home to many Slovak , Hungarian and German historical figures .
= = Etymology = =
The city received its contemporary name in 1919 . Beforehand it was mostly known in English by its German name , Pressburg , as it was long dominated by Austrians and other German @-@ speakers . This is the term which the German , the pre @-@ 1919 Slovak ( Prešporok ) and Czech ( Prešpurk ) names are derived from . The origin of the city 's Hungarian name , Pozsony , is unclear : it might come from the Hungarian Poson ( name of the city 's first castellan ) , the Czech Pos or the German Poscho , which are personal names . Hungarian speakers still use the Hungarian name , Pozsony .
The medieval settlement Brezalauspurc ( literally : Braslav 's castle ) is sometimes attributed to Bratislava , however the actual location of Brezalauspurc is under scholarly debate . The city 's modern name is credited to Pavel Jozef Šafárik 's misinterpretation of Braslav as Bratislav when analyzing medieval sources , thus coming up with the term Břetislaw , later Bratislav .
During the revolution of 1918 – 1919 , the name ' Wilsonov ' or ' Wilsonstadt ' ( after President Woodrow Wilson ) was proposed by American Slovaks , as he supported national self @-@ determination . The name Bratislava , which was used before only by some Slovak patriots , became official in March 1919 .
Other alternative names of the city in the past include Greek : Ιστρόπολις Istropolis ( meaning " Danube City " , also used in Latin ) , Czech : Prešpurk , French : Presbourg , Italian : Presburgo , Latin : Posonium , Romanian : Pojon and Serbo @-@ Croatian : Požun / Пожун . The name Pressburg was also used in English @-@ language publications until 1919 , and it is occasionally used today .
In older documents , confusion can be caused by the Latin forms Bratislavia , Wratislavia etc . , which refer to Wrocław , Poland – not to Bratislava .
= = History = =
The first known permanent settlement of the area began with the Linear Pottery Culture , around 5000 BC in the Neolithic era . About 200 BC , the Celtic Boii tribe founded the first significant settlement , a fortified town known as an oppidum . They also established a mint , producing silver coins known as biatecs .
The area fell under Roman influence from the 1st to the 4th century AD and was made part of the Danubian Limes , a border defence system . The Romans introduced grape growing to the area and began a tradition of winemaking , which survives to the present .
The Slavs arrived from the East between the 5th and 6th centuries during the Migration Period . As a response to onslaughts by Avars , the local Slavic tribes rebelled and established Samo 's Empire ( 623 – 658 ) , the first known Slavic political entity . In the 9th century , the castles at Bratislava ( Brezalauspurc ) and Devín ( Dowina ) were important centres of the Slavic states : the Principality of Nitra and Great Moravia . Scholars have debated the identification as fortresses of the two castles built in Great Moravia , based on linguistic arguments and because of the absence of convincing archaeological evidence .
The first written reference to a settlement named " Brezalauspurc " dates to 907 and is related to the Battle of Pressburg , during which a Bavarian army was defeated by the Hungarians . It is connected to the fall of Great Moravia , already weakened by its own inner decline and under the attacks of the Hungarians . The exact location of the battle remains unknown , and some interpretations place it west of Lake Balaton .
In the 10th century , the territory of Pressburg ( what would later become Pozsony county ) became part of Hungary ( called " the Kingdom of Hungary " from 1000 ) . It developed as a key economic and administrative centre on the kingdom 's frontier . This strategic position destined the city to be the site of frequent attacks and battles , but also brought it economic development and high political status . It was granted its first known " town privileges " in 1291 by the Hungarian King Andrew III , and was declared a free royal town in 1405 by King Sigismund . In 1436 he authorized the town to use its own coat of arms .
The Kingdom of Hungary was defeated by the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács in 1526 . The Turks besieged and damaged Pressburg , but failed to conquer it . Owing to Ottoman advances into Hungarian territory , the city was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536 , becoming part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and marking the beginning of a new era . The city became a coronation town and the seat of kings , archbishops ( 1543 ) , the nobility and all major organisations and offices . Between 1536 and 1830 , eleven Hungarian kings and queens were crowned at St. Martin 's Cathedral . The 17th century was marked by anti @-@ Habsburg uprisings , fighting with the Turks , floods , plagues and other disasters , which diminished the population .
Pressburg flourished during the 18th @-@ century reign of Queen Maria Theresa , becoming the largest and most important town in Hungary . The population tripled ; many new palaces , monasteries , mansions , and streets were built , and the city was the centre of social and cultural life of the region . Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart gave a concert in 1762 in the Pálffy Palace . Joseph Haydn performed in 1784 in the Grassalkovich Palace . Ludwig van Beethoven was a guest in 1796 in the Keglević Palace .
The city started to lose its importance under the reign of Maria Theresa 's son Joseph II , especially after the crown jewels were taken to Vienna in 1783 in an attempt to strengthen the union between Austria and Hungary . Many central offices subsequently moved to Buda , followed by a large segment of the nobility . The first newspapers in Hungarian and Slovak were published here : Magyar hírmondó in 1780 , and Presspurske Nowiny in 1783 . In the course of the 18th century , the city became a centre for the Slovak national movement .
The city 's 19th @-@ century history was closely tied to the major events in Europe . The Peace of Pressburg between Austria and France was signed here in 1805 . Theben Castle was ruined by Napoleon 's French troops during an invasion of 1809 . In 1825 the Hungarian National Learned Society ( the present Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) was founded in Pressburg using a donation from István Széchenyi . In 1843 Hungarian was proclaimed the official language in legislation , public administration and education by the Diet in the city .
As a reaction to the Revolutions of 1848 , Ferdinand V signed the so @-@ called April laws , which included the abolition of serfdom , at the Primate 's Palace . The city chose the revolutionary Hungarian side , but was captured by the Austrians in December 1848 .
Industry developed rapidly in the 19th century . The first horse @-@ drawn railway in the Kingdom of Hungary , from Pressburg to Szentgyörgy Svätý Jur , was built in 1840 . A new line to Vienna using steam locomotives was opened in 1848 , and a line to Pest in 1850 . Many new industrial , financial and other institutions were founded ; for example , the first bank in present @-@ day Slovakia was founded in 1842 . The city 's first permanent bridge over the Danube , Starý most , was built in 1891 .
Before World War I , the city had a population that was 42 % ethnic German , 41 % Hungarian and 15 % Slovak ( 1910 census ) . After World War I and the formation of Czechoslovakia on October 28 , 1918 , the city was incorporated into the new state despite its representatives ' reluctance . The dominant Hungarian and German population tried to prevent annexation of the city to Czechoslovakia and declared it a free city . However , the Czechoslovak Legions occupied the city on January 1 , 1919 , and made it part of Czechoslovakia . The city became the seat of Slovakia 's political organs and organizations and became Slovakia 's capital on 4 February . On February 12 , 1919 the German and Hungarian population started a protest against the Czechoslovak occupation , but the Czechoslovak Legions opened fire on the unarmed demonstrators .
On March 27 , 1919 , the name Bratislava was officially adopted for the first time . Left without any protection after the retreat of the Hungarian army , many Hungarians were expelled or fled . Czechs and Slovaks moved their households to Bratislava . Education in Hungarian and German was radically reduced in the city . By the 1930 Czechoslovakian census , the Hungarian population of Bratislava had decreased to 15 @.@ 8 % ( see the Demographics of Bratislava article for more details ) .
In 1938 , Nazi Germany annexed neighbouring Austria in the Anschluss ; later that year it also annexed the still @-@ separate from Bratislava Petržalka and Devín boroughs on ethnic grounds , as these had many ethnic Germans . Bratislava was declared the capital of the first independent Slovak Republic on March 14 , 1939 , but the new state quickly fell under Nazi influence . In 1941 – 1942 and 1944 – 1945 , the new Slovak government cooperated in deporting most of Bratislava 's approximately 15 @,@ 000 Jews ; they were transported to concentration camps , where most were killed or died before the end of the war .
Bratislava was bombarded by the Allies , occupied by German troops in 1944 , and eventually taken by troops of the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front on 4 April 1945 . At the end of World War II , most of Bratislava 's ethnic Germans were helped to evacuate by the German authorities . A few returned after the war , but were soon expelled without their properties under the Beneš decrees , part of a widespread expulsion of ethnic Germans from eastern Europe .
After the Communist Party seized power in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 , the city became part of the Eastern Bloc . The city annexed new land , and the population rose significantly , becoming 90 % Slovak . Large residential areas consisting of high @-@ rise prefabricated panel buildings , such as those in the Petržalka borough , were built . The Communist government also built several new grandiose buildings , such as the Most Slovenského národného povstania bridge and the Slovak Radio headquarters .
In 1968 , after the unsuccessful Czechoslovak attempt to liberalise the Communist regime , the city was occupied by Warsaw Pact troops . Shortly thereafter , it became capital of the Slovak Socialist Republic , one of the two states of the federalized Czechoslovakia .
Bratislava 's dissidents anticipated the fall of Communism with the Bratislava candle demonstration in 1988 , and the city became one of the foremost centres of the anti @-@ Communist Velvet Revolution in 1989 .
In 1993 , the city became the capital of the newly formed Slovak Republic following the Velvet Divorce . In the 1990s and the early 21st century , its economy boomed due to foreign investment . The city has also hosted several important cultural and political events .
= = Geography = =
Bratislava is situated in south @-@ western Slovakia , within the Bratislava Region . Its location on the borders with Austria and Hungary makes it the only national capital that borders two countries . It is only 62 kilometres ( 38 @.@ 5 mi ) from the border with the Czech Republic and only 60 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) from the Austrian capital Vienna .
The city has a total area of 367 @.@ 58 square kilometres ( 141 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , making it the second @-@ largest city in Slovakia by area ( after the township of Vysoké Tatry ) . Bratislava straddles the Danube River , which it had developed around and for centuries was the chief transportation route to other areas . The river passes through the city from the west to the south @-@ east . The Middle Danube basin begins at Devín Gate in western Bratislava . Other rivers are the Morava River , which forms the north @-@ western border of the city and enters the Danube at Devín , the Little Danube , and the Vydrica , which enters the Danube in the borough of Karlova Ves .
The Carpathian mountain range begins in city territory with the Little Carpathians ( Malé Karpaty ) . The Záhorie and Danubian lowlands stretch into Bratislava . The city 's lowest point is at the Danube 's surface at 126 metres ( 413 ft ) above mean sea level , and the highest point is Devínska Kobyla at 514 metres ( 1 @,@ 686 ft ) . The average altitude is 140 metres ( 460 ft ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Bratislava lies in the north temperate zone and has a moderately continental climate ( original / US Köppen – Geiger climate classification Cfb / Dfb , Trewartha climate classification DCbo , USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 7b ) with mean annual temperature ( 1990 – 2009 ) of around 10 @.@ 5 ° C ( 50 @.@ 9 ° F ) , average temperature of 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) in the warmest month and − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) in the coldest month , four distinct seasons and precipitation spread rather evenly throughout the year . It is often windy with a marked variation between hot summers and cold , humid winters . The city is in one of the warmest and driest parts of Slovakia . Recently , the transitions from winter to summer and summer to winter have been rapid , with short autumn and spring periods . Snow occurs less frequently than previously . Extreme temperatures ( 1981 – 2013 ) – record high : 39 @.@ 4 ° C ( 102 @.@ 9 ° F ) , record low : − 24 @.@ 6 ° C ( − 12 @.@ 3 ° F ) . Some areas , particularly Devín and Devínska Nová Ves , are vulnerable to floods from the Danube and Morava rivers . New flood protection has been built on both banks .
= = = Location = = =
= = Cityscape and architecture = =
The cityscape of Bratislava is characterised by medieval towers and grandiose 20th @-@ century buildings , but it has undergone profound changes in a construction boom at the start of the 21st century .
Most historical buildings are concentrated in the Old Town . Bratislava 's Town Hall is a complex of three buildings erected in the 14th – 15th centuries and now hosts the Bratislava City Museum . Michael 's Gate is the only gate that has been preserved from the medieval fortifications , and it ranks among the oldest of the town 's buildings ; the narrowest house in Europe is nearby . The University Library building , erected in 1756 , was used by the Diet of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1802 to 1848 . Much of the significant legislation of the Hungarian Reform Era ( such as the abolition of serfdom and the foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) was enacted there .
The historic centre is characterised by many baroque palaces . The Grassalkovich Palace , built around 1760 , is now the residence of the Slovak president , and the Slovak government now has its seat in the former Archiepiscopal Palace . In 1805 , diplomats of emperors Napoleon and Francis II signed the fourth Peace of Pressburg in the Primate 's Palace , after Napoleon 's victory in the Battle of Austerlitz . Some smaller houses are historically significant ; composer Johann Nepomuk Hummel was born in an 18th @-@ century house in the Old Town .
Notable cathedrals and churches include the Gothic St. Martin 's Cathedral built in the 13th – 16th centuries , which served as the coronation church of the Kingdom of Hungary between 1563 and 1830 . The Franciscan Church , dating to the 13th century , has been a place of knighting ceremonies and is the oldest preserved sacral building in the city . The Church of St. Elizabeth , better known as the Blue Church due to its colour , is built entirely in the Hungarian Secessionist style .
A curiosity is the underground ( formerly ground @-@ level ) restored portion of the Jewish cemetery where 19th @-@ century Rabbi Moses Sofer is buried , located at the base of the castle hill near the entrance to a tram tunnel . The only military cemetery in Bratislava is Slavín , unveiled in 1960 in honour of Soviet Army soldiers who fell during the liberation of Bratislava in April 1945 . It offers an excellent view of the city and the Little Carpathians .
Other prominent 20th @-@ century structures include the Most Slovenského národného povstania ( Bridge of the Slovak national uprising ) across the Danube featuring a UFO @-@ like tower restaurant , Slovak Radio 's inverted @-@ pyramid @-@ shaped headquarters , and the uniquely designed Kamzík TV Tower with an observation deck and rotating restaurant . In the early 21st century , new edifices have transformed the traditional cityscape . The construction boom has spawned new public buildings , such as the Most Apollo and a new building of the Slovak National Theatre , as well as private real @-@ estate development .
= = = Bratislava Castle = = =
One of the most prominent structures in the city is Bratislava Castle , situated on a plateau 85 metres ( 279 ft ) above the Danube . The castle hill site has been inhabited since the transitional period between the Stone and Bronze ages and has been the acropolis of a Celtic town , part of the Roman Limes Romanus , a huge Slavic fortified settlement , and a political , military and religious centre for Great Moravia . A stone castle was not constructed until the 10th century , when the area was part of the Kingdom of Hungary . The castle was converted into a Gothic anti @-@ Hussite fortress under Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1430 , became a Renaissance castle in 1562 , and was rebuilt in 1649 in the baroque style . Under Queen Maria Theresa , the castle became a prestigious royal seat . In 1811 , the castle was inadvertently destroyed by fire and lay in ruins until the 1950s , when it was rebuilt mostly in its former Theresian style .
= = = Devín Castle = = =
The ruined and recently renovated Devín Castle is in the borough of Devín , on top of a rock where the Morava River , which forms the border between Austria and Slovakia , enters the Danube . It is one of the most important Slovak archaeological sites and contains a museum dedicated to its history . Due to its strategic location , Devín Castle was a very important frontier castle of Great Moravia and the early Hungarian state . It was destroyed by Napoleon 's troops in 1809 . It is an important symbol of Slovak and Slavic history .
= = = Rusovce = = =
Rusovce mansion , with its English park , is in the Rusovce borough . The house was originally built in the 17th century and was turned into an English neo @-@ Gothic @-@ style mansion in 1841 – 1844 . The borough is also known for the ruins of the Roman military camp Gerulata , part of Limes Romanus , a border defence system . Gerulata was built and used between the 1st and 4th centuries AD .
= = = Parks and lakes = = =
Due to its location in the foothills of the Little Carpathians and its riparian vegetation on the Danubian floodplains , Bratislava has forests close to the city centre . The total amount of public green space is 46 @.@ 8 square kilometres ( 18 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , or 110 square metres ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) per inhabitant . The largest city park is Horský park ( literally , Mountainous Park ) , in the Old Town . Bratislavský lesný park ( Bratislava Forest Park ) is located in the Little Carpathians and includes many locales popular among visitors , such as Železná studienka and Koliba . The Forest Park covers an area of 27 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 10 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , of which 96 % is forested mostly with oak and mixed oak / hornbeam forest , and contains original flora and fauna such as European badgers , red foxes , wild boar and red and roe deer . On the right bank of the Danube , in the borough of Petržalka , is Janko Kráľ Park founded in 1774 – 76 . A new city park is planned for Petržalka between the Malý Draždiak and Veľký Draždiak lakes .
Bratislava 's zoological park is located in Mlynská dolina , near the headquarters of Slovak Television . The zoo , founded in 1960 , currently houses 152 species of animals , including the rare white lion and white tiger . The Botanical Gardens , which belong to Comenius University , can be found on the Danube riverfront and house more than 120 species of domestic and foreign origin .
The city has a number of natural and man @-@ made lakes , most of which are used for recreation . Examples include Štrkovec lake in Ružinov , Kuchajda in Nové Mesto , Zlaté Piesky and the Vajnory lakes in the north @-@ east , and Rusovce lake in the south , which is popular with nudists .
= = Demographics = =
From the city 's origin until the 19th century , Germans were the dominant ethnic group . However , after the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , active Magyarisation took place , and by the end of World War I 40 % of the population of Pressburg spoke Hungarian as their native language , 42 % German , and 15 % Slovak . After the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1918 , Bratislava remained a multi @-@ ethnic city , but with a different demographic trend . Due to Slovakization , the proportion of Slovaks and Czechs increased in the city , while the proportion of Germans and Hungarians fell . In 1938 , 59 % of population were Slovaks or Czechs , while Germans represented 22 % and Hungarians 13 % of the city 's population . The creation of the first Slovak Republic in 1939 brought other changes , most notably the expulsion of many Czechs and the deportation or flight of the Jews during the Holocaust . In 1945 , most of the Germans were evacuated . After the restoration of Czechoslovakia , the Beneš decrees ( partly revoked in 1948 ) collectively punished ethnic German and Hungarian minorities by expropriation and deportation to Germany , Austria , and Hungary for their alleged collaborationism with Nazi Germany and Hungary against Czechoslovakia . The city thereby obtained its clearly Slovak character . Hundreds of citizens were expelled during the communist oppression of the 1950s , with the aim of replacing " reactionary " people with the proletarian class . Since the 1950s , the Slovaks have been the dominant ethnicity in the town , making up around 90 % of the city 's population .
= = Politics = =
Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak parliament , presidency , ministries , supreme court ( Slovak : Najvyšší
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diving , cross country , and weightlifting . Athletics at PCHS are regulated by the Florida High School Athletic Association under classification 4A , district 11 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
Port Charlotte High School has many clubs and groups , including Academic Team Challenge ( A @-@ Team ) , Beta Club , Book Club , Creative Writing Club , Dance Team , DECA , Environmental Club , Fellowship of Christian Athletes ( FCA ) , French Club , Games Club , Interact Club , Key Club , Mock Trial Team , Model United Nations ( MUN ) , Mu Alpha Theta , National Art Honor Society , National Honor Society , Naval Junior Reserve Officers Training Corp ( NJROTC ) , Pirate Crew , Pride of Port Charlotte Marching Band , Recruitment & Educational Assistance for Careers In Health ( REACH ) , Red Cross Club , Scholars Club , Silver Cord , Spanish Club , Student Government Association , Thespian Society , Tri @-@ M Music Society , Water Polo , and Yearbook Team . Key Club , an organization for high school students , is operated by the Kiwanis Club .
= = = Model United Nations = = =
Port Charlotte High School 's Model United Nations Academic Team was ranked by the BEST DELEGATE website as the number five best Model UN team in America for the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year .
The school 's Model United Nations ( MUN ) is the most successful competitive team of any kind in Charlotte County history . For almost two decades , the PCHS Model United Nations Academic Team has been recognized as one of the very best Model UN teams in the country or its winning performances at conferences at both the national and international levels . In 2012 , PCHS MUN was ranked the fourth best Model United Nations team in the United States by Best Delegate , a Model United Nations Database recognized all over the world .
The team has won coveted Best Large School and Best Small School Awards at many national and international conferences , like Harvard ( HMUN ) , Yale ( YMUN ) , the University of Pennsylvania ( ILMUNC ) , McGill University in Montreal , Canada ( SSUNS ) , as well as multiple awards at other noteworthy conferences such as University of Chicago ( MUNUC ) , Brown University ( BMUN ) , Northwestern University ( NUMUN , Georgia Tech ( GTMUN ) , The College of William and Mary ( WMHSMUN ) , Duke University , and the Southwest Florida / FGCU ( SWFLMUN ) .
The team also does significant community outreach work . For the past 16 years team members have operated their award @-@ winning International Market . They import and sell arts and crafts created by struggling indigenous artisans from all across the planet . They work closely with the Fair Trade Federation to ensure that all of the artists they work with are treated fairly and paid top wages for their creations . The team has sold well over $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of arts and crafts . Their efforts keep people in the developing world solvent and ancient art forms alive .
Team members also put on a yearly Mini @-@ Mun conference for students from local public and private middle schools . They also present six @-@ week @-@ long public speaking / debate seminars at several local elementary schools . The seminars culminate in a public debate between teams from the elementary schools . The event is attended by over 200 friends and relatives .
= = = Naval Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps = = =
The Naval Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps ( NJROTC ) is a program allowing high school students to participate in the academic and physical training aspect of naval service , while also providing leadership opportunities to those involved in the program . It does not require a commitment to military service following high school graduation . Port Charlotte 's NJROTC program was established in the early 1990s ; since then , it has grown significantly . The company of cadets are overseen and instructed by two retired United States Navy personnel , who are in turn overseen by the United States Navy itself through the form of Area Managers . Port Charlotte 's unit is a member of NJROTC Area Seven , and is known for service to its community .
The Pirate NJROTC unit has received many awards over the years , including , but not limited to the " Distinguished Unit Award , " which it has been awarded over seven consecutive academic years - 2001 @-@ 2007 . The unit is a part of Area 7 , which consists of units in Alabama , Florida , and Georgia .
The unit has seven " teams " within its infrastructure that allow participating cadets to receive extracurricular training and experience of their choice : an armed and unarmed Drill Team , Color Guard , honor guard , academic team , orienteering team , marksmanship team and a physical training ( " PT " ) team . The teams compete against other Area Seven units at colleges , universities , military installations , and other high schools . The teams also compete with other units across the United States .
= = = Pride of Port Charlotte Bands = = =
As of 2008 , Port Charlotte High School 's " Pride of Port Charlotte " Bands have consistently ranked among the top bands in the state of Florida for several years . The Pride of Port Charlotte Marching Band has participated at many famous events , such as the Fiesta Bowl , Macy 's Day Parade , the New York City Saint Patrick 's Day Parade , the New Years Day Parade in London , England , and the Cotton Bowl Parade in Dallas , Texas among many others . The Pride Concert and Jazz Bands are also extremely successful , consistently receiving superior ratings from the Florida Bandmasters Association .
= = Demographics = =
Students at Port Charlotte High School generally are between 13 and 19 years of age . 71 % of the students are Caucasian , 14 % are African American , 9 % are hispanic and 6 % are multiracial or other .
= = Notable alumni = =
Vinnie Fiorello and Chris DeMakes are members of Less Than Jake , a ska punk band .
John Hall , placekicker for the New York Jets and Washington Redskins .
Anthony Hargrove ( class of 2001 ) is a defensive end . He helped the New Orleans Saints win Super Bowl XLIV . He has also played for the St. Louis Rams , the Buffalo Bills and the Seattle Seahawks .
David Holmberg , class of 2009 , is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds .
Matthew LaPorta , baseball player for the Cleveland Indians and US Olympic team , attended PCHS his freshman year .
Asher Levine , fashion designer .
= = Notable Faculty = =
Doug Dunakey - Former professional golfer . He became the golf coach for PCHS after his professional career .
= Czech language =
Czech ( / ˈtʃɛk / ; čeština Czech pronunciation : [ ˈt ͡ ʃɛʃcɪna ] ) , formerly known as Bohemian ( / boʊˈhiːmiən , bə- / ; lingua Bohemica in Latin ) , is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German . It is spoken by over 10 million people and is the official language of the Czech Republic . Czech 's closest relative is Slovak , with which it is mutually intelligible . It is closely related to other West Slavic languages , such as Silesian and Polish . Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic , Romance , and Germanic languages , many loanwords ( most associated with high culture ) have been adopted in recent years .
The language began in its present linguistic branch as Old Czech before slowly dwindling in importance , dominated by German in the Czech lands . During the mid @-@ eighteenth century , it experienced a revival in which Czech academics stressed the past accomplishments of their people and advocated the return of Czech as a major language . It has changed little since that time , except for minor morphological shifts and the formalization of colloquial elements .
Its phoneme inventory is moderate in size , comprising five vowels ( each short or long ) and twenty @-@ five consonants ( divided into " hard " , " neutral " and " soft " categories ) . Words may contain uncommon ( or complicated ) consonant clusters , including one consonant represented by the grapheme ř , or lack vowels altogether . Czech orthography is simple , and has been used as a model by phonologists .
As a member of the Slavic sub @-@ family of the Indo @-@ European languages , Czech is a highly inflected fusional language . Its nouns and adjectives undergo a complex system of declension for case , number , gender , animacy , and type of ending consonant ( hard , neutral or soft ) . Verbs ( with aspect ) are conjugated somewhat more simply for tense , number and gender . Because of this inflection , Czech word order is very flexible and words may be transposed to change emphasis or form questions .
= = Classification = =
Czech is classified as a member of the West Slavic sub @-@ branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo @-@ European language family . This branch includes Polish , Kashubian , Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak . Slovak is by far the closest genetic neighbor of Czech , and the languages are closer than any other pair of West Slavic languages ( including Upper and Lower Sorbian , which share a name by association with an ethnic group ) .
The West Slavic languages are spoken in an area classified as part of Central Europe . Except for Polish they differ from East and South Slavic languages by their initial @-@ syllable stress , and Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by a more @-@ restricted distinction between " hard " and " soft " consonants ( see Phonology below ) .
= = = Mutual intelligibility = = =
Czech and Slovak have been considered mutually intelligible ; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages . Since the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia mutual intelligibility has declined for younger speakers , probably because Czech speakers now experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa .
The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian , Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo @-@ Croatian . However , most Slavic languages ( including Czech ) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union ( which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968 ) . Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum , with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects . ( See " Dialects " below . )
In phonetic differences , Czech is characterized by a glottal stop before initial vowels and Slovak by its less @-@ frequent use of long vowels than Czech ; however , Slovak has long forms of the consonants r and l when they function as vowels . Phonemic differences between the two languages are generally consistent , typical of two dialects of a language . Grammatically , although Czech ( unlike Slovak ) has a vocative case both languages share a common syntax .
One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent , but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation ; Slovak morphology is more regular ( when changing from the nominative to the locative case , Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak ) . The two lexicons are generally considered similar , with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology . Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech .
The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th @-@ century scholars who called themselves " Czechoslavs " ( Čechoslováci ) , believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and ( to a lesser extent ) Hungarians and other Slavs . During the First Czechoslovak Republic ( 1918 – 1938 ) , although " Czechoslovak " was designated as the republic 's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used . Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech , and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic . Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars , and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State ( which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II ) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech . When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed , Slovak developed somewhat on its own ( with Czech influence ) ; during the Prague Spring of 1968 , Slovak gained independence from ( and equality with ) Czech . Since then , " Czechoslovak " refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility .
= = History = =
= = = Origins : Proto @-@ Czech and Old Czech = = =
Around the sixth century AD , a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe . According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech , from whom the word " Czech " derives . The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia , whose first ruler ( Rastislav of Moravia ) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country . These missionaries , Constantine and Methodius , helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system . They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs , whose language was previously unwritten . This language , later known as Proto @-@ Czech , was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto @-@ Slovak , Proto @-@ Polish and Proto @-@ Sorbian . Among other features , Proto @-@ Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant ( / ɣ / ) and consistent stress on the first syllable .
The Czechs ' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century , a classification extending through the sixteenth century . Its use of cases differed from the modern language ; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction , declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated ( partially to differentiate homophones ) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian ( its Balto @-@ Slavic cousin ) .
While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn , it did not have a standard orthography . It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist ; allowing ě ( / jɛ / ) after soft consonants , which has since shifted to e ( / ɛ / ) , and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically . A phonological phenomenon , Havlik 's law ( which began in Proto @-@ Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages ) , appeared in Old Czech ; counting backwards from the end of a clause , every odd @-@ numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel , while the other yers disappeared .
Bohemia ( as Czech civilization was known by then ) increased in power over the centuries , as its language did in regional importance . This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV , who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348 . Here , early Czech literature ( a biblical translation , hymns and hagiography ) flourished . Old Czech texts , including poetry and cookbooks , were produced outside the university as well . Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography , advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners ( particularly in religion ) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language .
Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years , and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century . A biblical translation , the Kralice Bible , was published during the late sixteenth century ( around the time of the King James and Luther versions ) which was more linguistically conservative than either . The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism , and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech @-@ speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land . This , and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire 's Catholicism to Protestantism , angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years ' War ( where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain ) . The Czechs became serfs ; Bohemia 's printing industry ( and its linguistic and political rights ) were dismembered , removing official regulation and support from its language . German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia .
= = = Revival : Modern Czech = = =
The consensus among linguists is that modern , standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century . By then the language had developed a literary tradition , and since then it has changed little ; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech , and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty . Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í ( although é survives for some uses ) and the merging of í and the former ejí . Sometime before the eighteenth century , the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic / l / and / ʎ / which survives in Slovak .
The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid @-@ eighteenth century , inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half @-@ century earlier . Czech historians began to emphasize their people 's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries , rebelling against the Counter @-@ Reformation ( which had denigrated Czech and other non @-@ Latin languages ) . Czech philologists studied sixteenth @-@ century texts , advocating the return of the language to high culture . This period is known as the Czech National Revival ( or Renascence ) .
During the revival , in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German @-@ language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache ( Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language ) . Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive , and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language . However , Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský 's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival . Changes during this time included spelling reform ( notably , í in place of the former j and j in place of g ) , the use of t ( rather than ti ) to end infinitive verbs and the non @-@ capitalization of nouns ( which had been a late borrowing from German ) . These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak . Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal , widespread use .
Adherence to historical patterns was later relaxed and standard Czech adopted a number of features from Common Czech ( a widespread , informal register ) , such as leaving some proper nouns undeclined . This has resulted in a relatively high level of homogeneity among all varieties of the language .
= = Geographic distribution = =
In 2005 and 2007 , Czech was spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic . A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech , the third @-@ highest in the European Union ( behind Greece and Hungary ) .
Czech , the official language of the Czech Republic ( a member of the European Union since 2004 ) , is one of the EU 's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia . Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages . The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic ( 98 @.@ 77 percent ) , Slovakia ( 24 @.@ 86 percent ) , Portugal ( 1 @.@ 93 percent ) , Poland ( 0 @.@ 98 percent ) and Germany ( 0 @.@ 47 percent ) .
Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities . Since it is a recognised minority language in Slovakia , Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language to the extent that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic may do so .
= = = United States = = =
Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914 . Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools , and is taught at Czech heritage centers . Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas , Nebraska and Wisconsin . In the 2000 United States Census , Czech was reported as the most @-@ common language spoken at home ( besides English ) in Valley , Butler and Saunders Counties , Nebraska and Republic County , Kansas . With the exception of Spanish ( the non @-@ English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide ) , Czech was the most @-@ common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska , Kansas , Texas , North Dakota and Minnesota . As of 2009 , 70 @,@ 500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language ( 49th place nationwide , behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish ) .
= = Dialects = =
In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard , Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech . During the second half of the twentieth century , Czech dialect use began to weaken . By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized , associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect . Increased travel and media availability to dialect @-@ speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to ( or add to their own dialect ) standard Czech . Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language , this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects . Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians , businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations , but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media .
A detailed 2003 estimate from the Czech Statistical Office counts the following dialects :
Nářečí středočeská ( Central Bohemian dialects )
Nářečí jihozápadočeská ( Southwestern Bohemian dialects )
Podskupina chodská ( Chod subgroup )
Podskupina doudlebská ( Doudleby subgroup )
Nářečí českomoravská ( Bohemian – Moravian dialects )
Nářečí středomoravská ( Central Moravian dialects )
Podskupina tišnovská ( Tišnov subgroup )
Nářečí východomoravská ( Eastern Moravian dialects )
Podskupina slovácká ( Moravian Slovak subgroup )
Podskupina valašská ( Moravian Wallachian subgroup )
Nářečí slezská ( Silesian dialects )
Nářečí severovýchodočeská ( Northeastern Bohemian dialects )
Podskupina podkrknošská ( Krkonoše subgroup )
The main colloquial Czech dialect , spoken primarily near Prague but also throughout the country , is known as Common Czech ( obecná čeština ) . This is an academic distinction ; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with vernacular ( or incorrect ) Czech . Compared to standard Czech , Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution .
The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian ( moravština ) . In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , " Bohemian @-@ Moravian @-@ Slovak " was a language citizens could register as speaking ( with German , Polish and several others ) . Of the Czech dialects , only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office . As of 2011 , 62 @,@ 908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45 @,@ 561 were diglossal ( speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages ) .
Beginning in the sixteenth century , some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak ; the southeastern Moravian dialects , in particular , are sometimes considered dialects of Slovak rather than Czech . These dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages , using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak .
In a 1964 textbook on Czech dialectology , Břetislav Koudela used the following sentence to highlight phonetic differences between dialects :
= = Phonology = =
Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes , and three more found only in loanwords . They are / a / , / ɛ / , / ɪ / , / o / , and / u / , their long counterparts / aː / , / ɛː / , / iː / , / oː / and / uː / , and three diphthongs , / ou ̯ / , / au ̯ / and / ɛu ̯ / . The latter two diphthongs and the long / oː / are exclusive to loanwords . Vowels are never reduced to schwa sounds when unstressed . Each word usually has primary stress on its first syllable , except for enclitics ( minor , monosyllabic , unstressed syllables ) . In all words of more than two syllables , every odd @-@ numbered syllable receives secondary stress . Stress is unrelated to vowel length , and the possibility of stressed short vowels and unstressed long vowels can be confusing to students whose native language combines the features ( such as English ) .
Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word , or when they are followed by unvoiced consonants . Czech consonants are categorized as " hard " , " neutral " or " soft " :
Hard : / d / , / ɡ / , / ɦ / , / k / , / n / , / r / , / t / , / x /
Neutral : / b / , / f / , / l / , / m / , / p / , / s / , / v / , / z /
Soft : / c / , / ɟ / , / j / , / ɲ / , / r ̝ / , / ʃ / , / ts / , / tʃ / , / ʒ /
This distinction describes the declension patterns of nouns , which is based on the category of a noun 's ending consonant . Hard consonants may not be followed by i or í in writing , or soft ones by y or ý ( except in loanwords such as kilogram ) . Neutral consonants may take either character . Hard consonants are sometimes known as " strong " , and soft ones as " weak " .
The phoneme represented by the letter ř ( capital Ř ) is considered unique to Czech . It represents the raised alveolar non @-@ sonorant trill ( IPA : [ r ̝ ] ) , a sound somewhere between Czech 's r and ž ( example : " řeka " ( river ) ) , and is present in Dvořák .
The consonants / r / and / l / can be syllabic , acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel . This can be difficult for non @-@ native speakers to pronounce , and Strč prst skrz krk ( " Stick [ your ] finger down [ your ] throat " ) is a Czech tongue twister .
= = Vocabulary = =
Czech vocabulary derives primarily from Slavic , Baltic and other Indo @-@ European roots . Although most verbs have Balto @-@ Slavic origins , pronouns , prepositions and some verbs have wider , Indo @-@ European roots . Some loanwords have been restructured by folk etymology to resemble native Czech words ( hřbitov , " graveyard " and listina , " list " ) .
Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods . Earlier loanwords , primarily from German , Greek and Latin , arrived before the Czech National Revival . More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and French , and also from Hebrew , Arabic and Persian . Many Russian loanwords , principally animal names and naval terms , also exist in Czech .
Although older German loanwords were colloquial , recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture . During the nineteenth century , words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots ; " music " is muzyka in Polish and музыка ( muzyka ) in Russian , but in Czech it is hudba . Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages — for example , robot ( from robota , " labor " ) and polka ( from polka , " Polish woman " or from " půlka " " half " ) .
= = Grammar = =
Typical of Indo @-@ European languages , Czech grammar is fusional ; its nouns , verbs , and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions , and the easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited . Slavic @-@ language inflection is complex and pervasive , inflecting for case , gender and number in nouns and tense , aspect , mood , person and subject number and gender in verbs .
Other parts of speech include adjectives , adverbs , numbers , interrogative words , prepositions , conjunctions and interjections . Adverbs are primarily formed by taking the final ý or í of an adjective and replacing it with e , ě , or o . Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ne- to the verb of a clause , with one exception : je ( he , she or it is ) becomes není .
= = = Sentence and clause structure = = =
Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence ( instead of relying on word order , as English does ) , its word order is flexible . As a pro @-@ drop language , in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb ; information about its subject is encoded in the verb . Enclitics ( primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns ) must appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence , after the first stressed unit . The first slot must contain a subject and object , a main form of a verb , an adverb or a conjunction ( except for the light conjunctions a , " and " , i , " and even " or ale , " but " ) .
Czech syntax has a subject – verb – object sentence structure . In practice , however , word order is flexible and used for topicalization and focus . Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction ( like English ) , colloquial word @-@ order changes frequently produce the passive voice . For example , to change " Peter killed Paul " to " Paul was killed by Peter " the order of subject and object is inverted : Petr zabil Pavla ( " Peter killed Paul " ) becomes " Paul , Peter killed " ( Pavla zabil Petr ) . Pavla is in the accusative case , the grammatical object ( in this case , the victim ) of the verb .
A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized , unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question :
Pes jí bagetu . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than eating something else ) .
Bagetu jí pes . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than someone else doing so ) .
Pes bagetu jí . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than doing something else to it ) .
Jí pes bagetu ? – Does the dog eat the baguette ? ( emphasis ambiguous )
In portions of Bohemia ( including Prague ) , questions such as Jí pes bagetu ? without an interrogative word ( such as co , " what " or kdo , " who " ) are intoned in a slow rise from low to high , quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase .
In Czech syntax , adjectives precede nouns . Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective který , analogous to the English relative pronouns " which " , " that " , " who " and " whom " . As with other adjectives , it is declined into the appropriate case ( see Declension below ) to match its associated noun , person and number . Relative clauses follow the noun they modify , and the following is a glossed example :
English : I want to visit the university that John attends .
= = = Declension = = =
In Czech , nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases . Nouns are inflected to indicate their use in a sentence . A nominative – accusative language , Czech marks subject nouns with nominative case and object nouns with accusative case . The genitive case marks possessive nouns and some types of movement . The remaining cases ( instrumental , locative , vocative and dative ) indicate semantic relationships , such as secondary objects , movement or position ( dative case ) and accompaniment ( instrumental case ) . An adjective 's case agrees with that of the noun it describes . When Czech children learn their language 's declension patterns , the cases are referred to by number :
Some Czech grammatical texts order the cases differently , grouping the nominative and accusative ( and the dative and locative ) together because those declension patterns are often identical ; this order accommodates learners with experience in other inflected languages , such as Latin or Russian . This order is nominative , accusative , genitive , dative , locative , instrumental and vocative .
Some prepositions require the nouns they modify to take a particular case . The cases assigned by each preposition are based on the physical ( or metaphorical ) direction , or location , conveyed by it . For example , od ( from , away from ) and z ( out of , off ) assign the genitive case . Other prepositions take one of several cases , with their meaning dependent on the case ; na means " onto " or " for " with the accusative case , but " on " with the locative .
Examples of declension patterns ( using prepositions ) for a few nouns with adjectives follow . Only one plural example is given , since plural declension patterns are similar across genders .
This is a glossed example of a sentence using several cases :
English : I carried the box into the house with my friend .
= = = = Gender and animacy = = = =
Czech distinguishes three genders — masculine , feminine , and neuter — and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate . With few exceptions , feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a , -e , or -ost ; neuter nouns in -o , -e , or -í , and masculine nouns in a consonant . Adjectives agree in gender and animacy ( for masculine nouns in the accusative or genitive singular and the nominative plural ) with the nouns they modify . The main effect of gender in Czech is the difference in noun and adjective declension , but other effects include past @-@ tense verb endings : for example , dělal ( he did , or made ) ; dělala ( she did , or made ) and dělalo ( it did , or made ) .
= = = = Number = = = =
Nouns are also inflected for number , distinguishing between singular and plural . Typical of a Slavic language , Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case , but numbers over five place these nouns and adjectives in the genitive case when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case . The Czech koruna is an example of this feature ; it is shown here as the subject of a hypothetical sentence , and declined as genitive for numbers five and up .
Numerical words decline for case and , for numbers one and two , for gender . Numbers one through five are shown below as examples , and have some of the most exceptions among Czech numbers . The number one has declension patterns identical to those of the demonstrative pronoun , to .
Although Czech 's main grammatical numbers are singular and plural , a vestigial dual number remains . Some nouns for paired body parts have a dual form : ruka ( hand ) — ruce ; noha ( leg ) — nohy ; oko ( eye ) — oči , and ucho ( ear ) — uši . While two of these nouns are neuter in their singular forms , all dual nouns are considered feminine . Czech has no standard declension pattern for dual nouns , and their gender is relevant to their associated adjectives and verbs .
= = = Verb conjugation = = =
Czech verb conjugation is less complex than noun and adjective declension because it codes for fewer categories . Verbs agree with their subjects in person ( first , second or third ) and number ( singular or plural ) , and are conjugated for tense ( past , present or future ) . For example , the conjugated verb mluvíme ( we speak ) is in the present tense and first @-@ person plural ; it is distinguished from other conjugations of the infinitive mluvit by its ending , me .
= = = = Aspect = = = =
Typical of Slavic languages , Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects : perfective and imperfective . Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs — for example , koupit ( perfective ) and kupovat ( imperfective ) . Although the verbs ' meaning is similar , in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing . This is distinct from past and present tense , and any Czech verb of either aspect can be conjugated into any of its three tenses . Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense .
The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways : by prefix or by suffix . In prefix pairs , the perfective verb has an added prefix — for example , the imperfective psát ( to write , to be writing ) compared with the perfective napsat ( to write down , to finish writing ) . The most common prefixes are na- , o- , po- , s- , u- , vy- , z- and za- . In suffix pairs , a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem ; for example , the perfective verbs koupit ( to buy ) and prodat ( to sell ) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat . Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs ( iterative and frequentative forms ) , denoting repeated or regular action . The verb jít ( to go ) has the iterative form chodit ( to go repeatedly ) and the frequentative form chodívat ( to go regularly ) .
Many verbs have only one aspect , and verbs describing continual states of being — být ( to be ) , chtít ( to want ) , moct ( to be able to ) , ležet ( to lie down , to be lying down ) — have no perfective form . Conversely , verbs describing immediate states of change — for example , otěhotnět ( to become pregnant ) and nadchnout se ( to become enthusiastic ) — have no imperfective aspect .
= = = = Tense and mood = = = =
Although Czech 's use of present and future tense is largely similar to that of English , the language uses past tense to represent the English present perfect and past perfect ; ona běžela could mean she ran , she has run or she had run .
In some contexts , Czech 's perfective present ( which differs from the English present perfect ) implies future action ; in others , it connotes habitual action . As a result , the language has a proper future tense to minimize ambiguity . The future tense does not involve conjugating the verb describing an action to be undertaken in the future ; instead , the future form of být ( as shown in the table at left ) is placed before the infinitive ( for example , budu jíst — " I will eat " ) .
This conjugation is not followed by být itself , so future @-@ oriented expressions involving nouns , adjectives , or prepositions ( rather than verbs ) omit být . " I will be happy " is translated as Budu šťastný ( not Budu být šťastný ) .
The infinitive form ends in t ( archaically , ti ) . It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs ( for example , můžu tě slyšet — " I can hear you " ) . Czech verbs have three grammatical moods : indicative , imperative and conditional . The imperative mood adds specific endings for each of three person ( or number ) categories : -Ø / -i / -ej for second @-@ person singular , -te / -ete / -ejte for second @-@ person plural and -me / -eme / -ejme for first @-@ person plural . The conditional mood is formed with a particle after the past @-@ tense verb . This mood indicates possible events , expressed in English as " I would " or " I wish " .
= = = = Classes = = = =
Most Czech verbs fall into one of five classes , which determine their conjugation patterns . The future tense of být would be classified as a Class I verb because of its endings . Examples of the present tense of each class and some common irregular verbs follow in the tables below :
= = Orthography = =
Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages . Its thirty @-@ one graphemes represent thirty sounds ( in most dialects , i and y have the same sound ) , and it contains only one digraph : ch , which follows h in the alphabet . As a result , some of its characters have been used by phonologists to denote corresponding sounds in other languages . The characters q , w and x appear only in foreign words . The háček ( ˇ ) is used with certain letters to form new characters : š , ž , and č , as well as ň , ě , ř , ť , and ď ( the latter five uncommon outside Czech ) . The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above ( ʼ , an abbreviated háček ) because of their height . The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia .
Unlike most European languages , Czech distinguishes vowel length ; long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or , occasionally with ů , a ring . Long u is usually written ú at the beginning of a word or morpheme ( úroda , neúrodný ) and ů elsewhere , except for loanwords ( skútr ) or onomatopoeia ( bú ) . Long vowels and ě are not considered separate letters .
Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most Latin European languages , including English . Proper nouns , honorifics , and the first letters of quotations are capitalized , and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages . Writing of ordinal numerals is similar to most European languages . The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point . When writing a long number , spaces between every three numbers ( e.g. between hundreds and thousands ) may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts , but not in decimal places , like in English . The number 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 567 @.@ 8910 may be written as 1234567 @,@ 8910 or 1 234 567 @,@ 8910 . Ordinal numbers ( 1st ) use a point as in German ( 1 . ) . In proper noun phrases ( except personal names ) , only the first word is capitalized ( Pražský hrad , Prague Castle ) .
= = Sample text = =
According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights :
Czech : Všichni lidé se rodí svobodní a sobě rovní co do důstojnosti a práv . Jsou nadáni rozumem a svědomím a mají spolu jednat v duchu bratrství .
English : " All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood . "
= Joseph Brittan =
Dr. Joseph Brittan ( 12 January 1805 – 27 October 1867 ) , a surgeon , newspaper editor , and provincial councillor , was one of the dominant figures in early Christchurch , New Zealand . Born into a middle @-@ class family in southern England , he caused a scandal by marrying his deceased wife 's sister . As was not unusual at the time , this was responded to by emigrating , and he followed his younger brother Guise Brittan to Christchurch , where he and his wife arrived in February 1852 with four children . Joseph Brittan soon got involved in the usual activities of early settlers and gained prominence in doing so . He had bought 100 acres on 10 July 1851 and took up 50 of this to the east of Christchurch that he converted to farmland . There , he built the family residence , and the suburb of Linwood was subsequently named after Brittan 's farm and homestead of Linwood House .
The members of the Brittan family were devout Anglicans and had a close association with the neighbouring Holy Trinity Avonside , where Guise Brittan was a lay reader . William Rolleston became Joseph
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ence paid by the Duke " for brandy when your Grace plaid at Cricket with Arundel men " . It is thought the brandy was bought to celebrate a victory .
After the 1st Duke of Richmond died in 1723 , his son Charles Lennox , 2nd Duke of Richmond , quickly succeeded him as cricket 's main benefactor and became a famous patron of Sussex cricket for the next thirty years . The 2nd Duke enjoyed a friendly rivalry with his friend Sir William Gage , another Sussex patron . Their teams played each other many times and their earliest known contest was on Tuesday , 20 July 1725 , five days after Sir William 's team was beaten by unknown opponents . Our knowledge of these two games is based on a humorous letter sent by Sir William to the Duke on 16 July . Sir William bemoaned that he was " shamefully beaten " the previous day in " his first match of the year " but says nothing of his opponents . He then looked forward to playing the Duke 's team next Tuesday and wished his Grace " success in everything except his cricket match " .
The main rival to Richmond and Gage was Edwin Stead of Maidstone , who was the first of the noted Kent patrons . The Sussex teams of Richmond and Gage enjoyed an inter @-@ county rivalry with Stead 's Kent that could have originated the concept of the County Championship .
= = = The terms of the wager = = =
The patrons ensured that cricket was financed in the 18th century but their interest , equally applicable to horse racing and prizefighting , was based on the opportunities that cricket provided for gambling . Every important match in the 18th century , whether eleven @-@ a @-@ side or single wicket , was played for stakes . The early newspapers recognised this and were more interested in publishing the odds than the match scores . Reports would say who won the wager rather than who won the match . Sometimes , gambling would lead to dispute and two matches ended up in court when rival interests sought legal rulings on the terms of their wagers .
On Monday , 1 September 1718 , a game on White Conduit Fields in Islington between London and the Rochester Punch Club was unfinished because some of the Rochester players walked off in an attempt to have the game declared incomplete . This was so that they would retain their stake money . London was clearly winning at the time . The game while incomplete became the subject of a lawsuit where the terms of the wager were at issue . The court ordered it to be " played out " and this happened in July 1719 . Rochester with four wickets standing needed thirty more runs to win but lost by 21 and this is cricket 's earliest known definite result .
In 1724 , Chingford v Edwin Stead 's XI ended early because the Chingford team refused to play to a finish when Stead 's team had the advantage . A court case followed and , as in 1718 , it was ordered to be played out , presumably so that all wagers could be fulfilled . It is known that Lord Chief Justice Pratt presided over the case and ordered them to play it out on Dartford Brent , though it is unclear if that was the original venue . The game was completed in 1726 . This match is the earliest reference to cricket being played in Essex , assuming Chingford was the original venue , and is the first known to have involved an Essex team .
The introduction of articles of agreement , agreed before matches by the stakeholders , largely resolved any problems between patrons and match organisers . The concept was more important in terms of defining the rules of play and eventually these were codified as the Laws of cricket .
= = = Matches of the early 18th century = = =
Periodicals called The Post Boy and The Post Man were useful sources for cricket advertisements during the early 18th century . In 1700 , a series of matches to be held on Clapham Common was pre @-@ announced on 30 March by The Post Boy . The first was to take place on Easter Monday and prizes of £ 10 and £ 20 were at stake . No match reports could be found so the results and scores remain unknown . The advert says the teams would consist of ten " Gentlemen " per side but the invitation to attend was to " Gentlemen and others " . This clearly implies that cricket had achieved both the patronage that underwrote it through the 18th century and the spectators who demonstrated its lasting popular appeal . On 24 July 1705 , The Post Man announced West of Kent v Chatham , an 11 @-@ a @-@ side game at Malling , Kent .
On 1 and 8 July 1707 , Croydon played London twice , the first game played in Croydon , possibly at Duppas Hill , and the second at Lamb 's Conduit Field in Holborn . Both matches were advertised by The Post Man as " two great matches at cricket ( to be ) plaid , between London and Croydon ; the first at Croydon on Tuesday , 1 July , and the other to be plaid in Lamb 's @-@ Conduit @-@ Fields , near Holborn , on the Tuesday following , being the 3rd ( sic ) of July " . No post @-@ match reports could be found so the results and scores are unknown . In the same year , there was a match between London and Mitcham at Lamb 's Conduit Field .
The earliest known match that definitely involved county teams , or teams using the names of counties , was Kent v Surrey at Dartford Brent on Wednesday , 29 June 1709 . This was advertised in the Post Man the previous Saturday and played for a stake of £ 50 . Dartford Brent was a popular Kent venue in the 18th century and was probably used for matches in the 17th century . It is likely that Dartford Cricket Club , as the foremost Kent club in this period , provided not only the venue but also the nucleus of the team , while the Surrey team would have been drawn from a number of Surrey parishes and subscribed by their patron .
One player who could have taken part in the 1709 match was William Bedle ( 1680 – 1768 ) , of Dartford , who is the earliest great player whose name has been recorded . He was " reckoned to be the most expert player in England " and must have been in his prime c.1700 to c.1725. Other good players known to have been active in the 1720s were Edwin Stead of Kent ; Edmund Chapman and Stephen Dingate of Surrey ; Tim Coleman of London ; and Thomas Waymark of Sussex .
= = = Dartford v London = = =
The first great rivalry in cricket history was between the Dartford and London clubs who are first known to have played each other in 1722 . On Wednesday , 19 August 1719 , London v Kent was played at White Conduit Fields and Kent won . The report said the teams played for " a considerable sum of money " .
On Saturday , 9 July 1720 , London v Kent at White Conduit Fields was won by London . In this match , two London fielders were badly injured by a clash of heads . H. T. Waghorn wrote that advertising and reporting of cricket ceased for some years after this game and he wondered if that was due to a perception that the sport was dangerous . The South Sea Bubble may have had an economic impact on investment and gambling as , when the South Sea Company was found to be insolvent , its crash in 1720 caused massive repercussions throughout the economy and many formerly prosperous investors were ruined . This could have included cricket patrons , while a potential impact on reporting was the application of stamp duty to newspapers as this increased their publication costs and probably caused publishers to reduce paper size with less room for sports coverage .
On Wednesday , 18 July 1722 , London v Dartford in Islington was the subject of a letter in The Weekly Journal dated 21 July 1722 . The result of the match is unknown . In 1723 , the prominent Tory politician Robert Harley , Earl of Oxford recorded in his journal : " At Dartford upon the Heath as we came out of the town , the men of Tonbridge and the Dartford men were warmly engaged at the sport of cricket , which of all the people of England the Kentish folk are the most renowned for , and of all the Kentish men , the men of Dartford lay claim to the greatest excellence " . It is more than likely to have been Dartford Brent where this game was taking place .
Dartford and London met at Dartford Brent on Thursday , 11 June 1724 and , one week later , a return game was the earliest known match at Kennington Common , near where The Oval is now sited . The result is unknown . On Monday , 10 August 1724 , there was a match in Islington ( result unknown ) which featured the combined parishes of Penshurst , Tunbridge and Wadhurst versus Dartford . This was recorded in a diary entry by one John Dawson , who may have watched it . No details are known but Mr Dawson says it was " a great cricket match " .
= = The growth of cricket in England and overseas = =
The earliest known mention of cricket being played outside England is dated Saturday , 6 May 1676 . A diarist called Henry Tonge , who was part of a British mission at Aleppo in the Ottoman Empire ( now in Syria ) , recorded that " at least forty of the English " left the city for recreational purposes and , having found a nice place to pitch a tent for dinner , they " had several pastimes and sports " including " krickett " . At six they " returned home in good order " .
By this time , cricket had been introduced to India , North America and the West Indies but the first definite references occur in the 18th century . In 1709 , cricket was played by William Byrd of Westover on his James River estates in Virginia , then a British colony . This is the earliest reference to cricket being played in the New World . In 1721 , British sailors of the East India Company were reported to be playing cricket at Cambay , near Baroda , and this is the earliest reference to cricket being played in India . It was via the East India Company that cricket was introduced to and established in the Indian sub @-@ continent . There had not yet been any English colonisation of Australasia or southern Africa .
It is possible that cricket was introduced to the Americas and India before it had spread throughout the British Isles . For example , there is no record of cricket in Yorkshire , home of the English game 's most successful club , until 1751 . The earliest mentions of cricket in Ireland , Scotland and Wales occur even later in the 18th century .
While Britain 's seafaring and trading concerns ensured the spread of cricket overseas , at home it relied heavily on ease of transport and communications , most of these being waterborne as long journeys tended to be undertaken using coastal or river vessels . Road transport was slowly improving and , in 1706 , Parliament established the first turnpike trusts that placed a length of road under the control of trustees drawn from local landowners and traders . The turnpike trusts borrowed capital for road maintenance against the security of tolls . This arrangement became the common method of road maintenance for the next 150 years and came in time to assist the spread of cricket throughout Britain .
= 2013 Mudsummer Classic =
The 2013 Mudsummer Classic ( formally the CarCash Mudsummer Classic presented by CNBC Prime 's The Profit ) was a NASCAR Camping World Truck Series stock car race held on July 24 , 2013 at Eldora Speedway in New Weston , Ohio . The race was the first dirt track race held by a NASCAR national touring series ( Cup , Xfinity , Trucks ) since 1970 . Contested over 150 laps , the race was the tenth of the 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series season . Ken Schrader of self @-@ owned Ken Schrader Racing won the pole position , and became the oldest pole sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age . Austin Dillon of Richard Childress Racing won the race , while Kyle Larson and Ryan Newman finished second and third , respectively .
The qualifying procedure was unique for the race ; drivers ' qualifying times set the starting grids for five heat races to determine the feature race 's starting lineup , while the top five of a last chance qualifier ( LCQ ) advance to the feature . Schrader , Jared Landers , Timothy Peters , Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton won the heat races , while Brennan Newberry won the LCQ . The feature 's format was also distinctive compared to other NASCAR events , as it was divided into three segments , lasting 60 , 50 and 40 laps . In the feature , Larson took the lead from Peters on lap 39 , and later battled with Dillon for the win , and Dillon claimed the victory after he retained the lead on the green – white – checker finish for his fifth career Truck Series win .
= = Background = =
The last race run on dirt in a NASCAR national touring series occurred on September 30 , 1970 at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh in a Grand National ( now Sprint Cup Series ) race , which was won by Richard Petty . Afterwards , NASCAR sanctioned the Busch All @-@ Star Tour , a dirt late model series , which lasted from 1985 to 2002 .
Eldora Speedway , which opened in 1954 , is considered to be one of 14 intermediate tracks on the Truck Series schedule , the others being Charlotte , Chicagoland , Dover , Homestead @-@ Miami , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky , Las Vegas , Michigan , Phoenix , Pocono , Rockingham and Texas . The track is a 0 @.@ 5 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) oval with turns at a 24 degree banking , while the straightaways are 8 degrees . The track 's grandstands can fit 17 @,@ 782 spectators , and the hillside seating can fit an unlimited number of fans .
On October 15 , track owner Tony Stewart and Austin Dillon held a private test at the track , driving trucks . On November 28 , 2012 , NASCAR announced that Eldora Speedway would be on the schedule as the first of two Wednesday Truck races , along with the UNOH 200 at Bristol Motor Speedway for 2013 . Although the track does not have any SAFER barriers , Tom Gideon , NASCAR Director of Safety , stated the track meets NASCAR regulations . By January 29 , 2013 , the 17 @,@ 782 grandstand seats had been sold out , with purchasers from 48 states and six countries .
" We 've been looking at getting the trucks back to short tracks – to the roots of racing including the dirt – and we ’ re excited to announce our 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series will race at Eldora Speedway in July . The door @-@ to @-@ door racing that our truck series is known for plus Eldora 's popularity and [ Tony Stewart ] ' s dedication to putting on great shows for the fans is a perfect fit . We 'll have a maximum starting field of 30 trucks at Eldora . More details on the race format are still being developed . "
Various non @-@ Truck regulars entered the race for reasons such as to help a team in the owners ' championship , with teams hiring drivers who are familiar with dirt racing to assist them in the championship . Examples include dirt track specialists Scott Bloomquist , who won The Dream and the World 100 at the track six times and three times , respectively ; Tracy Hines , who had 85 career wins , including six at Eldora , and 52 starts in the Truck Series ; Jared Landers , who won 100 features in his career ; J. R. Heffner , who won the big @-@ block modified championship at Lebanon Valley Speedway twice ; Jeff Babcock , who won an American Late Model Series race at the track during 2013 ; and Joe Cobb , a dirt modified racer and the father of Truck Series regular Jennifer Jo Cobb . Cup Series drivers Dave Blaney , Ken Schrader and Ryan Newman , along with Nationwide Series drivers Austin Dillon , Kenny Wallace and Kyle Larson also ran in the event . Babcock , Blaney , Bloomquist , Hines , Schrader and Wallace had all won races at Eldora in various disciplines . Jason Bowles was later announced as the driver of the No. 5 for Wauters Motorsports , while Chris Jones was originally listed as the driver of the No. 93 for RSS Racing , but eventually withdrew .
In preparation for the race , tire provider Goodyear created new tires , branded " Wrangler " , based on a previous dirt tire that the company made . To give the trucks more grip , the tires were widened by one inch to eleven . The bias @-@ ply tires ( instead of radial tires ) also had treads to remove dirt quicker , in a block pattern , along with being softer . The left @-@ side tires were staggered three inches shorter to 85 @.@ 5 inches than the right tires ( 88 @.@ 5 ) to assist in handling . Meanwhile , the trucks had mesh shields and hood deflector screens attached to prevent debris from the dirt from entering the radiators and damaging the vehicles . The trucks also had the front spoilers and splitters removed , the grille closed , and the rear spoilers raised and enlarged by 40 square inches to generate more downforce . The trucks ' windshields remained , meaning the track crew had to keep the track dry , to prevent mud from making them unable to be cleared . On the hoods , bug deflectors , which were 8 by 12 inches , were installed to prevent stones from hitting the windshield . Teams added under panels to the trucks ' chassis to prevent dirt from increasing the trucks ' weight .
Entering the race , Matt Crafton led the points standings with 357 points , followed by Jeb Burton and James Buescher , both with 319 and 317 points , respectively . Ty Dillon and Johnny Sauter finished the top five with 309 and 305 points , respectively . Ryan Blaney had 290 points , and behind him were Miguel Paludo ( 285 ) , Timothy Peters ( 281 ) , Brendan Gaughan ( 280 ) and Darrell Wallace Jr . ( 272 ) .
= = Practice and qualifying = =
= = = Practice = = =
Two @-@ hour practice sessions were held on July 23 from 4 : 30 to 6 : 30 P.M. EST , followed by another from 7 : 00 to 9 : 00 P.M , the latter being televised on Speed . Another practice was held the following day from 11 : 30 A.M. to 1 : 30 P.M.
Kyle Larson held the fastest lap time in the first practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 645 seconds and speed of 91 @.@ 626 mph ( 147 @.@ 458 km / h ) , followed by father / son pair Dave ( 19 @.@ 856 seconds , 91 @.@ 653 mph ( 147 @.@ 501 km / h ) ) and Ryan Blaney ( 19 @.@ 918 seconds , 90 @.@ 371 mph ( 145 @.@ 438 km / h ) ) and brothers Austin ( 19 @.@ 982 seconds , 90 @.@ 081 mph ( 144 @.@ 971 km / h ) ) and Ty Dillon ( 20 @.@ 205 seconds , 89 @.@ 087 mph ( 143 @.@ 372 km / h ) ) . The top five featured three Chevrolets and two Fords ; the fastest Toyota driver was John Wes Townley ( 20 @.@ 483 seconds , 87 @.@ 878 mph ( 141 @.@ 426 km / h ) ) , who was seventh @-@ fastest .
In the second session , the top five consisted of three Chevrolets in the top three positions and Toyotas in fourth and fifth : Austin ( 21 @.@ 644 seconds , 83 @.@ 164 mph ( 133 @.@ 839 km / h ) ) and Ty Dillon ( 21 @.@ 703 seconds , 82 @.@ 938 mph ( 133 @.@ 476 km / h ) ) , Larson ( 21 @.@ 719 seconds , 82 @.@ 877 mph ( 133 @.@ 378 km / h ) ) , Ken Schrader ( 21 @.@ 748 seconds , 82 @.@ 766 mph ( 133 @.@ 199 km / h ) ) and Tracy Hines ( 21 @.@ 753 seconds , 82 @.@ 747 mph ( 133 @.@ 168 km / h ) ) . The fastest Ford truck was Dave Blaney , with a lap time and speed of 21 @.@ 872 seconds and 82 @.@ 297 mph ( 132 @.@ 444 km / h ) , respectively .
In the final practice , Toyotas dominated the top five , with Darrell Wallace Jr. leading the session with a time of 20 @.@ 040 seconds and speed of 89 @.@ 820 mph ( 144 @.@ 551 km / h ) , followed by Hines ( 20 @.@ 182 seconds , 89 @.@ 188 mph ( 143 @.@ 534 km / h ) ) , Townley ( 20 @.@ 303 seconds , 88 @.@ 657 mph ( 142 @.@ 680 km / h ) ) and Germán Quiroga ( 20 @.@ 307 seconds , 88 @.@ 639 mph ( 142 @.@ 651 km / h ) ) comprising the top four ; Chevy driver James Buescher ( 20 @.@ 528 seconds , 87 @.@ 685 mph ( 141 @.@ 115 km / h ) ) was fifth .
= = = Qualifying = = =
The field for the main event consisted only of 30 trucks instead of the usual 36 , with the top 20 trucks in the owner 's points standings guaranteed a spot . To determine the field , two @-@ lap qualifying runs were held , which determined the starting grids for five heat races of eight laps each . The top five fastest qualifiers started on the pole for the heats , and the highest non @-@ locked @-@ in truck were transferred in to the main event until there were 25 trucks in the field . For drivers that did not qualify via the heats , the top four in a last @-@ chance qualifier advance , with the final spot reserved for the most recent series champion , and if that spot is vacant , the fifth @-@ place finisher in the LCQ would qualify for the main event .
Qualifying was held at 5 : 05 P.M. Ken Schrader won the pole with a lap time of 19 @.@ 709 seconds and a speed of 91 @.@ 329 mph ( 146 @.@ 980 km / h ) for his first Truck Series pole since 2004 , and became the oldest pole @-@ sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age , passing Dick Trickle , who won the pole at Dover International Speedway in the Busch Series ' MBNA Platinum 200 in 1999 .
The heat races began at 7 : 00 P.M. , with each heat race occurring after 15 minutes of the previous heat 's start . The last chance qualifier was held at 8 : 45 P.M. Schrader eventually won his heat race after leading all 8 laps . In Heat 2 , the first caution flag of the day was flown for Darrell Wallace Jr . ' s spin with three laps remaining , and Jared Landers prevented a comeback by Matt Crafton to win . The next heat was dominated by Timothy Peters , who led all eight laps ; Heats 4 and 5 were won by Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton , respectively , the two drivers leading every lap . In the last chance qualifier , J. R. Heffner , who started first in the race , failed to finish the race after completing one lap . Ultimately , Brennan Newberry led all fifteen laps to win , followed by Jeff Babcock , Jason Bowles and Justin Jennings . Norm Benning clinched the fifth and final transfer spot after holding off Clay Greenfield , who nearly wrecked him three times ; in response , Benning gave Greenfield the finger after the race concluded . Because they did not finish in the top five , Greenfield , Jimmy Weller , Bryan Silas , Joe Cobb and Heffner did not qualify for the event . When asked about the duel with Greenfield , Benning stated Tony Stewart had him that he " singlehandedly made the show a success " .
= = = = Qualifying results = = = =
= = = = = Heat races = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 1 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 2 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 3 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 4 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 5 = = = = = =
= = = = Last Chance Qualifier = = = =
= = Race = =
The race started at 9 : 35 P.M. EST and televised live on Speed , while being broadcast on radio by Motor Racing Network . Krista Voda hosted Speed 's prerace show , while Rick Allen , Phil Parsons and Michael Waltrip called the race from the booth ; the network 's pit reporters for the event were Ray Dunlap , Hermie Sadler and Bob Dillner . 1 @.@ 4 million people viewed the race on television , the tenth @-@ most viewed Truck race in series history , and the highest @-@ watched event of the day ; the race also had a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 20 . The weather for the race was mostly clear with a temperature of 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) . The St. Henry High School band performed the national anthem , while the parade lap featured a four @-@ wide salute by the trucks to the fans .
Due to the lack of a pit road , the race was split into three segments of 60 , 50 and 40 laps so teams can make pit stops and adjustments between each segment , and there would be no positions gained nor lost during stops . In segment 1 , Timothy Peters took the lead from pole @-@ sitter Ken Schrader on lap 15 , and led for 23 laps until Kyle Larson took the lead on lap 39 , who led for the remainder of the segment . In the final five laps of the segment , the first caution of the race flew for debris , and the beneficiary was Max Gresham , who was the first driver at least a lap down , which allowed him to regain a lap . In the second segment , Larson continued to lead for a total of 50 laps until Austin Dillon passed him on lap 89 after the former collided with Germán Quiroga . One lap later , another caution was flown for debris , and Gresham was again the beneficiary . On lap 116 , Jared Landers ' truck became loose in turn 2 , collected Ty Dillon and made contact with Johnny Sauter . Quiroga was the beneficiary on the resulting caution . Larson and Austin Dillon dueled for the remainder of the race , with Dillon allowing Larson to pass on lap 122 , but Dillon managed to get past Larson on the following lap . Two more cautions for debris ( first on the front stretch , the second in turn 4 ) were eventually flown , and a green – white – checker finish was initiated due to debris in turn 4 on lap 149 . Dillon retained the lead on the GWC to win , beating Larson by 1 @.@ 197 seconds . Behind Dillon and Larson , Ryan Newman finished third , followed by Joey Coulter , Brendan Gaughan , Timothy Peters , Darrell Wallace Jr . , Matt Crafton , Dave Blaney and Max Gresham . Sauter ( accident ) and Jeff Babcock ( engine ) failed to finish the race .
The race concluded with four different leaders , eight lead changes , and six cautions . Dillon led the most laps with 64 , followed by Larson ( 51 ) , Peters ( 23 ) and Schrader ( 15 ) . Despite winning the race , Dillon , along with six other drivers , did not receive Truck Series points due to a rule that allowed drivers to compete in only one series ' drivers championship . The win was Dillon 's first of 2013 and fifth Truck Series victory in 53 starts . It was also the 29th Truck Series win for owner Richard Childress and Richard Childress Racing 's second Truck win of 2013 .
In August , Dillon 's truck , his winner 's trophy and a jar of dirt he shoveled at the start / finish line were placed on display in the NASCAR Hall of Fame .
= = Results = =
= = = Standings after the race = = =
= Around the World ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Around the World " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It was written by Aguilera and Ali Tamposi and was co @-@ written and produced by Supa Dups and Jason Gilbert . The song is an uptempo pop track , with crashing drums and a thumping bassline . The song is about how Aguilera wants to make love in different countries around the world with her lover . It also refers to her 2001 single " Lady Marmalade " , where she whispers the lyrics " Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , se soir ? " . " Around the World " received mixed reviews from music critics ; some thought it was fun , while others felt it was faceless . Upon the release of Lotus , the song debuted and peaked at number 158 on the South Korean International singles chart .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film , Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album , stating that she wanted high quality and " personal " songs for the record . Regarding the creative direction , she revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She further said " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Around the World " was co @-@ written by Aguilera with Dwayne Chin @-@ Quee , Jason Gilbert and Ali Thompson . It was produced by Supa Dups and it was co @-@ produced by Gilbert . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills , California by Oscar Ramirez . It is a pop song with a ragga flavour , and runs for a duration of three minutes and 24 seconds . Its instrumentation contains crashing drums and " a thumping bassline " . According to Chris Younie from 4Music , the song 's chorus is " insanely catchy " . Lyrically , it talks about Christina wanting to have sexual intercourse with someone in different locations around the world , including Hollywood and Japan . The track also refers to her 2001 hit " Lady Marmalade " , where Aguilera whispers the lyrics " Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , ce soir ? " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Around the World " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Chris Younie of 4Music gave the song a favorable review , calling it a " party @-@ like song of lust and desire " and has " an insanely catchy chorus " . The Scotsman critic Fiona Sheperd wrote that the song has " the most resounding chorus on the album " . Mike Wass of Idolator gave it a mix review , writing it is " another inoffensive adventure that scores extra points for quoting lyrics from ' Lady Marmalade ' " , however it " lacks the big pop hook need to wreak havoc on the charts " . Writing on behalf of The New York Times , Jon Caramanica called it " gauche and aesthetically vulgar in the way Ms. Aguilera once proudly was " .
Andrew Hampp of Billboard was mixed , writing that , " Sadly , the second @-@ verse reference to ' Lady Marmalade ' remains one of the few moments of fun on this otherwise tepid track " . Michael Gallucci of PopCrush called it " a faceless dance track built around another solid beat " , but also commenting , " Aguilera 's insistence on singing part of the song with Lionel Richie 's ' All Night Long ( All Night ) ' island accent is totally misguided " . Sam Hine of Popjustice called it " pop filler " and " it prompts his headache to really kick in " . Several critics compared " Around the World " to songs performed by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . Kitty Empire of The Observer called it a " come @-@ hither tune " , also writing that it is a " Rihanna @-@ copping " . T 'cha Dunlevy , a writer for the Montreal Gazette , agreed with EMpire 's sentiments , calling it " a blatant Rihanna ripoff " . Annie Zaleschi of The A.V. Club echoed the same thought , calling it a " Rihanna reject " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , California
Personnel
Songwriting – Christina Aguilera , Dwanye Chin @-@ Quee , Jason Gilbert , Ali Tamposi
Production – Dwayne " Supa Dups " Chin @-@ Quee , Jason " JG " Gilbert ( co @-@ producer )
Vocal recording – Oscar Ramirez
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Lotus , " Around the World " debuted on the South Korean International download singles chart at number 158 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 , due to digital download sales of 1 @,@ 958 .
= The Sound of Silence ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" The Sound of Silence " is the ninth episode , serving as a mid @-@ season premiere of the twelfth season of the American medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , and is the 254th overall episode , which aired on ABC on February 11 , 2016 . The episode was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Denzel Washington . At the time of its initial release , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 28 million viewers and received critical acclaim with the television critics praising Washington 's directing , Ellen Pompeo 's performance , and Stacy McKee ’ s writing .
Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of physicians struggling to balance their professional lives with their personal lives . " The Sound of Silence " revolves around Meredith Grey ( Pompeo ) who is brutally attacked by a patient , and sustains numerous injuries . The doctors of Grey Sloan Memorial rush to help her recover from the injuries and remain by her side in the harrowing aftermath . Further storylines include the aftermath of Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) proposing to his girlfriend Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) and Jackson Avery serving divorce papers to his wife April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) .
= = Plot = =
" The Sound of Silence " opens with Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) teaching her anatomy class . The episode jumps back to Meredith , Maggie , and Alex as they are carpooling to work , stuck in a traffic jam that turns out to be the result of a road accident . Upon arrival at the hospital , the doctors get to work treating the people who were injured in accident . Meredith is working with Dr. Penny Blake ( Samantha Sloyan ) and Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) on Lou , a patient who needs a neurological consult . Ben asks Dr. Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) , but she chooses to assist Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) instead , because of her previous fight with Meredith . Meanwhile , Meredith is left alone with the patient . The patient becomes violent as the result of post @-@ seizure hyperaggression and assaults Meredith , leaving her battered and barely conscious on the floor .
Penny finds Meredith and calls for help . The doctors rush to save Meredith 's life , in the face of her injuries . As Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr . ) , Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) , Ben , Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , Owen , Dr. Maggie Pierce ( Kelly McCreary ) , Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) and Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) address the injuries , Meredith realizes she is unable to speak . They soon discover that she 's lost her hearing as a result of the beating she endured . The episode then draws into silence as it 's shown from Meredith 's perspective , who is unable to hear , or speak . Her jaw is wired shut and she relies on her other senses to interpret the situation .
Alex visits Meredith during her recovery and attempts to cheer her up . Alex realizes Meredith ’ s hearing has returned after she laughs at one of his jokes . Later Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) informs Meredith that Lou underwent surgery and was discharged . He 's asked to see her to apologize , but Meredith refuses . Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) helps her prepare for a visit with her children . On arriving they are terrified when their mother in the condition and leave . Meredith has a panic attack , and Penny steps up to help , removing the wires holding her jaw shut . Jackson reprimands Penny for jeopardising the healing process .
Amelia visits Meredith to apologize for her prior behavior and discuss her sobriety . Amelia confides in Meredith that she is scared to lose her , but Meredith responds that she is not ready to forgive her . Webber takes Meredith out for some fresh air , and gives her a talk about the power of forgiveness . He encourages her to forgive Amelia , Penny , Derek , and most importantly herself . She agrees to meet Lou . He introduces his wife and two daughters and then offers a sincere apology for what happened . Meredith , still unable to speak , takes his hand as a way of conveying her forgiveness .
After Meredith finally heals from her injuries and is discharged from the hospital , Alex helps her get settled back at home . She thanks him for his support , but points out that Dr. Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) loves him and needs him more than she does . In the final scenes , Meredith reunites with her kids .
= = Production = =
Running for approximately 43 minutes , the episode was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Denzel Washington . The episode featured the songs " My Girl " , " I Surrender " . In October 2015 , it was announced by TVLine that two @-@ time Academy Awards winner Washington was to direct the ninth episode of the season , which would be Washington 's first time at directing television . He had previously directed the films Antwone Fisher and The Great Debaters . The table read for this episode took place on October 14 , 2015 and shooting began on October 20 . Before the release of the episode a video was leaked from the set where Washington could be seen passing behind Chandra Wilson , as she pushes Pompeo around in a wheelchair , wearing full arm and leg casts . The video substantiated Washington ’ s involvement with the show and speculated Meredith ’ s injuries . "
During the winter hiatus , Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter confirmed Giacomo Gianniotti ’ s promotion to series regular over the winter hiatus . He had first appeared as Dr. Andrew DeLuca towards the end of Season 11 as a part of the new set of interns at the hospital .
The episode was heavily advertised and hyped by the ABC network before its release . In the preview of the show 's return , Meredith is suffering from a long list of wounds , ranging from bruising on both her left chest and left knee to collapsed veins . In a sneak @-@ peek clip from the episode , a patient is seen attacking Meredith , but it wasn 't disclosed why the patient went after the Grey Sloan surgeon . The Daily Beast wrote , " Footage of Ellen Pompeo 's Dr. Meredith Grey being beat up by a patient and left for dead on a hospital room floor has been promoted with the admirable aggression of , well , a network promoting an event episode . There 's a cheapness to stunt TV , sure . But there 's also a crass beauty to it . "
Pompeo spoke with Entertainment Weekly about the episode and said , “ It ’ s for sure the [ best ] thing I ’ ve ever done on the show . " On working with Washington she said , " We ’ ve never had anybody of his caliber come and direct our show ever . His charisma , he changes the energy in the room completely . Everybody is just at the top of their game . [ He ’ s ] amazing . Let ’ s just say I ’ m a huge fan . It ’ s a total dream come true . ” In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , executive producer Shonda Rhimes called the episode “ extraordinary and very , very powerful , ” noting the hour “ puts us on a path for the beginning of the second half of the season when it comes to Meredith ’ s evolution . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Sound of Silence " was originally broadcast on February 11 , 2016 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . It served as the mid @-@ season premiere for the twelfth season of the show . On its initial release the episode was watched by a total of 8 @.@ 28 million viewers and scored a 2 @.@ 4 / 8 in the key 18 @-@ 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings , which was a decrease from the previous episode " Things We Lost in the Fire " watched by 8 @.@ 50 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 ratings / share The episode was ranked 17th in overall viewership rank and 6th in 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The episode was the third @-@ most watched drama of the night .
= = = Critical Reception = = =
The episode received critical acclaim , with critics highlighting Ellen Pompeo 's performance , Washington 's direction and McKee 's writing . TV Line gave Pompeo 's performance the most praise , called it " visceral " and wrote , " If a picture really says a thousand words , this review is superfluous : Any image ' we publish of Pompeo ’ s stricken face from this week ’ s Grey ’ s will tell you all you need to know about her " Praising McKee the site called the episode a " stunner " . The site added , " We long ago gave up predicting what the Emmy Awards will do . But we will still say that , if there ’ s any justice , Pompeo ’ s transcendent work ought to get the leading lady at very least the nomination for which she is so long overdue . "
Maggie Fremont of Vulture described Pompeo as giving the same kind of " powerhouse performance " seen in all the time times " Shonda continues to throw horrible situations at Meredith " . Gwen Inhat of The A.V. Club praising both Pompeo and Washington called them the , " saving grace " from being a typical Meredith martyr episide . She added that Washington , " hit it out of the park " , and called Pompeo , the key player saying that , " Told only from her perspective , it ’ s a powerhouse episode for her . " Janalen Samson of BuddyTV highlighted Pompeo and deemed her as " excellent " , while calling the episode a " showcase for her " .
Allanah Faherty of Moviepilot called the episode an " emotional roller coaster " and added that it was " the perfect return to the series " . She also lauded Pompeo 's performance saying , " Ellen Pompeo is an absolute pro at pulling at our heart strings . " Ashley Bissette Sumerel of TV Fanatic rated the episode 4 / 5 and praised the character development of Grey , " it still stands as a unique story that allows Meredith 's character to continue to develop . " She added that episode as a stand @-@ alone , " was really phenomenal " and that the ten minutes of silence from the episode blew her mind . She praised Pompeo saying , " Please give Ellen Pompeo an Emmy ! " Spoiler TV also lauded the episode calling it " a worthy and effective mid season opener " , praising Pompeo 's " frighteningly realistic job " , Justin Chambers 's " most sensitive performance " , and adding that McKee was at the " writing helm " .
Ariana Bacle also praised the episode when she wrote in Entertainment Weekly labeling it as " a damn good hour " . She added that Meredith , " has gone through so much that she ’ s earned an entire hour of TV completely focused on just her . " Furthermore , the site praised Washington noting the portion of the episode , that goes on in complete silence as seen through Meredith ’ s point of view , calling it " especially powerful because of the lack of sound " . Lauren Hoffman from Cosmopolitan lauded the episode for its " amazingly effective storytelling " and enjoyed the chemistry between Meredith and Alex . She further wrote that , " if nothing else , Grey 's reminds us that there 's no upper limit to the amount of suffering a single person can go through , so just grab your people and get ready to roll with it " Praising Washington she noted that , " Denzel and Grey 's despite being disparate , could bring each other to new creative heights . "
= The Quatermass Memoirs =
The Quatermass Memoirs is a British radio drama @-@ documentary , originally broadcast in five episodes on BBC Radio 3 in March 1996 . Written by Nigel Kneale , it was born out of his Quatermass series of films and television serials , which had first been broadcast in the 1950s . The idea for the show appeared as BBC radio intended to create a season of programming looking back at the 1950s , and it was the final piece of writing Kneale completed relating to the character .
The show is centered on the character of Professor Bernard Quatermass who , albeit older than in the previous series , is " the same very concerned scientist " but worried about his previous decisions . Andrew Keir , who had played Quatermass in the 1967 Quatermass and the Pit , was chosen to voice the character . Later , Nigel Kneale himself became dismissive of the serial , but critics gave the production relatively positive reviews .
= = Overview = =
The series mixes three different strands : a new monologue by Kneale in which he discusses the genesis and development of the Quatermass serials and their main character ; archival material from the television productions , and from documentary and newsreel coverage of key events of the times in which they were made , such as the Cold War , the advent of nuclear weapons and the embryonic Space Race ; and the dramatised strand , in which the Professor discloses his reasons for reclusion and discusses his demons with a persistent reporter who invades his hermitage ( and ultimately becomes his friend ) . This third element is set several years after the events of the third serial , Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , and shortly before those of the fourth and final serial , Quatermass ( 1979 ) . Continuity is maintained with the 1979 serial by presenting Quatermass living in seclusion in the Scottish Highlands , while the final episode reveals that the social collapse foreshadowing the events of the final story has already begun .
= = Production = =
Kneale had brought Quatermass 's story to a close in the 1979 serial Quatermass , and for many years saw no reason to revisit the character . However , in 1995 he was approached by BBC radio producer Paul Quinn with an idea for creating a drama @-@ documentary about the character as part of a season of BBC radio programming looking back at the 1950s . Quinn told Dreamwatch magazine , " For many people who remember the seminal experience of hiding behind the sofa when the Quatermass serials came on the television , Quatermass was the 1950s . His adventures [ ... ] have gone down in popular cultural history . " Kneale was intrigued by the idea , and agreed to write new dramatic material of Quatermass relating his memories which Quinn could then combine with archive clips from the existing episodes of the various Quatermass television serials . Kneale saw the older Quatermass of this new serial as " the same very concerned scientist who is now , in retrospect , horribly worried about what he may have done to the world through his encounters with various lifeforms that were better not contacted " . It was Kneale 's first radio work since he had written the play You Must Listen for the BBC in 1952 , and his first work for the BBC in any medium since the mid @-@ 1970s .
The programme was commissioned in July 1995 , with the original working title of Quatermass and the Ultimate Conspiracy . When Quinn discovered that some of the soundtracks of the Quatermass episodes were considered to be of too poor a quality to use , the idea for the series was re @-@ shaped to add the new elements of Kneale 's monologue and archive news reports . Kneale , however , later denied that any of the news stories which The Quatermass Memoirs suggested had inspired parts of his work had ever been in his mind at the time . He said that he had used a degree of creative licence when " explaining " these apparent inspirations in his monologue sections .
A further problem for Quinn was that none of the actors who had played Quatermass for BBC Television in the 1950s were still alive . This was solved by employing Andrew Keir , who had played Quatermass in the Hammer Film Productions version of Quatermass and the Pit in 1967 , a performance which Kneale had liked . Keir was happy to take the part , but somewhat concerned about only being used as a " link man " and not in a fully dramatic role . The clips that were used from the original BBC episodes were all carefully edited so that the actors playing Quatermass were never heard , and thus the differences between their voices and Keir 's would not confuse the audience . Also in the cast were Emma Gregory as the journalist , Mandy , and Zulema Dene as Quatermass 's housekeeper , Maire .
The five episodes , each of approximately twenty minutes , were broadcast across one week from 4 to 8 March 1996 , as part of The Fifties season of programming . The serial was promoted in listings magazine Radio Times with an article by Kneale about Quatermass and his opinion of other science fiction programmes . Episode one was transmitted at 10.32pm on the Monday ( originally scheduled for 10.05pm but delayed by a live concert broadcast beforehand ) ; episode two at 9.30pm on the Tuesday ; episode three 9.00pm on Wednesday , episode four 10.15pm on Thursday and episode five at 9.40pm on the Friday . The production was made and transmitted in stereo . It was Andrew Keir 's final professional performance ; he died the following year .
The digital radio station BBC7 repeated the series on several occasions from October 2003 . In 2006 it was released on CD by BBC Audio as part of their Classic Radio Sci @-@ Fi range , with cover artwork by Chris Achilleos .
= = Reception = =
Nigel Kneale himself was largely dismissive of the serial in the years following its broadcast ; " God knows it wasn 't a very important sort of thing , " he told his biographer . " The BBC didn 't care tuppence about what they were doing , because they really don 't know what they 're doing , certainly not in radio ... [ Andrew Keir ] must have been pretty ill when this nonsense was going on . "
Reviewing the first episodes of both The Quatermass Memoirs and In the Fifties — another programme running as part of The Fifties season — The Times 's reviewer Peter Barnard was impressed . Despite thinking that such a season of programming was " a necessarily premature commemoration " , he felt that both series had " demonstrated how radio 's better moments often take conventional pegs and hang some original clothing on them " .
The Independent 's radio critic Robert Hanks was unimpressed with Kneale 's script for the dramatic sections , but praised the performance of Andrew Keir in the title role . " Lesser actors would treat Kneale 's downbeat script with a certain detachment , but Keir is prepared to charge even the most banal lines with a terror that 's both a treat and a lesson . " Hanks also felt that The Fifties season as a whole , as demonstrated by The Quatermass Memoirs , had a somewhat misleading focus . " You get the sense that a vogue for science fiction is being interpreted as the spirit of the Fifties , with emphasis being put on a handful of sci @-@ fi films . If you really wanted to read the age through its movies , you 'd have to include Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis , late Ealing and early Norman Wisdom , Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley . It 's a lot to accommodate ; perhaps sticking to terror is just less intimidating . "
= When You Believe =
" When You Believe " is a song from the 1998 DreamWorks musical animated feature The Prince of Egypt . It was written and composed by Stephen Schwartz . A pop single version of " When You Believe " , with additional music and lyrics by writer @-@ producer Babyface , was also recorded for the film by American singers Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey for the film 's end credits and its soundtrack album . Additionally , the song was featured on Houston 's fourth studio album , My Love Is Your Love and Carey 's first compilation album , # 1 's . The original version of the song , featured in the narrative portion of the film , is performed by Sally Dworsky , Michelle Pfeiffer , and a children 's choir . " When You Believe " is described as a big ballad , with meaningful and inspirational lyrics , describing the ability each person has to achieve miracles when they reach out to God and believe .
The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics and experienced moderate success , peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , despite heavy media attention and live promotion . It achieved better charting throughout Europe and other nations , peaking within the top five in Belgium , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . " When You Believe " was awarded the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual ceremony on March 21 , 1999 . Prior to their performance of the song that night , Schwartz left Babyface 's name off the nomination submission sheet . He felt that because the additions Babyface added to the song were not featured in the actual film version , he did not deserve writing credits . However , while Babyface did not receive the Oscar , Carey and Houston performed his version of the song , because they were more familiar with it than the one in the film . Prior to their performance at the Academy Awards , they sang it on November 26 , 1998 on The Oprah Winfrey Show , promoting the song , as well as both their albums .
The song featured two music videos . The first and most commonly seen video was filmed at Brooklyn Academy of Music performing arts center . The video features both singers , and begins with Houston and Carey performing in a large auditorium , giving the illusion of a concert . Towards the end of the video , clips of the film are projected onto a large screen at the concert , while they belt out the final verse . The alternate video was only released on NBC 's special , When You Believe : Music Inspired by the Prince of Egypt , broadcast on December 13 , 1998 . It features a similar synopsis , with both singers performing on a large stage of an old Egyptian pyramid .
= = Background and recording = =
When Carey compiled her first compilation effort # 1 's , " When You Believe " was included in the track listing . According to Carey , the song was included because she felt it was " a miracle " that she and Houston collaborated on a record . During the development of All That Glitters ( a film Carey was working on at the time , later known as Glitter ) , she had been introduced to DreamWorks co @-@ owner Jeffrey Katzenberg , who asked her if she would record the song " When You Believe " for the soundtrack of the animated film The Prince of Egypt . Houston , on the other hand , was introduced to the project through Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , with whom she had been collaborating on her album , My Love Is Your Love . After they were shown the film separately , both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project .
The song was co @-@ written by Stephen Schwartz and Babyface , who also produced the song . Babyface expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad , something different from anything he , Carey or Houston had ever previously recorded . In an interview with Vibe , Carey said that she " liked [ the song ] the way it was " . She had characterised it as " a very big ballad but in an inspirational way " and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording : " I never even really talked to her until this . We never had any issues between us . The media and everybody made it an issue . " In an interview with Ebony , Houston spoke about her relationship with Carey :
I enjoyed working with her very much . Mariah and I got along very great . We had never talked and never sang together before . We just had a chance for camaraderie , singer @-@ to @-@ singer , artist @-@ to @-@ artist , that kind of thing . We just laughed and talked and laughed and talked and sang in between that ... It 's good to know that two ladies of soul can still be friends . We talked about doing other things together , enterprise @-@ wise , which is cool , because she 's got a good , vivid mind , that girl . She 's a smart lady . I really like Mariah .
While the pair continued to express their positive feelings for one another , tabloids began writing the opposite . There were claims that the two bore ill will against each other , and that they had to record the song separately due to constant tension . While media speculation grew as the film 's release date drew near , both singers maintained that they had become close friends , and had only the most positive things to say about each other .
= = Lyrical content = =
The Prince of Egypt is an adaptation of the Biblical story of The Exodus . " When You Believe " is sung in the film by characters Tzipporah and Miriam , and a chorus of people departing from the slavery of Egypt to the Red Sea and the Promised Land . The protagonists of this ballad recall tough times that have caused them to question their own faith : they have prayed for many nights to God , but those prayers have seemed to remain unanswered , and now they wonder if their faith has been only a waste of time . Nevertheless , the main characters realize that although the times may be difficult , their faith should remain strong . The original draft of the song used the lyric " you can do miracles when you believe " , but this seemed to imply that the believer , not God , was responsible for performing miracles ; the lyric was later changed to " there can be miracles when you believe " .
Houston had sung in a church choir while growing up , and Carey had always connected to her faith through music , especially during any difficult times . This song became one of the many reasons that both singers were so interested in the project . They each felt that spreading faith in God was an important and honorable aspect of their career . While describing the song 's lyrics and message , Houston said the following in an interview with ' Ebony :
A powerful ballad ; [ songwriter ] Stephen Schwartz is a genius . You have to be a child of God to understand the depth of this song . Mariah and I did it as we felt it . We both felt very connected to the song because of our background . What can I say ? ( It is ) Just a beautiful song . What a lyric ! I can 't talk about it — just listen to it .
= = Composition = =
Originally , Schwartz composed the film version of " When You Believe " , which was sung in the film by the characters of Tzipporah ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) and Miriam ( Sally Dworsky ) . It featured some different instrumentation from the original , and used a children 's choir as well as some lines in Hebrew . However , in order to give the song a wider radio and pop appeal , Edmonds changed some of the song 's instrumentals and replaced the children 's choir with a gospel one . His version was considered more " commercial " and would make the song " help sell the movie " . Schwartz 's original version was titled " When You Believe " , while Edmonds ' enhanced version was titled " The Prince of Egypt ( When You Believe ) " . " When You Believe " is a slow tempo ballad , which incorporates pop and contemporary R & B genres . Houston and Carey 's parts in the song are written in different keys , both musically and vocally . During the last bridge and chorus , gospel inspired background singers join the song , giving it a " layered sound " while Houston and Carey 's voice switch off belting the bridge . After " When You Believe " was written , Babyface added additional instrumentation , as well as a final bridge .
The song is set in signature common time . Houston 's verses and chorus are written in the key of B minor and features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -G ♭ 1 . Her vocals in the song range from the note of F ♯ 3 to F ♯ 5 . Carey 's chorus are set in the higher key of E major and is set in common time as well . Her vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of G6 , spanning more octaves than Houston 's voice in the song . The song 's climax rise to the last chorus which is set even higher in the key of F @-@ sharp major . Steve Jones from USA Today called the song a " soaring duet " and felt that the song would be able to appeal to many types of listeners and " cross all genres . "
= = Reception and accolades = =
" When You Believe " received a mixed review from David Browne , an editor from Entertainment Weekly . He gave it a C- , and wrote " [ the song has ] so much sap , maple trees will be jealous . " He called the song 's religious aspect " insipid " and felt its inspirational message felt forced and generic . While Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic was reviewing Prince Of Egypt OST , he called this duet " unexpected -- and unexpectedly dull . " Paul Verna of Billboard called " When You Believe " a " high @-@ powered " duet , and later highlighted the song while reviewing Houston 's album .
" When You Believe " won the Academy Award for Best Song at the 1999 Academy Awards , and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song at the 4th Critics ' Choice Awards . It was also nominated for Best Original Song ( in a Motion Picture ) at the 1999 Golden Globes , and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television at the 2000 Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
The song performed moderately in the United States , despite a performance of The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 71st annual Academy Awards . It peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100 and number three on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary Chart . On March 24 , 1999 , after fluctuating in the US charts , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 66 on the RPM issue dated December 7 , 1998 , and peaked at number 20 on the chart issue dated January 25 , 1999 . It was present on the chart for a total of ten weeks .
The song performed moderately in Australia , where it entered at number 25 on the ARIA Singles Chart during the week of December 6 , 1998 . It remained on the chart for 14 weeks , spending its last week on the chart at number 50 ; it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , it peaked at number eight on the singles chart , and spent nine weeks fluctuating in the singles chart . " When You Believe " experienced its highest charting in Europe . In Belgium , it reached number five on the Flanders Ultratop 50 , and peaked at number four and spent 20 weeks on the Wallonian Ultratop 40 . During the week of December 5 , 1998 , " When You Believe " entered the Dutch Top 40 at number fifty @-@ four . The song spent twenty @-@ one weeks on the singles chart and was peaked at number four . Due to strong single sales , the song entered the Finnish Singles Chart at number 10 , however , it only spent one week in the chart . In France , the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 on December 5 , 1998 and eventually peaked at number five . After spending 20 weeks fluctuating in the singles chart , it was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . In Germany , it peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie , denoting shipments of over 250 @,@ 000 units . The song peaked at number seven in Ireland , where it spent 11 weeks in the Irish Singles Chart .
In Norway , " When You Believe " entered at number three on the VG @-@ lista chart and peaked at number two , spending three consecutive weeks at the position . It was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) and spent 15 weeks on the chart . The song peaked at number two in Sweden and Switzerland , spending 20 and 24 weeks on the singles charts , respectively . The IFPI certified the song platinum in Sweden and gold in Switzerland . " When You Believe " experienced high charting in the United Kingdom . It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during the week of December 19 , 1998 and spent 14 weeks on the chart . As of 2010 , sales of the song in the UK are estimated at 260 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music videos = =
The single 's music video was filmed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music during the fall of 1998 . The video begins with Houston entering a small arena as she begins to sing the song 's first verse . As she finishes her part , Carey appears on the stage as well , performing the second verse and chorus . The video is set in a dark studio accented by Egyptian settings , backdrops , and scenes inspired by The Prince of Egypt . An audience is on hand to emulate a concert @-@ like @-@ setting , cheering on both singers . Occasionally , home video clips of Carey and Houston appear throughout the video , as well as clips of the final moments of the film , during the splitting of the Red Sea . The video ends as the room is illuminated , and the two singers are joined by a large choir . As they complete the song , Carey and Houston receive a standing ovation from the crowd , and exit the studio together , walking side by side as they disappear in the distance . For the video , Carey and Houston both donned similar low @-@ cut black gowns , while Carey sported a long straight hairstyle , and Houston a pixie cut .
The song 's alternate video features a similar synopsis , where Houston begins the song on a large stone altar in the middle of an auditorium . As she finishes her verse , Carey is seen walking up the ramp in the background , joining Houston for her verse . They continue the song together , standing side by side and holding hands . After completing the song , both singer exit the auditorium together as in the first video , simulating two friends enjoying time with each other . Both videos are very similar , only the alternate version does not feature an audience , choir or images , only the duo singing together atop the stone altar . In this version of the video , Houston wears a long brown strapless gown , and features a shoulder length bob haircut . Carey on the other hand , features long cascading curls and dons an olive green gown .
= = Live performances = =
The duo performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on November 26 , 1998 . Aside from the joint performance , Houston and Carey sang their own singles at the time , " I Learned from the Best " and " I Still Believe " , respectively . Additionally , they sang the song live at the 71st Annual Academy Awards on March 21 , 1999 . Before the performance , they were due to rehearse together a few days before their scheduled appearance . Houston however , called in sick and had to miss the rehearsal . Reportedly , her excuse was not taken well , with academy executives calling it a " bullshit story . " Conti , the academy 's musical arranger , found a young female singer to take Houston 's place , Janis Uhley . Before the performance , Carey walked down the stage in a white top and jeans , while choreographer Debbie Allen led the background singers . As they began the performance , Carey forgot the lyrics and stopped , as Uhley began singing in a " theatricality and gusto " . Her boastful performance was not taken well by the directors , who called it " inappropriate and unnerving " . After she was removed from the stage , a new date was chosen for the rehearsal , one that would accommodate both Houston and Carey .
The next night , after they began the rehearsal , both singers had trouble performing the film version of the song . After hours of practice and confusion , they reached a compromise ; they would sing a mash @-@ up of the film and single versions , which featured an additional bridge and instrumentation by Edmonds . For the awards ceremony on the twenty first , Houston and Carey wore matching white gowns , symbolizing " humbleness and simplicity . " Houston entered the arena , performing her verse , followed by Carey . As the song 's finale drew near , a full gospel choir joined the performance from large suspending golden scaffolding , all wearing large white tunics . After the original was nominated for the Academy Award , Schwartz refused to give Edmonds writing credits in nomination forms submitted to the academy .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
" When You Believe " was performed by American Idol contestant and winner Candice Glover on the twelfth season of the show . A studio recording of the song was also released as a single on iTunes . Glover performed " When You Believe " on American Idol on the " Divas " theme night on April 17 , 2013 . Glover 's performance was met with praise from the show 's judges and it was generally considered the best performance of the night . Rolling Stone wrote that Glover " got judges on their feet " with her " impeccable " performance . Mariah Carey was moved to tears by the performance and complimented Glover for doing the song justice . Nicki Minaj exlaimed at the end of the performance that " And that is how you do a Mariah Carey / Whitney Houston song " . Likewise , Billboard called Glover 's performance " best single showing of the night " and commented on the vocal delivery that " she knows precisely when to hit the sweet spot of a song , building up to that point with masterful restraint " . MTV News commented that Glover " positively slay [ ed ] " the song .
The song was recorded by Irish musical ensmble Celtic Woman and released as a single from their fifth studio album Celtic Woman : Songs from the Heart ( 2010 ) . The song also appears on the Japanese release of their seventh studio album Celtic Woman : Believe ( 2011 ) . The song features vocals from one of the group 's singers Chloë Agnew . In an interview for Chicago Music Magazine , Chloë Agnew described the lyrics of the song as " really incredible " . She stated that " It is a songs that I listen to and wish I had written . It ’ s really so special . I think a lot of people have found strength and hope in the lyrics . It 's been really rewarding to meet and talk to people at our meet and greet events come up and tell me how much that song means to them and how it has helped them " . Irish singer Chloë Agnew recorded the track for her debut album Chloë ( 2002 ) .
= = Leon Jackson version = =
" When You Believe " was recorded by The X Factor
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English history , and some of the best recorded of the 17th century . The twelve accused lived in the area around Pendle Hill in Lancashire , and were charged with the murders of ten people by the use of witchcraft . All but two were tried at Lancaster Assizes on 18 – 19 August 1612 , along with the Samlesbury witches and others , in a series of trials that have become known as the Lancashire witch trials . One was tried at York Assizes on 27 July 1612 , and another died in prison . Of the eleven who went to trial – nine women and two men – ten were found guilty and executed by hanging ; one was found not guilty .
The official publication of the proceedings by the clerk to the court , Thomas Potts , in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster , and the number of witches hanged together – nine at Lancaster and one at York – make the trials unusual for England at that time . It has been estimated that all the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions ; this series of trials accounts for more than two per cent of that total .
Six of the Pendle witches came from one of two families , each at the time headed by a woman in her eighties : Elizabeth Southerns ( aka Demdike ) , her daughter Elizabeth Device , and her grandchildren James and Alizon Device ; Anne Whittle ( aka Chattox ) , and her daughter Anne Redferne . The others accused were Jane Bulcock and her son John Bulcock , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , Alice Gray , and Jennet Preston . The outbreaks of witchcraft in and around Pendle may demonstrate the extent to which people could make a living by posing as witches . Many of the allegations resulted from accusations that members of the Demdike and Chattox families made against each other , perhaps because they were in competition , both trying to make a living from healing , begging , and extortion .
= = Religious and political background = =
The accused witches lived in the area around Pendle Hill in Lancashire , a county which , at the end of the 16th century , was regarded by the authorities as a wild and lawless region : an area " fabled for its theft , violence and sexual laxity , where the church was honoured without much understanding of its doctrines by the common people " . The nearby Cistercian abbey at Whalley had been dissolved by Henry VIII in 1537 , a move strongly resisted by the local people , over whose lives the abbey had until then exerted a powerful influence . Despite the abbey 's closure , and the execution of its abbot , the people of Pendle remained largely faithful to their Roman Catholic beliefs and were quick to revert to Catholicism on Queen Mary 's accession to the throne in 1553 .
When Mary 's Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558 Catholic priests once again had to go into hiding , but in remote areas such as Pendle they continued to celebrate Mass in secret . In 1562 , early in her reign , Elizabeth passed a law in the form of An Act Against Conjurations , Enchantments and Witchcrafts ( 5 Eliz . I c . 16 ) . This demanded the death penalty , but only where harm had been caused ; lesser offences were punishable by a term of imprisonment . The Act provided that anyone who should " use , practise , or exercise any Witchcraft , Enchantment , Charm , or Sorcery , whereby any person shall happen to be killed or destroyed " , was guilty of a felony without benefit of clergy , and was to be put to death .
On Elizabeth 's death in 1603 she was succeeded by James I. Strongly influenced by Scotland 's separation from the Catholic Church during the Scottish Reformation , James was intensely interested in Protestant theology , focusing much of his curiosity on the theology of witchcraft . By the early 1590s he had become convinced that he was being plotted against by Scottish witches . After a visit to Denmark , he had attended the trial in 1590 of the North Berwick witches , who were convicted of using witchcraft to send a storm against the ship that carried James and his wife Anne back to Scotland . In 1597 he wrote a book , Daemonologie , instructing his followers that they must denounce and prosecute any supporters or practitioners of witchcraft . One year after James acceded to the English throne , a law was enacted imposing the death penalty in cases where it was proven that harm had been caused through the use of magic , or corpses had been exhumed for magical purposes . James was , however , sceptical of the evidence presented in witch trials , even to the extent of personally exposing discrepancies in the testimonies presented against some accused witches .
In early 1612 , the year of the trials , every justice of the peace ( JP ) in Lancashire was ordered to compile a list of recusants in their area , i.e. those who refused to attend the English Church and to take communion , a criminal offence at that time . Roger Nowell of Read Hall , on the edge of Pendle Forest , was the JP for Pendle . It was against this background of seeking out religious nonconformists that , in March 1612 , Nowell investigated a complaint made to him by the family of John Law , a pedlar , who claimed to have been injured by witchcraft . Many of those who subsequently became implicated as the investigation progressed did indeed consider themselves to be witches , in the sense of being village healers who practised magic , probably in return for payment , but such men and women were common in 16th @-@ century rural England , an accepted part of village life .
It was perhaps difficult for the judges charged with hearing the trials – Sir James Altham and Sir Edward Bromley – to understand King James 's attitude towards witchcraft . The king was head of the judiciary , and Bromley was hoping for promotion to a circuit nearer London . Altham was nearing the end of his judicial career , but he had recently been accused of a miscarriage of justice at the York Assizes , which had resulted in a woman being sentenced to death by hanging for witchcraft . The judges may have been uncertain whether the best way to gain the king 's favour was by encouraging convictions , or by " sceptically testing the witnesses to destruction " .
= = Events leading up to the trials = =
One of the accused , Demdike , had been regarded in the area as a witch for fifty years , and some of the deaths the witches were accused of had happened many years before Roger Nowell started to take an interest in 1612 . The event that seems to have triggered Nowell 's investigation , culminating in the Pendle witch trials , occurred on 21 March 1612 .
On her way to Trawden Forest , Demdike 's granddaughter , Alizon Device , encountered John Law , a pedlar from Halifax , and asked him for some pins . Seventeenth @-@ century metal pins were handmade and relatively expensive , but they were frequently needed for magical purposes , such as in healing – particularly for treating warts – divination , and for love magic , which may have been why Alizon was so keen to get hold of them and why Law was so reluctant to sell them to her . Whether she meant to buy them , as she claimed , and Law refused to undo his pack for such a small transaction , or whether she had no money and was begging for them , as Law 's son Abraham claimed , is unclear . A few minutes after their encounter Alizon saw Law stumble and fall , perhaps because he suffered a stroke ; he managed to regain his feet and reach a nearby inn . Initially Law made no accusations against Alizon , but she appears to have been convinced of her own powers ; when Abraham Law took her to visit his father a few days after the incident , she reportedly confessed and asked for his forgiveness .
Alizon Device , her mother Elizabeth , and her brother James were summoned to appear before Nowell on 30 March 1612 . Alizon confessed that she had sold her soul to the Devil , and that she had told him to lame John Law after he had called her a thief . Her brother , James , stated that his sister had also confessed to bewitching a local child . Elizabeth was more reticent , admitting only that her mother , Demdike , had a mark on her body , something that many , including Nowell , would have regarded as having been left by the Devil after he had sucked her blood . When questioned about Anne Whittle ( Chattox ) , the matriarch of the other family reputedly involved in witchcraft in and around Pendle , Alizon perhaps saw an opportunity for revenge . There may have been bad blood between the two families , possibly dating from 1601 , when a member of Chattox 's family broke into Malkin Tower , the home of the Devices , and stole goods worth about £ 1 , equivalent to about £ 100 as of 2008 . Alizon accused Chattox of murdering four men by witchcraft , and of killing her father , John Device , who had died in 1601 . She claimed that her father had been so frightened of Old Chattox that he had agreed to give her 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 kg ) of oatmeal each year in return for her promise not to hurt his family . The meal was handed over annually until the year before John 's death ; on his deathbed John claimed that his sickness had been caused by Chattox because they had not paid for protection .
On 2 April 1612 , Demdike , Chattox , and Chattox 's daughter Anne Redferne , were summoned to appear before Nowell . Both Demdike and Chattox were by then blind and in their eighties , and both provided Nowell with damaging confessions . Demdike claimed that she had given her soul to the Devil 20 years previously , and Chattox that she had given her soul to " a Thing like a Christian man " , on his promise that " she would not lack anything and would get any revenge she desired " . Although Anne Redferne made no confession , Demdike said that she had seen her making clay figures . Margaret Crooke , another witness seen by Nowell that day , claimed that her brother had fallen sick and died after having had a disagreement with Redferne , and that he had frequently blamed her for his illness Based on the evidence and confessions he had obtained , Nowell committed Demdike , Chattox , Anne Redferne and Alizon Device to Lancaster Gaol , to be tried for maleficium – causing harm by witchcraft – at the next assizes .
= = = Meeting at Malkin Tower = = =
The committal and subsequent trial of the four women might have been the end of the matter , had it not been for a meeting organised by Elizabeth Device at Malkin Tower , the home of the Demdikes , held on Good Friday 10 April 1612 . To feed the party , James Device stole a neighbour 's sheep .
Friends and others sympathetic to the family attended , and when word of it reached Roger Nowell , he decided to investigate . On 27 April 1612 , an inquiry was held before Nowell and another magistrate , Nicholas Bannister , to determine the purpose of the meeting at Malkin Tower , who had attended , and what had happened there . As a result of the inquiry , eight more people were accused of witchcraft and committed for trial : Elizabeth Device , James Device , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , John Bulcock , Jane Bulcock , Alice Gray and Jennet Preston . Preston lived across the border in Yorkshire , so she was sent for trial at York Assizes ; the others were sent to Lancaster Gaol , to join the four already imprisoned there .
Malkin Tower is believed to have been near the village of Newchurch in Pendle , or possibly in Blacko on the site of present @-@ day Malkin Tower Farm , and to have been demolished soon after the trials .
= = Trials = =
The Pendle witches were tried in a group that also included the Samlesbury witches , Jane Southworth , Jennet Brierley , and Ellen Brierley , the charges against whom included child murder and cannibalism ; Margaret Pearson , the so @-@ called Padiham witch , who was facing her third trial for witchcraft , this time for killing a horse ; and Isobel Robey from Windle , accused of using witchcraft to cause sickness .
Some of the accused Pendle witches , such as Alizon Device , seem to have genuinely believed in their guilt , but others protested their innocence to the end . Jennet Preston was the first to be tried , at York Assizes .
= = = York Assizes , 27 July 1612 = = =
Jennet Preston lived in Gisburn , which was then in Yorkshire , so she was sent to York Assizes for trial . Her judges were Sir James Altham and Sir Edward Bromley . Jennet was charged with the murder by witchcraft of a local landowner , Thomas Lister of Westby Hall , to which she pleaded not guilty . She had already appeared before Bromley in 1611 , accused of murdering a child by witchcraft , but had been found not guilty . The most damning evidence given against her was that when she had been taken to see Lister 's body , the corpse " bled fresh bloud presently , in the presence of all that were there present " after she touched it . According to a statement made to Nowell by James Device on 27 April , Jennet had attended the Malkin Tower meeting to seek help with Lister 's murder . She was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging ; her execution took place on 29 July on the Knavesmire , the present site of York Racecourse .
= = = Lancaster Assizes , 18 – 19 August 1612 = = =
All the other accused lived in Lancashire , so they were sent to Lancaster Assizes for trial , where the judges were once again Altham and Bromley . The prosecutor was local magistrate Roger Nowell , who had been responsible for collecting the various statements and confessions from the accused . Nine @-@ year @-@ old Jennet Device was a key witness for the prosecution , something that would not have been permitted in many other 17th @-@ century criminal trials . However , King James had made a case for suspending the normal rules of evidence for witchcraft trials in his Daemonologie . As well as identifying those who had attended the Malkin Tower meeting , Jennet also gave evidence against her mother , brother , and sister .
Nine of the accused – Alizon Device , Elizabeth Device , James Device , Anne Whittle , Anne Redferne , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , John Bulcock and Jane Bulcock – were found guilty during the two @-@ day trial and hanged at Gallows Hill in Lancaster on 20 August 1612 ; Elizabeth Southerns died while awaiting trial . Only one of the accused , Alice Grey , was found not guilty .
18 August
Anne Whittle ( Chattox ) was accused of the murder of Robert Nutter . She pleaded not guilty , but the confession she had made to Roger Nowell was read out in court , and evidence against her was presented by James Robinson , who had lived with the Chattox family 20 years earlier . He claimed to remember that Nutter had accused Chattox of turning his beer sour , and that she was commonly believed to be a witch . Chattox broke down and admitted her guilt , calling on God for forgiveness and the judges to be merciful to her daughter , Anne Redferne .
Elizabeth Device was charged with the murders of James Robinson , John Robinson and , together with Alice Nutter and Demdike , the murder of Henry Mitton . Potts records that " this odious witch " suffered from a facial deformity resulting in her left eye being set lower than her right . The main witness against Device was her daughter , Jennet , who was about nine years old . When Jennet was asked to stand up and give evidence against her mother , Elizabeth began to scream and curse her daughter , forcing the judges to have her removed from the courtroom before the evidence could be heard . Jennet was placed on a table and stated that she believed her mother had been a witch for three or four years . She also said her mother had a familiar called Ball , who appeared in the shape of a brown dog . Jennet claimed to have witnessed conversations between Ball and her mother , in which Ball had been asked to help with various murders . James Device also gave evidence against his mother , saying he had seen her making a clay figure of one of her victims , John Robinson . Elizabeth Device was found guilty .
James Device pleaded not guilty to the murders by witchcraft of Anne Townley and John Duckworth . However he , like Chattox , had earlier made a confession to Nowell , which was read out in court . That , and the evidence presented against him by his sister Jennet , who said that she had seen her brother asking a black dog he had conjured up to help him kill Townley , was sufficient to persuade the jury to find him guilty .
19 August
The trials of the three Samlesbury witches were heard before Anne Redferne 's first appearance in court , late in the afternoon , charged with the murder of Robert Nutter . The evidence against her was considered unsatisfactory , and she was acquitted .
Anne Redferne was not so fortunate the following day , when she faced her second trial , for the murder of Robert Nutter 's father , Christopher , to which she pleaded not guilty . Demdike 's statement to Nowell , which accused Anne of having made clay figures of the Nutter family , was read out in court . Witnesses were called to testify that Anne was a witch " more dangerous than her Mother " . But she refused to admit her guilt to the end , and had given no evidence against any others of the accused . Anne Redferne was found guilty .
Jane Bulcock and her son John Bulcock , both from Newchurch in Pendle , were accused and found guilty of the murder by witchcraft of Jennet Deane . Both denied that they had attended the meeting at Malkin Tower , but Jennet Device identified Jane as having been one of those present , and John as having turned the spit to roast the stolen sheep , the centrepiece of the Good Friday meeting at the Demdike 's home .
Alice Nutter was unusual among the accused in being comparatively wealthy , the widow of a tenant yeoman farmer . She made no statement either before or during her trial , except to enter her plea of not guilty to the charge of murdering Henry Mitton by witchcraft . The prosecution alleged that she , together with Demdike and Elizabeth Device , had caused Mitton 's death after he had refused to give Demdike a penny she had begged from him . The only evidence against Alice seems to have been that James Device claimed Demdike had told him of the murder , and Jennet Device in her statement said that Alice had been present at the Malkin Tower meeting . Alice may have called in on the meeting at Malkin Tower on her way to a secret ( and illegal ) Good Friday Catholic service , and refused to speak for fear of incriminating her fellow Catholics . Many of the Nutter family were Catholics , and two had been executed as Jesuit priests , John Nutter in 1584 and his brother Robert in 1600 . Alice Nutter was found guilty .
Katherine Hewitt ( aka Mould @-@ Heeles ) was charged and found guilty of the murder of Anne Foulds . She was the wife of a clothier from Colne , and had attended the meeting at Malkin Tower with Alice Grey . According to the evidence given by James Device , both Hewitt and Grey told the others at that meeting that they had killed a child from Colne , Anne Foulds . Jennet Device also picked Katherine out of a line @-@ up , and confirmed her attendance at the Malkin Tower meeting .
Alice Gray was accused with Katherine Hewitt of the murder of Anne Foulds . Potts does not provide an account of Alice Gray 's trial , simply recording her as one of the Samlesbury witches – which she was not , as she was one of those identified as having been at the Malkin Tower meeting – and naming her in the list of those found not guilty .
Alizon Device , whose encounter with John Law had triggered the events leading up to the trials , was charged with causing harm by witchcraft . Uniquely among the accused , Alizon was confronted in court by her alleged victim , John Law . She seems to have genuinely believed in her own guilt ; when Law was brought into court Alizon fell to her knees in tears and confessed . She was found guilty .
= = The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster = =
Almost everything that is known about the trials comes from a report of the proceedings written by Thomas Potts , the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes . Potts was instructed to write his account by the trial judges , and had completed the work by 16 November 1612 , when he submitted it for review . Bromley revised and corrected the manuscript before its publication in 1613 , declaring it to be " truly reported " and " fit and worthie to be published " .
Although written as an apparently verbatim account , The Wonderfull Discoverie is not a report of what was actually said at the trial but is instead reflecting what happened . Nevertheless , Potts " seems to give a generally trustworthy , although not comprehensive , account of an Assize witchcraft trial , provided that the reader is constantly aware of his use of written material instead of verbatim reports " .
The trials took place not quite seven years after the Gunpowder Plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament in an attempt to kill King James and the Protestant aristocracy had been foiled . It was alleged that the Pendle witches had hatched their own gunpowder plot to blow up Lancaster Castle , although historian Stephen Pumfrey has suggested that the " preposterous scheme " was invented by the examining magistrates and simply agreed to by James Device in his witness statement . It may therefore be significant that Potts dedicated The Wonderfull Discoverie to Thomas Knyvet and his wife Elizabeth ; Knyvet was the man credited with apprehending Guy Fawkes and thus saving the king .
= = Modern interpretation = =
It has been estimated that all the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions , so this one series of trials in July and August 1612 accounts for more than two per cent of that total . Court records show that Lancashire was unusual in the north of England for the frequency of its witch trials . Neighbouring Cheshire , for instance , also suffered from economic problems and religious activists , but there only 47 people were indicted for causing harm by witchcraft between 1589 and 1675 , of whom 11 were found guilty .
Pendle was part of the parish of Whalley , an area covering 180 square miles ( 470 km2 ) , too large to be effective in preaching and teaching the doctrines of the Church of England : both the survival of Catholicism and the upsurge of witchcraft in Lancashire have been attributed to its over @-@ stretched parochial structure . Until its dissolution , the spiritual needs of the people of Pendle and surrounding districts had been served by nearby Whalley Abbey , but its closure in 1537 left a moral vacuum .
Many of the allegations made in the Pendle witch trials resulted from members of the Demdike and Chattox families making accusations against each other . Historian John Swain has said that the outbreaks of witchcraft in and around Pendle demonstrate the extent to which people could make a living either by posing as a witch , or by accusing or threatening to accuse others of being a witch . Although it is implicit in much of the literature on witchcraft that the accused were victims , often mentally or physically abnormal , for some at least , it may have been a trade like any other , albeit one with significant risks . There may have been bad blood between the Demdike and Chattox families because they were in competition with each other , trying to make a living from healing , begging , and extortion . The Demdikes are believed to have lived close to Newchurch in Pendle , and the Chattox family about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , near the village of Fence .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
Altham continued with his judicial career until his death in 1617 , and Bromley achieved his desired promotion to the Midlands Circuit in 1616 . Potts was given the keepership of Skalme Park by James in 1615 , to breed and train the king 's hounds . In 1618 , he was given responsibility for " collecting the forfeitures on the laws concerning sewers , for twenty @-@ one years " . Having played her part in the deaths of her mother , brother , and sister , Jennet Device may eventually have found herself accused of witchcraft . A woman with that name was listed in a group of 20 tried at Lancaster Assizes on 24 March 1634 , although it cannot be certain that it was the same Jennet Device . The charge against her was the murder of Isabel Nutter , William Nutter 's wife . In that series of trials the chief prosecution witness was a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , Edmund Robinson . All but one of the accused were found guilty , but the judges refused to pass death sentences , deciding instead to refer the case to the king , Charles I. Under cross @-@ examination in London , Robinson admitted that he had fabricated his evidence , but even though four of the accused were eventually pardoned , they all remained incarcerated in Lancaster Gaol , where it is likely that they died . An official record dated 22 August 1636 lists Jennet Device as one of those still held in the prison . These later Lancashire witchcraft trials were the subject of a contemporary play written by Thomas Heywood and Richard Brome , The Late Lancashire Witches .
In modern times the witches have become the inspiration for Pendle 's tourism and heritage industries , with local shops selling a variety of witch @-@ motif gifts . Burnley 's Moorhouse 's produces a beer called Pendle Witches Brew , and there is a Pendle Witch Trail running from Pendle Heritage Centre to Lancaster Castle , where the accused witches were held before their trial . The X43 bus route run by Transdev in Burnley & Pendle has been branded The Witch Way , with some of the vehicles operating on it named after the witches in the trial . Pendle Hill , which dominates the landscape of the area , continues to be associated with witchcraft , and hosts a hilltop gathering every Halloween .
A petition was presented to UK Home Secretary Jack Straw in 1998 asking for the witches to be pardoned , but it was decided that their convictions should stand . Ten years later another petition was organised in an attempt to obtain pardons for Chattox and Demdike . It followed the Swiss government 's pardon earlier that year of Anna Göldi , beheaded in 1782 , thought to be the last person in Europe to be executed as a witch .
= = Literary adaptations and other media = =
William Harrison Ainsworth , a Victorian novelist considered in his day the equal of Dickens , wrote a romanticised account of the Pendle witches published in 1849 . The Lancashire Witches is the only one of his 40 novels never to have been out of print . The British writer Robert Neill dramatised the events of 1612 in his novel Mist over Pendle , first published in 1951 . The writer and poet Blake Morrison treated the subject in his suite of poems Pendle Witches , published in 1996 , and in 2011 poet Simon Armitage narrated a documentary on BBC Four , The Pendle Witch Child .
= = = 2012 anniversary = = =
Events to mark the 400th anniversary of the trials in 2012 included an exhibition , " A Wonderful Discoverie : Lancashire Witches 1612 – 2012 " , at Gawthorpe Hall staged by Lancashire County Council . The Fate of Chattox , a piece by David Lloyd @-@ Mostyn for clarinet and piano , taking its theme from the events leading to Chattox 's demise , was performed by Aquilon at the Chorlton Arts Festival .
A life @-@ size statue of Alice Nutter , by sculptor David Palmer , was unveiled in her home village , Roughlee . In August , a world record for the largest group dressed as witches was set by 482 people who walked up Pendle Hill , on which the date " 1612 " had been installed in 400 @-@ foot @-@ tall numbers by artist Philippe Handford using horticultural fleece . The Bishop of Burnley , the Rt Rev John Goddard , expressed concern about marking the anniversary on the side of the hill .
Publications in 2012 inspired by the trials include two novellas , The Daylight Gate by Jeanette Winterson and Malkin Child by Livi Michael . Blake Morrison published a volume of poetry , A Discoverie of Witches .
= History of private equity and venture capital =
The history of private equity and venture capital and the development of these asset classes has occurred through a series of boom and bust cycles since the middle of the 20th century . Within the broader private equity industry , two distinct sub @-@ industries , leveraged buyouts and venture capital experienced growth along parallel , although interrelated tracks .
Since the origins of the modern private equity industry in 1946 , there have been four major epochs marked by three boom and bust cycles . The early history of private equity — from 1946 through 1981 — was characterized by relatively small volumes of private equity investment , rudimentary firm organizations and limited awareness of and familiarity with the private equity industry . The first boom and bust cycle , from 1982 through 1993 , was characterized by the dramatic surge in leveraged buyout activity financed by junk bonds and culminating in the massive buyout of RJR Nabisco before the near collapse of the leveraged buyout industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The second boom and bust cycle ( from 1992 through 2002 ) emerged from the ashes of the savings and loan crisis , the insider trading scandals , the real estate market collapse and the recession of the early 1990s . This period saw the emergence of more institutionalized private equity firms , ultimately culminating in the massive Dot @-@ com bubble in 1999 and 2000 . The third boom and bust cycle ( from 2003 through 2007 ) came in the wake of the collapse of the Dot @-@ com bubble — leveraged buyouts reach unparalleled size and the institutionalization of private equity firms is exemplified by the Blackstone Group 's 2007 initial public offering .
In its early years through roughly the year 2000 , the history of the private equity and venture capital asset classes is best described through a narrative of developments in the United States as private equity in Europe consistently lagged behind the North American industry . With the second private equity boom in the mid @-@ 1990s and liberalization of regulation for institutional investors in Europe , the emergence of a mature European private equity market has occurred .
= = Pre @-@ history = =
Investors have been acquiring businesses and making minority investments in privately held companies since the dawn of the industrial revolution . Merchant bankers in London and Paris financed industrial concerns in the 1850s ; most notably Crédit Mobilier , founded in 1854 by Jacob and Isaac Pereire , who together with New York @-@ based Jay Cooke financed the United States Transcontinental Railroad .
Later , J. Pierpont Morgan 's J.P. Morgan & Co. would finance railroads and other industrial companies throughout the United States . In certain respects , J. Pierpont Morgan 's 1901 acquisition of Carnegie Steel Company from Andrew Carnegie and Henry Phipps for $ 480 million represents the first true major buyout as they are thought of today .
Due to structural restrictions imposed on American banks under the Glass – Steagall Act and other regulations in the 1930s , there was no private merchant banking industry in the United States , a situation that was quite exceptional in developed nations . As late as the 1980s , Lester Thurow , a noted economist , decried the inability of the financial regulation framework in the United States to support merchant banks . US investment banks were confined primarily to advisory businesses , handling mergers and acquisitions transactions and placements of equity and debt securities . Investment banks would later enter the space , however long after independent firms had become well established .
With few exceptions , private equity in the first half of the 20th century was the domain of wealthy individuals and families . The Vanderbilts , Whitneys , Rockefellers and Warburgs were notable investors in private companies in the first half of the century . In 1938 , Laurance S. Rockefeller helped finance the creation of both Eastern Air Lines and Douglas Aircraft and the Rockefeller family had vast holdings in a variety of companies . Eric M. Warburg founded E.M. Warburg & Co. in 1938 , which would ultimately become Warburg Pincus , with investments in both leveraged buyouts and venture capital .
= = Origins of modern private equity = =
It was not until after World War II that what is considered today to be true private equity investments began to emerge marked by the founding of the first two venture capital firms in 1946 : American Research and Development Corporation . ( ARDC ) and J.H. Whitney & Company .
ARDC was founded by Georges Doriot , the " father of venture capitalism " ( founder of INSEAD and former dean of Harvard Business School ) , with Ralph Flanders and Karl Compton ( former president of MIT ) , to encourage private sector investments in businesses run by soldiers who were returning from World War II . ARDC 's significance was primarily that it was the first institutional private equity investment firm that raised capital from sources other than wealthy families although it had several notable investment successes as well . ARDC is credited with the first major venture capital success story when its 1957 investment of $ 70 @,@ 000 in Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) would be valued at over $ 35 @.@ 5 million after the company 's initial public offering in 1968 ( representing a return of over 500 times on its investment and an annualized rate of return of 101 % ) . Former employees of ARDC went on to found several prominent venture capital firms including Greylock Partners ( founded in 1965 by Charlie Waite and Bill Elfers ) and Morgan , Holland Ventures , the predecessor of Flagship Ventures ( founded in 1982 by James Morgan ) . ARDC continued investing until 1971 with the retirement of Doriot . In 1972 , Doriot merged ARDC with Textron after having invested in over 150 companies .
J.H. Whitney & Company was founded by John Hay Whitney and his partner Benno Schmidt . Whitney had been investing since the 1930s , founding Pioneer Pictures in 1933 and acquiring a 15 % interest in Technicolor Corporation with his cousin Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney . By far , Whitney 's most famous investment was in Florida Foods Corporation . The company , having developed an innovative method for delivering nutrition to American soldiers , later came to be known as Minute Maid orange juice and was sold to The Coca @-@ Cola Company in 1960 . J.H. Whitney & Company continues to make investments in leveraged buyout transactions and raised $ 750 million for its sixth institutional private equity fund in 2005 .
Before World War II , venture capital investments ( originally known as " development capital " ) were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families . One of the first steps toward a professionally managed venture capital industry was the passage of the Small Business Investment Act of 1958 . The 1958 Act officially allowed the U.S. Small Business Administration ( SBA ) to license private " Small Business Investment Companies " ( SBICs ) to help the financing and management of the small entrepreneurial businesses in the United States . Passage of the Act addressed concerns raised in a Federal Reserve Board report to Congress that concluded that a major gap existed in the capital markets for long @-@ term funding for growth @-@ oriented small businesses . Additionally , it was thought that fostering entrepreneurial companies would spur technological advances to compete against the Soviet Union . Facilitating the flow of capital through the economy up to the pioneering small concerns in order to stimulate the U.S. economy was and still is the main goal of the SBIC program today . The 1958 Act provided venture capital firms structured either as SBICs or Minority Enterprise Small Business Investment Companies ( MESBICs ) access to federal funds which could be leveraged at a ratio of up to 4 : 1 against privately raised investment funds . The success of the Small Business Administration 's efforts are viewed primarily in terms of the pool of professional private equity investors that the program developed as the rigid regulatory limitations imposed by the program minimized the role of SBICs . In 2005 , the SBA significantly reduced its SBIC program , though SBICs continue to make private equity investments .
The real growth in Private Equity surged in 1984 to 1991 period when Institutional Investors , e.g. Pension Plans , Foundations and Endowment Funds such as the Shell Pension Plan , the Oregon State Pension Plan , the Ford Foundation and the Harvard Endowment Fund started investing a small part of their trillion dollars portfolios into Private Investments - particularly venture capital and Leverage Buyout Funds
= = Early venture capital and the growth of Silicon Valley ( 1959 – 1981 ) = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , venture capital firms focused their investment activity primarily on starting and expanding companies . More often than not , these companies were exploiting breakthroughs in electronic , medical or data @-@ processing technology . As a result , venture capital came to be almost synonymous with technology finance .
It is commonly noted that the first venture @-@ backed startup was Fairchild Semiconductor ( which produced the first commercially practicable integrated circuit ) , funded in late 1957 by a loan from Sherman Fairchild 's Fairchild Camera with the help Arthur Rock , an early venture capitalist with the firm of Hayden Stone in New York ( which received 20 % of the equity of the newly formed company ) . Another early VC firm was Venrock Associates . Venrock was founded in 1969 by Laurance S. Rockefeller , the fourth of John D. Rockefeller 's six children as a way to allow other Rockefeller children to develop exposure to venture capital investments .
It was also in the 1960s that the common form of private equity fund , still in use today , emerged . Private equity firms organized limited partnerships to hold investments in which the investment professionals served as general partner and the investors , who were passive limited partners , put up the capital . The compensation structure , still in use today , also emerged with limited partners paying an annual management fee of 1 – 2 % and a carried interest typically representing up to 20 % of the profits of the partnership .
An early West Coast venture capital company was Draper and Johnson Investment Company , formed in 1962 by William Henry Draper III and Franklin P. Johnson , Jr . In 1964 Bill Draper and Paul Wythes founded Sutter Hill Ventures , and Pitch Johnson formed Asset Management Company .
The growth of the venture capital industry was fueled by the emergence of the independent investment firms on Sand Hill Road , beginning with Kleiner , Perkins , Caufield & Byers and Sequoia Capital in 1972 . Located in Menlo Park , CA , Kleiner Perkins , Sequoia and later venture capital firms would have access to the burgeoning technology industries in the area . By the early 1970s , there were many semiconductor companies based in the Santa Clara Valley as well as early computer firms using their devices and programming and service companies . Throughout the 1970s , a group of private equity firms , focused primarily on venture capital investments , would be founded that would become the model for later leveraged buyout and venture capital investment firms . In 1973 , with the number of new venture capital firms increasing , leading venture capitalists formed the National Venture Capital Association ( NVCA ) . The NVCA was to serve as the industry trade group for the venture capital industry . Venture capital firms suffered a temporary downturn in 1974 , when the stock market crashed and investors were naturally wary of this new kind of investment fund . It was not until 1978 that venture capital experienced its first major fundraising year , as the industry raised approximately $ 750 million . During this period , the number of venture firms also increased . Among the firms founded in this period , in addition to Kleiner Perkins and Sequoia , that continue to invest actively are AEA Investors , TA Associates , Mayfield Fund , Apax Partners , New Enterprise Associates , Oak Investment Partners and Sevin Rosen Funds .
Venture capital played an instrumental role in developing many of the major technology companies of the 1980s . Some of the most notable venture capital investments were made in firms that include : Tandem Computers , Genentech , Apple Inc . , Electronic Arts , Compaq , Federal Express and LSI Corporation .
= = Early history of leveraged buyouts ( 1955 – 1981 ) = =
= = = McLean Industries and public holding companies = = =
Although not strictly private equity , and certainly not labeled so at the time , the first leveraged buyout may have been the purchase by Malcolm McLean 's McLean Industries , Inc. of Pan @-@ Atlantic Steamship Company in January 1955 and Waterman Steamship Corporation in May 1955 . Under the terms of the transactions , McLean borrowed $ 42 million and raised an additional $ 7 million through an issue of preferred stock . When the deal closed , $ 20 million of Waterman cash and assets were used to retire $ 20 million of the loan debt . The newly elected board of Waterman then voted to pay an immediate dividend of $ 25 million to McLean Industries .
Similar to the approach employed in the McLean transaction , the use of publicly traded holding companies as investment vehicles to acquire portfolios of investments in corporate assets would become a new trend in the 1960s popularized by the likes of Warren Buffett ( Berkshire Hathaway ) and Victor Posner ( DWG Corporation ) and later adopted by Nelson Peltz ( Triarc ) , Saul Steinberg ( Reliance Insurance ) and Gerry Schwartz ( Onex Corporation ) . These investment vehicles would utilize a number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms . In fact , it is Posner who is often credited with coining the term " leveraged buyout " or " LBO "
Posner , who had made a fortune in real estate investments in the 1930s and 1940s acquired a major stake in DWG Corporation in 1966 . Having gained control of the company , he used it as an investment vehicle that could execute takeovers of other companies . Posner and DWG are perhaps best known for the hostile takeover of Sharon Steel Corporation in 1969 , one of the earliest such takeovers in the United States . Posner 's investments were typically motivated by attractive valuations , balance sheets and cash flow characteristics . Because of its high debt load , Posner 's DWG would generate attractive but highly volatile returns and would ultimately land the company in financial difficulty . In 1987 , Sharon Steel sought Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection .
Warren Buffett , who is typically described as a stock market investor rather than a private equity investor , employed many of the same techniques in the creation on his Berkshire Hathaway conglomerate as Posner 's DWG Corporation and in later years by more traditional private equity investors . In 1965 , with the support of the company 's board of directors , Buffett assumed control of Berkshire Hathaway . At the time of Buffett 's investment , Berkshire Hathaway was a textile company , however , Buffett used Berkshire Hathaway as an investment vehicle to make acquisitions and minority investments in dozens of the insurance and reinsurance industries ( GEICO ) and varied companies including : American Express , The Buffalo News , the Coca @-@ Cola Company , Fruit of the Loom , Nebraska Furniture Mart and See 's Candies . Buffett 's value investing approach and focus on earnings and cash flows are characteristic of later private equity investors . Buffett would distinguish himself relative to more traditional leveraged buyout practitioners through his reluctance to use leverage and hostile techniques in his investments .
= = = KKR and the pioneers of private equity = = =
The industry that is today described as private equity was conceived by a number of corporate financiers , most notably Jerome Kohlberg , Jr. and later his protégé , Henry Kravis . Working for Bear Stearns at the time , Kohlberg and Kravis along with Kravis ' cousin George Roberts began a series of what they described as " bootstrap " investments . They targeted family @-@ owned businesses , many of which had been founded in the years following World War II and by the 1960s and 1970s were facing succession issues . Many of these companies lacked a viable or attractive exit for their founders as they were too small to be taken public and the founders were reluctant to sell out to competitors , making a sale to a financial buyer potentially attractive . Their acquisition of Orkin Exterminating Company in 1964 is among the first significant leveraged buyout transactions . In the following years , the three Bear Stearns bankers would complete a series of buyouts including Stern Metals ( 1965 ) , Incom ( a division of Rockwood International , 1971 ) , Cobblers Industries ( 1971 ) and Boren Clay ( 1973 ) as well as Thompson Wire , Eagle Motors and Barrows through their investment in Stern Metals . Although they had a number of highly successful investments , the $ 27 million investment in Cobblers ended in bankruptcy .
By 1976 , tensions had built up between Bear Stearns and Kohlberg , Kravis and Roberts leading to their departure and the formation of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in that year . Most notably , Bear Stearns executive Cy Lewis had rejected repeated proposals to form a dedicated investment fund within Bear Stearns and Lewis took exception to the amount of time spent on outside activities . Early investors included the Hillman Family By 1978 , with the revision of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act regulations , the nascent KKR was successful in raising its first institutional fund with approximately $ 30 million of investor commitments . That year , the firm signed a precedent @-@ setting deal to buy the publicly traded Houdaille Industries , which made industrial pipes , for $ 380 million . It was by far the largest take @-@ private at the time .
Meanwhile , in 1974 , Thomas H. Lee founded a new investment firm to focus on acquiring companies through leveraged buyout transactions , one of the earliest independent private equity firms to focus on leveraged buyouts of more mature companies rather than venture capital investments in growth companies . Lee 's firm , Thomas H. Lee Partners , while initially generating less fanfare than other entrants in the 1980s , would emerge as one of the largest private equity firms globally by the end of the 1990s .
The second half of the 1970s and the first years of the 1980s saw the emergence of several private equity firms that would survive the various cycles both in leveraged buyouts and venture capital . Among the firms founded during these years were : Cinven , Forstmann Little & Company , Welsh , Carson , Anderson & Stowe , Candover , and GTCR .
Management buyouts also came into existence in the late 1970s and early 1980s . One of the most notable early management buyout transactions was the acquisition of Harley @-@ Davidson . A group of managers at Harley @-@ Davidson , the motorcycle manufacturer , bought the company from AMF in a leveraged buyout in 1981 , but racked up big losses the following year and had to ask for protection from Japanese competitors .
= = = Regulatory and tax changes impact the boom = = =
The advent of the boom in leveraged buyouts in the 1980s was supported by three major legal and regulatory events :
Failure of the Carter tax plan of 1977 – In his first year in office , Jimmy Carter put forth a revision to the corporate tax system that would have , among other results , reduced the disparity in treatment of interest paid to bondholders and dividends paid to stockholders . Carter 's proposals did not achieve support from the business community or Congress and were not enacted . Because of the different tax treatment , the use of leverage to reduce taxes was popular among private equity investors and would become increasingly popular with the reduction of the capital gains tax rate .
Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 ( ERISA ) – With the passage of ERISA in 1974 , corporate pension funds were prohibited from holding certain risky investments including many investments in privately held companies . In 1975 , fundraising for private equity investments cratered , according to the Venture Capital Institute , totaling only $ 10 million during the course of the year . In 1978 , the US Labor Department relaxed certain parts of the ERISA restrictions , under the " prudent man rule , " thus allowing corporate pension funds to invest in private equity resulting in a major source of capital available to invest in venture capital and other private equity . Time reported in 1978 that fund raising had increased from $ 39 million in 1977 to $ 570 million just one year later . Additionally , many of these same corporate pension investors would become active buyers of the high yield bonds ( or junk bonds ) that were necessary to complete leveraged buyout transactions .
Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 ( ERTA ) – On August 15 , 1981 , Ronald Reagan signed the Kemp @-@ Roth bill , officially known as the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , into law , lowering of the top capital gains tax rate from 28 percent to 20 percent , and making high risk investments even more attractive .
In the years that would follow these events , private equity would experience its first major boom , acquiring some of the famed brands and major industrial powers of American business .
= = The first private equity boom ( 1982 – 1993 ) = =
The decade of the 1980s is perhaps more closely associated with the leveraged buyout than any decade before or since . For the first time , the public became aware of the ability of private equity to affect mainstream companies and " corporate raiders " and " hostile takeovers " entered the public consciousness . The decade would see one of the largest booms in private equity culminating in the 1989 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco , which would reign as the largest leveraged buyout transaction for nearly 17 years . In 1980 , the private equity industry would raise approximately $ 2 @.@ 4 billion of annual investor commitments and by the end of the decade in 1989 that figure stood at $ 21 @.@ 9 billion marking the tremendous growth experienced .
= = = Beginning of the LBO boom = = =
The beginning of the first boom period in private equity would be marked by the well @-@ publicized success of the Gibson Greetings acquisition in 1982 and would roar ahead through 1983 and 1984 with the soaring stock market driving profitable exits for private equity investors .
In January 1982 , former US Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon , Ray Chambers and a group of investors , which would later come to be known as Wesray Capital Corporation , acquired Gibson Greetings , a producer of greeting cards . The purchase price for Gibson was $ 80 million , of which only $ 1 million was rumored to have been contributed by the investors . By mid @-@ 1983 , just sixteen months after the original deal , Gibson completed a $ 290 million IPO and Simon made approximately $ 66 million . Simon and Wesray would later complete the $ 71 @.@ 6 million acquisition of Atlas Van Lines . The success of the Gibson Greetings investment attracted the attention of the wider media to the nascent boom in leveraged buyouts .
Between 1979 and 1989 , it was estimated that there were over 2 @,@ 000 leveraged buyouts valued in excess of $ 250 million Notable buyouts of this period ( not described elsewhere in this article ) include : Malone & Hyde ( 1984 ) , Wometco Enterprises ( 1984 ) , Beatrice Companies ( 1985 ) , Sterling Jewelers ( 1985 ) , Revco Drug Stores ( 1986 ) , Safeway ( 1986 ) , Southland Corporation ( 1987 ) , Jim Walter Corp ( later Walter Industries , Inc . , 1987 ) , BlackRock ( 1988 ) , Federated Department Stores ( 1988 ) , Marvel Entertainment ( 1988 ) , Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company ( 1988 ) and Hospital Corporation of America ( 1989 ) .
Because of the high leverage on many of the transactions of the 1980s , failed deals occurred regularly , however the promise of attractive returns on successful investments attracted more capital . With the increased leveraged buyout activity and investor interest , the mid @-@ 1980s saw a major proliferation of private equity firms . Among the major firms founded in this period were : Bain Capital , Chemical Venture Partners , Hellman & Friedman , Hicks & Haas , ( later Hicks Muse Tate & Furst ) , The Blackstone Group , Doughty Hanson , BC Partners , and The Carlyle Group .
Additionally , as the market developed , new niches within the private equity industry began to emerge . In 1982 , Venture Capital Fund of America , the first private equity firm focused on acquiring secondary market interests in existing private equity funds was founded and then , two years later in 1984 , First Reserve Corporation , the first private equity firm focused on the energy sector , was founded .
= = = Venture capital in the 1980s = = =
The public successes of the venture capital industry in the 1970s and early 1980s ( e.g. , DEC , Apple , Genentech ) gave rise to a major proliferation of venture capital investment firms . From just a few dozen firms at the start of the decade , there were over 650 firms by the end of the 1980s , each searching for the next major " home run " . While the number of firms multiplied , the capital managed by these firms increased only 11 % from $ 28 billion to $ 31 billion over the course of the decade .
The growth the industry was hampered by sharply declining returns and certain venture firms began posting losses for the first time . In addition to the increased competition among firms , several other factors impacted returns . The market for initial public offerings cooled in the mid @-@ 1980s before collapsing after the stock market crash in 1987 and foreign corporations , particularly from Japan and Korea , flooded early stage companies with capital .
In response to the changing conditions , corporations that had sponsored in @-@ house venture investment arms , including General Electric and Paine Webber either sold off or closed these venture capital units . Additionally , venture capital units within Chemical Bank ( today CCMP Capital ) and Continental Illinois National Bank ( today CIVC Partners ) , among others , began shifting their focus from funding early stage companies toward investments in more mature companies . Even industry founders J.H. Whitney & Company and Warburg Pincus began to transition toward leveraged buyouts and growth capital investments . Many of these venture capital firms attempted to stay close to their areas of expertise in the technology industry by acquiring companies in the industry that had reached certain levels of maturity . In 1989 , Prime Computer was acquired in a $ 1 @.@ 3 billion leveraged buyout by J.H. Whitney & Company in what would prove to be a disastrous transaction . Whitney 's investment in Prime proved to be nearly a total loss with the bulk of the proceeds from the company 's liquidation paid to the company 's creditors .
Although lower profile than their buyout counterparts , new leading venture capital firms were also formed including Draper Fisher Jurvetson
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1994 and 1998 World Lacrosse Championships and was named to the 1998 World Lacrosse Championship All @-@ World team .
= = Professional career = =
In 1991 , one of his father 's customers was attempting to modernize the snowshoe with experimental materials such as titanium . At the time , lacrosse sticks were made of aluminum that could get bent during the game . Morrow was breaking and bending sticks at a rapid rate . Morrow noticed titanium was lighter and more durable than aluminum . Thus , at his father 's suggestion , he incorporated it into the lacrosse stick the following year . A year later , he began his own business , selling his first sticks in February 1993 . In 1993 , he was affiliated with the Philadelphia Wings but became a free agent . Morrow was selected for Team USA that would compete at the 1994 World Lacrosse Championship . After being named to the 1998 All World team following the 1998 World Lacrosse Championship , he retired from competitive lacrosse to focus on the business .
Today , lacrosse sticks by all manufacturers use titanium , and players at all levels use titanium sticks . Morrow 's idea led to his own business venture , Warrior Lacrosse , which is named after the Brother Rice High School Warriors whom he played for in high school . Morrow sold controlling interest of his company to New Balance in January 2004 but continues to be the President and CEO of Warrior Sports . As of 2001 , Warrior and its 50 employees were the official equipment supplier of the U.S. Men 's National Teams program and the MLL . As of 2007 , Warrior Sports held a 40 % market share in the lacrosse industry . The company had several divisions including Warrior Lacrosse , Brine Sports , and Warrior Sports Canada . In 2005 Warrior sports acquired Innovative Hockey and As of 2007 , it had 600 employees and over 150 National Hockey League players using their composite hockey sticks . Warrior sports sponsors over 200 youth programs , tournaments , and camps each year . It also sponsors professional and intercollegiate teams . In addition , the company puts on clinics and demonstrations around the world .
Morrow founded the MLL along with Jake Steinfeld , Timothy Robertson and Jim Davis . He originally served on the prospective league 's advisory committee . In 2001 , Morrow 's newly opened six @-@ team MLL opened as a professional field lacrosse complement to the box lacrosse National Lacrosse League . It opened on June 7 at Homewood Field in Baltimore near the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame . The league has been successful and has been televised on ESPN2 since 2003 . It is under contract to be televised on the network until 2016 .
= = Personal = =
As of March 2007 , he and his wife Christine , who is also a Princeton alumna , had three young children : three @-@ year @-@ old Samantha , two @-@ year @-@ old Kevin and newborn Jessica . Christine Schluter , a member of Princeton 's Class of 1992 , was a geochemist in Boulder , Colorado when she moved to Detroit to work for Morrow .
= Green and golden bell frog =
The green and golden bell frog ( Litoria aurea ) , also named the green bell frog , green and golden swamp frog and green frog , is a ground @-@ dwelling tree frog native to eastern Australia . Despite its classification and climbing abilities , it does not live in trees and spends almost all of its time close to ground level . It can reach up to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length , making it one of Australia 's largest frogs .
Coloured gold and green , the frogs are voracious eaters of insects , but will also eat larger prey , such as worms and mice . Unlike most frogs , they are active at day , although this is mostly to warm in the sun . They tend to be less active in winter except in warmer or wetter periods , and breed in the warmer months . Males reach maturity after around 9 months , while for the larger females , this does not occur until they are two years old . The frogs can engage in cannibalism , and males frequently attack and injure one another if they infringe on one another 's space .
Many populations , particularly in the Sydney region , inhabit areas of infrequent disturbance , such as golf courses , disused industrial land , brick pits , and landfill areas . Though once one of the most common frogs in south @-@ east Australia , the green and golden bell frog has endured major population declines , particularly in highland areas , leading to its current classification as globally vulnerable . Its numbers have continued to fall and are threatened by habitat loss and degradation , pollution , introduced species , and parasites and pathogens , including the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . As most of the remaining populations live on private land , the logistics of the conservation effort can be complicated . Despite the situation in Australia , some frog populations have survived with more success in New Zealand and several other Pacific islands , where it has been introduced . However , unfortunately even in these areas the population of green and golden bell has been rapidly declining in the past few decades .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common name , " green and golden bell frog " , was first adopted by Harold Cogger in his 1975 book Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia . Before this , its common names were " golden frog " and " golden tree frog " . The green and golden bell frog has many physical and behavioural characteristics representative of ranids , hence its original classification as Rana . It has a pointy snout , long legs , and almost complete toe webbing ; the tympanum is large and distinct ; and the overall body shape is similar to many Rana species . Like many frogs in the Rana genus , green and golden bell frogs are mostly aquatic , and only travel over land during periods of rainfall . It was removed from the genus because of anatomical differences with the family Ranidae . The bone and cartilage structural formations of the green and golden bell frog are closest to those of species in the family Hylidae ; it was therefore reclassified .
The green and golden bell frog was first described as Rana aurea by Lesson in 1827 . It has changed classification 20 times ; it was first named Litoria aurea in 1844 by Günther , and changed another 9 times before being named again as Litoria aurea . The specific epithet aurea derived from the Latin aureus for ' golden ' . The species is now classified within the Litoria aurea complex , a closely related group of frogs in the Litoria genus . This complex is scattered throughout Australia : three species occur in south @-@ east Australia , one in northern Australia , and two in Southwest Australia . The complex consists of the green and golden bell frog ( L. aurea ) , growling grass frog ( L. raniformis ) , yellow @-@ spotted bell frog ( L. castanea ) , Dahl 's aquatic frog ( L. dahlii ) , spotted @-@ thighed frog ( L. cyclorhyncha ) and the motorbike frog ( L. moorei ) . The ranges of L. raniformis and L. castanea overlap with the green and golden bell frog ; this , as well as physical similarities , may make it difficult to distinguish between the species , and until 1972 , L. raniformis and the green and golden bell frog were regarded as the same , when electrophoretic studies proved them to be distinct . The tablelands bell frog has not been seen since 1980 and may now be extinct , although the large yellow spots present on its thighs help distinguish it from the green and golden bell frog . The growling grass frog , which is very similar to the green and golden bell frog , can only be readily distinguished by raised bumps on the dorsal surface . It has also been proposed that some populations of L. aurea located near Ulong , New South Wales , be a separate subspecies , L. a. ulongae , but this was not accepted .
Litorea aurea is equally and most closely related to Li. castanes and L. ranaformis . A microcomplement fixation technique using serum albumins has indicated the species closest to L. aurea is L. ranifomis . Albumin immunological distance data suggest no differentiation between the two , and the green and golden bell frog evolutionally separated from the other two species about 1 @.@ 1 million years ago . A 1995 study of protein variations showed four of 19 protein systems had variation and only two had differentiation . Scientists believe the different species can still hybridise , as their distribution areas still overlap , and both L. raniformis and L. aurea have been seen sharing ponds in the Gippsland area of Victoria . However , little evidence of hybridisation actually occurring has been found . Although there have been reports of frogs of mixed appearance in Gippsland , analysis of proteins and sera of the frogs showed two distinct species . Samples in other area of distribution have shown no evidence of hybridisation in spite of cohabitation .
= = Distribution = =
The green and golden bell frog is native to south @-@ eastern Australia . Before its decline in population , its distribution ranged from Brunswick Heads , in northern New South Wales , to East Gippsland , in Victoria , and west to Bathurst , Tumut and the Australian Capital Territory .
The bell frog 's current distribution now ranges from Byron Bay , in northern New South Wales , to East Gippsland , in Victoria ; populations mostly occur along the coast . In New South Wales , it has declined severely in range and abundance since the 1960s , although no similar declines have been reported in Victoria . In New South Wales , it has disappeared from highland areas above 250 m ( 820 ft ) , except for a population in Captains Flat . A study of populations along coastal New South Wales indicated many populations were very small , usually of fewer than 20 adults . According to a 1996 study , six populations of more than 300 frogs are known : two in the Sydney metropolitan area , two in the Shoalhaven , and two in the New South Wales mid @-@ north coast . There are now approximately only 40 sites in total where it is found , most of which are in the Sydney area . The green and golden bell frog has disappeared from an estimated 90 % of its former range . Some specimens were apparently found in Armidale , but it turned out to be a misidentification of L. castanea . The declines in Victoria have been more modest and mostly in at inland areas where habitats have disappeared .
The green and golden bell frog survives in some areas of Sydney , such as the Brickpit at Sydney Olympic Park ( the proposed site for the tennis courts for the 2000 Sydney Olympics ) . When the green and golden bell frog was found there , the tennis courts were built elsewhere , and the population has since been monitored . This frog has become an unofficial mascot for the Homebush Bay area . It has also been introduced to places in Sydney in its natural habitat , without much success .
The green and golden bell frog occurs on three islands off the east coast of Australia : Kooragang and Broughton Islands off Port Stephens , and Bowen Island at Jervis Bay . It was introduced to New Zealand in the 1860s , and it is now common on the part of North Island north of Rotorua . In most places , it is the only frog species in the vicinity . However , recent declines have been reported , suspected to be due to predatory fish . It was also introduced to the Pacific island countries of New Caledonia and Vanuatu in the 19th century , and has since become common there .
No discernible variation in size or appearance in green and golden bell frogs between different geographic areas is found . Fluctuations in size and appearance between different populations are outweighed by variations within the populations themselves . Females are more likely to be found away from breeding sites , while the opposite applies for males . Metamorphlings are divided in roughly equal numbers between males and females , while juvenile frogs are observed less often than their mature counterparts , although scientists are not sure whether this is due to lower abundance or increased reclusiveness .
= = Description = =
The green and golden bell frog is a large , stout frog ; adults range from 4 @.@ 5 to 11 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) in length ; typical specimens measure 6 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 to 3 in ) . The green and golden bell frog is therefore one of the largest Australian frogs . Mature males are generally smaller than mature females , and the colour on their dorsal surfaces differ greatly from females . It may be almost completely green , of shades from dark pea @-@ green to bright emerald , green with metallic , brassy , dull copper @-@ brown , or gold markings ; or almost completely bronze . Generally , females tend to have more green patches than males . During the cooler months ( May – August ) , when the frogs are inactive , colouration may darken almost to black . They can also darken in this way by simply staying in a dark place for a few minutes , and the colour can also change during the frogs ' lifetimes .
A creamy @-@ white or pale yellow stripe , bordered above with gold and below with black , extends from behind the eye , across the typically copper @-@ coloured tympanum to the groin . This stripe rises to form a dorsolateral fold towards the groin . Another stripe of the same colour begins below the eye and continues to the shoulder . The abdomen is cream or white , and has a coarsely granular texture . The legs are green , bronze , or a combination of both , and the inside thigh and groin are blue @-@ green . Mature males develop a yellowish colouration to the vocal sacs on their throats . The tympanum is distinct and ovular in shape , and the species has enlarged toe discs to aid in climbing . As this species is often found in water , the fingers are free from webbing , while the toes are almost completely webbed . When in breeding condition , males develop nuptial pads on their thumbs , which are used to grip females during mating . These are coloured brown during the breeding season , but are inconspicuous and paler during the rest of the year . During the breeding season , females develop a blueish hue on their feet , while males ' legs turn rusty orange .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
As a member of the tree frog family , the green and golden bell frog spends much time basking in the sun on vegetation , rocks , and reeds , usually near water , or hopping around between such places . Unlike most frog species , it is often active during the day . When handled , this species secretes a slimy acrid mucus , which consists of 17 aurein peptides . Thirteen of these show broad @-@ spectrum antibiotic and anticancer activity . The secretion makes the frog slippery and hard to grip , and is poisonous to some other species of frogs , so it is a useful defensive tool for green and golden bell frogs . Males often fight one another if they come within 1 m of each other , frequently leading to injuries .
The green and golden bell frog has been detected in a wide range of habitats . It is generally associated with coastal swamps , wetlands , marshes , dams , ditches , small rivers , woodlands , and forests , but populations have also been found at former industrial sites ( for instance , the Brickpit ) . It has even been found in human vessels such as bathtubs . The requirements of its habitat have been difficult to determine , for it has been found in a wide range of water bodies except fast @-@ flowing streams . It is most typically found in short @-@ lived freshwater ponds that are still , shallow , unshaded , and unpolluted , and it tends to avoid waters that contain predatory fish , whether native or introduced . However , it is most often found in areas that have been affected by human habitation . The frog prefers water bodies that support emergent vegetation , such as reeds and bullrushes , for basking , and winter habitats consist of available shelters around the breeding site , which can be vegetation , rocks , rubbish , or human debris and discarded building materials . Grassy habitats are usually close at hand to provide suitable terrestrial feeding grounds . It prefers waterways with a substrate of sand , rock , or clay , and can tolerate a wide range of water turbidities , pH and oxygen levels , and temperatures , although these can hamper physical growth . Although its legs provide much grip , the frog does not choose to climb trees or live up them to any significant extent . It spends most of its time within 10 cm of the ground and rarely ventures more than a metre above the ground . The green and golden bell frog also has the ability to sit still for several minutes .
The green and golden bell frog can travel far in a single day or night ; distances of 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 5 km have been recorded . Tagging experiments have shown that some can move up to 3 km in total , and that some travel several kilometres from the closest breeding habitat . However , the species evidently tends to return to or remain at an identified site , provided the habitat stays appropriate for its needs , or else it will move away . The green and golden bell frog also favours areas with the greatest habitat complexity , and as such , this is a core component of habitat @-@ based strategies to protect the species . In general , the frogs stay within areas of 100 – 700 m2 The frog is well equipped for survival on land . It can rehydrate by absorbing moisture through its ventral skin , and evaporative water loss occurs at a rate , indicative of a watertight skin. very low Some have been observed up to 400 m from the nearest body of water .
During the winter months , the frog tends to be inactive , staying in one place , whereas it moves around during the warmer months to search for food and mating partners . During winter , the frog does become active for brief periods during warm or wet weather . In cold conditions , the frogs are thought to hibernate , based on observations of some being uncovered in a " torpid " state , but this has yet to be proven with rigorous physiological studies . Although the frog is active during the day , this is restricted to leaving its shelter to sunbathe . It tends to not actively feed or forage during the day , hunting insects only if they move into its vicinity .
The green and golden bell frog 's reproduction depends on salinity and water temperature . Salinity affects tadpoles ' development and metamorphosis , and breeding is significantly slowed for ponds that measure 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) or below . The tadpoles can tolerate salinity levels of six parts per thousand ( ppt ) without any apparent effects , while salinity of 8 ppt or higher decreases growth rates and increases mortality rates . On the other hand , salinity levels of at least 1 – 2 ppt can be beneficial to the green and golden bell frog because this kills pathogens such as the chytrid fungus . The pH of the pond is not found to affect the likelihood of the eggs to hatch for values between 4 and 10 .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
The voracious adults have very broad diets , including insects such as crickets , larvae , mosquito wrigglers , dragonflies , earthworms , cockroaches , flies , and grasshoppers . They are also known to eat freshwater crayfish and slugs , and other frogs , even of the same species . They have a strong tendency for cannibalism , and frequently these in the same enclosure devour each other . Studies and trials in the wild have shown cannibalism also occurs in the wild .
The tadpoles feed on detritus , algae , and bacteria . Tadpoles in more advanced phases of development may show a preference for vegetable matter , but also scavenge or become carnivorous on aquatic life . Captive tadpoles have eaten boiled lettuce and pet food in pellet form . If population density is high , tadpoles have cannibalised one another .
In captivity the green and golden bell frog is known to feed on crickets , fruit flies , maggots , silkworms , domestic flies , beetles , mealworms , larvae , slaters , cockroaches , molluscs , plague locusts , spiders , water snails , earthworms , and mice . A case of a small tiger snake being eaten has also been reported . Captive frogs have a habit of not responding to stationary food items , which has helped to form the belief that the frog will eat most things that move .
The hunting habits of the frogs change depending on their growth phase and thus physical size . Smaller , still @-@ growing green and golden bell frogs tend to hunt small , especially flying , insects , often jumping to catch their prey . Adult frogs appear to show a distinct preference for larger , land @-@ based insects and frogs , although they also eat aquatic prey , such as tadpoles and other aquatic organisms . Recently metamorphosed individuals have also been seen enter to shallow water to capture mosquito wrigglers . The relative proportion that various prey make up in the frog 's diet is not known . In observed studies of captive frogs , they eat less in cooler periods of the year , and frogs in the wild ate less during breeding periods . Younger frogs were also seen to forage longer into the warmer months to build up food stocks than fully matured frogs .
Natural predators include wading birds , such as reef egrets , white @-@ faced herons , white ibises and swamp harriers . Other predators include snakes , skinks , red foxes , tortoises , and eels and other fish , such as redfin perch and European carp , several varieties of gudgeon , and a range of invertebrate predators , such as the large brown mantis . Predation on adult frogs has been recorded for the red @-@ bellied black snake , tiger snake , laughing kookaburra , and sacred kingfisher ; wading birds and other snakes , such as the green tree snake and the copperhead snake , are also believed to be predators of the frog . The relative magnitude of the various predatorial threats to the frog and its tadpoles is not known . Before the frog became rare , and when subsistence lifestyles were more common , it was hunted and eaten by Australian Aborigines . It was also used in dissection demonstrations in biology classes , and caught by humans for feeding pet reptiles .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The green and golden bell frog breeds in the warmer months from October to March , although some cases have been recorded earlier at the end of winter . Reproduction appears to be influenced by geography . More southerly and highland populations appear to have a shorter window for breeding than their more northerly and lowland counterparts . The latter appear commence breeding earlier and end later than the former group . During the breeding season , males call , usually while floating in the water , but sometimes on vegetation at the side of a pond , mainly at night . They do so with a deep growl that has been described as a four @-@ part " walk @-@ walk sound " — likened to the sound of a motorbike changing gears . Males have been found to respond to recordings of the call , and this is why entire groups of males will then call in unison . Males are also more likely to call under certain temperature ranges , 16 – 23 ° C for water temperature , and 14 – 25 ° C in the air . Calling is also more likely immediately after rain has occurred .
Males appear to reach maturity at around 45 – 50 mm , at between 9 and 12 months , and at this size begin to develop a grey to brownish yellow wash beneath the chin . This indicates the development of a vocal sac and thus an ability to commence calling behaviour . Females reach sexual maturity at two years ; those smaller than 65 mm are not seen in amplexus ; this length is not reached until the second season after metamorphosis . The frog is not of a type that only breeds once . Females can shed up to 26 % of their weight when spawning , while males have also been seen to lose weight during breeding , because they are eating less . The weight lost during the breeding season is typically regained from January to September .
Amplexus between the male and female occurs mainly in water , but sometimes at substantial distances away on dry land . Observations of breeding sites have shown the males linger around the courting area for much longer times , while females mostly stay at other places to find food before meeting the males there . During amplexus , the males grab the females near their armpits after climbing on their backs . In the wild , amplexus usually takes between 10 minutes and five days . Artificially induced amplexus in the laboratory has been observed to last 50 hours , but there have been reports of five days . Sometimes , amplexus will not result in eggs being laid .
The frogs may move up to 100 m during amplexus before the female lays her eggs . During the laying of the eggs , the pair of frogs remain in amplexus and the male is assumed to fertilise the eggs with his sperm . Males are also seen to paddle their rear legs during this time , which is speculated to accelerate fertilisation . The egg @-@ laying and fertilisation process takes around five minutes . An average of 5 @,@ 000 eggs are deposited amongst aquatic vegetation in a gelatinous mass ; however , a clump of 11 @,@ 682 has been recorded . The female moves around while depositing , leaving a trail of eggs that sometimes entangles upon itself . Initially , the mass floats , but sinks up to 12 hours after laying , or when disturbed . The eggs are distinct from those of other frog species ; they are 2 – 2 @.@ 5 mm wide upon deposition and are bicoloured , black at one end and white at the other . They immediately begin to expand , quickly reaching around 4 mm across , before sinking . When first laid , they float with the black pointing up , but after sinking , the orientation becomes disordered . Two to five days later , the tadpoles hatch out , but the process can take only a few hours on occasions . The hatching rate varies between 46 and 77 % , and peaks at 22 ° C. Hatching is less likely in acidic waters , although alkaline conditions do not lead to a lower rate compared to neutral conditions . Given the large number of eggs that hatch per female and given the scarcity of mature frogs , tadpole survival rates are believed to be very low .
Upon hatching , the tadpoles are around 2 @.@ 5 – 3 mm in snout @-@ vent length ( SVL ) and about 5 – 6 mm including the tail . Tadpoles in captivity increase exponentially over time in total length ; their SVL increases from about 3 to about 9 mm within five weeks , and it triples again in the next five weeks . In all , the growth rate is 0 @.@ 2 mm per day in the first five weeks . The tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog are large , reaching 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in length , but size varies greatly and most are much shorter . The body is usually as wide across as it is deep . The fin has a yellow tinge and is considerably arched . The musculature is moderate and tapers to a fine point , as does the fin . The body wall is translucent yellow with darker areas over the abdomen . Just before its limbs form , the tadpole begins to develop the greenish colouration of the adult . Tadpoles usually swim within 30 cm of the water surface , or remain stationary at the bottom . They often move together in groups akin to schools of fish .
Towards the end of the tadpole phase , hind legs appear , followed by front limbs , and the phase ends when the front limbs are developed . This normally occurs between October and April due to the breeding season , but tadpoles been observed in the wild throughout the year , suggesting some tadpoles overwinter ; this has been seen to occur for captive tadpoles . The length of the tadpole stage , in the wild and in captivity , is usually between 10 and 12 weeks , but can range from five weeks to a year . The slower @-@ growing tadpoles usually progress during winter , as there is a positive correlation between growth rates and temperatures . Variation in growth rate across pH values of 4 , 7 and 9 was insignificant . In the first four weeks , there was no significant dependence of the growth rate across the 18 – 26 ° C range , but from this point on , growth was significantly hindered at 18 ° C. At the beginning of the metamorphing stage , all limbs are present and developed , along with a tail . During this phase , the tail is resorbed , and the only other visible change is the spiracle closing . Metamorphing tadpoles typically have a SVL of 22 – 28 mm , and will complete metamorphosis between two and 11 months , depending on the temperature of the water and available food . The process is slowed at low temperatures , but generally takes between three and eight days after the tadpole stage is complete . Breeding occurs in a significantly higher proportion of sites where no predatory fish are present , and water bodies are ephemeral rather than permanent . Populations in Victoria , however , have been recorded as breeding in permanent ponds as readily as they do in ephemeral ponds .
Metamorphs resemble the adults and average about 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in length . Recently metamorphosed frogs have been observed to rapidly leave the breeding site , especially when foraging habitat is nearby , and less so if food is not available away from the area . The tendency to migrate is often attributed to cannibalism practised by larger frogs on those that are still developing . After metamorphosis is complete , the frog is around the same length . The juveniles initially grow rapidly , reaching 45 mm within two months , 50 – 60 mm within half a year , before growth slows. months , and increase in length more slowly after that . Once sexual maturity is reached , the frogs ' physical growth is very slow .
Metamorphs weigh about 2 g , while the largest adults can reach 50 g . Individual frogs can vary substantially in body weight due to changes in the amount of stored fat , recent eating , and egg formation . While it is known to live 10 – 15 years in captivity , the frog 's lifespan in the wild is not well understood .
= = Conservation status = =
The numbers of green and golden bell frogs are estimated to have declined by more than 30 % in the past 10 years . It is listed as globally and nationally vulnerable , and as endangered under the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act , 1995 . Although it is only classified as vulnerable at national level , the National Frog Action Plan classifies the green and golden bell frog as endangered . In contrast to Australia , the frogs are abundant in New Zealand and classified as feral and unprotected .
Many factors are thought to be responsible for the dramatic decline of this species in Australia , including habitat fragmentation , erosion and sedimentation of soil , insecticides and fertilisers contaminating water systems , the introduction of predatory fish , and alteration of drainage regimes . Population declines are closely related to the introduction of the eastern mosquitofish ( Gambusia holbrooki ) , a species native to North America that was introduced to control mosquito larvae . Laboratory studies have demonstrated the eggs and tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog are extremely susceptible to predation by this fish , and in 77 of the 93 sites in New South Wales where the green and golden bell frog was known to have disappeared before 1990 , eastern mosquitofish were found to be present . The frogs have been known to inhabit waters containing the fish , but breeding is rarely successful there , pointing to the fish 's voracious eating of eggs and tadpoles . The fish are not yet present in eastern Victoria , where green and golden bell frog numbers have remained solid , but the fish likely will spread to rivers there , possibly inflicting heavy losses on the frogs .
Other factors thought to affect this species include predation by introduced mammals , such as cats and foxes , changes to water quality at breeding sites , herbicide use , and loss of habitat through the destruction of wetlands . The amphibian chytrid fungus appears to have led to at least some of the decline in numbers , but the relative importance of the various factors is unclear . The frogs may have become more susceptible to chytrid rather than the fungus being more common . The genetic pool of the frogs has been found to be relatively small , attributed to habitat destruction , which has confined the smaller groups of frogs to isolated pockets and increased the incidence of inbreeding . This has led to proposals for frog populations to be mixed by human intervention in an attempt to reduce negative genetic effects and boost survival rates .
The cannibalism of the frog has been speculated to cause its decline in some areas , because the smaller tadpoles can be toxic . Other postulated causes of the decline include increased ultraviolet radiation due to the hole in the ozone layer , global warming , and increased drought . The first theory was tested and the results were inconclusive . Global warming is not thought to be a credible cause , as the extremities of the frog 's range have not changed , while declines in population have occurred in both dry and wetter areas .
The green and golden bell frog has been the subject of much research and monitoring , important to improving its conservation . Research focuses on the development of management measures to keep the introduced mosquitofish under control . These include poisoning the fish , but the waterways are large and trials have given mixed results . Predators of the mosquitofish have also been tried . Other strategies may allow for the development and improvement of suitable habitat , and to increase the reproductive success of the species . Parallel to these measures , community awareness programmes have also been proposed . One difficulty in protecting the frog is that only 20 % of the known populations in New South Wales since 1990 occur in conservation parks . Of the eight populations that occur in conservation parks , only five are wholly located within them and one of these is not breeding . There have been calls for legislation to be introduced to stop habitat degradation on private land to prevent detrimental effects to the frogs . Many proposed developments have been subjected to legal action to protect the habitat , and some communities have started " Friends of the Green and Golden Bell Frog " action groups . As public awareness has increased , documentary and news segments on the deteriorating situation have become more frequent and references to the frog in environmental logos and artworks have increased . The effort to increase public consciousness of the green and golden bell frog has also been aided because its colours are the same as the national colours . Restrictions on logging close to areas inhabited by the frogs have been put in place . As green and golden bell frogs are mostly observed in environments disturbed by humans , targeted environmental interference is seen as a possible means of enhancing habitats .
In 1998 , a captive @-@ breeding program was set up by the herpetofauna staff at Taronga Zoo in Sydney , sponsored by the ASX Frog Focus . The purpose of the program was to help preserve declining populations of green and golden bell frogs in the Sydney region . It involved the captive breeding of wild frogs and releasing large numbers of tadpoles back into the wild , habitat restoration , and monitoring after releases . The program was initially titled " Frog Focus Botany " , as Botany was the original focus site . Thousands of tadpoles were released into a site in Sir Joseph Banks Reserve and postrelease monitoring was done by the local community . It was also the first time that school students had been involved with endangered species monitoring . The program has since branched off into several other areas . Between 1998 and 2004 , tadpoles were released into specially designed ponds and dams on Long Reef Golf Course at Collaroy in northern Sydney , with little success . Although green and golden bell frogs had previously been located in the area , the population had since been lost . Mature male bell frogs are occasionally found there ; however , a permanent breeding population has yet to be established . An attempted reintroduction at Marrickville in inner @-@ Sydney has failed due to chytridiomycosis .
= Cairanoolithus =
Cairanoolithus is an oogenus of dinosaur egg which is found in Southwestern Europe . The eggs are large ( 15 – 19 centimetres or 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 inches in diameter ) and spherical . Their outer surface is either smooth , or covered with a subdued pattern of ridges interspersed with pits and grooves . Multiple fossil egg clutches are known but the nest structure is unclear .
The parent of Cairanoolithus is probably some kind of non @-@ ornithopod ornithischian , possibly the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus .
The eggs were first named in 1994 , when the two oospecies were classified in distinct oogenera as Cairanoolithus dughii and Dughioolithus roussetensis . They are now considered to belong in a single oogenus , possibly even a single oospecies . Though it has been classified as a megaloolithid , Cairanoolithus is usually placed in its own oofamily , Cairanoolithidae .
= = Description = =
Cairanoolithus eggs are spherical and fairly large , measuring 15 – 19 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The outer surface is smooth or covered with a subdued netlike pattern of ridges , interspersed with pits and grooves ( sagenotuberculate ornamentation ) . The eggshells are made up of partially interlocking column @-@ shaped shell units and range from 1 @.@ 10 to 2 @.@ 65 mm ( 0 @.@ 043 to 0 @.@ 104 in ) thick .
Several egg clutches of C. dughii are known , containing as many as 25 fossilized eggs . Unfortunately , taphonomical alterations ( changes during the fossilization process ) make it difficult to determine the original structure of the nest . Cousin ( 2002 ) hypothesized that Cairanoolithus eggs were laid on the surface of the ground , possibly buried beneath a mound of plant matter . Tanaka et al . ( 2015 ) noted that the shell had a high rate of water vapor conductance . Therefore , they concluded that Cairanoolithus nests were covered by organic or inorganic material , similar to modern eggs with high vapor conductance .
= = = Oospecies = = =
Two oospecies of Cairanoolithus have been described :
Cairanoolithus dughii is the type oospecies . At 1 @.@ 57 – 2 @.@ 41 mm ( 0 @.@ 062 – 0 @.@ 095 in ) , its eggshell is slightly thicker than that of C. roussetensis . It has slender , partially fused columnar eggshell units . Their outer surface is almost without ornamentation , and the inner surface is covered with hollows once filled by organic cores . C. dughii 's eggshell exhibits an angusticanaliculate pore system , i.e. its pores are long , narrow , and straight .
Cairanoolithus roussetensis , which was formerly classified in its own oogenus , Dughioolithus , can be distinguished from C. dughii by its thinner eggshell ( measuring 1 @.@ 11 – 1 @.@ 77 mm or 0 @.@ 044 – 0 @.@ 070 in thick ) , its broader eggshell units , and the relative prominence of its ornamentation . Like C. dughii , C. roussetensis typically has an angusticanaliculate pore system , though some specimens have prolatocanaliculate pores , meaning they have variable diameter across their length .
Some authors consider the two oospecies to be synonymous . Cousin ( 2002 ) argued that the differences between them were due to intraspecific variation or due to taphonomy . He also described several eggshell fragments that possibly belong to an additional distinct oospecies of Cairanoolithus , however these specimens were referred to C. roussetensis by Selles and Galobart ( 2015 ) .
= = Classification = =
While it was formerly considered a megaloolithid , Cairanoolithus is now considered to belong its own monotypic oofamily , Cairanoolithidae . It belongs to the dinosauroid @-@ spherulitic basic type , a group including sauropod eggs and ornithischian eggs , but paraphyletically excluding theropod eggs .
The cladistic analysis done by Selles and Galobart in 2015 recovered Cairanoolithus as a sister taxon to the clade of ornithopod eggs Guegoolithus , Spheroolithus , and Ovaloolithus . Therefore , they considered it likely that Cairanoolithus belongs to a non @-@ ornithopod ornithischian dinosaur .
= = = Parentage = = =
Since embryos are unknown in cairanoolithid eggs , the identity of their parent is uncertain . They have long been considered to be eggs of titanosaurs or ornithopods ( like Rhabdodon ) . However , numerous characteristics distinguish Cairanoolithus from sauropod eggs ( oofamilies Megaloolithidae and Faveoloolithidae ) , even though they bear superficial similarities in size and shape . Cairanoolithus 's columnar eggshell units are quite unlike the fan @-@ shaped ones seen in Megaloolithus , Faveoloolithus , or Fusioolithus . Also , its subdued ornamentation contrasts strongly with the heavily sculpted eggshells of sauropod eggs , and it has a different pore system . Eggs of ornithopods ( Spheroolithidae and Ovaloolithidae ) , on the other hand , show much closer similarity to cairanoolithids in ornamentation and pore system . However , ornithopod eggs are typically much smaller , and the crystal structure of their eggshell units is distinct .
The cladistic analysis by Sellés and Galobart in 2015 supported an ornithischian parentage . Late Cretaceous ornithischians from Southwestern Europe are restricted to rhabdodontids and the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus . When Sellés and Galobart analyzed the pelvises of Rhabdodon ( the largest known rhabdodontid ) and Struthiosaurus , they found that Rhabdodon could not have laid eggs as big as Cairanoolithus . On the other hand , even though Struthiosaurus was relatively small , the unique orientation of its ischia would have easily allowed it to lay eggs as large as a 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) cairanoolithid egg . However , interpreting Cairanoolithus as the eggs of a nodosaur does raise the question of why Cairanoolithus or similar eggs have not been found in areas with a greater nodosaur abundance .
= = Distribution = =
Cairanoolithus is native to Southwestern Europe , including southern France and northern Iberia . Its fossils date to the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian . They are usually found in the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Basin below the Rognac Limestone . C. dughii is from the La Cairanne site in Bouches du Rhône , France , from Roquehautes @-@ Grand Creux and from the Villeveyrac Basin . C. roussetensis is found in the northern part of Iberia and from southern France ( in Rousset Village , Roquehautes @-@ Crete du Marbre , the Villeveyrac Basin , and Argelliers @-@ Montamaud ) .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Late Cretaceous ecosystems of Europe ( which was then an island archipelago ) show complex mixing of taxa originating from Africa , Asia , and North America . In Southwestern Europe , Cairanoolithus co @-@ occurs with numerous other types of fossil eggs ; Megaloolithus is particularly common , but theropod eggs such as Prismatoolithus and the ornithopod egg Guegoolithus are also present . Dinosaur body fossils are also common , including nodosaurids , rhabdodontids , titanosaurs , dromaeosaurids , basal iguanodontians , hadrosaurids , neoceratosaurians , and coelurosaurs . Other vertebrates include bony fish , squamates , cryptodiran turtles , alligatorids , and mammals .
= = History = =
The Aix Basin was first excavated for fossils in 1869 by French paleontologist Philippe Matheron . In the 1950s , Raymond Dughi and Francois Sirugue , a pair of French paleontologists working for the Museum d 'Histoire Naturelle Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , extensively studied the basin 's fossil eggshells . They divided the eggs they had found into ten different types , but they did not describe them in detail . In the 1970s and 1980s , further work was done by the French paleontologist P. Kerourio and the German paleontologist H. K. Erben .
In M. M. Penner devised one of the early classification schemes for egg fossils in his 1983 doctoral thesis . He was the first to recognize the eggs now named Cairanoolithus as a distinct type ; under his classification scheme , they were called " Group 2 " . In 1994 , French paleontologists M. Vianey @-@ Liaud , P. Mallan , O. Buscail and C. Montgelard described them under the modern parataxonomic system as Cairanoolithus dughii and " Dughioolithus " roussetensis . They did not assign either of them to any oofamily , but both oogenera were classified in the oofamily Megaloolithidae by the Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov in 1996 . Following further discoveries in 2001 , Géraldine Garcia and Monique Vianey @-@ Liaud synomized the two oogenera . In 2002 , French paleontologist R. Cousin took a step further and synonymized the two oospecies .
In 2012 , the first Cairanoolithus fossils discovered outside of France were first reported by Albert G. Selles in his PhD thesis at Universitat de Barcelona , in which he also proposed that Cairanoolithus be moved into its own oofamily . Three years later , Selles and Angel Galobart published a comprehensive reanalysis of Cairanoolithus , in which they formally named the new oofamily , Cairanoolithidae , to contain Cairanaoolithus . Contrary to Cousin 's conclusions , Selles and Galobart separated the oospecies C. dughii and C. roussetensis . Also , they demonstrated that Cairanoolithus was not the eggs of an ornithopod or sauropod and conjectured that it could be the eggs of a nodosaur .
= Family in early modern Scotland =
The family in early modern Scotland includes all aspects of kinship and family life , between the Renaissance and the Reformation of the sixteenth century and the beginnings of industrialisation and the end of the Jacobite risings in the mid @-@ eighteenth century in Scotland .
Scottish kinship in this period was agnatic , with descent judged through a common ancestor , helping to create the surname system in the Borders and the clans in the Highlands , with these systems beginning to break down in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries respectively . There was considerable concern over the safety of children . The abolition of godparents in the Reformation meant that baptism became a mechanism for emphasising the role and responsibilities of fathers . Wet @-@ nurses were used for young children , but in most families mothers took the primary role in bringing up children , while the Kirk emphasised the role of the father for older children . After the Reformation there was an increasing emphasis on education , resulting in the growth of a parish school system , but its effects were limited for the children of the poor and for girls . Most children left home for a period of life @-@ cycle service , as domestic or agricultural servants or as apprentices before marriage .
Marriages were often the subject of careful negotiations , particularly higher in society . Marriage lost its sacramental status at the Reformation and irregular marriage continued to be accepted as valid throughout the period . Women managed the household and might work beside their husbands and , although obedience to husbands was stressed , this may have been limited in practice . Divorce developed after the Reformation and was available for a wider range of causes and accessed by a much larger section of society than in England . Because of high mortality rates widowhood was a relatively common state , and some women acquired independence and status , but others were forced into a marginal existence and remarriage was common . The elaborate funerals and complex system of prayers for the dead that dominated in late Medieval Scotland were removed at the Reformation and simpler services adopted . Burial inside the church was discouraged . As a result separate aisles for the rich and graveyards with stone markers for the majority became common .
= = Kinship = =
Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic ( derived through both males and females ) , in early modern Scotland kinship was agnatic ( with members of a group sharing a , sometimes fictional , common ancestor through only the male line ) . Women retained the original surname of their family of origin at marriage and marriages were intended to create alliances between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship that joined two families together . In the Borders , on both the English and Scottish sides , there were extensive bonds of kinship , often reflected in a common surname . A shared surname has been seen as a " test of kinship " , proving large bodies of kin who could call on each other ’ s support . At the beginning of the period this could help intensify the idea of the feud . Feuds were semi @-@ formalised disputes , often motivated by revenge for past actions against a member of kin . In a surname system large bodies of kin could be counted on to support rival sides , resulting in long @-@ term local warfare , although conflict between members of kin groups also occurred . From the reign of James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , systems of judicial law were enforced , aided by the Union of Crowns in 1603 that dissolved much of the political significance of the border . The leadership of the heads of the great surnames was largely replaced by the authority of landholding lairds in the seventeenth century and by the early eighteenth century the feud had been almost completely suppressed .
The combination of agnatic kinship and the feudal system , which formalised mutual obligations of service and protection , organised through heritable jurisdictions , has been seen as creating the Highland clan system . The head of a clan was usually the eldest son of the last chief of the most powerful sept or branch . The leading families of a clan formed the fine , often seen as equivalent to Lowland lairds , providing council in peace and leadership in war , and below them were the daoine usisle ( in Gaelic ) or tacksmen ( in Scots ) , who managed the clan lands and collected the rents . Most of the followers of the clan were tenants , who supplied labour to the clan heads and could be called upon to act as soldiers when needed . In the early modern era they usually took the clan name as their surname , turning it into a massive , if often fictive , kin group . Economic change and the imposition of royal justice had begun to undermine the clan system before the eighteenth century , but the process was accelerated after the Jacobite rising of 1745 . Highland dress was banned , clansmen were forcible disarmed , there was the compulsory purchase of heritable jurisdictions , many chiefs were exiled and ordinary clansmen were sent to the colonies as indentured labourers . Within a generation , these factors reduced most clan leaders to the status of simple landholders , without independent military power .
= = Childhood = =
There was considerable concern over the safety of mother and child in birth . Although childbirth was a predominantly female event , with neighbours and midwives in support , the father was often present in or near the birthing chamber to assert , or in the cases of birth outside marriage to admit , his paternity . Before the Reformation , baptism was a means of creating wider spiritual kinship with godparents , but in the reformed Kirk , godparents were abolished and the baptismal ceremony was used primarily as a means of strengthening the " natural " relationship of the child with the parents and to define their roles . This was particularly focused on the father , who would have the primary responsibility for the moral and spiritual education of the child . Among the elite of Highland society , there existed a system of fosterage that created similar links to godparenthood , with children being sent to the households of other major families to facilitate the creation of mutual bonds , that often endured into later life .
Following birth it was common , particularly among richer families , to employ a wet @-@ nurse to care for the child , sometimes living in with the family . Few sources give an insight into the experiences of young children in this period . Some parents played with their children and parents demonstrated grief at their loss . The primary responsibility for bringing up young children fell on the mother . For older children , the major duty of parents was , according to the Kirk , to ensure the spiritual development of the child , with fathers leading daily family prayers , but it is not clear how widely these practices were adopted .
= = Youth and education = =
Historians debate whether early modern individuals experienced a period of youth in the modern sense . For many the early teens were marked by moving away from home to undertake life @-@ cycle service , which was necessary so that they could build up skills and capital that would enable them to marry and create a separate household . Lower down in society boys might be apprenticed to a trade , or become agricultural servants . Girls might go into domestic or agricultural service . For those higher up in society and increasingly for those lower down , this might be after a period of schooling or even university .
The Humanist concern with widening education that had become significant in the Renaissance was shared by Protestant reformers . For boys , in the burghs the old schools were maintained , with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools . There were also large number of unregulated " adventure schools " , which sometimes fulfilled a local needs and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools . At their best , the curriculum included catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature and sports . A series of acts attempted to establish schools in every parish from 1616 . By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands , but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas .
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women , vied with a desire , intensified after the Reformation , for women to take personal moral responsibility , particularly as wives and mothers . In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible , but most commentators , even those that tended to encourage the education of girls , thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys . In the lower ranks of society , they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation , but were usually outnumbered by boys , often taught separately , for a shorter time and to a lower level . They were frequently taught reading , sewing and knitting , but not writing . Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 percent , from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth centuries and perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750 , compared with 35 per cent for men . Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women , of which Mary , Queen of Scots is the most obvious example .
= = Marriage = =
Lowland Scotland was part of the pattern of late marriage for both men and women ( between the mid and late 20s ) , with a relatively large proportion of the population remaining unmarried . In the Highland and Islands marriage ages may have been lower and more closely resembled Gaelic Ireland . Throughout the period , women could legally marry from the age of 12 and boys from 14 . However , while many girls from the social elite married in their teens , most in the Lowlands only married after a period of life @-@ cycle service , in their twenties . Normally marriage followed handfasting , a period of betrothal , which in the Highlands may have effectively been a period of trial marriage , in which sexual activity may have been accepted as legitimate . Marriages , particularly higher in society , were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations over the tocher ( dowry ) . Some mothers took a leading role in negotiating marriages , as Lady Glenorchy did for her children in the 1560s and 1570s . They could also act as matchmakers , finding suitable and compatible partners for others .
In the Middle Ages marriage was a sacrament and the key element in validity was consent . The sacramental status was removed at the Reformation , but the centrality of consent remained . Weddings were often elaborate occasions for public celebration and feasting . Among the poor , the tradition of the penny wedding developed , by which guests contributed to the costs of occasion . There was usually a meal after the ceremony , sometimes followed by music and dancing . These events were strongly discouraged by the Reformed Kirk , particularly in the Lowlands where the Kirk had greatest control , but opposition began to ease from about 1715 to 1725 . Unlike in England , after the Reformation , " Irregular marriage " , without a church ceremony or any residence qualifications , remained valid if promises were made between the couple in front of witnesses . From the 1730s the border settlements of Coldstream Bridge , Lamberton Toll , and most famously Gretna Green , developed local industries in private and rapid marriages for English couples wishing to take advantage of the more flexible Scottish marriage laws , undertaken by individuals who declared themselves marriage priests . This business would expand rapidly after the passage of Lord Hardwicke 's Marriage Act in 1754 , which completely ended irregular marriages in England , but not in Scotland .
While among the wealthy , married women often focused on running the household , lower down in society they also worked with their husbands . In rural Scotland this would have included taking part in all the major agricultural tasks around the farm . They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest , forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin . In the Highlands they may have been even more significant as workers as there is evidence that many men considered agricultural work to be beneath their status and in places they may have formed the majority of the rural workforce . There was a stress on a wife 's duties to her husband and on the virtues of chastity and obedience . How exactly patriarchy worked in practice is difficult to discern . Scottish women in this period had something of a reputation among foreign observers for being forthright individuals , with the Spanish ambassador to the court of James IV ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) noting that they were " absolute mistresses of their houses and even their husbands " .
Before the Reformation , the extensive prohibited degrees of kinship , up to the fourth degree through consanguinity , meant that most noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation . This could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient , although there was no divorce as such . After the mid @-@ sixteenth century the prohibited degrees were reduced to those in Leviticus 13 : 4 – 13 , which limited them to relationships in the second degree of kinship . Separation from bed and board continued to be allowed in exceptional circumstances , usually adultery , and under the Reformed Kirk divorce was allowed on grounds of adultery or desertion . Scotland was one of the first countries to allow desertion as legal grounds for divorce and , unlike England , where divorce necessitated and act of parliament , divorce cases were initiated relatively far down the social scale .
= = Widowhood = =
Given very high mortality rates , women could inherit important responsibilities from their fathers and from their husbands as widows . Evidence from towns indicates that around one in five households were headed by women who often continued to run an existing business interest . In noble society , widowhood created some very wealthy and powerful women . These included Catherine Campbell ( d . 1578 ) , who became the richest widow in the kingdom when her husband , the ninth earl of Crawford , died in 1558 . The twice @-@ widowed Margaret Ker , dowager Lady Yester , was described in 1635 as having " the greatest conjunct fie [ fiefdom ] that any lady hes in Scotland " and she proved the funds for Lady Yester 's Kirk in Edinburgh .
There is evidence of widows engaging in independent economic activity . They can be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading . Some were highly successful , like Janet Flockhart , an Edinburgh wadwife or moneylender , who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband 's suicide , and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she had amassed a moveable estate of £ 22 @,@ 000 by her death in the late sixteenth century . The deaths of the two husbands of Mary Erskine ( 1629 – 1708 ) left her with the resources to become a highly successful business woman and philanthropist , founding the Mary Erskine School and the Trades Maiden Hospital in Edinburgh . Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship . This may in part explain the relatively high rates of remarriage suggested by the available sources . Many widows needed financial security and widowers often needed heirs or a mother for their children . Although contemporary writers seem to have been generally pessimistic about the step @-@ parent relationships that these remarriages created , the evidence of diaries and autobiographies from the period suggest that they were often highly successful , with many children remembering their step @-@ parents with genuine affection .
= = Death = =
In the late Middle Ages , Scottish people , like most of Catholic Europe , were increasingly concerned with prayers for the dead , necessary to speed passage from Purgatory to Heaven . The upper nobility began to turn from patronage for monasteries to the establishing collegiate churches to pray for them , such as Lord Dummond 's foundation at Innerpeffray in 1508 and Lord Fleming 's re @-@ establishment at Biggar in 1546 . Those lower down in society paid for shrines , priests and masses , leading to a proliferation of altars , clergy and services within existing churches . In the burghs the primary function of craft guilds was to pay for the funerals and masses of their members . By the early sixteenth century St. Mary 's in Dundee had perhaps 48 altars and St Giles ' in Edinburgh over 50 .
After the Reformation , the Mass and Purgatory were rejected by the Kirk , along with the efficacy of good works and prayers for the dead . In place of elaborate processions and masses at a funeral there was a simple service , where the body was taken to its resting place without singing and readings and interred soberly without ceremony . Unlike other reformed churches the Kirk also rejected burial inside the church , which were now seen as unseemly for a house of prayer . This caused friction with traditional rights , particularly of local notables , to be buried with their ancestors . The use of burial aisles , an extension projecting for the main body of the church , almost exclusively used for burial and commemoration , represented a uniquely Scottish solution to this problem . For most ranks in society the kirkyard remained the desired place of burial . From the seventeenth century burials were increasingly marked by gravestones , often including inscriptions that indicated affection for and the virtues of the deceased .
= Maryland Route 33 =
Maryland Route 33 ( MD 33 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 17 mi ( 37 @.@ 29 km ) from Tilghman Island east to Washington Street in Easton . MD 33 connects Easton , the county seat of Talbot County , with all communities on the peninsula that juts west into the Chesapeake Bay between the Miles River and Eastern Bay on the north and the Tred Avon River and Choptank River on the south . The state highway passes through the historic town of Saint Michaels , home of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum , and enters Tilghman Island by passing over Knapps Narrows on the busiest Bascule bridge in the United States .
MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was one of the original state roads outlined by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state highway was constructed between Easton and Claiborne , the terminus of a ferry to Annapolis , in the late 1910s and early 1920s , and was originally designated MD 17 . The portion of the highway between Claiborne and Tilghman Island was constructed as MD 451 in the early 1930s . The state highway was extended north to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island when the western terminus of the ferry from Claiborne was moved to Romancoke in the late 1930s . MD 33 received its present number in a 1940 number swap with present MD 17 . Following the shutdown
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of the ferry , MD 33 was extended west along MD 451 to Tilghman Island and the Romancoke – Matapeake highway was redesignated MD 8 . In Easton , MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street in the late 1940s and then along Easton Parkway , now MD 322 , in the mid @-@ 1960s , before the eastern terminus returned to its present location in the late 1970s .
= = Route description = =
MD 33 begins at the start of state maintenance 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) south of Wharf Road and Phillips Road on Tilghman Island . The roadway continues south as Black Walnut Point Road , a county highway that leads to the namesake point at the south end of the island . MD 33 heads north through the village of Tilghman Island as two @-@ lane Tilghman Island Road , passing Tilghman Elementary School and many businesses before leaving the island by crossing Knapps Narrows on a single @-@ bascule drawbridge that is the busiest of its type in the United States in terms of bridge openings . Shortly after leaving Tilghman Island , the state highway passes through a mix of forest and farmland , passing the hamlets of Sherwood and Wittman and several pieces of old alignment of the highway . MD 33 curves to the east around the head of Harris Creek and passes through McDaniel before reaching Claiborne Road , which was formerly MD 451 and heads northwest to the village of Claiborne .
MD 33 continues southeast as St. Michaels Road . The state highway passes the northern terminus of MD 579 ( Bozman Neavitt Road ) and around the head of Broad Creek before curving south and passing through the town of Saint Michaels and its namesake historic district . MD 33 is known as Talbot Street within the town , where the highway passes the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum , marked by the previous drawbridge over Knapps Narrows . The state highway curves to the southeast within the town and continues straight out of town through a mix of farmland and forests until the hamlet of Newcomb , where MD 329 ( Royal Oak Road ) splits to the south towards Royal Oak and Bellevue while MD 33 curves east to cross Oak Creek along the shore of the Miles River . MD 33 continues northeast , collecting the other end of MD 329 before passing a few riverfront subdivisions ahead of the intersection with MD 370 ( Unionville Road ) . Shortly after entering the town limits of Easton , the state highway crosses Tanyard Branch at the intersection with MD 322 ( Easton Parkway ) , a bypass of the town that connects with US 50 in both directions . MD 33 continues east as Bay Street toward downtown Easton , where the highway reaches its eastern terminus at Washington Street .
MD 33 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from the west town limit of Easton to Washington Street .
= = History = =
The portion of present @-@ day MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was designated one of the original state roads when the Maryland State Roads Commission laid out the original state road system in 1909 . However , the Easton – Saint Michaels road was not considered a necessary component of the system , so construction in its modern form was delayed in favor of the Easton – Wye Mills road . A 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section of the road between the eastern intersection with MD 329 and MD 370 was paved by 1910 . The first sections of modern MD 33 constructed by the State Roads Commission were between Saint Michaels and Claiborne , which became the terminus of the Claiborne – Annapolis Ferry in 1919 . Sections were completed between the two villages in 1919 and 1920 . A section of the highway was also completed between Easton and the MD 370 intersection in 1920 . The Easton – Claiborne Road was completed in 1924 . When numbers were assigned to certain state highways beginning in 1927 , the road was designated MD 17 .
The next section of present @-@ day MD 33 was constructed between Claiborne and the highway 's present western terminus on Tilghman Island as MD 451 . The sections from Claiborne to a point between Wittman and Sherman and on Tilghman Island were completed around 1930 . The gap between Knapps Narrows and Sherman was filled in 1933 . MD 451 was completed when a new single bascule drawbridge was completed over Knapps Narrows in 1934 . MD 17 was extended from Claiborne across Eastern Bay along Romancoke Road to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island in 1938 . This section was added in response to the replacement of the Claiborne – Annapolis ferry route with a Claiborne – Romancoke route in 1938 , with traffic following the new section of MD 17 to Matapeake to take a second ferry across the Chesapeake Bay to Annapolis . MD 17 switched numbers with MD 33 , the highway connecting Brunswick and Wolfsville in Frederick County that is now MD 17 in 1940 .
After a new , straighter US 213 ( replaced by US 50 in 1949 ) was completed from south of Easton to Wye Mills in 1948 , MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street within Easton to the new bypass . Following the closing of the Claiborne – Romancoke ferry in 1953 , MD 33 and MD 451 switched alignments in 1957 ; MD 33 achieved its present western terminus at Tilghman Island while MD 451 became a short highway from MD 33 to Claiborne . MD 33 between Romancoke and Matapeake was redesignated MD 8 in 1960 . MD 451 was removed from state maintenance in 1998 .
Easton Parkway was constructed as a western bypass of Easton in the 1960s . MD 33 was moved from Washington Street to the part of the bypass north of present MD 33 when that section of Easton Parkway opened in 1965 . MD 322 , which was assigned to the southern part of Easton Parkway , replaced MD 33 on Bay Street between Easton Parkway and Washington Street , the latter of which became a northern extension of MD 565 . In 1978 , MD 322 was assigned to all of Easton Parkway and MD 33 assumed its present eastern terminus . The Knapps Narrows drawbridge was replaced by a new drawbridge in 1998 . The 1934 drawbridge was transferred to the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum in Saint Michaels .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Talbot County .
= Siege of Bjelovar Barracks =
The Siege of Bjelovar Barracks , also known by the codename Operation Bilogora ( Croatian : Operacija Bilogora ) , was the blockade and capture of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) barracks and other facilities in and around the city of Bjelovar , a part of the JNA 32nd ( Varaždin ) Corps , during the Croatian War of Independence . A general blockade of the JNA facilities in Croatia was ordered on 14 September 1991 , and it continued until 29 September when the JNA garrison was captured by Croatian forces . Its capture occurred one week after the bulk of the 32nd Corps surrendered . It was part of the Battle of the Barracks — an effort by Croatian armed forces to isolate JNA units based at barracks in Croatia , or capture the barracks to provide arms for Croatia 's nascent army .
The fighting resulted in the capture of a substantial stock of weapons , including 78 tanks , 77 infantry fighting vehicles and 13 artillery pieces greater than 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) caliber . The clash also caused considerable damage to the city of Bjelovar and its surroundings due to artillery fire and the explosion of an ammunition storage depot on the outskirts of the city . The fighting erupted despite a ceasefire that had been arranged days before , and caused JNA General Veljko Kadijević to withdraw from negotiations regarding the ceasefire 's implementation . He subsequently issued an ultimatum to Croatian authorities , warning against the capture of further JNA facilities .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
The views of the Croatian leadership on how to deal with the JNA 's role in the Croatian Serb revolt gradually evolved between January and September 1991 . Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's initial plan was to win European Community ( EC ) and United States support , so he dismissed Špegelj 's advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in Croatia in late 1990 . During the Ten @-@ Day War in June and July 1991 , Špegelj once again urged Tuđman to act while the JNA fought Slovenia 's TO . Špegelj 's calls were echoed by Šime Đodan , who succeeded him as Defence Minister in July . Špegelj remained in command of the ZNG .
Tuđman 's initial stance was based on his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . The ZNG was therefore limited to conducting defensive operations , even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with Croatian Serb forces . This impression was reinforced by buffer zones established by the JNA after fighting between Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG . The JNA often intervened after the ZNG had lost territory , leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of areas they had captured before the JNA stepped in . The JNA provided some weapons to the Croatian Serbs , although most of their weaponry was sourced from Serbia 's TO and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs .
In July 1991 , Špegelj and Đodan 's advice was supported by a number of Croatian Parliament members . In response , Tuđman dismissed Đodan the same month he was appointed Defence Minister , and Špegelj resigned his command of the ZNG on 3 August . The deteriorating situation in eastern Croatia , including the JNA expulsion of ZNG troops from Baranja , intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci , increasing losses and the growing conviction that the JNA were actively supporting the Croatian Serb revolt , forced Tuđman to act . On 22 August , he issued an ultimatum to the federal Yugoslav authorities demanding the withdrawal of the JNA to its barracks by the end of the month . The ultimatum stated that if the JNA failed to comply , Croatia would consider it an army of occupation and take corresponding action . On 1 September , the EC proposed a ceasefire and a peace conference was accepted by the Yugoslav Presidency and by Tuđman , despite his earlier ultimatum . The conference started on 7 September , but only four days later , the Croatian member and chair of the presidency , Stjepan Mesić , ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours . This order was motivated by Tuđman 's concern that the conference would drag on while the ZNG lost territory . Even though the order was opposed by other members of the presidency , it gave Croatia justification to openly confront the JNA .
Prime Minister Franjo Gregurić advised Tuđman to implement Špegelj 's plan . According to General Anton Tus , Tuđman ordered the ZNG to capture JNA barracks on 12 September , but rescinded the order the next day . The order was reinstated on 14 September after Tus pleaded with Tuđman to re @-@ authorize action , arguing that the ZNG was running out of time . The same day , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . This action comprised blockades of 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia , and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , and weapons and ammunition storage depots .
= = Order of battle = =
Since 1988 , the JNA 's Bjelovar garrison had been included in the 32nd Corps , which was headquartered in Varaždin , and was the second largest JNA corps in Croatia . It commanded the 32nd Mechanised Brigade and the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment both based in Varaždin , the 32nd Engineer Regiment in Čakovec , the 411th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment based in Križevci , the 73rd Motorised Brigade headquartered in Koprivnica , the 265th Mechanised Brigade based in Bjelovar , and the 288th Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade in Virovitica . The JNA did not have sufficient troops in the area to secure all its facilities , but it was possible that the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps units deployed to Okučani might attempt to relieve some of the garrisons . A part of the 265th Mechanised Brigade was deployed to Koprivnica to reinforce the 73rd Motorised Brigade . It consisted of a battalion of tanks and one engineer battalion , and they were relocated to Koprivnica in August 1990 to boost the JNA 's presence in the town . A battlegroup comprising 23 armoured and 14 other vehicles , drawn from the 265th Mechanised Brigade and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Milan Čeleketić , was deployed to Okučani . It was attached to the 5th Corps on 15 August to prevent Croatian special police from ousting Croatian Serb forces from the town .
Bjelovar also hosted the headquarters of the 28th Partisan Division ( TO ) and one of the division 's brigades . The most significant JNA facility in Bjelovar and its immediate surroundings was the Božidar Adžija Barracks , situated on the western outskirts of the city . The barracks housed Bjelovar garrison headquarters and the bulk of the weaponry of the 265th Mechanised Brigade , and approximately 500 officers and soldiers . There was a JNA non @-@ combat facility in the centre of Bjelovar , protected by a small security detail , a radar base and an anti @-@ aircraft defence communications hub in the village of Zvijerci , adjacent to the settlement of Trojstveni Markovac on the northern outskirts of Bjelovar , and two storage depots . The Logor Depot was used to store tanks and other equipment of the 265th Mechanised Brigade and weapons that had been confiscated from the TO in Bjelovar , and was guarded by approximately 50 troops . The Barutana Depot was used to store ammunition . Unlike the Logor Depot , which was situated in the city itself , the Barutana Depot was located in the Bedenik Forest near Bjelovar .
Croatia established a company @-@ sized special police unit in Bjelovar on 23 February 1991 . Following the deterioration of the situation in western Slavonia , the 105th Brigade of the ZNG was raised in the city , largely equipped with small arms only , and plans for a blockade of the routes in and out of the city were developed . A crisis headquarters was set up to coordinate the defence of the city and the manufacture of weapons in industrial plants which had been modified for their production .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Growing tensions and the blockade = = =
The first significant conflict involving the JNA in the Bjelovar area occurred on 1 September , when 14 JNA officers and soldiers were disarmed at a Croatian checkpoint . The commanding officer of the Bjelovar JNA garrison , Colonel Rajko Kovačević , demanded that the weapons to be returned , however the Croatian forces declined the request , claiming that the weapons had already been sent to Zagreb . Tensions greatly increased after 18 ZNG troops from the 105th Brigade , deployed from Bjelovar , went missing during the Battle of Kusonje on 9 September . The civilian authorities in the city demanded that the JNA provide information on their fate , but the JNA declared it had no knowledge of the matter .
By 22 September , Croatian forces had besieged and captured all major garrisons of the 32nd Corps , except those in Bjelovar and Koprivnica . The JNA garrisons in those two cities were ordered to extract themselves to territory near Okučani that was under the control of the 5th Corps . The Koprivnica @-@ based garrison was ordered to break out to Bjelovar , link up with the 265th Mechanised Brigade , then proceed towards Daruvar via Grubišno Polje . At the same time , the Bjelovar garrison had been blockaded , and its utilities and supplies were cut . Negotiations ensued for the surrender of the garrison , led by the civilian crisis headquarters presided over by Jure Šimić . The negotiations stalled when the JNA demanded that the 265th Mechanised Brigade be allowed to evacuate to Okučani or Bosnia and Herzegovina . At the time , a number of Croatian Serb civilians took refuge in the barracks either fearing for their safety or in order to isolate themselves from the Croatian authorities .
= = = Preparations for attack = = =
Preparations to seize the JNA facilities in Bjelovar took place on 21 – 29 September . These involved the placing of obstacles around the JNA facilities , setting up of artillery and air defence units , and drafting of plans to capture the JNA garrison , codenamed Operation Bilogora . The 1st Battalion of the 105th Brigade was deployed to around the villages of Bedenik and Velika Pisanica , the 2nd Battalion in the village of Narta , and the 3rd Battalion north of Bjelovar , thereby encircling the city . In the city itself , nine battlegroups were deployed to attack armoured units which might attempt a breakout . Air defence systems consisting of two 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns and two 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were set up in nearby villages . A battery of towed 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) T @-@ 12 antitank guns was deployed to the Hrgovljani area . In an attempt to mitigate an overall shortage of anti @-@ tank weapons , 200 Molotov cocktails were sent from Zagreb and three armoured personnel carriers armed with 9M14 Malyutka anti @-@ tank guided missile systems arrived from Virovitica on 23 September . The crisis headquarters was to coordinate all activities of the Croatian armed forces based in Bjelovar , as well as reinforcements received from Varaždin after the JNA garrison based there surrendered , but Colonel Želimir Škarec , a member of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia , was appointed as the commanding officer of the military operation .
Despite the ceasefire agreement signed on 22 September between the JNA and Croatia , which provided for the resumption of supplies to the JNA barracks , the authorities in Bjelovar refused to restore utilities , claiming that the agreement allowed for the supply of JNA officers and soldiers only , but there were also civilians sheltering in the barracks . On 27 September , the Croatian General Staff directed that the garrison be captured on 28 – 30 September . Tus , acting as the Chief of the General Staff , ordered the clandestine killing of extremists before they caused mass killing of civilians or great material damage . According to Tus , this order was based on an assessment that there were extremist JNA officers present in Bjelovar , intent on carrying out such acts .
= = = Capture of the garrison = = =
On the morning of 29 September , the ZNG and Croatian police attacked the JNA facilities in Bjelovar . In response , Kovačević contacted the JNA 5th Military District in Zagreb and requested airstrikes against the city and the ZNG . The sources do not indicate if the requested airstrikes were carried out . The 5th Military District instead pressured the central Croatian authorities to order the ZNG in Bjelovar to observe a comprehensive ceasefire previously agreed between Croatia and the JNA on 22 September . In order to verify the ceasefire , the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) deployed a monitoring team to the city . However , the authorities in Bjelovar ignored the order they received from the General Staff and stopped the ECMM team before it reached the city . According to Šimić , the move was made after Lieutenant General Petar Stipetić telephoned him and urged him to continue the attack . The authenticity of Šimić 's account of has been disputed by Admiral Davor Domazet @-@ Lošo , who claims it was an attempt to discredit Croatia before the ECMM . At 19 : 00 , the ZNG captured Božidar Adžija Barracks . By that time , all other JNA facilities in and near Bjelovar had been captured .
Before Barutana Depot was captured by the ZNG , one of the four storage structures , containing 1 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 700 long tons ; 1 @,@ 900 short tons ) of ammunition , was blown up by JNA Major Milan Tepić . The explosion occurred at 10 : 43 , killing Tepić , and eleven ZNG troops who were blockading the depot in Bedenik Forest . The blast knocked down trees in a circle 200 metres ( 660 feet ) wide , caused damage to nearby structures , and could be heard 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) away . The JNA lost another soldier in the area of the depot , killed by an antitank missile while he was engaging the ZNG using an infantry fighting vehicle gun .
= = Aftermath = =
The JNA suffered 14 killed , and 30 wounded during the siege and capture of the Bjelovar barracks . The ZNG lost 17 dead , and five civilians were killed . There were 70 wounded ZNG troops and civilians combined . The ZNG troops captured 60 JNA officers and 365 soldiers . The captured troops were released on 14 November , in a prisoner exchange between Slavonski Šamac and Bosanski Šamac . Equipment captured by the ZNG included 75 T @-@ 55 and three PT @-@ 76 tanks , nine 122 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) howitzers , four M @-@ 63 Plamen multiple rocket launchers , 77 BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicles , small arms previously confiscated from the Bjelovar TO , and weapons of the 1st Brigade of the 28th Partisan Division ( TO ) including 1 @,@ 300 assault rifles and machine guns and approximately 100 trucks . During the fighting , 437 residential structures , 513 apartments , 169 utility structures and 25 public and commercial buildings were damaged or destroyed in Bjelovar and Hrgovljani . The following day , the only remaining major unit of the 32nd Corps — the 73rd Motorised Brigade based in Koprivnica — surrendered to the ZNG .
The capture of the JNA barracks in Bjelovar also affected the ceasefire agreement reached between the JNA and Croatia in Igalo , specifically a provision regarding the lifting of the blockade of the JNA barracks there . Initially there was a dispute between Tuđman and JNA General Veljko Kadijević as to whether it meant achieving normal living conditions in the barracks or complete freedom of movement for the JNA in Croatia . A compromise interpretation was negotiated , only to be dropped by Kadijević specifically because of the events in Bjelovar . On 1 October , Kadijević issued an ultimatum to Croatia threatening destruction of one civilian facility vital to the Croatian population for each military post captured by the ZNG . The ultimatum demonstrated that the JNA considered Croatia enemy territory , rather than part of the country it had a responsibility to protect .
Tepić was considered a hero in Serbia because he preferred to die rather than surrender . He was posthumously awarded the Order of the People 's Hero by the Presidency of Yugoslavia on 19 November 1991 , becoming the last recipient of the order . The authorities in Serbia subsequently painted his actions as heroic , and used him as a model for their soldiers .
In 2005 , authorities in Bjelovar announced they would file war crime charges against two unnamed JNA officers . In 2010 , Šimić was charged with war crimes , specifically the killing of prisoners of war . According to the charges filed by the County Court of Bjelovar , Šimić or several persons directly commanded by him killed Kovačević and two other JNA officers after they surrendered on 29 September . As of 2014 , the trial is in progress . Four other persons were tried on charges of killing of six prisoners of war captured at the Božidar Adžija Barracks . These prisoners , along with one civilian who had been held in custody since 2 September , were taken to the Česma Forest near the village of Malo Korenovo to be shot . The soldiers were killed , but the civilian survived , although he sustained severe injuries . The four accused were acquitted in 2012 . Škarec and Chief of Staff of Bjelovar TO Stjepan Budimski were charged with disobeying the orders issued by the General Staff , and were imprisoned . After spending several months in custody , Škarec and Budimski were released without formal charges . Škarec was discharged from the Croatian armed forces .
= A Community of Witches =
A Community of Witches : Contemporary Neo @-@ Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States is a sociological study of the Wiccan and wider Pagan community in the Northeastern United States . It was written by American sociologist Helen A. Berger of the West Chester University of Pennsylvania and first published in 1999 by the University of South Carolina Press . It was released as a part of a series of academic books entitled Studies in Comparative Religion , edited by Frederick M. Denny , a religious studies scholar at the University of Chicago .
Berger became interested in studying the Wiccan and Pagan movement in 1986 , when she presented a lecture on the subject at the Boston Public Library . Subsequently becoming acquainted with members of the New England Pagan community , she undertook fieldwork in both a local Wiccan coven , the Circle of Light , and a wider Pagan organisation , the EarthSpirit Community ( ESC ) . In total , Berger underwent 11 years of fieldwork among the Pagan community . Along with ESC founder Andras Corban Arthen , Berger also undertook a " Pagan Census " survey of the U.S. in the mid @-@ 1990s to obtain more data on the country 's Pagan community .
A Community of Witches is based on interviews with more than a hundred practicing Wiccans and Pagans , study of the pre @-@ existing literature on the subject and a national survey of the Pagan community in the U.S. In her work , Berger interprets Wicca as a religion of late modernity , as opposed to postmodernity , and subsequently examines it using the theories of sociologists Anthony Giddens and James A. Beckford . Themes covered include Pagan conceptions of the self , the role of covens and the wider Pagan community , the place of children in the movement and the increasing routinization of Wicca through the foundation of organised churches and clergy .
Academic reviewers were mostly positive , but several raised concerns over Berger 's incorrect use of terminology . Reviewers noted the study 's importance in developing Pagan studies as an academic discipline and helping further the wider sociological investigation into new religious movements in the United States . In the years following the study 's publication , Berger continued to investigate the Pagan community , focusing her interest on the popularity of Wicca among teenagers .
= = Background = =
= = = Paganism and Wicca in the United States = = =
Contemporary Paganism , also referred to as Neo @-@ Paganism , is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements , particularly those influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of pre @-@ modern Europe . The religion of Pagan Witchcraft , or Wicca , was developed in England during the first half of the 20th century and is one of several Pagan religions . The figure at the forefront of Wicca 's early development was the English occultist Gerald Gardner ( 1884 – 1964 ) , the author of Witchcraft Today ( 1954 ) and The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) and the founder of a tradition known as Gardnerian Wicca . Gardnerian Wicca revolved around the veneration of both a Horned God and a Mother Goddess , the celebration of eight seasonally @-@ based festivals in a Wheel of the Year and the practice of magical rituals in groups known as covens . Gardnerianism was subsequently brought to the U.S. in the early 1960s by an English initiate , Raymond Buckland ( 1934 – ) , and his then @-@ wife Rosemary , who together founded a coven in Long Island . In the U.S. , new variants of Wicca developed , including Dianic Wicca , a tradition founded in the 1970s which was influenced by second @-@ wave feminism , emphasized female @-@ only covens , and rejected the veneration of the Horned God . One initiate of both the Dianic and Gardnerian traditions was a woman known as Starhawk ( 1951 – ) who went on to found her own tradition , Reclaiming Wicca . She furthermore published The Spiral Dance : a Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess ( 1979 ) , a book which helped spread Wicca throughout the U.S.
= = = Academic fieldwork into Wicca = = =
Prior to Berger 's work , several American researchers working in the field of Pagan studies had separately published investigations of the Pagan community in the United States and the United Kingdom . The first of these was the practicing Wiccan , journalist and political activist Margot Adler in her Drawing Down the Moon : Witches , Druids , Goddess @-@ Worshippers , and Other Pagans in America Today , which was first published by Viking Press in 1979 . A second study was produced by the anthropologist Tanya M. Luhrmann in her Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft : Ritual Magic in Contemporary England ( 1989 ) , in which she focused on both a Wiccan coven and several ceremonial magic orders that were then operating in London .
The next academic book to be published based upon fieldwork undertaken in the U.S. Pagan community was Living Witchcraft : A Contemporary American Coven , published by Praeger in 1994 . Living Witchcraft had been co @-@ written by three academics , the sociologist Allen Scarboro , psychologist Nancy Campbell and literary critic Shirley Stave , herself a Wiccan practitioner . It was based upon their fieldwork undertaken in the Ravenwood coven of Atlanta , Georgia , over several months across 1990 and 1991 . At the same time as Scarboro , Campbell and Stave were undertaking their research , the American anthropologist and practicing Wiccan Loretta Orion was also undertaking an investigation into the Pagan movement in the East Coast and Midwest of the United States . Orion 's work was published as Never Again the Burning Times : Paganism Revisited by Waveland Press in 1995 , although would be heavily criticized in published reviews written by both Luhrmann and T.O. Beidelman , both of whom were of the opinion that Orion 's Pagan beliefs had clouded her critical interpretation . 1997 then saw the publication of Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia , authored by the anthropologist Lynne Hume .
= = = Berger and her research = = =
Helen Berger , then a lecturer in sociology at the West Chester University of Pennsylvania , had initially become involved in the study of the Pagan movement in preparation for a series of public lectures that she gave at the Boston Public Library in October 1986 . Based on the subject of the historical witch trials that took place in New England during the Early Modern period , she devoted the final lecture in the series to an examination of the contemporary Pagan Witches , or Wiccans , then living in the area . Having yet to perform the sociological investigation that would culminate in A Community of Witches , Berger gained her information for this lecture from the information published in the works of Margot Adler , Starhawk and Marcello Truzzi , and also from a singular interview that she had carried out with a woman who was " peripherally associated " with Paganism . After the lecture , several audience members approached Berger to identify themselves as practicing Wiccans , and it was through them that she came into contact with the New England Pagan community . Three of the Wiccans at the lecture invited Berger to " participate as a researcher " as they founded their own coven , the Circle of Light , and she attended their weekly meetings and festival celebrations for the next two years .
At the first open Pagan ritual that she attended , Berger met Andras Corban Arthen , the founder of the EarthSpirit Community ( ESC ) , a Pagan organization open to non @-@ Wiccans which she joined after paying the annual membership fee of $ 30 . Attending many of the ESC 's open rituals and festivals , she was introduced to a " diverse group " of Wiccans and other Pagans , and developed a contact base in the community . Berger and Arthen subsequently embarked on a project entitled " The Pagan Census " in an attempt to gain sociological data from the Pagan community across the U.S. Receiving funding from the Faculty Development Fund at West Chester University , Berger was aided in this project by over 15 students who helped her to code and enter data for the survey . Together , Berger and Arthen wrote and distributed their survey through Wiccan and Pagan organizations across the country , as well as in journals , on the internet and at festivals . The duo received over 2000 responses , providing Berger with one of her main sources of information .
Throughout her 11 @-@ year period of fieldwork , Berger had to use snowball sampling to retrieve her data on the Pagan community , something that she attributed to the " secrecy of groups and practitioners " . She conducted formal interviews with over 40 practicing Pagans , and over 60 others instead were informally interviewed during conversations at Pagan events , following which Berger recorded their responses in her fieldnotes . She participated in rituals with ten different Wiccan covens , two of which were all @-@ female covens , and the other eight of which were mixed @-@ gender in structure , but all of whom assembled in the Northeastern United States . Accepting that this regional focus might affect her results , she supplemented her fieldwork by reading literature on Paganism from across the country , concluding that " the differences among groups and practitioners within the United States are less important than the similarities . " Unlike the sociologists Margot Adler and Loretta Orion , both of whom had been or became Pagans whilst studying the movement , Berger stated that she had not joined the religion , thereby remaining an " outsider " throughout her research , but had made many friends within the Pagan community .
A Community of Witches was a part of a series of books entitled ' Studies in Comparative Religion ' that were published by the University of South Carolina Press , and edited by Frederick M. Denny . In Denny 's preface to the book , he remarked that it " adds significantly to the steadily growing scholarly literature " on the subject of Wicca and contemporary Paganism , being of " considerable use for our understanding of how other new religious communities are sustaining and developing themselves in the unprecedented rich tapestry of American religious pluralism . "
= = Synopsis = =
Starting with a preface in which Berger explains how she first began studying the Wiccan and Pagan community of New England , Berger opens the main part of her book with a description of a Wiccaning which she attended . Proceeding to introduce both the Wiccan religion and her theoretical approach , Berger explains the British sociologist James A. Beckford 's approach to the religions of late modernity as well as Anthony Giddens ' theoretical approaches to modernism .
In the second chapter , " The Magical Self " , Berger examines the ways in which Wiccans in the U.S. understand themselves , looking at sociological ideas about self @-@ identity and utilising them in her analysis of Wiccan rituals that deal with the transformation of the self . She moves on to look at concepts of gender in the Wiccan community , both for men and women and among homosexuals . The third chapter , entitled " The Coven : Perfect Love , Perfect Trust " , provides an explanation of the coven system within Wicca , and the ways in which friendships are built and collapse amongst coven members , and the extent to which covens imitate family structures .
Chapter four , " A Circle within a Circle : The Neo @-@ Pagan Community " , looks at the wider community beyond the coven structure , interpreting it through theoretical ideas about community in late modernity . Moving on , Berger looks at ideas of community memory and community building amongst U.S. Pagans , before examining the manner in which some Pagans engage in both emancipatory politics and life politics . The fifth chapter , entitled " The Next Generation " , is devoted to the place of children within the Pagan community , and deals with ideas of rites of passage , attitudes towards children 's sexuality and the extent to which children are involved in rituals .
The sixth chapter , " The Routinization of Creativity " , looks at the relationship between Wicca and routinization , and examines how the anti @-@ authoritarian ethos of the religion has been in part eroded through the creation of Pagan organisations like the EarthSpirit Community and the Circle Sanctuary , which have purchased land and led to the development of a paid clergy . Finally , Berger concludes her work with a round @-@ up of her study , and muses on the possible future for Wicca in the United States .
= = Arguments = =
= = = Wicca as a religion of late modernity = = =
Whereas the sociologist Loretta Orion had believed that contemporary Paganism was a postmodern movement , in A Community of Witches , Berger argued against this , instead considering Wicca to be a religion of late modernity . In supporting this position , Berger turned to the work of the British sociologist of religion , James A. Beckford ( 1942 – ) , who in his book Religion and Advanced Industrial Society ( 1989 ) had argued that many new religious movements reflect the characteristics of late modernity by challenging traditional definitions of religion , sharing a holistic worldview and emphasising the development and transformation of the self . Berger stated that while " Wicca is not specifically mentioned by Beckford , it does fit the model of New Age religions that he is analyzing . " Whilst accepting that elements of postmodernism can be found within Wicca , Berger argued that the religion does not " signify an epistemological break with Enlightenment thought " , and that as such it was intrinsically late modernist in structure ; as she related , the " emphasis on globalism , the belief in personal and social transformation , and the use of noninstrumental rationality place Wicca firmly within the Enlightenment tradition . "
Berger 's choice of " framework for understanding Wicca within the context of late modernity " was that of structuration , a theory put forward by the English sociologist and political theorist Anthony Giddens ( 1938 – ) in his book The Constitution of Society ( 1984 ) . Structuration theory maintains that both structure and agency influence human beings in their choices ; the former refers to the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available for an individual , whilst the latter refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices . Berger argued that whilst the beliefs and practices of Wiccans were " in part determined by social factors , such as class , race and gender " , at the same time these Wiccans exerted a level of control and self @-@ determination over their lives " both by the very act of becoming a Witch and through the self @-@ conscious use of rituals to create a persona . "
= = = Wicca as a result of globalism = = =
Berger was of the opinion that Wicca 's " development and spread " could be seen as " an outgrowth of globalism " . As evidence , she noted that the religion had been created by modern westerners adopting elements from a variety of " older and geographically disparate religious practices " in order to fashion their new faith , something which she believed was only possible in a globalised world .
= = = The future of Wicca = = =
Whereas Mary Jo Neitz ( 1991 ) and Nancy J. Finley ( 1991 ) had both argued that ultimately , it would be the feminist @-@ orientated , female @-@ only form of Wicca found in the Dianic tradition that would grow to become dominant in the United States , Berger disagreed , arguing that " inclusive groups " , meaning those traditions who welcome both men and women into their covens , " will ultimately prove to be more significant . " She believed that this was in part because they " are more likely to include and fully involve children in their practices " , something which she saw as having the likely " greatest impact " on the future of Wicca in the United States . In Berger 's view , these children born into the faith would act as " maintainers of their families ' practice " , replacing the role that had formerly been played by neophytes in the community .
= = Reception and recognition = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
In a review published in the Review of Religious Research journal , Stephen D. Glazier of the University of Nebraska described A Community of Witches as an " important study " which had " many virtues and few faults . " Glazier commended it as an improvement on earlier sociological studies of contemporary Paganism , which in his opinion had dwelt on " personal experiences " and acted as something of " proselytizers for Neo @-@ Pagan beliefs and practices . " He furthermore praised Berger for " maintaining a high degree of theoretical sophistication " while still " remaining accessible for the average reader " . He also expressed several criticisms , for instance noting that Berger had used the terms " Wiccan " and " Neo @-@ Pagan " interchangeably , even though they have different meanings , something that he felt might confuse some of the book 's readers .
In her review of A Community of Witches published in the Sociology of Religion journal , Frances Kostarelos of the Governors State University commented positively on Berger 's work , describing it as " an invaluable theoretical and descriptive account of Wicca " that is also " a fine example of ethnographic research and writing . " Stefanie von Schnurbein of the University of Chicago described A Community of Witches as " an exciting and important approach to the study of contemporary neopaganism " in her review published in The Journal of Religion . Schnurbein believed that Berger " has an intimate knowledge of her field and makes creative and interesting use of contemporary sociological theory " but that a " discussion of the vivid cultural and theoretical controversies around gender and sexuality would have added to the theoretical value of Berger 's book . "
Writing in the Contemporary Sociology journal , Tanice G. Foltz of Indiana University Northwest described A Community of Witches as " Well organized , clearly written , and aimed at an academic audience " . Believing it to be a " valuable addition to the existing scholarship on witchcraft " , Foltz did highlight some problems with the work , wishing that it had included an " in @-@ depth analysis " of her Pagan Census survey and noting that it erroneously used the terms " Neo @-@ Paganism " , " Witchcraft " and " Wicca " interchangeably . In her review for the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , Mary Jo Neitz of the University of Missouri was more critical , arguing that Berger had generalised information from the north @-@ eastern U.S. and claimed that it was applicable for the Pagan community across the entire country , something which Neitz felt was counter to her " own observations of Wicca . "
= = = Wider recognition = = =
A Community of Witches was awarded the A List Exceptional Books of 1999 Award . It was also mentioned by Canadian religious studies scholar Barbara Jane Davy in her 2007 work , Introduction to Pagan Studies , during which she listed the books on Pagan Studies that had then seen publication .
= = Berger 's later work = =
The publication of A Community of Witches did not signal the end of Berger 's studies on the subject of American Paganism , and over the following several years she would publish several more volumes detailing her work in this area . In 2003 , she co @-@ authored a book delving deeper into the results of the Pagan Census that she had undertaken with Andras Corban Arthen . Entitled Voices from the Pagan Census : A National Survey of Witches and Neo @-@ Pagans in the United States , it was co @-@ written with Leigh S. Shaffer , a fellow professor of sociology at West Chester University , and also with Evan A. Leach , then an associate professor of management at West Chester . Like A Community of Witches , Voices from the Pagan Census was published by the University of South Carolina Press in their series on ' Studies in Comparative Religion ' , and in his preface to the book , the series editor Frederick M. Denny referred to it as the " sequel " to Berger 's earlier work .
In their preface , Berger , Leach and Shaffer discussed the Pagan Census and how it had been used in producing A Community of Witches ; they noted that at the time Berger had originally written the book , " the rest of the data had not been completely processed , cleaned , and analyzed . Unlike that book , which relied primarily on her ethnographic research in the northeastern United States and an analysis of journals , books , and newsletters written by Neo @-@ Pagans , this one is based primarily on the survey data . "
In 2005 , the University of Pennsylvania published an edited anthology entitled Witchcraft and Magic in the New World : North America in the Twentieth Century , which had been edited by Berger . In 2007 , Berger 's third book was published , Teenage Witches : Magical Youth and the Search for the Soul , which had been co @-@ written with Douglas Ezzy , a senior lecturer in sociology at the University of Tasmania in Australia .
= Camille Saint @-@ Saëns =
Charles @-@ Camille Saint @-@ Saëns ( French : [ ʃaʁl kamij sɛ ̃ sɑ ̃ s ] ; 9 October 1835 – 16 December 1921 ) was a French composer , organist , conductor and pianist of the Romantic era . His best @-@ known works include Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso ( 1863 ) , the Second Piano Concerto ( 1868 ) , the First Cello Concerto ( 1872 ) , Danse macabre ( 1874 ) , the opera Samson and Delilah ( 1877 ) , the Third Violin Concerto ( 1880 ) , the Third ( " Organ " ) Symphony ( 1886 ) and The Carnival of the Animals ( 1886 ) .
Saint @-@ Saëns was a musical prodigy , making his concert debut at the age of ten . After studying at the Paris Conservatoire he followed a conventional career as a church organist , first at Saint @-@ Merri , Paris and , from 1858 , La Madeleine , the official church of the French Empire . After leaving the post twenty years later , he was a successful freelance pianist and composer , in demand in France , mainland Europe , Britain , and the Americas .
As a young man , Saint @-@ Saëns was enthusiastic for the most modern music of the day , particularly that of Schumann , Liszt and Wagner , although his own compositions were generally within a conventional classical tradition . He was a scholar of musical history , and remained committed to the structures worked out by earlier French composers . This brought him into conflict in his later years with composers of the impressionist and dodecaphonic schools of music ; although there were neoclassical elements in his music , foreshadowing works by Stravinsky and Les Six , he was often regarded as a reactionary in the years before and after his death .
Saint @-@ Saëns held only one teaching post , at the École de Musique Classique et Religieuse in Paris , and remained there for less than five years . It was nevertheless important in the development of French music : his students included Gabriel Fauré , among whose own later pupils was Maurice Ravel . Both of them were strongly influenced by Saint @-@ Saëns , whom they revered as a genius .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was born in Paris , the only child of Jacques @-@ Joseph @-@ Victor Saint @-@ Saëns ( 1798 – 1835 ) , an official in the French Ministry of the Interior , and Françoise @-@ Clémence , née Collin . Victor Saint @-@ Saëns was of Norman ancestry , and his wife was from an Haute @-@ Marne family ; their son , born in the Rue du Jardinet in the 6th arrondissement of Paris , and baptised at the nearby church of Saint @-@ Sulpice , always considered himself a true Parisian . Less than two months after the christening , Victor Saint @-@ Saëns died of consumption on the first anniversary of his marriage . The young Camille was taken to the country for the sake of his health , and for two years lived with a nurse at Corbeil , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) to the south of Paris .
When Saint @-@ Saëns was brought back to Paris he lived with his mother and her widowed aunt , Charlotte Masson . Before he was three years old he displayed perfect pitch and enjoyed picking out tunes on the piano . His great @-@ aunt taught him the basics of pianism , and when he was seven he became a pupil of Camille @-@ Marie Stamaty , a former pupil of Friedrich Kalkbrenner . Stamaty required his students to play while resting their forearms on a bar situated in front of the keyboard , so that all the pianist 's power came from the hands and fingers rather than the arms , which , Saint @-@ Saëns later wrote , was good training . Clémence Saint @-@ Saëns , well aware of her son 's precocious talent , did not wish him to become famous too young . The music critic Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Saint @-@ Saëns in 1969 , " It is not generally realized that he was the most remarkable child prodigy in history , and that includes Mozart . " The boy gave occasional performances for small audiences from the age of five , but it was not until he was ten that he made his official public debut , at the Salle Pleyel , in a programme that included Mozart 's Piano Concerto in B ♭ ( K450 ) , and Beethoven 's Third Piano Concerto . Through Stamaty 's influence , Saint @-@ Saëns was introduced to the composition professor Pierre Maleden and the organ teacher Alexandre Pierre François Boëly . From the latter he acquired a lifelong love of the music of Bach , which was then little known in France .
As a schoolboy Saint @-@ Saëns was outstanding in many subjects . In addition to his musical prowess , he distinguished himself in the study of French literature , Latin and Greek , divinity , and
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mathematics . His interests included philosophy , archaeology and astronomy , of which , particularly the last , he remained a talented amateur in later life .
In 1848 , at the age of thirteen , Saint @-@ Saëns was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire , France 's foremost music academy . The director , Daniel Auber , had succeeded Luigi Cherubini in 1842 , and brought a more relaxed regime than that of his martinet predecessor , though the curriculum remained conservative . Students , even outstanding pianists like Saint @-@ Saëns , were encouraged to specialise in organ studies , because a career as a church organist was seen to offer more opportunities than that of a solo pianist . His organ professor was François Benoist , whom Saint @-@ Saëns considered a mediocre organist but a first @-@ rate teacher ; his pupils included Adolphe Adam , César Franck , Charles Alkan , Louis Lefébure @-@ Wély and Georges Bizet . In 1851 Saint @-@ Saëns won the Conservatoire 's top prize for organists , and in the same year he began formal composition studies . His professor was a protégé of Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , whose pupils included Charles Gounod and Bizet .
Saint @-@ Saëns 's student compositions included a symphony in A major ( 1850 ) and a choral piece , Les Djinns ( 1850 ) , to a poem by Victor Hugo . He competed for France 's premier musical award , the Prix de Rome , in 1852 but was unsuccessful . Auber believed that the prize should have gone to Saint @-@ Saëns , considering him to have more promise than the winner , Léonce Cohen , who made little mark during the rest of his career . In the same year Saint @-@ Saëns had greater success in a competition organised by the Société Sainte @-@ Cécile , Paris , with his Ode à Sainte @-@ Cécile , for which the judges unanimously voted him the first prize . The first piece the composer acknowledged as a mature work and gave an opus number was Trois Morceaux for harmonium ( 1852 ) .
= = = Early career = = =
On leaving the Conservatoire in 1853 , Saint @-@ Saëns accepted the post of organist at the ancient Parisian church of Saint @-@ Merri near the Hôtel de Ville . The parish was substantial , with 26 @,@ 000 parishioners ; in a typical year there were more than two hundred weddings , the organist 's fees from which , together with fees for funerals and his modest basic stipend , gave Saint @-@ Saëns a comfortable income . The organ , the work of François @-@ Henri Clicquot , had been badly damaged in the aftermath of the French Revolution and imperfectly restored . The instrument was adequate for church services but not for the ambitious recitals that many high @-@ profile Parisian churches offered . With enough spare time to pursue his career as a pianist and composer , Saint @-@ Saëns composed what became his opus 2 , the Symphony in E ♭ ( 1853 ) . This work , with military fanfares and augmented brass and percussion sections , caught the mood of the times in the wake of the popular rise to power of Napoleon III and the restoration of the French Empire . The work brought the composer another first prize from the Société Sainte @-@ Cécile .
Among the musicians who were quick to spot Saint @-@ Saëns 's talent were the composers Gioachino Rossini , Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt , and the influential singer Pauline Viardot , who all encouraged him in his career . In early 1858 Saint @-@ Saëns moved from Saint @-@ Merri to the high @-@ profile post of organist of La Madeleine , the official church of the Empire ; Liszt heard him playing there and declared him the greatest organist in the world .
Although in later life he had a reputation for outspoken musical conservatism , in the 1850s Saint @-@ Saëns supported and promoted the most modern music of the day , including that of Liszt , Robert Schumann and Richard Wagner . Unlike many French composers of his own and the next generation , Saint @-@ Saëns , for all his enthusiasm for and knowledge of Wagner 's operas , was not influenced by him in his own compositions . He commented , " I admire deeply the works of Richard Wagner in spite of their bizarre character . They are superior and powerful , and that is sufficient for me . But I am not , I have never been , and I shall never be of the Wagnerian religion . "
= = = 1860s : Teacher and growing fame = = =
In 1861 Saint @-@ Saëns accepted his only post as a teacher , at the École de Musique Classique et Religieuse , Paris , which Louis Niedermeyer had established in 1853 to train first @-@ rate organists and choirmasters for the churches of France . Niedermeyer himself was professor of piano ; when he died in March 1861 , Saint @-@ Saëns was appointed to take charge of piano studies . He scandalised some of his more austere colleagues by introducing his students to contemporary music , including that of Schumann , Liszt and Wagner . His best @-@ known pupil , Gabriel Fauré , recalled in old age :
After allowing the lessons to run over , he would go to the piano and reveal to us those works of the masters from which the rigorous classical nature of our programme of study kept us at a distance and who , moreover , in those far @-@ off years , were scarcely known . ... At the time I was 15 or 16 , and from this time dates the almost filial attachment ... the immense admiration , the unceasing gratitude I [ have ] had for him , throughout my life . "
Saint @-@ Saëns further enlivened the academic regime by writing , and composing incidental music for , a one @-@ act farce performed by the students ( including André Messager ) . He conceived his best @-@ known piece , The Carnival of the Animals , with his students in mind , but did not finish composing it until 1886 , more than twenty years after he left the Niedermeyer school .
In 1864 Saint @-@ Saëns caused some surprise by competing a second time for the Prix de Rome . Many in musical circles were puzzled by his decision to enter the competition again , now that he was establishing a reputation as a soloist and composer . He was once more unsuccessful . Berlioz , one of the judges , wrote :
We gave the Prix de Rome the other day to a young man who wasn 't expecting to win it and who went almost mad with joy . We were all expecting the prize to go to Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , who had the strange notion of competing . I confess I was sorry to vote against a man who is truly a great artist and one who is already well known , practically a celebrity . But the other man , who is still a student , has that inner fire , inspiration , he feels , he can do things that can 't be learnt and the rest he 'll learn more or less . So I voted for him , sighing at the thought of the unhappiness that this failure must cause Saint @-@ Saëns . But , whatever else , one must be honest .
According to the musical scholar Jean Gallois , it was apropos of this episode that Berlioz made his well @-@ known bon mot about Saint @-@ Saëns , " He knows everything , but lacks inexperience " ( " Il sait tout , mais il manque d 'inexpérience " ) . The winner , Victor Sieg , had a career no more notable than that of the 1852 winner , but Saint @-@ Saëns 's biographer Brian Rees speculates that the judges may " have been seeking signs of genius in the midst of tentative effort and error , and considered that Saint @-@ Saëns had reached his summit of proficiency " . The suggestion that Saint @-@ Saëns was more proficient than inspired dogged his career and posthumous reputation . He himself wrote , " Art is intended to create beauty and character . Feeling only comes afterwards and art can very well do without it . In fact , it is very much better off when it does . " The biographer Jessica Duchen writes that he was " a troubled man who preferred not to betray the darker side of his soul " . The critic and composer Jeremy Nicholas observes that this reticence has led many to underrate the music ; he quotes such slighting remarks as " Saint @-@ Saëns is the only great composer who wasn 't a genius " , and " Bad music well written " .
While teaching at the Niedermeyer school Saint @-@ Saëns put less of his energy into composing and performing , but after he left in 1865 he pursued both aspects of his career with vigour . In 1867 his cantata Les noces de Prométhée beat more than a hundred other entries to win the composition prize of the Grande Fête Internationale in Paris , for which the jury included Auber , Berlioz , Gounod , Rossini and Giuseppe Verdi . In 1868 he premiered the first of his orchestral works to gain a permanent place in the repertoire , his Second Piano Concerto . Playing this and other works he became a noted figure in the musical life of Paris and other cities in France and abroad during the 1860s .
= = = 1870s : War , marriage and operatic success = = =
In 1870 , concerned at the dominance of German music and the lack of opportunity for young French composers to have their works played , Saint @-@ Saëns and Romain Bussine , professor of singing at the Conservatoire , discussed the founding of a society to promote new French music . Before they could take the proposal further , the Franco @-@ Prussian War broke out . Saint @-@ Saëns served in the National Guard during the war . During the brief but bloody Paris Commune that followed , his superior at the Madeleine , the Abbé Deguerry , was murdered by rebels ; Saint @-@ Saëns was fortunate to escape to temporary exile in England . With the help of George Grove and others he supported himself while there , giving recitals . Returning to Paris in 1871 , he found that anti @-@ German sentiments had considerably enhanced support for the idea of a pro @-@ French musical society . The Société Nationale de Musique , with its motto , " Ars Gallica " , was established in February 1871 , with Bussine as president , Saint @-@ Saëns as vice @-@ president and Henri Duparc , Fauré , Franck and Jules Massenet among its founder @-@ members .
As an admirer of Liszt 's innovative symphonic poems , Saint @-@ Saëns enthusiastically adopted the form ; his first " poème symphonique " was Le Rouet d 'Omphale ( 1871 ) , premiered at a concert of the Sociéte Nationale in January 1872 . In the same year , after more than a decade of intermittent work on operatic scores , Saint @-@ Saëns finally had one of his operas staged . La princesse jaune ( " The Yellow Princess " ) , a one @-@ act , light romantic piece , was given at the Opéra @-@ Comique , Paris in June . It ran for five performances .
Throughout the 1860s and early 1870s , Saint @-@ Saëns had continued to live a bachelor existence , sharing a large fourth @-@ floor flat in the Rue du Faubourg Saint @-@ Honoré with his mother . In 1875 he surprised many by marrying . The groom was approaching forty and his bride was nineteen ; she was Marie @-@ Laure Truffot , the sister of one of the composer 's pupils . The marriage was not a success . In the words of the biographer Sabina Teller Ratner , " Saint @-@ Saëns 's mother disapproved , and her son was difficult to live with " . Saint @-@ Saëns and his wife moved to the Rue Monsieur @-@ le @-@ Prince , in the Latin Quarter ; his mother moved with them . The couple had two sons , both of whom died in infancy . In 1878 , the elder , André , aged two , fell from a window of the flat and was killed ; the younger , Jean @-@ François , died of pneumonia six weeks later , aged six months . Saint @-@ Saëns and Marie @-@ Laure continued to live together for three years , but he blamed her for André 's accident ; the double blow of their loss effectively destroyed the marriage .
For a French composer of the 19th century , opera was seen as the most important type of music . Saint @-@ Saëns 's younger contemporary and rival , Massenet , was beginning to gain a reputation as an operatic composer , but Saint @-@ Saëns , with only the short and unsuccessful La princesse jaune staged , had made no mark in that sphere . In February 1877 , he finally had a full @-@ length opera staged . His four @-@ act " drame lyricque " , Le timbre d 'argent ( " The Silver Bell " ) , to Jules Barbier 's and Michel Carré 's libretto , reminiscent of the Faust legend , had been in rehearsal in 1870 , but the outbreak of war halted the production . The work was eventually presented by the Théâtre Lyrique company of Paris ; it ran for eighteen performances .
The dedicatee of the opera , Albert Libon , died three months after the premiere , leaving Saint @-@ Saëns a large legacy " to free him from the slavery of the organ of the Madeleine and to enable him to devote himself entirely to composition " . Saint @-@ Saëns , unaware of the imminent bequest , had resigned his position shortly before his friend died . He was not a conventional Christian , and found religious dogma increasingly irksome ; he had become tired of the clerical authorities ' interference and musical insensitivity ; and he wanted to be free to accept more engagements as a piano soloist in other cities . After this he never played the organ professionally in a church service , and rarely played the instrument at all . He composed a requiem in memory of his friend , which was performed at Saint @-@ Sulpice to mark the first anniversary of Libon 's death ; Charles @-@ Marie Widor played the organ and Saint @-@ Saëns conducted .
In December 1877 , Saint @-@ Saëns had a more solid operatic success , with Samson et Dalila , his one opera to gain and keep a place in the international repertoire . Because of its biblical subject , the composer had met many obstacles to its presentation in France , and through Liszt 's influence the premiere was given at Weimar in a German translation . Although the work eventually became an international success it was not staged at the Paris Opéra until 1892 .
Saint @-@ Saëns was a keen traveller . From the 1870s until the end of his life he made 179 trips to 27 countries . His professional engagements took him most often to Germany and England ; for holidays , and to avoid Parisian winters which affected his weak chest , he favoured Algiers and various places in Egypt .
= = = 1880s : International figure = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was elected to the Institut de France in 1881 , at his second attempt , having to his chagrin been beaten by Massenet in 1878 . In July of that year he and his wife went to the Auvergnat spa town of La Bourboule for a holiday . On 28 July he disappeared from their hotel , and a few days later his wife received a letter from him to say that he would not be returning . They never saw each other again . Marie Saint @-@ Saëns returned to her family , and lived until 1950 , dying near Bordeaux at the age of ninety @-@ five . Saint @-@ Saëns did not divorce his wife and remarry , nor did he form any later intimate relationship with a woman . Rees comments that although there is no firm evidence , some biographers believe that Saint @-@ Saëns was more attracted to his own sex than to women . After the death of his children and collapse of his marriage , Saint @-@ Saëns increasingly found a surrogate family in Fauré and his wife , Marie , and their two sons , to whom he was a much @-@ loved honorary uncle . Marie told him , " For us you are one of the family , and we mention your name ceaselessly here . "
In the 1880s Saint @-@ Saëns continued to seek success in the opera house , an undertaking made the more difficult by an entrenched belief among influential members of the musical establishment that it was unthinkable that a pianist , organist and symphonist could write a good opera . He had two operas staged during the decade , the first being Henry VIII ( 1883 ) commissioned by the Paris Opéra . Although the libretto was not of his choosing , Saint @-@ Saëns , normally a fluent , even facile composer , worked at the score with unusual diligence to capture a convincing air of 16th @-@ century England . The work was a success , and was frequently revived during the composer 's lifetime . When it was produced at Covent Garden in 1898 , The Era commented that though French librettists generally " make a pretty hash of British history " , this piece was " not altogether contemptible as an opera story " .
The open @-@ mindedness of the Société Nationale had hardened by the mid @-@ 1880s into a dogmatic adherence to Wagnerian methods favoured by Franck 's pupils , led by Vincent d 'Indy . They had begun to dominate the organisation and sought to abandon its " Ars Gallica " ethos of commitment to French works . Bussine and Saint @-@ Saëns found this unacceptable , and resigned in 1886 . Having long pressed the merits of Wagner on a sometimes sceptical French public , Saint @-@ Saëns was now becoming worried that the German 's music was having an excessive impact on young French composers . His increasing caution towards Wagner developed in later years into stronger hostility , directed as much at Wagner 's political nationalism as at his music .
By the 1880s Saint @-@ Saëns was an established favourite with audiences in England , where he was widely regarded as the greatest living French composer . In 1886 the Philharmonic Society of London commissioned what became one of his most popular and respected works , the Third ( " Organ " ) Symphony . It was premiered in London at a concert in which Saint @-@ Saëns appeared as conductor of the symphony and as soloist in Beethoven 's Fourth Piano Concerto , conducted by Sir Arthur Sullivan . The success of the symphony in London was considerable , but was surpassed by the ecstatic welcome the work received at its Paris premiere early the following year . Later in 1887 Saint @-@ Saëns 's " drame lyrique " Proserpine opened at the Opéra @-@ Comique . It was well received and seemed to be heading for a substantial run when the theatre burnt down within weeks of the premiere and the production was lost .
In December 1888 Saint @-@ Saëns 's mother died . He felt her loss deeply , and was plunged into depression and insomnia , even contemplating suicide . He left Paris and stayed in Algiers , where he recuperated until May 1889 , walking and reading but unable to compose .
= = = 1890s : Marking time = = =
During the 1890s Saint @-@ Saëns spent much time on holiday , travelling overseas , composing less and performing more infrequently than before . A planned visit to perform in Chicago fell through in 1893 . He wrote one opera , the comedy Phryné ( 1893 ) , and together with Paul Dukas helped to complete Frédégonde ( 1895 ) an opera left unfinished by Ernest Guiraud , who died in 1892 . Phryné was well received , and prompted calls for more comic operas at the Opéra @-@ Comique , which had latterly been favouring grand opera . His few choral and orchestral works from the 1890s are mostly short ; the major concert pieces from the decade were the single movement fantasia Africa ( 1891 ) and his Fifth ( " Egyptian " ) Piano Concerto , which he premiered at a concert in 1896 marking the fiftieth anniversary of his début at the Salle Pleyel in 1846 . Before playing the concerto he read out a short poem he had written for the event , praising his mother 's tutelage and his public 's long support .
Among the concerts that Saint @-@ Saëns undertook during the decade was one at Cambridge in June 1893 , when he , Bruch and Tchaikovsky performed at an event presented by Charles Villiers Stanford for the Cambridge University Musical Society , marking the award of honorary degrees to all three visitors . Saint @-@ Saëns greatly enjoyed the visit , and even spoke approvingly of the college chapel services : " The demands of English religion are not excessive . The services are very short , and consist chiefly of listening to good music extremely well sung , for the English are excellent choristers " . His mutual regard for British choirs continued for the rest of his life , and one of his last large @-@ scale works , the oratorio The Promised Land , was composed for the Three Choirs Festival of 1913 .
= = = 1900 – 21 : Last years = = =
In 1900 , after ten years without a permanent home in Paris , Saint @-@ Saëns took a flat in the rue de Courcelles , not far from his old residence in the rue du Faubourg Saint @-@ Honoré . This remained his home for the rest of his life . He continued to travel abroad frequently , but increasingly often to give concerts rather than as a tourist . He revisited London , where he was always a welcome visitor , went to Berlin , where until the First World War , he was greeted with honour , and travelled in Italy , Spain , Monaco and provincial France . In 1906 and 1909 he made highly successful tours of the US , as a pianist and conductor . In New York on his second visit he premiered his " Praise ye the Lord " for double choir , orchestra and organ , which he composed for the occasion .
Despite his growing reputation as a musical reactionary , Saint @-@ Saëns was , according to Gallois , probably the only French musician who travelled to Munich to hear the premiere of Mahler 's Eighth Symphony in 1910 . Nonetheless , by the 20th century Saint @-@ Saëns had lost much of his enthusiasm for modernism in music . Though he strove to conceal it from Fauré , he did not understand or like the latter 's opera Pénélope ( 1913 ) , of which he was the dedicatee . In 1917 Francis Poulenc , at the beginning of his career as a composer , was dismissive when Ravel praised Saint @-@ Saëns as a genius . By this time , various strands of new music were emerging with which Saint @-@ Saëns had little in common . His classical instincts for form put him at odds with what seemed to him the shapelessness and structure of the musical impressionists , led by Debussy . Nor did the theories of Arnold Schönberg 's dodecaphony commend themselves to Saint @-@ Saëns :
There is no longer any question of adding to the old rules new principles which are the natural expression of time and experience , but simply of casting aside all rules and every restraint . " Everyone ought to make his own rules . Music is free and unlimited in its liberty of expression . There are no perfect chords , dissonant chords or false chords . All aggregations of notes are legitimate . " That is called , and they believe it , the development of taste .
Holding such conservative views , Saint @-@ Saëns was out of sympathy – and out of fashion – with the Parisian musical scene of the early 20th century , fascinated as it was with novelty . It is often said that he walked out , scandalised , from the premiere of Vaslav Nijinsky and Igor Stravinsky 's ballet The Rite of Spring in 1913 . In fact , according to Stravinsky , Saint @-@ Saëns was not present on that occasion , but at the first concert performance of the piece the following year he expressed the firm view that Stravinsky was insane .
When a group of French musicians led by Saint @-@ Saëns tried to organise a boycott of German music during the First World War , Fauré and Messager dissociated themselves from the idea , though the disagreement did not affect their friendship with their old teacher . They were privately concerned that their friend was in danger of looking foolish with his excess of patriotism , and also his growing tendency to denounce in public the works of rising young composers , as in his condemnation of Debussy 's En blanc et noir ( 1915 ) : " We must at all costs bar the door of the Institut against a man capable of such atrocities ; they should be put next to the cubist pictures . " His determination to block Debussy 's candidacy for election to the Institut was successful , and caused bitter resentment from the younger composer 's supporters . Saint @-@ Saëns 's response to the neoclassicism of Les Six was equally uncompromising : of Darius Milhaud 's polytonal symphonic suite Protée ( 1919 ) he commented , " fortunately , there are still lunatic asylums in France " .
Saint @-@ Saëns gave what he intended to be his farewell concert as a pianist in Paris in 1913 , but his retirement was soon in abeyance as a result of the war , during which he gave many performances in France and elsewhere , raising money for war charities . These activities took him across the Atlantic , despite the danger from German warships .
In November 1921 Saint @-@ Saëns gave a recital at the Institut for a large invited audience ; it was remarked that his playing was as vivid and precise as ever , and that his personal bearing was admirable for a man of eighty @-@ six . He left Paris a month later for Algiers , with the intention of wintering there , as he had long been accustomed to do . While there he died without warning of a heart attack on 16 December 1921 . His body was taken back to Paris , and after a state funeral at the Madeleine he was buried at the Cimetière de Montparnasse . Heavily veiled , in an inconspicuous place among the mourners from France 's political and artistic élite , was his widow , Marie @-@ Laure , whom he had last seen in 1881 .
= = Music = =
In the early years of the 20th century , the anonymous author of the article on Saint @-@ Saëns in Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians wrote :
Saint @-@ Saëns is a consummate master of composition , and no one possesses a more profound knowledge than he does of the secrets and resources of the art ; but the creative faculty does not keep pace with the technical skill of the workman . His incomparable talent for orchestration enables him to give relief to ideas which would otherwise be crude and mediocre in themselves ... his works are on the one hand not frivolous enough to become popular in the widest sense , nor on the other do they take hold of the public by that sincerity and warmth of feeling which is so convincing .
Although a keen modernist in his youth , Saint @-@ Saëns was always deeply aware of the great masters of the past . In a profile of him written to mark his eightieth birthday , the critic D C Parker wrote , " That Saint @-@ Saëns knows Rameau ... Bach and Handel , Haydn and Mozart , must be manifest to all who are familiar with his writings . His love for the classical giants and his sympathy with them form , so to speak , the foundation of his art . "
Less attracted than some of his French contemporaries to the continuous stream of music popularised by Wagner , Saint @-@ Saëns often favoured self @-@ contained melodies . Though they are frequently , in Ratner 's phrase , " supple and pliable " , more often than not they are constructed in three- or four @-@ bar sections , and the " phrase pattern AABB is characteristic " . An occasional tendency to neoclassicism , influenced by his study of French baroque music , is in contrast with the colourful orchestral music more widely identified with him . Grove observes that he makes his effects more by characterful harmony and rhythms than by extravagant scoring . In both of those areas of his craft he was normally content with the familiar . Rhythmically , he inclined to standard double , triple or compound metres ( although Grove points to a 5 / 4 passage in the Piano Trio and another in 7 / 4 in the Polonaise for two pianos ) . From his time at the Conservatoire he was a master of counterpoint ; contrapuntal passages crop up , seemingly naturally , in many of his works .
= = = Orchestral works = = =
The authors of the 1955 The Record Guide , Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor write that Saint @-@ Saëns 's brilliant musicianship was " instrumental in drawing the attention of French musicians to the fact that that there are other forms of music besides opera . " In the 2001 edition of Grove 's Dictionary , Ratner and Daniel Fallon , analysing Saint @-@ Saëns 's orchestral music rate the unnumbered Symphony in A ( c . 1850 ) as the most ambitious of the composer 's juvenilia . Of the works of his maturity , the First Symphony ( 1853 ) is a serious and large @-@ scale work , in which the influence of Schumann is detectable . The " Urbs Roma " Symphony ( 1856 ) in some ways represents a backward step , being less deftly orchestrated , and " thick and heavy " in its effect . Ratner and Fallon praise the Second Symphony ( 1859 ) as a fine example of orchestral economy and structural cohesion , with passages that show the composer 's mastery of fugal writing . The best known of the symphonies is the Third ( 1886 ) which , unusually , has prominent parts for piano and organ . It opens in C minor and ends in C major with a stately chorale tune . The four movements are clearly divided into two pairs , a practice Saint @-@ Saëns used elsewhere , notably in the Fourth Piano Concerto ( 1875 ) and the First Violin Sonata ( 1885 ) . The work is dedicated to the memory of Liszt , and uses a recurring motif treated in a Lisztian style of thematic transformation .
Saint @-@ Saëns 's four symphonic poems follow the model of those by Liszt , though , in Sackville @-@ West 's and Shawe @-@ Taylor 's view , without the " vulgar blatancy " to which the earlier composer was prone . The most popular of the four is Danse macabre ( 1874 ) depicting skeletons dancing at midnight . Saint @-@ Saëns generally achieved his orchestral effects by deft harmonisation rather than exotic instrumentation , but in this piece he featured the xylophone prominently , representing the rattling bones of the dancers . Le Rouet d 'Omphale ( 1870 ) was composed soon after the horrors of the Commune , but its lightness and delicate orchestration give no hint of recent tragedies . Rees rates Phaëton ( 1873 ) as the finest of the symphonic poems , belying the composer 's professed indifference to melody , and inspired in its depiction of the mythical hero and his fate . A critic at the time of the premiere took a different view , hearing in the piece " the noise of a hack coming down from Montmartre " rather than the galloping fiery horses of Greek legend that inspired the piece . The last of the four symphonic poems , La jeunesse d 'Hercule ( " Hercules 's Youth " , 1877 ) was the most ambitious of the four , which , Harding suggests , is why it is the least successful . In the judgment of the critic Roger Nichols these orchestral works , which combine striking melodies , strength of construction and memorable orchestration " set new standards for French music and were an inspiration to such young composers as Ravel " .
Saint @-@ Saëns wrote a one @-@ act ballet , Javot ( 1896 ) , the score for the film L 'assassinat du duc de Guise ( 1908 ) , and incidental music to a dozen plays between 1850 and 1916 . Three of these scores were for revivals of classics by Molière and Racine , for which Saint @-@ Saëns 's deep knowledge of French baroque scores was reflected in his scores , in which he incorporated music by Lully and Charpentier .
= = = Concertante works = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was the first major French composer to write piano concertos . His First , in D ( 1858 ) , in conventional three @-@ movement form , is not well known , but the Second , in G minor ( 1868 ) is one of his most popular works . The composer experimented with form in this piece , replacing the customary sonata form first movement with a more discursive structure , opening with a solemn cadenza . The scherzo second movement and presto finale are in such contrast with the opening that the pianist Zygmunt Stojowski commented that the work " begins like Bach and ends like Offenbach " . The Third Piano Concerto , in E ♭ ( 1869 ) has another high @-@ spirited finale , but the earlier movements are more classical , the texture clear , with graceful melodic lines . The Fourth , in C minor ( 1875 ) is probably the composer 's best @-@ known piano concerto after the Second . It is in two movements , each comprising two identifiable sub @-@ sections , and maintains a thematic unity not found in the composer 's other piano concertos . According to some sources it was this piece that so impressed Gounod that he dubbed Saint @-@ Saëns " the Beethoven of France " ( other sources base that distinction on the Third Symphony ) . The Fifth and last piano concerto , in F major , was written in 1896 , more than twenty years after its predecessor . The work is known as the " Egyptian " concerto ; it was written while the composer was wintering in Luxor , and incorporates a tune he heard Nile boatmen singing .
The First Cello Concerto , in A minor ( 1872 ) is a serious although animated work , in a single continuous movement with an unusually turbulent first section . It is among the most popular concertos in the cello repertory , much favoured by Pablo Casals and later players . The Second , in D minor ( 1902 ) , like the Fourth Piano Concerto , consists of two movements each subdivided into two distinct sections . It is more purely virtuosic than its predecessor : Saëns @-@ Saëns commented to Fauré that it would never be as popular as the First because it was too difficult . There are three violin concertos ; the first to be composed dates from 1858 but was not published until 1879 , as the composer 's Second , in C major . The First , in A , was also completed in 1858 . It is a short work , its single 314 @-@ bar movement lasting less than a quarter of an hour . The Second , in conventional three @-@ movement concerto form , is twice as long as the First , and is the least popular of the three : the thematic catalogue of the composer 's works lists only three performances in his lifetime . The Third , in B minor , written for Pablo Sarasate , is technically challenging for the soloist , although the virtuoso passages are balanced by intervals of pastoral serenity . It is by some margin the most popular of the three violin concertos , but Saint @-@ Saëns 's best @-@ known concertante work for violin and orchestra is probably the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso , in A minor , Op. 28 , a single @-@ movement piece , also written for Sarasate , dating from 1863 . It changes from a wistful opening to a swaggering main theme , described as faintly sinister by the critic Gerald Larner , who goes on , " After a multi @-@ stopped cadenza ... the solo violin makes a breathless sprint through the coda to the happy ending in A major " .
= = = Operas = = =
Discounting his collaboration with Dukas in the completion of Guiraud 's unfinished Frédégonde , Saint @-@ Saëns wrote twelve operas , two of which are opéras comiques . During the composer 's lifetime his Henry VIII became a repertory piece ; since his death only Samson et Dalila has been regularly staged , although according to Schonberg , Ascanio ( 1890 ) is considered by experts to be a much finer work . The critic Ronald Crichton writes that for all his experience and musical skill , Saint @-@ Saëns " lacked the ' nose ' of the theatre animal granted , for example , to Massenet who in other forms of music was his inferior . " In a 2005 study , the musical scholar Steven Huebner contrasts the two composers : " Saint @-@ Saëns obviously had no time for Massenet 's histrionics " . Saint @-@ Saëns 's biographer James Harding comments that it is regrettable that the composer did not attempt more works of a light @-@ hearted nature , on the lines of La princesse jaune , which Harding describes as like Sullivan " with a light French touch " .
Although most of Saint @-@ Saëns 's operas have remained neglected , Crichton rates them as important in the history of French opera , as " a bridge between Meyerbeer and the serious French operas of the early 1890s " . In his view , the operatic scores of Saint @-@ Saëns have , in general , the strengths and weaknesses of the rest of his music – " lucid Mozartian transparency , greater care for form than for content ... There is a certain emotional dryness ; invention is sometimes thin , but the workmanship is impeccable . " Stylistically , Saint @-@ Saëns drew on a range of models . From Meyerbeer he drew the effective use of the chorus in the action of a piece ; for Henry VIII he included Tudor music he had researched in London ; in La princesse jaune he used an oriental pentatonic scale ; from Wagner he derived the use of leitmotifs , which , like Massenet , he used sparingly . Huebner observes that Saint @-@ Saëns was more conventional than Massenet so far as through composition is concerned , more often favouring discrete arias and ensembles , with less variety of tempo within individual numbers . In a survey of recorded opera Alan Blyth writes that Saint @-@ Saëns " certainly learned much from Handel , Gluck , Berlioz , the Verdi of Aida , and Wagner , but from these excellent models he forged his own style . "
= = = Other vocal music = = =
From the age of six and for the rest of his life Saint @-@ Saëns composed mélodies , writing more than 140 . He regarded his songs as thoroughly and typically French , denying any influence from Schubert or other German composers of Lieder . Unlike his protégé Fauré , or his rival Massenet , he was not drawn to the song cycle , writing only two during his long career – Mélodies persanes ( " Persian Songs " , 1870 ) and Le Cendre rouge ( " The Red Ash Tree " , 1914 , dedicated to Fauré ) . The poet whose works he set most often was Victor Hugo ; others included Alphonse de Lamartine , Pierre Corneille , Amable Tastu , and , in eight songs , Saint @-@ Saëns himself : among his many non @-@ musical talents he was an amateur poet . He was highly sensitive to word setting , and told the young composer Lili Boulanger that to write songs effectively musical talent was not enough : " you must study the French language in depth ; it is indispensable . " Most of the mélodies are written for piano accompaniment , but a few , including " Le lever du soleil sur le Nil " ( " Sunrise over the Nile " , 1898 ) and " Hymne à la paix " ( " Hymn to Peace " , 1919 ) , are for voice and orchestra . His settings , and chosen verses , are generally traditional in form , contrasting with the free verse and less structured forms of a later generation of French composers , including Debussy .
Saint @-@ Saëns composed more than sixty sacred vocal works , ranging from motets to masses and oratorios . Among the larger @-@ scale compositions are the Requiem ( 1878 ) and the oratorios Le déluge ( 1875 ) and The Promised Land ( 1913 ) with an English text by Hermann Klein . He was proud of his connection with British choirs , commenting , " One likes to be appreciated in the home , par excellence , of oratorio . " He wrote a smaller number of secular choral works , some for unaccompanied choir , some with piano accompaniment and some with full orchestra . In his choral works , Saint @-@ Saëns drew heavily on tradition , feeling that his models should be Handel , Mendelssohn and other earlier masters of the genre . In Klein 's view , this approach was old @-@ fashioned , and the familiarity of Saint @-@ Saëns 's treatment of the oratorio form impeded his success in it .
= = = Solo keyboard = = =
Nichols comments that although as a famous pianist Saint @-@ Saëns wrote for the piano throughout his life , " this part of his oeuvre has made curiously little mark " . Nichols excepts the Étude en forme de valse ( 1912 ) , which he observes still attracts pianists eager to display their left @-@ hand technique . Although Saint @-@ Saëns was dubbed " the French Beethoven " , and his Variations on a Theme of Beethoven in E ♭ ( 1874 ) is his most extended work for unaccompanied piano , he did not emulate his predecessor in composing piano sonatas . He is not known even to have contemplated writing one . There are sets of bagatelles ( 1855 ) , études ( two sets – 1899 and 1912 ) and fugues ( 1920 ) , but in general Saint @-@ Saëns 's works for the piano are single short pieces . In addition to established forms such as the song without words ( 1871 ) and the mazurka ( 1862 , 1871 and 1882 ) popularised by Mendelssohn and Chopin , respectively , he wrote descriptive pieces such as " Souvenir d 'Italie " ( 1887 ) , " Les cloches du soir " ( " Evening bells " , 1889 ) and " Souvenir d 'Ismaïlia " ( 1895 ) .
Unlike his pupil , Fauré , whose long career as a reluctant organist left no legacy of works for the instrument , Saint @-@ Saëns published a modest number of pieces for organ solo . Some of them were written for use in church services – " Offertoire " ( 1853 ) , " Bénédiction nuptiale " ( 1859 ) , " Communion " ( 1859 ) and others . After he left the Madeleine in 1877 Saint @-@ Saëns wrote ten more pieces for organ , mostly for concert use , including two sets of preludes and fugues ( 1894 and 1898 ) . Some of the earlier works were written to be played on either the harmonium or the organ , and a few were primarily intended for the former .
= = = Chamber = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns wrote more than forty chamber works between the 1840s and his last years . One of the first of his major works in the genre was the Piano Quintet ( 1855 ) . It is a straightforward , confident piece , in a conventional structure with lively outer movements and a central movement containing two slow themes , one chorale @-@ like and the other cantabile . The Septet ( 1880 ) , for the unusual combination of trumpet , two violins , viola , cello , double bass and piano , is a neoclassical work that draws on 17th @-@ century French dance forms . At the time of its composition Saint @-@ Saëns was preparing new editions of the works of baroque composers including Rameau and Lully .
In Ratner 's view , the most important of Saint @-@ Saëns 's chamber works are the sonatas : two for violin , two for cello , and one each for oboe , clarinet and bassoon , all seven with piano accompaniment . The First Violin Sonata dates from 1885 , and is rated by Grove 's Dictionary as one of the composer 's best and most characteristic compositions . The Second ( 1896 ) signals a stylistic change in Saint @-@ Saëns 's work , with a lighter , clearer sound for the piano , characteristic of his music from then onwards . The First Cello Sonata ( 1872 ) was written after the death of the composer 's great @-@ aunt , who had taught him to play the piano more than thirty years earlier . It is a serious work , in which the main melodic material is sustained by the cello over a virtuoso piano accompaniment . Fauré called it the only cello sonata from any country to be of any importance . The Second ( 1905 ) is in four movements , and has the unusual feature of a theme and variations as its scherzo .
The woodwind sonatas are among the composer 's last works . Ratner writes of them , " The spare , evocative , classical lines , haunting melodies , and superb formal structures underline these beacons of the neoclassical movement . " Gallois comments that the Oboe Sonata begins like a conventional classical sonata , with an andantino theme ; the central section has rich and colourful harmonies , and the molto allegro finale is full of delicacy , humour and charm with a form of tarantella . For Gallois the Clarinet Sonata is the most important of the three : he calls it " a masterpiece full of impishness , elegance and discreet lyricism " amounting to " a summary of the rest " . The work contrasts a " doleful threnody " in the slow movement with the finale , which " pirouettes in 4 / 4 time " , in a style reminiscent of the 18th century . The same commentator calls the Bassoon Sonata " a model of transparency , vitality and lightness " , containing humorous touches but also moments of peaceful contemplation .
The composer 's most famous work , The Carnival of the Animals ( 1887 ) , although far from a typical chamber piece , is written for eleven players , and is considered by Grove 's Dictionary to be part of Saint @-@ Saëns 's chamber output . Grove rates it as " his most brilliant comic work , parodying Offenbach , Berlioz , Mendelssohn , Rossini , his own Danse macabre and several popular tunes " . He forbade performances of it during his lifetime , concerned that its frivolity would damage his reputation as a serious composer .
= = = Recordings = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was a pioneer in recorded music . In June 1904 The Gramophone Company of London sent its producer Fred Gaisberg to Paris to record Saint @-@ Saëns as accompanist to the mezzo @-@ soprano Meyriane Héglon in arias from Ascanio and Samson et Dalila , and as soloist in his own piano music , including an arrangement of sections of the Second Piano Concerto ( without orchestra ) . Saint @-@ Saëns made more recordings for the company in 1919 .
In the early days of the LP record , Saint @-@ Saëns 's works were patchily represented on disc . The Record Guide ( 1955 ) lists one recording apiece of the Third Symphony , Second Piano Concerto and First Cello Concerto , alongside several versions of Danse Macabre , The Carnival of the Animals , the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso and other short orchestral works . In the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st , many more of the composer 's works were released on LP and later CD and DVD . The 2008 Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music contains ten pages of listings of Saint @-@ Saëns works , including all the concertos , symphonies , symphonic poems , sonatas and quartets . Also listed are an early Mass , collections of organ music , and choral songs . A recording of twenty @-@ seven of Saint @-@ Saëns 's mélodies was released in 1997 .
With the exception of Samson et Dalila the operas have been sparsely represented on disc . A recording of Henry VIII was issued on CD and DVD in 1992 . Hélène was released on CD in 2008 . There are several recordings of Samson et Dalilah , under conductors including Sir Colin Davis , Georges Prêtre , Daniel Barenboim and Myung @-@ Whun Chung .
= = Honours and reputation = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1867 and promoted to Officier in 1884 , and Grand Croix in 1913 . Foreign honours included the British Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) in 1902 , and honorary doctorates from the universities of Cambridge ( 1892 ) and Oxford ( 1907 ) .
In its obituary notice , The Times commented :
The death of M. Saint @-@ Saëns not only deprives France of one of her most distinguished composers ; it removes from the world the last representative of the great movements in music which were typical of the 19th century . He had maintained so vigorous a vitality and kept in such close touch with present @-@ day activities that , though it had become customary to speak of him as the doyen of French composers , it was easy to forget the place he actually took in musical chronology . He was only two years younger than Brahms , was five years older than Tchaikovsky , six years older than Dvořák , and seven years older than Sullivan . He held a position in his own country 's music certain aspects of which may be fitly compared with each of those masters in their own spheres .
In a short poem , " Mea culpa " , published in 1890 Saint @-@ Saëns accused himself of lack of decadence , and commented approvingly on the excessive enthusiasms of youth , lamenting that such things were not for him . An English commentator quoted the poem in 1910 , observing , " His sympathies are with the young in their desire to push forward , because he has not forgotten his own youth when he championed the progressive ideals of the day . " The composer sought a balance between innovation and traditional form . The critic Henry Colles , wrote , a few days after the composer 's death :
In his desire to maintain " the perfect equilibrium " we find the limitation of Saint @-@ Saëns 's appeal to the ordinary musical mind . Saint @-@ Saëns rarely , if ever , takes any risks ; he never , to use the slang of the moment , " goes off the deep end " . All his greatest contemporaries did . Brahms , Tchaikovsky , and even Franck , were ready to sacrifice everything for the end each wanted to reach , to drown in the attempt to get there if necessary . Saint @-@ Saëns , in preserving his equilibrium , allows his hearers to preserve theirs .
Grove concludes its article on Saint @-@ Saëns with the observation that although his works are remarkably consistent , " it cannot be said that he evolved a distinctive musical style . Rather , he defended the French tradition that threatened to be engulfed by Wagnerian influences and created the environment that nourished his successors " .
Since the composer 's death writers sympathetic to his music have expressed regret that he is known by the musical public for only a handful of his scores such as The Carnival of the Animals , the Second Piano Concerto , the Organ Symphony , Samson et Dalila , Danse macabre and the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso . Among his large output , Nicholas singles out the Requiem , the Christmas Oratorio , the ballet Javotte , the Piano Quartet , the Septet for trumpet , piano and strings , and the First Violin Sonata as neglected masterpieces . In 2004 , the cellist Steven Isserlis said , " Saint @-@ Saens is exactly the sort of composer who needs a festival to himself ... there are Masses , all of which are interesting . I 've played all his cello music and there isn 't one bad piece . His works are rewarding in every way . And he 's an endlessly fascinating figure . "
= Hurricane Danielle ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Danielle was the first of several Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane to form during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . Danielle was the fourth named storm and third hurricane of the season . Danielle formed on August 13 , 2004 in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean and remained over the central Atlantic , peaking as a strong Category 2 hurricane on August 16 before weakening over cooler waters ; becoming a remnant low on August 21 and dissipating on August 24 . Danielle never approached land , although it briefly threatened the Azores as it made the northerly turn . As a result , there was no impact caused by the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Danielle began as a vigorous tropical wave over Africa . As the wave emerged into the Atlantic , it quickly became more organized due to favorable conditions , including low wind shear . The circulation consolidated and spawned Tropical Depression Four on the morning of August 13 south @-@ southeast of the Cape Verde islands . The system was over somewhat cooler water at first with sea surface temperatures around 79 ° F ( 26 ° C ) ; however , the low shear environment allowed the depression to continue to organize . Late that evening , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Danielle .
As Danielle tracked westward into the open Atlantic early on August 14 , the storm encountered warmer water southwest of Cape Verde and began to gradually intensify , becoming a moderate tropical storm with 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds that morning . At that point , a bout of rapid intensification began to take place , and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Danielle that evening as an eye began to form . Over a 24 ‑ hour period ending in the morning of August 15 , the pressure fell from 1004 to 978 mbar and the winds increased to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale .
Danielle levelled off somewhat in intensity after that round of rapid intensification , only gradually strengthening afterward due to structural changes in the storm related to the small wind field relative to the size of the eye . Nonetheless , Danielle became a Category 2 hurricane on the afternoon of August 15 as it approached the subtropical ridge which blocked the continued westward movement . Beginning late on August 15 , at about 35 ° W , Danielle began to recurve to the northwest and eventually north while continuing to gradually strengthen . Early on August 16 , the recurvature became more pronounced , and Danielle turned abruptly northward in the central Atlantic Ocean as an upper @-@ level trough opened up a large break in the ridge . That movement took it along the eastern side of the subtropical ridge , preventing Danielle from moving any farther west and becoming any threat to North America or the Caribbean . While moving northwest , Danielle strengthened a bit more , reaching its peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , just under Category 3 intensity , on the afternoon of August 16 .
The northward movement also sent Danielle into somewhat increased shear , which allowed it to begin to weaken . However , the weakening was gradual at first as the waters remained fairly warm . The abrupt northerly turn meant that , for a while on August 17 , the Azores were threatened by Danielle in the long @-@ range forecast , as a weakened tropical storm or extratropical cyclone . Danielle weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on the evening of August 17 as shear continued to increase . Danielle began to turn to the northeast early on August 18 , and at that point , the weakening trend accelerated . Some of the deep convection was being removed from the system due to wind shear , and that morning , Danielle weakened to a tropical storm . The rapid weakening trend continued that afternoon , and Danielle weakened to a low @-@ end tropical storm with 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds late that evening . However , the intensity levelled off early on August 19 and Danielle remained a tropical storm for the next couple days over moderately warm water of around 78 ° F ( just under 26 ° C ) while south @-@ southwest of the Azores .
Intermittent deep convection continued to fire up , keeping the storm afloat for the next day and turning it away from the Azores . Danielle also changed direction and meandered slightly to the northwest , away from the Azores , due to very weak steering currents . After holding on as a minimal tropical storm , Danielle finally lost its deep convection due to high upper @-@ level vertical shear and was downgraded to a tropical depression on the afternoon of August 20 . The depression turned once again to the north , and continued to lose organization over cooler water . It degenerated into a remnant low on the afternoon of August 21 as the convection was completely sheared away from the center of Danielle . The remnant low remained in the open ocean , remaining devoid of any deep convection , until August 24 when it dissipated west @-@ southwest of the Azores .
= = Impact , naming , and records = =
Hurricane Danielle did not have any impact on land and no damage or fatalities were reported . No ships were reported to have come into contact with Danielle . When Danielle became a tropical storm at 24 @.@ 8 ° W , it was the farthest east that a storm had received a name since Hurricane Alberto in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season .
= Characters of the Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 universe =
Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix in 2011 , revolves around a war between four nations in the world of Orience . An episodic companion game , Final Fantasy Agito , was released in 2014 . Type @-@ 0 was re @-@ released internationally in 2015 as a high @-@ definition remaster for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . The main protagonists are Class Zero , a group of students at the magical academy in Rubrum . The story is told through two new members of Class Zero : Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya . The main character of Agito is a player @-@ created cadet at the Rubrum magical academy . The world and characters were designed by Yusuke Naora , Yusaku Nakaaki and Tetsuya Nomura . Their stories were created by Hajime Tabata , Hiroki Chiba and Sarah Obake .
The main characters are the twelve members of Class Zero : Ace , Deuce , Trey , Cater , Cinque , Sice , Seven , Eight , Nine , Jack , Queen and King . Alongside them are Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya , old friends who are assigned to Class Zero shortly after the events of the game begin . A guest character is Kurasame Susaya , Class Zero 's tutor and a veteran warrior . Other major characters include Arecia Al @-@ Rashia , head of the Rubrum Academy 's magical department and a key figure in Orience 's lore ; Cid Aulstyne , the leader of Milites Empire and the game 's main antagonist ; and Joker and Tiz , two characters who observe the events of the games .
The concept , which was set within the mythos of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries , was for a much darker scenario than other Final Fantasy games . The main cast were designed by Nomura and Naora , while side characters were handled by Nakaaki . Multiple pieces of merchandise and additional media have been created around the characters , including trading cards and multiple manga . They have been the subject of positive reviews in Japan and import reviews : the main praise has gone to their interactions and writing , while the main criticism was difficulties arising from handling the large cast . Western reviews were also
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and a superintendent 's house to the south . In September of that year Everett Wise became too ill to work and sold his share in the winery to Bourn , who between that time and 1890 named the winery Greystone Cellars .
The building cost $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 6 @.@ 58 million in 2015 ) . At its completion , architect George Percy described Greystone Cellars as the largest wine cellar in California , if not the world . Greystone was also the first California winery to be operated and illuminated by electricity , produced by a boiler and gas generator located in a mechanical room below the building 's central front wing . In the spring of 1894 , a long @-@ lasting phylloxera scourge made Bourn decide the winery was no longer profitable .
= = = Subsequent uses = = =
He sold the building at a low price that year , to Charles Carpy , who deeded the property to the California Wine Association . The association continued using the Greystone Cellars wine label . A year later , the Bisceglia brothers of San Jose purchased Greystone where they produced sacramental wine under the same label until 1930 , and again beginning in October 1933 . The Carpy family maintained part of the land , including a Victorian house nicknamed Albert 's Villa south of the winery . The house burned down around 1929 and was replaced with a Spanish @-@ style house that is now owned by the school .
In 1940 , the Brothers of the Christian Schools ( the Christian Brothers ) leased the property , purchasing it in 1945 , and using it for sparkling wine production from 1950 to 1989 . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The Christian Brothers sold the property in 1989 because of declining market shares and vineyard yields , and the costs of seismically retrofitting Greystone . The Heublein Company of Canada purchased the property and marketing rights to the Christian Brothers ' brands in 1990 , shortly after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake occurred . The earthquake damaged the Greystone Cellars building , rendering the northern portion of the building unusable .
= = = Culinary Institute campus = = =
In 1993 , Heublein sold the property at about 10 percent of its $ 14 million ( $ 22 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) valuation , $ 1 @.@ 68 million ( $ 2 @.@ 75 million in 2015 ) , to the Culinary Institute of America , which used $ 15 million ( $ 24 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) to renovate the building and give it a seismic retrofit . After completing the work in August 1995 , the school established the property as a branch campus . After initially offering certificate courses , in autumn 2006 , the campus began offering associate degrees . In 2015 , the college put in motion plans to purchase a portion of Copia , a museum in downtown Napa that operated from 2001 to 2008 . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School . The school , which was outgrowing the Greystone campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( it was recently assessed for $ 21 @.@ 3 million ) .
= = Architecture = =
The Greystone Cellars building stands on a terraced hillside site on the west side of 29 / 128 , about a mile north of St. Helena 's central business district . It has 117 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 900 m2 ) , three stories , and a basement , and is around 400 feet ( 120 m ) long , 76 feet ( 23 m ) wide , and 66 feet ( 20 m ) tall , with 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) thick walls . As a wine cellar , it held 3 @.@ 5 million gallons . The building was designed in the Richardson Romanesque style , with an arched entranceway and tower , stone mullions and transoms , a low sweeping roof , well @-@ fitted stonework , and a large and simple stone façade . The building 's exterior is made of local light gray volcanic stone put together with Portland cement ; the trimmings are of a red stone . Bourne had insisted that gray stones were used in the east façade of the building ( its main façade ) , with darker or other colored stones usable for the other sides of the building . The roof originally used black slate roof tiles .
The building has a front projection measuring 50 by 20 feet ( 15 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) , which held the main entranceway and an office and sample room . The former office has walls and ceilings of quartered oak , and includes a stone fireplace and vault door . The former sample room has paneled mahogany walls and ceilings , a parquet floor , open bottle racks on walls , and two lockers of mahogany . The windows are polished plate glass with stained glass transoms . The tasting and sales rooms are still preserved in their original form . The projection also includes a 20 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) stone tower that extends one story above the roof and was built to hold a large water tank . A driveway wraps around the front and back of the building , where it is nearly level with the third floor .
The interior has two distinct wings with a large hallway between them , originally with an iron staircase and a hydraulic ram elevator both leading to the third floor . Each side of the hallway on each floor had three doors 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide . 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) iron pipes were placed through the walls and floors every thirty feet in order to pipe wine from one part of the building to another , and into and out of the building .
Property changes since the original construction include the front terrace , entranceway and landscaping . The former front lawn and flower beds were paved over , and a new driveway was cut into the stone wall north of the original large stone arch over the first driveway .
= = Programs = =
The campus ' programs include associate degrees in culinary arts and in baking and pastry arts , a 30 @-@ week culinary arts certificate program , a 30 @-@ week wine and beverage certificate program , and several culinary arts programs for students who have met basic requirements . Of the campus ' 300 students , approximately 60 percent are in the culinary arts degree program , 23 percent in the baking and pastry arts degree program , and 17 percent in a certificate program .
= = School facilities = =
The primary school building is the Greystone Cellars building , which houses teaching kitchens , the Wine Spectator Greystone Restaurant , the Bakery Café by illy , the Spice Islands Marketplace ( the campus store ) , the De Baun and Ecolab Theatres ( auditoriums and cooking demonstration facilities , also used as lecture halls ) , and administrative offices . Adjacent to the teaching kitchens is the Margie Schubert Library .
= = = Teaching kitchens = = =
The 15 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) teaching kitchens at Greystone are on the third floor of the primary building . The space was designed without interior walls in order to facilitate ease of movement and open exchange of ideas . The kitchens vary from common stainless steel commercial kitchens by using materials including granite , stone , tile , and wood . The kitchens use Bonnet stoves and have a variety of cooking appliances , including rotisseries , appliances for induction cooking , a stone hearth oven , convection ovens , combi steamers , French tops , and numerous large mixers . The baking and pastry kitchen has 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) flecked granite and solid oak tables for pastry and dough preparation .
On the first floor , the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 460 m2 ) Viking Teaching Kitchen is designed for 36 to 40 students at a time . Its appliances and equipment were donated by Viking Range Corporation 's founders and installed as part of a comprehensive redesign of the building 's first floor in 2010 . The redesign also involved the completion of a chocolate @-@ making facility and the campus store and Flavor Bar .
= = = Restaurants = = =
The Conservatory Restaurant is led by students of the American Food Studies : Farm @-@ to @-@ Table Cooking concentration in the CIA 's bachelor 's degree programs . The Bakery Café by illy is run by Baking and Pastry Arts Certificate students . The café has sandwiches , salads , soups , and fresh pastries and breads , and also serves coffee , espressos , and teas . The Wine Spectator Greystone Restaurant ( WSGR ) is run by students in the associate degree program in culinary arts . The restaurant focuses on using local and seasonal ingredients . The dining room has open cooking stations to give diners a full view of the working kitchen . The WSGR initially served food of the Mediterranean cuisines , and was at first professionally run . Later on , it became fully student @-@ run , however changes in late 2015 led to lunch service staffed by students and dinner service staffed by employees .
= = = Residence halls = = =
The campus offers housing for 130 students , and has three residence halls : the 18 @-@ room Guest House , the 41 @-@ room Vineyard Lodge I , and the 30 @-@ room Vineyard Lodge II . The residence halls have single , double , and triple @-@ occupancy rooms . The Guest House is located on @-@ campus and the Vineyard Lodges are about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the campus , with shuttle service to and from the buildings .
The campus ' newest residence hall , Vineyard Lodge II , was built around 2009 as the campus expected to double its enrollment . The building has two @-@ stories , 31 dorm rooms , a kitchen , an activity room , an outside deck and two manager 's rooms . The school planned for an environmentally @-@ oriented dormitory , with solar panels to cover some of the building 's electrical needs , as well as a membrane system for waste water . The building also has board and batten siding , which lasts longer than wooden siding . The building , on Pratt Avenue in St. Helena , is the first building in the city to be metal @-@ framed rather than wood @-@ framed , to better prevent termites , mold , and fire . The school estimated costs of $ 4 million for a Napa @-@ based construction company to construct the building . The company demolished a 1 @,@ 750 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 163 m2 ) laundry and facilities building in what was described as a green @-@ oriented process . At the time of construction , the school annually enrolled 104 students ; the new residence hall would allow the campus to enroll another 100 students .
= = = Other facilities = = =
The De Baun Theatre is a 48 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen that hosts cooking demonstrations for the public .
The Ecolab Theatre is a 125 @-@ seat amphitheater @-@ style demonstration auditorium that rises through the first two levels of the building . It is designed for cooking demonstrations , lectures , food and wine tastings , and other special events . The auditorium 's demonstration kitchen has a 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) cooking center , large video monitors , and fixed tables at every seat .
The Rudd Center for Professional Wine Studies , a two @-@ story distillery building dating to around 1889 , is used for the Professional Wine Studies program and was named after the Rudd family of Rudd Farms . The building has sensory analysis classrooms with wireless keypad response systems , built @-@ in light boxes , and expectoration stations . The Rudd Center contains a pantry , a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ bottle wine cave and private dining room , and a terrace . Karen MacNeil is the creator and chairman of the center . The building opened in 2003 for a wine professional credential ; the school began its wine and beverage certification program in 2010 . In 2013 the school began a wine , beverage , and hospitality concentration in its bachelor 's degree program .
The Spice Islands Marketplace is the campus store , and offers culinary @-@ related items ( cooking equipment , cookbooks , uniforms , and food ingredients ) . Next to the store is a flavor bar that holds tasting exercises for guests .
The Ventura Center for Menu Research and Development has 8 @,@ 000 square feet ( 740 m2 ) of classrooms , a theater @-@ style kitchen , and interactive audience response audio technologies .
The Williams Center for Flavor Discovery , in the former gatehouse , is used by students for the study of flavors and flavor development in food and wine . The results of tasting panels at the building are shared with members of the culinary industry to enhance understanding of flavor in food , cooking , and wine .
= Stephen Strasburg =
Stephen James Strasburg ( / ˈstrɑːsbərɡ / ; born July 20 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Washington Nationals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Strasburg was selected by Washington with the first pick in the 2009 MLB Draft , and he made his MLB debut with the Nationals in 2010 .
A talented but unpolished high school baseball player at West Hills High School , Strasburg played college baseball for the San Diego State Aztecs . There , he became one of the best collegiate pitchers in the country . He pitched for the United States national baseball team at the 2008 Summer Olympics , winning the bronze medal . Two years later , Strasburg was called the " most @-@ hyped pick in draft history " by ESPN and the " most hyped and closely watched pitching prospect in the history of baseball " by Sports Illustrated . Strasburg 's major league debut on June 8 , 2010 , produced a franchise @-@ record 14 strikeouts .
Several months into his major league career , Strasburg tore a ligament in his pitching elbow . The injury required Tommy John surgery and a year of rehabilitation . He rejoined the Nationals on September 6 , 2011 , but was only able to pitch 24 innings that year . His 2012 season marked a successful return to form ; Strasburg was selected to play in the 2012 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Strasburg pitches an average fastball of 94 @.@ 7 mph .
= = Amateur career = =
= = = High school = = =
Strasburg attended West Hills High School in Santee , California . At first , he struggled on the school 's baseball team , posting a 1 – 10 win – loss record in his junior year . A twelve @-@ strikeout game against El Capitan High School in his senior year , in which Strasburg allowed one hit , drew attention from scouts . He finished his senior year with a 1 @.@ 68 earned run average ( ERA ) and 74 strikeouts in 62 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , with seven complete games . He finished with three varsity letters , set school records in ERA and shutouts , and was named his school 's 2006 Scholar @-@ Athlete of the Year . He was also named second @-@ team all @-@ league and his team 's MVP . Despite these achievements , he was not selected in that year 's Major League Baseball Draft .
= = = College = = =
Strasburg had hoped to attend Stanford University but was not accepted there . Although recruited by a number of schools across the country , he enrolled at San Diego State University , where both of his parents attended school . He played college baseball for the San Diego State Aztecs , coached by the late Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Tony Gwynn . When he first arrived , he was an unlikely candidate to pitch collegiate baseball at all ; he was so overweight and out of shape that his conditioning coach nicknamed him " Slothburg " and encouraged him to quit baseball . He also had a difficult time adjusting to college life , moving out of his dormitory and in with his mother after five days . He acknowledged , " I wasn 't the most mature guy out of high school . … The dorm was an overload , too much , too soon . " Strasburg responded with an intense workout regimen , losing 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) in the process . He also worked to improve his mental toughness . Coaches tested him by placing him in high @-@ pressure situations and telling him he needed to get strikeouts .
San Diego State used Strasburg as a relief pitcher in his freshman year ; he began the season pitching in middle relief , before becoming the Aztecs ' closer . He held opponents to a .141 batting average against and was named Co @-@ Freshman of the Year for the Mountain West Conference . In the summer of 2007 , Strasburg also played for the Torrington Twisters of the collegiate summer baseball New England Collegiate Baseball League ( NECBL ) . He was named to the NECBL First Team as a closer , and was also chosen as the Top Pro Prospect and Top Relief Pitcher in the NECBL .
In 2008 , as a sophomore , Strasburg was converted to a full @-@ time starting pitcher . He went 8 – 3 with a 1 @.@ 58 ERA and 134 strikeouts in 98 ⅓ innings . Four of his thirteen starts in 2008 were complete games , two of which were shutouts . On April 11 of that year , he struck out a Mountain West Conference record 23 batters in a game versus the University of Utah . He also gained eight miles per hour on his fastball , regularly working in the upper 90s and touching 100 mph .
Strasburg finished his junior year , the 2009 season , 13 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 32 ERA , 59 hits allowed , 16 earned runs , 19 walks , and 195 strikeouts in 109 innings pitched . In his final home start on May 8 , 2009 , Strasburg threw his first career no @-@ hitter while striking out 17 Air Force Falcons batters . His lone loss came against the Virginia Cavaliers in the NCAA Regionals as Virginia advanced toward the College World Series , but he still struck out 15 in seven innings during the loss . He won the Dick Howser Trophy and the National Pitcher of the Year Award .
= = = International play = = =
Strasburg was named to the United States national baseball team on June 24 , 2008 . In that role he appeared in the 2008 World University Baseball Championship , held in late July . The United States won the gold medal in the competition .
Strasburg was the lone collegiate player selected for the United States national team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . In his first start at the Olympics , Strasburg one @-@ hit the Netherlands over seven innings , striking out five of the first six batters he faced and 11 overall . The lone hit Strasburg allowed was a seventh @-@ inning single to Sharnol Adriana .
With the United States having already secured a spot in the semifinals medal round , manager Davey Johnson held Strasburg from what would have been his second start on August 20 in order to pitch him in the first round of the semifinals against Norge Luis Vera of the Cuban national baseball team , on August 22 . Vera outdueled Strasburg with six innings pitched and only two runs , one earned . Strasburg , meanwhile , lasted only four innings while giving up three runs , two earned . Cuba won the game 10 – 2 .
Strasburg ended up with a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 67 ERA , and a bronze medal for the Olympics , as the United States won its following contest against Japan 8 – 4 . He won the USA Baseball Richard W. " Dick " Case Player of the Year Award in 2008 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
On June 9 , 2009 , Strasburg was drafted number one overall in the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft by the Washington Nationals . On August 17 , 2009 , he signed a record @-@ breaking four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 1 million contract with the Nationals , just 77 seconds before the deadline , shattering a dollar @-@ amount record previously held by Mark Prior , who signed for $ 10 @.@ 5 million in 2001 . Strasburg is represented by agent Scott Boras .
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Strasburg made his professional debut on October 16 , 2009 , starting for the Phoenix Desert Dogs in the Arizona Fall League at Phoenix Municipal Stadium . He was selected to play in the league 's Rising Stars Showcase , but was unable to participate due to a minor neck injury . He also won Pitcher of the Week honors for the week of November 2 , 2009 and led the AFL with four wins . Before the 2010 season started , Baseball America named Strasburg as the top pitching prospect , and the second @-@ best overall prospect behind Jason Heyward .
Strasburg was assigned to the Harrisburg Senators of the Class AA Eastern League for the start of the 2010 season . There was so much anticipation and hype surrounding Strasburg that there were about 70 credentialed media members in attendance at his April 11 , 2010 debut , and ESPN nationally broadcast portions of the game . He won his Senators debut against the Altoona Curve , allowing four hits and four runs ( one earned ) , while striking out eight batters in five innings . During his first home start on April 16 , he yielded two hits and an unearned run with three strikeouts in 2 ⅓ innings in a loss to the New Britain Rock Cats , one where his innings were limited due to a rain delay . Harrisburg set an attendance record in Strasburg 's home debut with 7 @,@ 895 fans . He completed his Class AA stint with a 1 @.@ 64 ERA while striking out 27 and walking six in 22 innings .
On May 4 , 2010 , he was promoted to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class AAA International League . In his first game with the Chiefs , he pitched six scoreless innings , striking out six batters while allowing one hit and one walk . That game drew 13 @,@ 766 fans — the highest attendance in the 135 @-@ year history of baseball in Syracuse . In his second start , Strasburg was removed after pitching six no @-@ hit innings . He finished his minor league stint with an overall record of 7 – 2 , an ERA of 1 @.@ 30 , 65 strikeouts and 13 walks in 55 ⅓ innings , and a walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio of 0 @.@ 80 .
= = = Washington Nationals = = =
= = = = Debut = = = =
Strasburg made his major @-@ league debut on June 8 , 2010 , against the Pittsburgh Pirates . A Sports Illustrated columnist termed it " the most hyped pitching debut the game has ever seen . " An ESPN article revealed the colloquial name for Strasburg 's celebrated debut as " Strasmas " . Strasburg picked up the win in his debut , pitching seven innings , allowing two earned runs and no walks and 14 strikeouts , setting a new team strikeout record . Also , he was the first pitcher in history to strike out at least eleven batters without issuing any walks in his pro debut , while falling just one strikeout short of the all @-@ time record for a pitcher 's debut — Karl Spooner ( 1954 ) and J. R. Richard ( 1971 ) both struck out 15 , but each took nine innings to do it , and each walked three . ( Bob Feller also struck out 15 in his first start , although it wasn 't his big league debut ) . He struck out every batter in the Pirates ' lineup at least once and struck out the last seven batters he faced — also a Nationals record . He threw 34 of his 94 pitches at 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) or faster , including two that reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) .
In Strasburg 's second and third major league starts he struck out another eight and ten batters , respectively , setting a major league record for the most strikeouts in a pitcher 's first three starts with 32 . The previous record holder had been Richard , who struck out 29 in his first three starts in 1971 .
Strasburg was also featured in the cover story of Sports Illustrated following his second start . His # 37 jersey was the top @-@ selling jersey in all of baseball for the month of June and became the best @-@ selling Nationals jersey of all time in that span .
= = = = Injuries and rehab = = = =
Strasburg was placed on the disabled list with an inflamed right shoulder in July 2010 . He returned to action on August 10 , but in his third game back , on August 21 , he was removed with an apparent injury . On August 27 , the Nationals announced that Strasburg had a torn ulnar collateral ligament , requiring Tommy John surgery , and about 12 to 18 months of rehabilitation .
In the 2010 season Strasburg pitched in 12 games , all starts , throwing 68 innings , 92 strikeouts and compiling a 2 @.@ 91 ERA . He was named a pitcher on the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All @-@ Star Team .
Strasburg made his first rehab start on August 7 , 2011 for the Hagerstown Suns . Strasburg made six rehab starts during the 2011 minor league season throwing a total of 20 ⅓ innings , with 29 strikeouts , compiling a 3 @.@ 49 ERA and a 1 – 1 record . He then made 5 starts during the 2011 major league season , his first coming against the Los Angeles Dodgers on September 6 . That year he threw for 24 innings , struck out 24 , compiled a 1 @.@ 50 ERA and a 1 – 1 record .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
In April 2012 , Strasburg accumulated an NL @-@ best 34 strikeouts and second @-@ best 1 @.@ 13 ERA . He totaled 6 walks and did not give up a home run . Consequently , he was named NL Pitcher of the Month . On May 20 , Strasburg went 2 @-@ for @-@ 2 as a hitter in a game against the Baltimore Orioles and hit his first career home run , a solo shot off of Wei @-@ Yin Chen .
In his June 13 start against the Toronto Blue Jays , Strasburg became the first pitcher of the year to strike out 100 batters . On July 1 , Strasburg was elected to his first All @-@ Star Game , alongside teammates Gio Gonzalez , Ian Desmond , and Bryce Harper . Strasburg ended the season 15 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 16 ERA , 1 @.@ 15 WHIP and 197 strikeouts in 159 ⅓ innings pitched .
Strasburg hit .277 with a home run , 7 RBI , and three walks , earning him a Silver Slugger Award .
= = = = = Innings limit and shutdown = = = = =
As part of Strasburg 's rehabilitation from his Tommy John surgery , and as a precaution due to his low innings total in 2011 , the Nationals decided to limit the number of innings Strasburg would throw in the 2012 season . Although the number was never official , rumors started that Strasburg 's limit would be between 160 and 180 innings . It was also decided that Strasburg 's shutdown would be final ; he would not pitch in the playoffs . Dr. Lewis Yocum , the surgeon who operated on Strasburg 's elbow , agreed in 2011 that Strasburg 's 2012 innings total should be limited , although he did not consult with Nationals General Manager Mike Rizzo or Strasburg during the season . Teammate Jordan Zimmermann underwent a similar process the year before .
Strasburg 's high profile and the success of the Nationals in the 2012 season made the innings limit a topic of national conversation . In addition to baseball writers , a number of other figures made their views on the topic known , including football broadcasters Troy Aikman and Terry Bradshaw , basketball reporter Stephen A. Smith , and even prominent politicians such as Rudy Giuliani and Mitch McConnell . Rizzo defended the decision to shut down Strasburg and criticized the buzz surrounding it : " It 's a good conversational piece , it 's a good debatable subject . But most of the people that have weighed in on this know probably 10 percent of the information that we know , and that we 've made our opinion based upon . "
The Nationals announced that Strasburg would be scheduled to make his final start on September 12 and would be replaced by John Lannan in the Nationals ' starting rotation . However , after a rough outing on September 8 , Davey Johnson announced that Strasburg was finished for the 2012 season . Strasburg spent the postseason on the physically unable to perform list as the Nationals lost the 2012 NLDS to the St. Louis Cardinals in 5 games .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
Strasburg pitched Opening Day for the Nationals at Nationals Park in Washington , D.C. , on April 1 , 2013 . He went seven innings , giving up no runs and three hits and recording three strikeouts . Following the first batter of the game , Juan Pierre , he retired nineteen straight batters . Strasburg earned the decision , a win , with a final score of 2 – 0 .
Strasburg served a brief stint on the disabled list with a mild lateral strain in June and was re @-@ activated on June 16 .
Strasburg achieved milestones in longevity in 2013 . He pitched into the 8th inning for the first time in his big @-@ league career on May 16 , in a win against his hometown San Diego Padres , and in subsequent starts on May 26 and July 24 . On August 11 , 2013 , Strasburg pitched his first career complete game winning , 6 – 0 over the Philadelphia Phillies .
He was ejected for the first time in his MLB career on August 17 , 2013 by umpire Marvin Hudson for intentionally pitching at Braves batter Andrelton Simmons in the second inning of a Nationals @-@ Braves game . Prior to the ejection , Hudson warned both teams after Strasburg hit Justin Upton with a first @-@ pitch fastball following a Braves home run .
Strasburg finished the year with a 3 @.@ 00 ERA , 1 @.@ 05 WHIP , 8 Wins , 9 Losses , and 191 strikeouts over 183 innings pitched .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
Strasburg enjoyed the best season of his career , leading the league in strikeouts and finishing 9th in the Cy Young award balloting . He posted career @-@ bests in innings pitched and strikeouts .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
2015 was a disappointing year for Strasburg and the Nationals as injuries limited his production to 127 innings , his lowest output since 2011 . In the meantime , the Nationals failed to make it to the playoffs , in part due to Strasburg 's unavailability . Despite the setbacks , he was effective in limited action , winning 11 games , good for third most wins in the Nationals ' pitching staff .
= = = = 2016 season = = = =
On May 9 , 2016 , it was reported that Strasburg had agreed to a 7 @-@ year , $ 175 million extension to remain with the Nationals . The deal was made official the next day on May 10 . With the extension , Strasburg became the first National to receive an opt @-@ out clause in his contract , which will allow him to elect free agency after the 2019 or 2020 seasons if he desires . On June 26 , 2016 , he was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to an upper back strain . He returned on July 3 against the Cincinnati Reds , where he took a no @-@ hitter through 6 @.@ 2 innings until being lifted from the game after throwing 109 pitches . The no @-@ hitter was broken up in the 8th inning , but the Nationals still won 12 @-@ 1 . On July 8 , Strasburg became the first pitcher since 1912 to start 12 @-@ 0 .
= = Pitching style = =
= = = Pitch repertoire and approach = = =
Strasburg 's repertoire features four pitches : a four @-@ seam fastball , his primary pitch at 95 – 98 miles per hour ( 153 – 158 km / h ) which tops out at 100 mph ; a two @-@ seam fastball at 94 – 97 miles per hour ( 151 – 156 km / h ) ; a curveball that Strasburg himself refers to as a slurve at 79 – 82 miles per hour ( 127 – 132 km / h ) ; and a changeup at 87 – 90 miles per hour ( 140 – 145 km / h ) . Strasburg throws a mix of all four pitches to left @-@ handed hitters , but he mostly eliminates the changeup when facing right @-@ handed hitters . He is liable to throw his four @-@ seamer or slurve to right @-@ handers with 2 strikes , and adds the changeup in those counts against lefties .
His velocity was not significantly affected by his Tommy John surgery in 2010 . He had the fastest four @-@ seam fastball among starting pitchers in the 2012 season , averaging 96 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 155 km / h ) .
Strasburg has a high strikeout rate of 11 @.@ 2 per 9 innings through his first 251 ⅓ MLB innings . This corresponds with high swing @-@ and @-@ miss rates across all of his pitches , including 54 % on his changeup — the highest whiff rate among all starting pitchers ' changeups since PITCHf / x began tracking pitches . Through the 2012 season , Strasburg 's career strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 4 @.@ 67 would rank second all @-@ time if he had enough innings to qualify . Strasburg maintains that his high strikeout rate is not intentional , and in fact is a hindrance to maintaining low pitch counts .
= = = Mechanics = = =
Strasburg 's pitching mechanics have drawn concern over the years from scouts and coaches . The sequence of Strasburg 's delivery places a great deal of stress on his arm , placing him at greater risk of elbow and shoulder injuries . Indeed , " several pitching coaches quietly predicted Strasburg was at risk " before the rupture of his elbow ligament . Independent scout Paul Reddick compared his mechanics unfavorably with those of pitching legend Greg Maddux , saying Strasburg 's motion is inefficient and badly synchronized .
= = Personal life = =
Strasburg was born in San Diego , California , He credits his maternal grandmother with helping him develop his baseball skills as a child . She would frequently play catch and even work on pitching with him . He labels her as one of his biggest inspirations . He was married on January 9 , 2010 , to Rachel Lackey , whom he had met while they were students at San Diego State . On June 24 , 2014 Strasburg stated in an interview that he was going to stop chewing tobacco in the wake of his college coach Tony Gwynn 's death .
= Michael Jackson =
Michael Joseph Jackson ( August 29 , 1958 – June 25 , 2009 ) was an American singer , songwriter , record producer , dancer , and actor . Famously called the King of Pop , his contributions to music , dance and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades .
The eighth child of the Jackson family , Michael made his professional debut in 1964 with his elder brothers Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , and Marlon as a member of the Jackson 5 , and began his solo career in 1971 . In the early 1980s , Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music . His music videos , including those of " Beat It " , " Billie Jean " , and " Thriller " from his 1982 album Thriller , are credited with breaking racial barriers and transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool . The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame . Jackson 's 1987 album Bad spawned the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , " Bad " , " The Way You Make Me Feel " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " , becoming the first album to have five number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 . He continued to innovate with videos such as " Black or White " and " Scream " throughout the 1990s , and forged a reputation as a touring solo artist . Through stage and video performances , Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques , such as the robot and the moonwalk , to which he gave the name . His distinctive sound and style has influenced numerous artists of various music genres .
Thriller is currently the best @-@ selling album of all time , with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide . Jackson 's other albums , including Off the Wall ( 1979 ) , Bad ( 1987 ) , Dangerous ( 1991 ) , and HIStory ( 1995 ) , also rank among the world 's best @-@ selling albums . He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time by Guinness World Records . Jackson is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice , and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Dance Hall of Fame as the only dancer from pop and rock music . His other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records , 13 Grammy Awards , the Grammy Legend Award , the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award , 26 American Music Awards — more than any other artist — including the " Artist of the Century " and " Artist of the 1980s " , 13 number @-@ one singles in the United States during his solo career , — more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era — and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide . Jackson has won hundreds of awards , making him the most awarded recording artist in the history of popular music . He became the first artist in history to have a top ten single in the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades when " Love Never Felt So Good " reached number nine on May 21 , 2014 . Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism , and , in 2000 , the Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities , more than any other entertainer .
Aspects of Jackson 's personal life , including his changing appearance , personal relationships , and behavior , generated controversy . In 1993 , he was accused of child sexual abuse , but the civil case was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount and no formal charges were brought . In 2005 , he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury found him not guilty on all counts . While preparing for his comeback concert series , This Is It , Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication on June 25 , 2009 , after suffering from cardiac arrest . The Los Angeles County Coroner ruled his death a homicide , and his personal physician , Conrad Murray , was convicted of involuntary manslaughter . Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief , and a live broadcast of his public memorial service was viewed around the world . Forbes ranks Jackson as the top @-@ earning dead celebrity , a title held for a sixth consecutive year , with $ 115 million in earnings .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1958 – 75 : Early life and the Jackson 5 = = =
Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29 , 1958 . He was the eighth of ten children in a working class African @-@ American family living in a two @-@ bedroom house on Jackson Street in Gary , Indiana , an industrial city and a part of the Chicago metropolitan area . His mother , Katherine Esther Scruse , was a devout Jehovah 's Witness . She played clarinet and piano and once aspired to be a country @-@ and @-@ western performer , but worked part @-@ time at Sears to support the family . Michael 's father , Joseph Walter " Joe " Jackson , a former boxer , was a steelworker at U.S. Steel . Joe also performed on guitar with a local rhythm and blues band , the Falcons , to supplement the family 's household income . Michael grew up with three sisters ( Rebbie , La Toya , and Janet ) and five brothers ( Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , Marlon , and Randy ) . A sixth brother , Marlon 's twin Brandon , died shortly after birth .
Jackson had a troubled relationship with his father , Joe . In 2003 , Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped him as a boy . Joe was also said to have verbally abused his son , often saying that he had a " fat nose " . Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals , though he credited his father 's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success . In an interview with Martin Bashir for the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson , Jackson recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed , and that " if you didn 't do it the right way , he would tear you up , really get you . "
Jackson 's parents have disputed the longstanding allegations of abuse , with Katherine stating that while whipping is considered abuse today , it was a common way to discipline children at the time . Jackie , Tito , Jermaine and Marlon have also said that their father was not abusive and that the whippings , which were harder on Michael because he was younger , kept them disciplined and out of trouble . Speaking openly about his childhood in an interview with Oprah Winfrey broadcast in February 1993 , Jackson acknowledged that his youth had been lonely and isolating . His deep dissatisfaction with his appearance , his nightmares and chronic sleep problems , his tendency to remain hyper @-@ compliant , especially with his father , and to remain childlike throughout his adult life are consistent with the effects of the maltreatment he endured as a young child .
In 1964 , Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers — a band formed by their father and which included brothers Jackie , Tito , and Jermaine — as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine . In 1965 , Jackson began sharing lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine , and the group 's name was changed to the Jackson 5 . The following year , the group won a major local talent show with Jackson performing the dance to Robert Parker 's 1965 hit " Barefootin ' " . From 1966 to 1968 the band toured the Midwest , frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the " chitlin ' circuit " as the opening act for artists such as Sam & Dave , the O 'Jays , Gladys Knight , and Etta James . The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges , where striptease shows and other adult acts were featured , and at local auditoriums and
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high school dances . In August 1967 , while touring the East coast , the group won a weekly amateur night concert at the Apollo Theater in Harlem .
The Jackson 5 recorded several songs , including " Big Boy " ( 1968 ) , their first single , for Steeltown Records , a Gary , Indiana , record label , before signing with Motown in 1969 . They left Gary in 1969 and relocated to the Los Angeles area , where they continued to record music for Motown . Rolling Stone later described the young Michael as " a prodigy " with " overwhelming musical gifts " who " quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer . " The group set a chart record when its first four singles — " I Want You Back " ( 1969 ) , " ABC " ( 1970 ) , " The Love You Save " ( 1970 ) , and " I 'll Be There " ( 1970 ) — peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . In May 1971 , the Jackson family moved into a large home on two @-@ acre estate in Encino , California . During this period , Michael evolved from child performer into a teen idol . As Jackson began to emerge as a solo performer in the early 1970s , he maintained ties to the Jackson 5 and Motown . Between 1972 , when his solo career began , and 1975 , Michael released four solo studio albums with Motown : Got to Be There ( 1972 ) , Ben ( 1972 ) , Music & Me ( 1973 ) , and Forever , Michael ( 1975 ) . " Got to Be There " and " Ben " , the title tracks from his first two solo albums , both became successful singles , as did a cover of Bobby Day 's " Rockin ' Robin " .
The Jackson 5 were later described as " a cutting @-@ edge example of black crossover artists . " Although the group 's sales began to decline in 1973 , and the band members chafed under Motown 's refusal to allow them creative input , they achieved several top 40 hits , including the top five single " Dancing Machine " ( 1974 ) , before leaving Motown in 1975 .
= = = 1975 – 81 : Move to Epic and Off the Wall = = =
In June 1975 , the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records , a subsidiary of CBS Records , and renamed themselves the Jacksons . Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time , while Jermaine chose to stay with Motown and pursue a solo career . The Jacksons continued to tour internationally , and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984 . Michael , the group 's lead songwriter during this time , wrote hits such as " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " ( 1979 ) , " This Place Hotel " ( 1980 ) , and " Can You Feel It " ( 1980 ) .
His work in film began in 1978 , when he starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz , a musical directed by Sidney Lumet that also starred Diana Ross , Nipsey Russell , and Ted Ross . The film was a box @-@ office failure . While working on the film Jackson met producer Quincy Jones , though this was not the first time they had met ( they originally met when Michael was 12 , at Sammy Davis Jr . ' s house ) . Jones was arranging the film 's musical score and agreed to produce Jackson 's next solo album , Off the Wall . In 1979 , Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine . His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success ; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career . He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin , who performed Jackson 's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations .
Off the Wall ( 1979 ) , which Jones and Jackson co @-@ produced , established Jackson as a solo performer . The album helped Jackson transition from the bubblegum pop of his youth to the more complex sounds he would create as an adult . Songwriters for the album included Jackson , Rod Temperton , Stevie Wonder , and Paul McCartney . Off the Wall was the first solo album to generate four top 10 hits in the United States : " Off the Wall " , " She 's Out of My Life " , and the chart @-@ topping singles " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " and " Rock with You " . The album reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide . In 1980 , Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts : Favorite Soul / R & B Album , Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist , and Favorite Soul / R & B Single for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . He also won Billboard Year @-@ End awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album , and a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance for 1979 with " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . In 1981 Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul / R & B Album and Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist . Despite its commercial success , Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a bigger impact , and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release . In 1980 , he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry : 37 percent of wholesale album profit .
Jackson recorded with Queen singer Freddie Mercury from 1981 to 1983 , including a demo of " State of Shock " , " Victory " and " There Must Be More to Life Than This " . The recordings were intended for an album of duets but , according to Queen 's then @-@ manager Jim Beach , the relationship between the singers soured when Jackson insisted on bringing a llama into the recording studio . The collaborations were not officially released until 2014 . Jackson went on to record the single " State of Shock " with Mick Jagger for the Jacksons ' album Victory ( 1984 ) . Mercury included the solo version of " There Must Be More To Life Than This " on his Mr. Bad Guy album ( 1985 ) .
= = = 1982 – 83 : Thriller and Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever = = =
In 1982 , Jackson combined his interests in songwriting and film when he contributed the song " Someone in the Dark " to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . The song , with Quincy Jones as its producer , won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children for 1983 .
More success came with the release of his sixth album , Thriller , in late 1982 . The album earned Jackson seven more Grammys and eight American Music Awards , including the Award of Merit , the youngest artist to win it . It was the best @-@ selling album worldwide in 1983 , and became the best @-@ selling album of all time in the United States and the best @-@ selling album of all time worldwide , selling an estimated 65 million copies . It topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks . It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles , including " Billie Jean " , " Beat It " , and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In December 2015 , Thriller was certified for 30 million shipments by the RIAA , making it the only album to achieve that feat in the United States . Thriller won Jackson and Quincy Jones the Grammy award for Producer of the Year ( Non @-@ Classical ) for 1983 . It also won Album of the Year , with Jackson as the album 's artist and Jones as its co @-@ producer , and a Best Pop Vocal Performance , Male , award for Jackson . " Beat It " won Record of the Year , with Jackson as artist and Jones as co @-@ producer , and a Best Rock Vocal Performance , Male , award for Jackson . " Billie Jean " won Jackson two Grammy awards , Best R & B Song , with Jackson as its songwriter , and Best R & B Vocal Performance , Male , as its artist . Thriller also won another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1984 , awarding Bruce Swedien for his work on the album . The AMA Awards for 1984 provided Jackson with an Award of Merit and AMAs for Favorite Male Artist , Soul / R & B , and Favorite Male Artist , Pop / Rock . " Beat It " won Jackson AMAs for Favorite Video , Soul / R & B , Favorite Video , Pop / Rock , and Favorite Single , Pop / Rock . Thriller won him AMAs for Favorite Album , Soul / R & B , and Favorite Album , Pop / Rock .
In addition to the album , Jackson released " Thriller " , a 14 @-@ minute music video directed by John Landis , in 1983 . It " defined music videos and broke racial barriers " on the Music Television Channel ( MTV ) , a fledgling entertainment television channel at the time . In December 2009 , the Library of Congress selected the " Thriller " music video for inclusion in the National Film Registry . It was one of 25 films named that year as " works of enduring importance to American culture " that would be " preserved for all time . " As of 2009 , the zombie @-@ themed " Thriller " is the only music video to have been inducted into the registry .
Jackson 's attorney John Branca noted that Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point : approximately $ 2 for every album sold . He was also making record @-@ breaking profits from sales of his recordings . The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller sold over 350 @,@ 000 copies in a few months . The era saw the arrival of novelties such as dolls modeled after Michael Jackson , which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $ 12 . Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that " Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item — like a magazine , a toy , tickets to a hit movie — and started selling like a household staple . " In 1985 , The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Longform . Time described Jackson 's influence at that point as " star of records , radio , rock video . A one @-@ man rescue team for the music business . A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade . A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street . A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too " . The New York Times wrote that " in the world of pop music , there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else " .
On March 25 , 1983 , Jackson reunited with his brothers for a live performance taped at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium for Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever , an NBC television special . The show aired on May 16 , 1983 , to an estimated audience of 47 million viewers , and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars . The show is best remembered for Jackson 's solo performance of " Billie Jean " , which earned Jackson his first Emmy nomination . Wearing a distinctive black @-@ sequined jacket and a golf glove decorated with rhinestones , he debuted his signature dance move , the moonwalk , which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years earlier . Jackson originally turned down the invitation to perform at the show , believing he had been doing too much television at the time ; however , at the request of Berry Gordy , Jackson agreed to perform in exchange for time to do a solo performance . According to Rolling Stone reporter Mikal Gilmore , " There are times when you know you are hearing or seeing something extraordinary ... that came that night . " Jackson 's performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley 's and the Beatles ' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show . Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times later wrote : " The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style . How does he do it ? As a technician , he is a great illusionist , a genuine mime . His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing . " Berry Gordy said of the performance , " from the first beat of Billie Jean , I was mesmerized , and when he did his iconic moonwalk , I was shocked , it was magic , Michael Jackson went into orbit , and never came down . "
= = = 1984 – 85 : Pepsi , " We Are the World " , and business career = = =
In November 1983 Jackson and his brothers partnered with PepsiCo in a $ 5 million promotional deal that broke advertising industry records for a celebrity endorsement . The first Pepsi Cola campaign , which ran in the United States from 1983 to 1984 and launched its " New Generation " theme , included tour sponsorship , public relations events , and in @-@ store displays . Jackson , who was actively involved in creating the iconic advertisement , suggested using his song , " Billie Jean " , as its jingle with a revised chorus . According to a Billboard report in 2009 , Brian J. Murphy , executive VP of branded management at TBA Global , said : " You couldn 't separate the tour from the endorsement from the licensing of the music , and then the integration of the music into the Pepsi fabric . "
On January 27 , 1984 , Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry , a BBDO ad agency executive , and Alan Pottasch , Pepsi 's Worldwide Creative Director , at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . During a simulated concert before a full house of fans , pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson 's hair on fire , causing second @-@ degree burns to his scalp . Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter . Pepsi settled out of court , and Jackson donated his $ 1 @.@ 5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City , California . Its Michael Jackson Burn Center is named in his honor . Dusenberry later recounted the episode in his memoir , Then We Set His Hair on Fire : Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising . Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for a reported $ 10 million . The second campaign had a global reach of more than 20 countries and would provide financial support for Jackson 's Bad album and 1987 – 88 world tour . Although Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies , such as LA Gear , Suzuki , and Sony , none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi , which later signed other music stars such as Britney Spears and Beyoncé to promote its products .
Jackson 's humanitarian work was recognized on May 14 , 1984 , when he was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse , and in recognition of his support for the Ad Council 's and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign . Jackson donated the use of " Beat It " for the campaign 's public service announcements .
Unlike later albums , Thriller did not have an official tour , but the Victory Tour of 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased much of Jackson 's new solo material to more than two million Americans . It was the last tour he would do with his brothers . Following controversy over the concert 's ticket sales , Jackson held a press conference and announced that he would donate his share of the proceeds , an estimated $ 3 to 5 million , to charity . His charitable work and humanitarian awards continued with the release of " We Are the World " ( 1985 ) , which he co @-@ wrote with Lionel Richie . The song was recorded on January 28 , 1985 and was released worldwide in March 1985 to aid the poor in the United States and Africa . The song earned $ 63 million for famine relief , and became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with 20 million copies sold . " We Are the World " won four Grammys for 1985 , including Song of the Year going to Jackson and Richie as its co @-@ songwriters . Although the American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate , the AMA show in 1986 concluded with a tribute to the song in honor of its first anniversary . The project 's creators received two special AMA honors : one for the creation of the song and another for the USA for Africa idea . Jackson , Quincy Jones , and entertainment promoter Ken Kragan received special awards for their roles in the song 's creation .
Jackson 's financial interests in the music publishing business grew after Jackson collaborated with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s . He subsequently learned that McCartney was making approximately $ 40 million a year from other people 's songs . By 1983 , Jackson had begun investing in publishing rights to songs that others had written , but he was careful with his acquisitions , only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him . Jackson 's early acquisitions of music catalogs and song copyrights such as the Sly Stone collection included " Everyday People " ( 1968 ) , Len Barry 's " 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 " ( 1965 ) , and Dion DiMucci 's " The Wanderer " ( 1961 ) and " Runaround Sue " ( 1961 ) ; however , Jackson 's most significant purchase came in 1985 , when he acquired the publishing rights to ATV Music Publishing after months of negotiation . ATV had acquired the publishing rights to nearly 4000 songs , including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon – McCartney compositions recorded by the Beatles .
In 1984 Robert Holmes à Court , the wealthy Australian investor who owned ATV Music Publishing , announced he was putting the ATV catalog up for sale . In 1981 , McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £ 20 million ( $ 40 million ) . According to McCartney , he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost at £ 10 million each , but Ono thought they could buy it for £ 5 million each . When they were unable to make a joint purchase , McCartney , who did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles ' songs , did not pursue an offer on his own . According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale , McCartney was given first right of refusal and declined to purchase .
Jackson was informed of the sale by his attorney , John Branca , in September 1984 . An attorney for McCartney also assured Branca that McCartney was not interested in bidding . McCartney reportedly felt it was too expensive , but several other companies and investors were interested in bidding . Jackson submitted a bid of $ 46 million on November 20 , 1984 . His agents thought they had a deal several times , but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate . In May 1985 , Jackson 's team left talks after having spent more than $ 1 million and four months of due diligence work on the negotiations . In June 1985 , Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman 's and Marty Bandier 's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $ 50 million ; however , in early August , Holmes à Court 's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed . Jackson raised his bid to $ 47 @.@ 5 million , which was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly , having already completed due diligence of ATV Music . Jackson also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia , where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon . Jackson 's purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10 , 1985 .
= = = 1986 – 90 : Changing appearance , tabloids , Bad , films , autobiography , and Neverland = = =
Jackson 's skin had been a medium @-@ brown color during his youth , but starting in the mid @-@ 1980s gradually grew paler . The change gained widespread media coverage , including rumors that he might have been bleaching his skin . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography , in 1984 , Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo , which Taraborrelli noted may be a consequence of skin bleaching . He claimed Jackson was diagnosed with lupus . The vitiligo partially lightened his skin , and the lupus was in remission . Both illnesses made his skin sensitive to sunlight . The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin tone , and with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches he could appear pale . Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy , though not lupus .
Jackson claimed he had only two rhinoplasties and no other facial surgery , although at one point mentioned having a dimple created in his chin . He lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for " a dancer 's body " . Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy , and speculated he was suffering from anorexia nervosa . Periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life . During the course of his treatment , Jackson made two close friends : his dermatologist , Dr. Arnold Klein , and Klein 's nurse Debbie Rowe . Rowe eventually became Jackson 's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children . He also relied heavily on Klein for medical and business advice .
Jackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports . In 1986 , the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process ; he was pictured lying in a glass box . Although the claim was untrue , according to tabloid reports that are widely cited , Jackson had disseminated the fabricated story himself . When Jackson bought a chimpanzee named Bubbles from a laboratory , he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality . It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick ( the " Elephant Man " ) and , although untrue , Jackson did not deny the story . Although he initially saw these stories as opportunities for publicity , he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational . Consequently , the media began fabricating stories . These reports became embedded in the public consciousness , inspiring the nickname " Wacko Jacko " , which Jackson came to despise . Responding to the gossip , Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli :
Why not just tell people I 'm an alien from Mars ? Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight . They 'll believe anything you say , because you 're a reporter . But if I , Michael Jackson , were to say , " I 'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight , " people would say , " Oh , man , that Michael Jackson is nuts . He 's cracked up . You can 't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth . "
Jackson collaborated with filmmakers George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17 @-@ minute 3D film Captain EO , which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at Epcot in Florida , and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland . The $ 30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks . A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992 . All four parks ' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s : the Paris installation was the last to close , in 1998 . The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson 's death . In 1987 , Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah 's Witnesses , in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video .
With the industry expecting another major hit , Jackson 's first album in five years , Bad ( 1987 ) , was highly anticipated . The album produced seven successful singles in the U.S. , five of which ( " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , " Bad " , " The Way You Make Me Feel " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " ) reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . This was a record for most number one Hot 100 singles from any one album , including Thriller . As of 2012 , the album had sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide . Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form for " Leave Me Alone " in 1989 . In the same year , Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards because Bad is the first album ever to generate five number one singles in the U.S. , the first album to top in 25 countries , and the best @-@ selling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988 . In 1988 , " Bad " won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul / R & B Single .
The Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year , finishing on January 14 , 1989 . In Japan alone , the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570 @,@ 000 people , nearly tripling the previous record of 200 @,@ 000 in a single tour . Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504 @,@ 000 people attended seven sold @-@ out shows at Wembley Stadium . He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4 @.@ 4 million people .
In 1988 , Jackson released his only autobiography , Moonwalk , which took four years to complete and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies . He wrote about his childhood , the Jackson 5 , and the abuse he had suffered . He also wrote about his changing facial appearance , attributing it to puberty , weight loss , a strict vegetarian diet , a change in hair style , and stage lighting . Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers ' list . Jackson released a film , Moonwalker , which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson and Joe Pesci . Due to financial issues , the film was only released theatrically in Germany ; in other markets it was released direct @-@ to @-@ video . It debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart , staying there for 22 weeks . It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson : The Legend Continues .
In March 1988 , Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez , California , to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $ 17 million . He installed several carnival rides on the 2 @,@ 700 @-@ acre ( 11 km2 ) property , including a Ferris wheel , carousel , menagerie , as well as a movie theater and a zoo . A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds . In 2003 , it was valued at approximately $ 100 million . In 1989 , Jackson 's annual earnings from album sales , endorsements , and concerts were estimated at $ 125 million for that year alone . Shortly afterwards , he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union .
Jackson 's success resulted in him being dubbed the " King of Pop " . The nickname was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989 , proclaiming him " the true king of pop , rock and soul . " President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House 's " Artist of the Decade " . From 1985 to 1990 , he donated $ 455 @,@ 000 to the United Negro College Fund , and all profits from his single " Man in the Mirror " went to charity . Jackson 's live rendition of " You Were There " at Sammy Davis Jr . ' s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination .
= = = 1991 – 93 : Dangerous , Heal the World Foundation , and Super Bowl XXVII = = =
In March 1991 , Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $ 65 million , a record @-@ breaking deal at the time , displacing Neil Diamond 's renewal contract with Columbia Records . In 1991 , he released his eighth album , Dangerous , co @-@ produced with Teddy Riley . Dangerous was certified seven times platinum in the U.S. , and by 2008 had sold approximately 30 million copies worldwide . In the United States , the album 's first single " Black or White " was its biggest hit , reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks , with similar chart performances worldwide . The album 's second single , " Remember the Time " , spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart . At the end of 1992 , Dangerous was awarded the best @-@ selling album of the year worldwide and " Black or White " was awarded best @-@ selling single of the year worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards . Jackson also won an award as best @-@ selling artist of the 1980s . In 1993 , he performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair , saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals . In the UK and other parts of Europe , " Heal the World " was the album 's most successful song ; it sold 450 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992 .
Jackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992 . The charity organization brought underprivileged children to Jackson 's ranch to enjoy theme park rides that Jackson had built on the property . The foundation also sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war , poverty , and disease . In the same year , Jackson published his second book , Dancing the Dream , a collection of poetry , revealing a more intimate side of his nature . While it was a commercial success , it received mostly negative reviews . In 2009 , the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson 's death . The Dangerous World Tour grossed $ 100 million . The tour began on June 27 , 1992 , and finished on November 11 , 1993 . Jackson performed to 3 @.@ 5 million people in 70 concerts . He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $ 20 million , a record @-@ breaking deal that still stands .
Following the illness and death of AIDS spokesperson Ryan White , Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV / AIDS , something that was controversial at the time . He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton 's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV / AIDS charities and research . In a high @-@ profile visit to Africa , Jackson visited several countries , among them Gabon and Egypt . His first stop to Gabon was greeted with an enthusiastic reception of more than 100 @,@ 000 people , some of them carrying signs that read , " Welcome Home Michael . " In his trip to Ivory Coast , Jackson was crowned " King Sani " by a tribal chief . He thanked the dignitaries in French and English , signed official documents formalizing his kingship , and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances .
In January 1993 , Jackson performed at the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show in Pasadena , California . Because of a dwindling interest during halftime in the preceding years , the NFL decided to seek big @-@ name talent that would keep ratings high , with Jackson selected for his universal appeal . It was the first Super Bowl whose half @-@ time performance drew greater audience figures than the game itself . The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him . As he landed on the canvas , he maintained a " clenched fist , standing statue stance , " dressed in a gold and black military outfit and sunglasses ; he remained completely motionless for a minute and a half while the crowd cheered . He then slowly removed his sunglasses , threw them away , and performed four songs : " Jam " , " Billie Jean " , " Black or White " , and " Heal the World " . Jackson 's Dangerous album rose 90 places up the album chart soon after .
Jackson gave a 90 @-@ minute interview to Oprah Winfrey on February 10 , 1993 , his second television interview since 1979 . He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father ; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years , admitting that he often cried from loneliness . He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man , slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber , or bleached his skin , stating for the first time that he had vitiligo . Dangerous re @-@ entered the album chart in the top 10 , more than a year after its original release .
In February 1993 , Jackson was given the " Living Legend Award " at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles . " Black or White " was Grammy @-@ nominated for best vocal performance . " Jam " gained two nominations : Best R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song . The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical , awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley . In the same year , Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Album ( Dangerous ) , Favorite Soul / R & B Single ( " Remember the Time " ) , and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence , for his global performances and humanitarian concerns .
Jackson agreed to produce the soundtrack for Sega 's 1994 video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 with collaborators Brad Buxer , Bobby Brooks , Darryl Ross , Geoff Grace , Doug Grigsby , and Cirocco Jones . Jackson left the project before completion and was never officially credited , allegedly due to his dissatisfaction with the Sega Genesis console 's audio chip .
= = = 1993 – 94 : First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage = = =
In the summer of 1993 , Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Jordan Chandler and his father , Evan Chandler , a dentist . The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson , and the singer initially refused . Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him . Evan Chandler was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges , saying , " If I go through with this , I win big @-@ time . There 's no way I lose . I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever ..... Michael 's career will be over . " Jordan 's mother was , however , adamant at the time that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson 's part . Jackson later used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money from the singer . In January 1994 , after investigation on allegations of extortion against the singer by Chandler , deputy Los Angeles County district attorney Michael J. Montagna stated that Chandler would not be charged , due to lack of cooperation from Jackson 's party and its willingness to negotiate with Chandler for several weeks , among other reasons .
In August 1993 , Jackson 's home was raided by the police who , according to court documents , found books and photographs in his bedroom featuring young boys with little or no clothing . Since the books were legal to purchase and own , the jury decided not to indict Jackson . In December 1993 , Jackson was strip @-@ searched . Jordan Chandler had reportedly given police a description of Jackson 's intimate parts , and the strip search revealed that Jordan had correctly claimed Jackson had patchy @-@ colored buttocks , short pubic hair , and pink and brown marked testicles . Reportedly , Jordan had also previously drawn accurate pictures of a dark spot on Jackson 's penis only visible when his penis was lifted . Despite differing initial internal reports from prosecutors and investigators and later , with reports of jurors feeling otherwise that the photos did not match the description , the DA stated his belief in a sworn affidavit that the description was accurate , along with the sheriff 's photographer stating the description was accurate . A 2004 motion filed by Jackson 's defense asserted that Jackson was never criminally indicted by any grand jury and that his settlement admitted no wrongdoing and contained no evidence of criminal misconduct .
The investigation was inconclusive and no charges were filed . Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement , and proclaimed his innocence . On January 1 , 1994 , Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for $ 22 million . A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2 , 1994 , without indicting Jackson , and the Chandlers stopped co @-@ operating with the criminal investigation around July 6 , 1994 . The out @-@ of @-@ court settlement 's documentation stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability ; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest .
Feldman also stated " nobody bought anybody 's silence " . A decade after the fact , during the second round of child abuse allegations , Jackson 's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was done without his consent . A later disclosure by the FBI of investigation documents compiled over nearly 20 years led Jackson 's attorney to suggest that no evidence of molestation or sexual impropriety from Jackson toward minors existed . According to reports the Department of Children and Family Services ( Los Angeles County ) had investigated Jackson beginning in 1993 with the Chandler allegation and again in 2003 . Reports show the LAPD and DCFS did not find credible evidence of abuse or sexual misconduct .
In May 1994 , Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley , the daughter of Elvis and Priscilla Presley . They had met in 1975 , when a seven @-@ year @-@ old Presley attended one of Jackson 's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino , and reconnected through a mutual friend . According to a friend of Presley 's , " their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A. " They stayed in contact every day over the telephone . As the child molestation accusations became public , Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support ; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs . Presley explained , " I believed he didn 't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him . I wanted to save him . I felt that I could do it . " She eventually persuaded him to settle the civil case out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover .
Jackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993 , saying , " If I asked you to marry me , would you do it ? " They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy , denying it for nearly two months afterwards . The marriage was , in her words , " a married couple 's life ... that was sexually active . " The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson 's public image . The marriage ended less than two years later with an amicable divorce settlement . In a 2010 interview with Oprah , Presley admitted that they had spent four more years after the divorce " getting back together and breaking up " until she decided to stop .
= = = 1995 – 99 : HIStory , second marriage , and fatherhood = = =
In 1995 , Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony 's music publishing division , creating Sony / ATV Music Publishing . He retained ownership of half the company , earning $ 95 million up front as well as the rights to more songs . In June , he released the double album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. The first disc , HIStory Begins , is a 15 @-@ track greatest hits album ( later reissued as Greatest Hits : HIStory , Volume I in 2001 ) ; the second disc , HIStory Continues , contains 13 original songs and 2 cover versions . The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US . It is the best @-@ selling multiple @-@ disc album of all @-@ time , with 20 million copies ( 40 million units ) sold worldwide . HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year .
The first single released from the album was " Scream / Childhood " . " Scream " , a duet with Jackson 's youngest sister Janet , protests the media , particularly for its treatment of him during the 1993 child abuse allegations . The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five , and received a Grammy nomination for " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " . " You Are Not Alone " was the second single released from HIStory ; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success , receiving a Grammy nomination for " Best Pop Vocal Performance " .
In late 1995 , Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance , caused by a stress @-@ related panic attack . " Earth Song " was the third single released from HIStory , and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995 ; it sold a million copies , making it Jackson 's most successful single in the UK . The track " They Don 't Care About Us " became controversial when the Anti @-@ Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics . Jackson quickly released a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics . In 1996 , Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form for " Scream " and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop / Rock Male Artist .
HIStory was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour , beginning on September 7 , 1996 , and ending on October 15 , 1997 . Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents , 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4 @.@ 5 million fans , and grossed a total of $ 165 million , becoming Jackson 's most successful tour in terms of audience figures . During the tour , Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe , a dermatology nurse , in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney , Australia . Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple 's first child at the time . Originally , Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry , but Jackson 's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so .
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Michael Joseph Jackson Jr ( commonly known as Prince ) was born on February 13 , 1997 ; his sister Paris @-@ Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3 , 1998 . The couple divorced in 1999 , and Jackson received full custody of the children . The divorce was relatively amicable , but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006 .
In 1997 , Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix , which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs . Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies , making it the best @-@ selling remix album of all time . It reached number one in the UK , as did the title track . In the US , the album was certified platinum , but only reached number 24 . Forbes placed Jackson 's annual income at $ 35 million in 1996 and $ 20 million in 1997 .
Throughout June 1999 , Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events . He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena , Italy . The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child , and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo , FR Yugoslavia , and additional funds for the children of Guatemala . Later that month , Jackson organized a series of " Michael Jackson & Friends " benefit concerts in Germany and Korea . Other artists involved included Slash , The Scorpions , Boyz II Men , Luther Vandross , Mariah Carey , A. R. Rahman , Prabhu Deva Sundaram , Shobana , Andrea Bocelli , and Luciano Pavarotti . The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund , the Red Cross and UNESCO . From August 1999 through 2000 , he lived in New York City at 4 East 74th Street .
= = = 2000 – 03 : Label dispute and Invincible = = =
At the turn of the century , Jackson won an American Music Award as Artist of the 1980s . Throughout 2000 and 2001 , he worked with collaborators including Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins to produce his tenth solo album , Invincible , released in October 2001 . The album cost $ 30 million to record , not including promotional expenditures . Invincible was Jackson 's first full @-@ length album in six years , and was the last album of original material he released in his lifetime . The release was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label , Sony Music Entertainment . Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him sometime in the early 2000s . Once he had the licenses , he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep all the profits ; however , clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future . Jackson discovered that the attorney who had represented him in the deal had also been representing Sony . Jackson was also concerned about the fact that for years , Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in its music catalog venture . Jackson feared that Sony might have a conflict of interest , since if Jackson 's career failed , he would have to sell his share of the catalog at a low price . Jackson sought an early exit from his contract .
In September 2001 , two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson 's 30th year as a solo artist . Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984 . The show also featured performances by Mýa , Usher , Whitney Houston , NSYNC , Destiny 's Child , Monica , Luther Vandross , and Slash , among other artists . The second of the two shows took place the night before the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks . After 9 / 11 , Jackson helped organize the United We Stand : What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington , D.C. The concert took place on October 21 , 2001 , and included performances from dozens of major artists , including Jackson , who performed his song " What More Can I Give " as the finale . Due to contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts , later edited into a two @-@ hour TV special titled Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Celebration broadcast in November 2001 , Jackson 's solo performances were omitted from the televised benefit concert , although he could still be seen singing background vocals .
Invincible was released in October 2001 to much anticipation . It debuted at number one in 13 countries and went on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide . It received double @-@ platinum certification in the U.S. However , sales for Invincible were lower than Jackson 's previous releases , due in part to the record label dispute and the lack of promotion or tour , and its release at a bad time for the music industry in general . Invincible spawned three singles , " You Rock My World " , " Cry " , and " Butterflies " , the latter without a music video . Jackson alleged in July 2002 that the @-@ then Sony Music chairman Tommy Mottola was a " devil " and a " racist " who did not support his African @-@ American artists , using them merely for his own personal gain . He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a " fat nigger " . Sony refused to renew Jackson 's contract , and claimed that a $ 25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States .
In 2002 , Michael Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century . In the same year , his third child , Prince Michael Jackson II ( nicknamed " Blanket " ) was born . The mother 's identity was not announced , but Jackson said the child was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm . On November 20 of that year , Jackson brought his infant son onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin as fans stood below , holding him in his right arm , with a cloth loosely draped over the baby 's face . The baby was briefly extended over a railing , four stories above ground level , prompting widespread criticism in the media . Jackson later apologized for the incident , calling it " a terrible mistake " . In November 2003 , Sony released Number Ones , a compilation of Jackson 's hits on CD and DVD . In the U.S. , the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA ; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1 @.@ 2 million units .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal = = =
Beginning in May 2002 , Jackson allowed a documentary film crew , led by British TV personality Martin Bashir , to follow him around nearly everywhere he went . Bashir 's film crew was with Jackson during the " baby @-@ dangling incident " in Berlin . The program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson . In a particularly controversial scene , Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy .
As soon as the documentary aired , the Santa Barbara county attorney 's office began a criminal investigation . After an initial probe from the LAPD and DCFS was conducted in February 2003 , they had initially concluded that molestation allegations were " unfounded " at the time . After the young boy involved in the documentary and his mother had told investigators that Jackson had behaved improperly with the boy , Jackson was arrested in November 2003 , and was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy shown in the film . Jackson denied the allegations , saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature . The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31 , 2005 , in Santa Maria , California , and lasted five months , until the end of May . On June 13 , 2005 , Jackson was acquitted on all counts . After the trial , in a highly publicized relocation he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain , as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah . Bahrain was also where the family intended to send Jackson if he was convicted ( though Jackson did not know about the plan ) , according to a statement by Jermaine Jackson printed in The Times of London in September 2011 .
= = = 2006 – 09 : Closure of Neverland , final years , and This Is It = = =
In March 2006 , the main house at the Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost @-@ cutting measure . There were numerous reports around that time that Jackson had been having financial problems . He had been delinquent on his repayments of a $ 270 million loan secured against his music @-@ publishing holdings , even though those holdings were reportedly making him as much as $ 75 million a year . Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments . Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson 's stake in their jointly @-@ owned publishing company , leaving Jackson with a 25 % stake . Jackson agreed to a Sony @-@ backed refinancing deal in April 2006 , although the details were not made public . Jackson did not have a recording contract at the time . In early 2006 , it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain @-@ based startup called Two Seas Records . However , nothing came of the deal , and the Two Seas CEO Guy Holmes later stated that the deal had never been finalized .
Throughout 2006 , Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson : Visionary series , which subsequently became a box set . Most of those singles returned to the charts as a result . In September 2006 , Jackson and his ex @-@ wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long @-@ running child custody suit . The terms were never made public . Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple 's two children . In October 2006 , Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath , Ireland . It was not known at the time what Jackson had working on , or who had paid for the sessions , since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas .
In November 2006 , Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath , and MSNBC reported that he was working on a new album , produced by will.i.am. Jackson performed at the World Music Awards in London on November 15 , 2006 , and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over 100 million records . He returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown 's funeral in Augusta , Georgia , where he gave one of the eulogies , saying that " James Brown is my greatest inspiration . " In the spring of 2007 , Jackson and Sony teamed up to buy another music publishing company , Famous Music LLC , formerly owned by Viacom . This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem and Beck , among others . In March 2007 , Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo , where he said : " I 've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old , and as Charles Dickens would say , ' It 's been the best of times , the worst of times . ' But I would not change my career ... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me , I take it in stride because I have a loving family , a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have , and continue , to support me . " In March 2007 , Jackson visited a U.S. Army post in Japan , Camp Zama , to greet over 3 @,@ 000 U.S. troops and their families . The hosts presented Jackson with a Certificate of Appreciation .
In September 2007 , Jackson was reportedly still working on his next album , but the work was never completed . In 2008 , Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller . This album featured the previously unreleased song " For All Time " , an outtake from the original sessions , as well as remixes , where Jackson collaborated with younger artists who had been inspired by his work . Two of the remixes were released as singles with modest success : " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " ( with will.i.am ) and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " ( with Akon ) . The first single was based on an early demo version , without Paul McCartney . The album was a commercial success . In anticipation of Jackson 's 50th birthday , Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums , King of Pop . Slightly different versions were released in various countries , based on polls of local fans . King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued , and also sold well as an import in other countries ( such as the United States ) .
In late 2008 , Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch , which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars . However , Fortress opted to sell Jackson 's debts to Colony Capital LLC . In November , Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch 's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC , a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC . The deal cleared Jackson 's debt and reportedly earned him an additional $ 35 million . At the time of his death , Jackson still owned a stake of unknown size in Neverland / Sycamore Valley . In September 2008 , Jackson entered negotiations with Julien 's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1 @,@ 390 lots . The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and 25 . An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14 , but the actual auction was eventually cancelled at Jackson 's request .
In March 2009 , Jackson held a press conference at London 's O2 Arena to announce a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It . The shows would be Jackson 's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997 . Jackson suggested possible retirement after the shows , saying it would be his " final curtain call " . The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London , followed by shows in Paris , New York City and Mumbai . Randy Phillips , president and chief executive of AEG Live , stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £ 50 million . The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record @-@ breaking ticket sales : over one million were sold in less than two hours . The concerts would have commenced on July 13 , 2009 , and finished on March 6 , 2010 . Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega . Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center , owned by AEG . Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London , with all concerts sold out , Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest . Some time before his death , it was reported that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier .
Jackson 's first posthumous song released entirely by his estate was " This Is It " , which he had co @-@ written in the 1980s with Paul Anka . It was not on the setlists for the concerts , and the recording was based on an old demo tape . The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals . On October 28 , 2009 , a documentary film about the rehearsals , Michael Jackson 's This Is It , was released . Despite a limited two @-@ week engagement , it became the highest @-@ grossing documentary or concert film of all time , with earnings of more than $ 260 million worldwide . Jackson 's estate received 90 % of the profits . The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name . Two versions of " This Is It " appear on the album , which also featured original masters of Jackson 's hits in the order in which they appear in the film , along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits and a spoken @-@ word poem , " Planet Earth " . At the 2009 American Music Awards , Jackson won four posthumous awards , two for him and two for his album Number Ones , bringing his total American Music Awards to 26 .
= = Death and memorial = =
On June 25 , 2009 , Jackson fell unconscious while lying in bed at his rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles . Attempts at resuscitating him by Conrad Murray , his personal physician , were unsuccessful . Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12 : 22 pm ( PDT , 19 : 22 UTC ) , arriving three minutes later . Jackson was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed . Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center , and for more than an hour after arriving there at 1 : 13 pm ( 20 : 13 UTC ) . He was pronounced dead at 2 : 26 pm Pacific time ( 21 : 26 UTC ) .
Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief . The news spread quickly online , causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload . Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times suffered outages . Google initially believed that the millions of search requests meant their search engine was under DDoS attack , and blocked searches related to Michael Jackson for 30 minutes . Twitter reported a crash , as did Wikipedia at 3 : 15 pm PDT ( 22 : 15 UTC ) . The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson 's biography within one hour , probably the most visitors in a one @-@ hour period to any article in Wikipedia 's history . AOL Instant Messenger collapsed for 40 minutes . AOL called it a " seminal moment in internet history ... We 've never seen anything like it in terms of scope or depth . " Around 15 % of Twitter posts ( 5 @,@ 000 tweets per minute ) reportedly mentioned Jackson after the news broke , compared to the 5 % recalled as having mentioned the Iranian elections or the flu pandemic that had made headlines earlier in the year . Overall , web traffic ranged from 11 % to at least 20 % higher than normal . MTV and BET aired marathons of Jackson 's music videos . Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world . The British soap opera EastEnders added a last @-@ minute scene to the June 26 episode in which one character tells another about the news . MTV briefly returned to its original music video format to celebrate his work , airing hours of Jackson 's music videos , accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities . The temporary shift in MTV 's programming culminated the following week in the channel 's live coverage of Jackson 's memorial service .
Jackson 's memorial was held on July 7 , 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park 's Hall of Liberty . Due to high demand , tickets to the memorial were distributed via lottery , and over 1 @.@ 6 million fans applied for tickets during the two @-@ day application period . 8 @,@ 750 names were drawn at random , with each recipient receiving two tickets each . Jackson 's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body . The memorial service was one of the most watched events in streaming history , with an estimated U.S. audience of 31 @.@ 1 million , an amount comparable to the estimated 35 @.@ 1 million that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan , and the estimated 33 @.@ 1 million Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana .
Mariah Carey , Stevie Wonder , Lionel Richie , John Mayer , Jennifer Hudson , Usher , Jermaine Jackson , and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event . Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies , while Queen Latifah read " We Had Him " , a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou . The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson 's children : " Wasn 't nothing strange about your daddy . It was strange what your daddy had to deal with . But he dealt with it anyway . " Jackson 's 11 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Paris Katherine , speaking publicly for the first time , wept as she told the crowd : " Ever since I was born , Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine ... I just wanted to say I love him ... so much . " Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer .
At the time of death , Jackson had been administered propofol , lorazepam , and midazolam , and the Los Angeles coroner decided to treat the death as a homicide . Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician Conrad Murray , and charged him with involuntary manslaughter in Los Angeles on February 8 , 2010 . Jackson 's body was entombed on September 3 , 2009 , at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale , California .
On June 25 , 2010 , the first anniversary of Jackson 's death , fans traveled to Los Angeles to pay tribute . They visited Jackson 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , his family 's home , and Forest Lawn Memorial Park . Many of the fans were carrying sunflowers and other tribute items to leave at the sites . Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects . Katherine returned to Gary , Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home . The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of " We Are the World " . On June 26 , there was a protest march in front of the Los Angeles Police Department 's Robbery @-@ Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building and a petition with thousands of signatures demanding justice . The Jackson Family Foundation , in conjunction with Voiceplate , presented " Forever Michael " , an event bringing together Jackson family members , celebrities , fans , supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy . A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson 's favorite charities . Katherine also introduced her new book " Never Can Say Goodbye " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
In the 12 months after his death , Jackson sold more than 8 @.@ 2 million albums in the United States and 35 million albums worldwide , making him the best @-@ selling albums artist of 2009 . He became the first artist to sell one million downloads in a week in music download history , with a record @-@ breaking 2 @.@ 6 million downloads of his songs . Three of his albums sold more than any new album , the first time a catalog album has ever scanned more sales than any new album . Jackson also became the first artist in history to have four of the top 20 best @-@ selling albums in a single year in the United States . Following this surge in sales , Sony announced that they had extended their distribution rights for Jackson 's material , which had been due to expire in 2015 . On March 16 , 2010 , Sony Music Entertainment , spearheaded by its Columbia / Epic Label Group division , signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017 , and release ten new albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work .
On November 4 , 2010 , Sony announced the first postumous album , Michael , released on December 14 , with the promotional single , " Breaking News " , released to radio on November 8 . Sony Music reportedly paid the Jackson estate $ 250 million for the deal , plus royalties , making it the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history . Video game developer Ubisoft announced a dancing @-@ and @-@ singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season , Michael Jackson : The Experience ; it is among the first games to use Kinect and PlayStation Move , the motion @-@ detecting camera systems for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and Sony 's PlayStation 3 respectively .
On November 3 , 2010 , the theatrical performing company Cirque du Soleil announced that it would launch Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour in October 2011 in Montreal , while a permanent show will reside in Las Vegas . The 90 @-@ minute $ 57 @-@ million production will combine Jackson 's music and choreography with the Cirque 's artistry , dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists . The tour was written and directed by Jamie King and centers on Jackson 's " inspirational Giving Tree – the wellspring of creativity where his love of music and dance , fairy tale and magic , and the fragile beauty of nature are unlocked . " On October 3 , 2011 , the accompanying compilation soundtrack album Immortal was announced to have over 40 Jackson 's original recordings re @-@ produced by Kevin Antunes . A second , larger and more theatrical Cirque show , Michael Jackson : One , designed for residency at the Mandalay Bay resort in Las Vegas , was announced on February 21 , 2013 . This show , also produced , written and directed by King , began its run on May 23 , 2013 in a newly renovated theater to critical and commercial success .
In April 2011 , billionaire businessman Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed , chairman of Fulham Football Club and Jackson 's longtime friend , unveiled a statue of Michael Jackson outside the club 's stadium , Craven Cottage . Fulham fans were bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club . Al Fayed defended the statue and told the fans to " go to hell " if they did not appreciate it . The statue was removed in September 2013 and moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in May 2014 .
In 2012 , in an attempt to end public family feuding , Jackson 's brother Jermaine Jackson retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Michael Jackson 's estate and his mother 's advisers concerning the legitimacy of his brother 's will . T.J. Jackson , son of Tito Jackson , was given co @-@ guardianship of Michael Jackson 's children after false reports surfaced of Katherine Jackson going missing .
On May 16 , 2013 , choreographer Wade Robson alleged on The Today Show that Jackson " performed sexual acts on me and forced me to perform sexual acts on him " for 7 years , beginning when Robson was 7 years old . Robson had previously testified in defence of Jackson at the singer 's 2005 child molestation trial . The attorney for Jackson 's estate described Robson 's claim as " outrageous and pathetic " . The date for the hearing which will determine whether Robson can sue Jackson 's estate was scheduled for June 2 , 2014 . In February 2014 , the Internal Revenue Service reported that Jackson 's estate owed $ 702 million , including $ 505 million in taxes and $ 197 million in penalties after they claimed the estate undervalued Jackson 's fortune .
On March 31 , 2014 , Epic Records announced Xscape , an album of eight songs of unreleased material culled from past recording sessions . It was released on May 13 , 2014 . On May 12 , 2014 , another young man , Jimmy Safechuck , sued Jackson 's estate , claiming Jackson sexually abused him " from the age of 10 to about 14 or 15 " in the 1980s . During the 2014 Billboard Music Awards on May 18 , a " Pepper 's ghost " likeness of Jackson appeared , dancing to " Slave to the Rhythm " , one of the tracks from Xscape . Later that year , Queen released three duets that Freddie Mercury had recorded with Jackson in the 1980s .
Jackson 's earnings have exponentially increased following his sudden death in comparison to his final years alive . According to Forbes , he has been the top @-@ earning dead celebrity each year since his death , with triple @-@ digit millions per annum ( $ 115 million in 2015 ) . In December 2015 , Jackson 's album Thriller became the first album in the United States to surpass 30 million shipments , certifying it 30 × platinum by the RIAA . Two months later , Billboard reported that the album was certified again at 32 × platinum , surpassing 32 million shipments after Soundscan added streams and audio downloads to album certifications .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Jackson was influenced by musicians including Little Richard , James Brown , Jackie Wilson , Diana Ross , Fred Astaire , Sammy Davis Jr . , Gene Kelly , David Ruffin , the Isley Brothers , and the Bee Gees . According to choreographer David Winters , who met and befriended Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV special Diana ! , Jackson watched the musical West Side Story almost every week , and it was his favorite film ; he paid tribute to it in " Beat It " and the " Bad " video . While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson , James Brown was Jackson 's greatest inspiration . In reference to Brown , Jackson declared : " Ever since I was a small child , no more than like six years old , my mother would wake me no matter what time it was , if I was sleeping , no matter what I was doing , to watch the television to see the master at work . And when I saw him move , I was mesmerized . I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown , and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown . "
The young Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross . Not only a mother figure to him , she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer . He later said : " I got to know her well . She taught me so much . I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved . She was art in motion . I studied the way she moved , the way she sang – just the way she was . " He told her : " I want to be just like you , Diana . " She said : " You just be yourself . " Jackson owed part of his enduring style — especially his use of the oooh interjection — to Ross . From a young age , Jackson often punctuated his verses with a sudden exclamation of oooh . Diana Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with the Supremes .
= = = Musical themes and genres = = =
Jackson explored a variety of music genres , including pop , soul , rhythm and blues , funk , rock , disco , post @-@ disco , dance @-@ pop and new jack swing . Unlike many artists , Jackson did not write his songs on paper and instead dictated into a sound recorder . When composing music , he preferred to beatbox and imitate instruments vocally rather than use instruments .
According to Steve Huey of AllMusic , Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall ; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive , while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful . Notable tracks included the ballads " The Lady in My Life " , " Human Nature " and " The Girl Is Mine " ; the funk pieces " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ; and the disco set " Baby Be Mine " and " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " . With Thriller , Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In " Billie Jean " , Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers . In " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " he argues against gossip and the media . " Beat It " decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story , and was Jackson 's first successful rock cross @-@ over piece , according to Huey . He also observed that the title track " Thriller " began Jackson 's interest with the theme of the supernatural , a topic he revisited in subsequent years . In 1985 , Jackson co @-@ wrote the charity anthem " We Are the World " ; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona .
In Bad , Jackson 's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song " Dirty Diana " . The lead single " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " is a traditional love ballad , while " Man in the Mirror " is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution . " Smooth Criminal " was an evocation of bloody assault , rape and likely murder . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a very paradoxical individual . He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad , as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like " Heal the World " . The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing , including songs like " Jam " and " Remember the Time " . The album is Jackson 's first where social ills become a primary theme ; " Why You Wanna Trip on Me " , for example , protests against world hunger , AIDS , homelessness and drugs . Dangerous contains sexually charged efforts such as the multifaceted love song , " In the Closet " . The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire . The second half includes introspective , pop @-@ gospel anthems such as " Will You Be There " , " Heal the World " and " Keep the Faith " ; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries . In the ballad " Gone Too Soon " , Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS .
HIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia . Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production . In the new jack swing @-@ funk @-@ rock efforts " Scream " and " Tabloid Junkie " , along with the R & B ballad " You Are Not Alone " , Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels , and directs much of his anger at the media . In the introspective ballad " Stranger in Moscow " , Jackson laments over his " fall from grace " , while songs like " Earth Song " , " Childhood " , " Little Susie " and " Smile " are all operatic pop pieces . In the track " D.S. " , Jackson launched a verbal attack against Tom Sneddon . He describes Sneddon as an antisocial , white supremacist who wanted to " get my ass , dead or alive " . Of the song , Sneddon said , " I have not — shall we say — done him the honor of listening to it , but I 've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot " . Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins . It is a record made up of urban soul like " Cry " and " The Lost Children " , ballads such as " Speechless " , " Break of Dawn " , and " Butterflies " and mixes hip hop , pop , and R & B in " 2000 Watts " , " Heartbreaker " and " Invincible " .
= = = Vocal style = = =
Jackson sang from childhood , and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably . Between 1971 and 1975 , Jackson 's voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor . His vocal range as an adult was F2 @-@ E ♭ 6 . Jackson first used a technique called the " vocal hiccup " in 1973 , starting with the song " It 's Too Late to Change the Time " from the Jackson 5 's G.I.T. : Get It Together album . Jackson did not use the hiccup technique — somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping — fully until the recording of Off the Wall : it can be seen in full force in the " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " promotional video . With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded . At the time , Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . 1982 saw the release of Thriller , and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a " fully adult voice " that was " tinged by sadness " .
A distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of " come on " , used frequently by Jackson , occasionally spelled " c 'mon " , " cha 'mone " , or " shamone " , is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him . The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous . The New York Times noted that on some tracks , " he gulps for breath , his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper , hissing through clenched teeth " and he had a " wretched tone " . When singing of brotherhood or self @-@ esteem the musician would return to " smooth " vocals . When commenting on Invincible , Rolling Stone were of the opinion that — at the age of 43 — Jackson still performed " exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies " . Nelson George wrote : " The grace , the aggression , the growling , the natural boyishness , the falsetto , the smoothness — that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist " . Cultural critic Joseph Vogel notes that Jackson had a " distinctive styles is his ability to convey emotion without the use of language : there are his trademark gulps , grunts , gasps , cries , exclamations ; he also frequently scats or twists and contorts words until they are barely discernible . " Neil McCormick notes that Jackson 's unorthodox singing style " was original and utterly distinctive , from his almost ethereal falsetto to his soft , sweet mid @-@ tones ; his fluid , seamless control of often very fast moving series of notes ; his percussive yet still melodic outbursts , ululations and interjections ( from those spooky " tee @-@ hee @-@ hees "
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to grunts and wails ) . Unusually for someone coming from a black American soul tradition , he did not often sing straight , unadorned ballads , though when he did ( from ' Ben ' to ' She 's Out of My Life ' ) the effect was of a powerful simplicity and truth . "
Concerned about a transparent rendition of this identity , the sound engineer Bruce Swedien opted for some technical approaches and studio strategies aiming at keeping as truly as possible the singer 's intimate and natural expressions : mikes , analogic recordings , special techniques elaborated to design vocal prisms , creation of natural acoustic spaces , conversion of stereophonic fields in tri @-@ dimensional sound spaces playing with early reflections , plywood , Monstercable or Tubetraps .
= = = Music videos and choreography = = =
Jackson has been called the King of Music Videos . Steve Huey of AllMusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines , dance routines , special effects and famous cameo appearances , simultaneously breaking down racial barriers . Before Thriller , Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV , allegedly because he was African American . Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing " Billie Jean " and later " Beat It " , leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson , also helping other black music artists gain recognition . MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage , or pressure to change their stance . MTV maintains that they played rock music , regardless of race . The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel " on the map " ; MTV 's focus shifted in favor of pop and R & B. His performance on Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever changed the scope of live stage show ; " That Jackson lip @-@ synced ' Billie Jean ' is , in itself , not extraordinary , but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary ; whether the performance was live or lip @-@ synced made no difference to the audience " thus creating an era in which artists re @-@ create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage . Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson , while the group dance sequence in " Beat It " has frequently been imitated . The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture , replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines . The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos , and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records .
In the 19 @-@ minute music video for " Bad " — directed by Martin Scorsese — Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work . He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest , torso and crotch . When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch , he replied , " I think it happens subliminally " and he described it as something that was not planned , but rather , as something that was compelled by the music . " Bad " garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics ; Time magazine described it as " infamous " . The video also featured Wesley Snipes ; in the future Jackson 's videos would often feature famous cameo roles . For the " Smooth Criminal " video , Jackson experimented with an anti @-@ gravity lean where the performer leans forward at a 45 degree angle , beyond the performer 's center of gravity . To accomplish this move live , Jackson and designers developed a special shoe that locks the performer 's feet to the stage , allowing them to lean forward . They were granted U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 255 @,@ 452 for the device . Although the music video for " Leave Me Alone " was not officially released in the US , in 1989 it was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards ; the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production . In 1990 , " Leave Me Alone " won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form .
He received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988 and the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award in 1990 to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s ; in 1991 the first award was renamed in his honor . " Black or White " was accompanied by a controversial music video , which , on November 14 , 1991 , simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people , the largest viewing ever for a music video at that time . It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence . The offending scenes in the final half of the 14 @-@ minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned , and Jackson apologized . Along with Jackson , it featured Macaulay Culkin , Peggy Lipton , and George Wendt . It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos .
" Remember the Time " was an elaborate production , and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes . Set in ancient Egypt , it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , and Magic Johnson , along with a distinct complex dance routine . The video for " In the Closet " was Jackson 's most sexually provocative piece . It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson . The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery .
The music video for " Scream " , directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden , is one of Jackson 's most critically acclaimed . In 1995 , it gained eleven MTV Video Music Award Nominations — more than any other music video — and won " Best Dance Video " , " Best Choreography " , and " Best Art Direction " . The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993 . A year later , it won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form ; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made , at a cost of $ 7 million .
" Earth Song " was accompanied by an expensive and well @-@ received music video , which gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video , Short Form in 1997 . The video had an environmental theme , showing images of animal cruelty , deforestation , pollution and war . Using special effects , time is reversed so that life returns , wars end , and the forests re @-@ grow . Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival , Michael Jackson 's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston . The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world 's longest music video .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The media has commonly referred to Jackson as the " King of Pop " because , throughout his career , he transformed the art of music videos and paved the way for modern pop music . For much of Jackson 's career , he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian contributions . His music and videos , such as Thriller , fostered racial diversity in MTV 's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R & B , shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring . Jackson 's work continues to influence numerous artists of various music genres .
AllMusic 's Steve Huey describes Jackson as " an unstoppable juggernaut , possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will : an instantly identifiable voice , eye @-@ popping dance moves , stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power " . BET described Jackson " as quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time " and someone who " revolutionized the music video and brought dances like the moonwalk to the world . Jackson 's sound , style , movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres . "
In 1984 , TIME magazine 's pop critic Jay Cocks wrote that " Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles . He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley . He just may be the most popular black singer ever . " In 1990 , Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business . In 2003 , Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson as " extremely important " and a " genius " . In 2007 , Jackson said : " Music has been my outlet , my gift to all of the lovers in this world . Through it , my music , I know I will live forever . "
At Jackson 's memorial service on July 7 , 2009 , Motown founder Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson " the greatest entertainer that ever lived " . In a June 28 , 2009 Baltimore Sun article titled " 7 Ways Michael Jackson Changed The World " , Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson 's legacy was " as enduring as it is multi @-@ faceted " , influencing fields including sound , dance , fashion , music videos and celebrity . On December 19 , 2014 , the British Council of Cultural Relations named Jackson 's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century .
In July 2009 , the Lunar Republic Society , which promotes the exploration , settlement and development of the Moon , named a Moon crater after Jackson . In the same year , for Jackson 's 51st birthday , Google dedicated their Google Doodle to him . In 2010 , two university librarians found that Jackson 's influence extended to academia , with references to Jackson in reports concerning music , popular culture , chemistry and an array of other topics .
= = Honors and awards = =
Michael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of the Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist . Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards , including the World Music Awards ' Best @-@ Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium , the American Music Award 's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award . He was a double @-@ inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001 . Jackson was also inducted in several other halls of fame , including Vocal Group Hall of Fame ( as a Jackson 5 member ) in 1999 and the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002 . In 2010 , Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first ( and currently only ) dancer from the world of pop and rock ' n ' roll . In 2014 , Jackson was inducted into the second class of inductees to the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame ; his father Joe Jackson accepted on his behalf .
His awards include many Guinness World Records ( eight in 2006 alone ) , including for the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time , 13 Grammy Awards ( as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award ) , 26 American Music Awards ( including the " Artist of the Century " and " Artist of the 1980s " ) , — more than any artist — 13 number @-@ one singles in the US in his solo career — more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era — and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide , which makes him one of the best @-@ selling artists of all time . On December 29 , 2009 , the American Film Institute recognized Jackson 's death as a " moment of significance " saying , " Michael Jackson 's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It . " Michael Jackson also received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University .
= = Earnings and wealth = =
It is estimated that Michael Jackson earned about $ 750 million in his lifetime . Sales of his recordings through Sony 's music unit earned him an estimated $ 300 million in royalties . He may have also earned an additional $ 400 million from concerts , music publishing ( including his share of the Beatles catalog ) endorsements , merchandising and music videos . Estimating how much of these earnings Jackson was able to personally pocket is difficult because one has to account for taxes , recording costs and production costs .
There have also been several detailed estimates of Jackson 's net worth which range from negative $ 285 million to positive $ 350 million for the years 2002 , 2003 and 2007 .
= = = U.S. federal estate tax problems = = =
On July 26 , 2013 , the executors of the Estate of Michael Jackson filed a petition in the United States Tax Court as a result of a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) over U.S. federal estate taxes imposed on the value of Jackson 's Estate at the time of his death . The executors of the Estate claim that the Estate was worth about $ 7 million . The IRS asserts that the Estate was worth over $ 1 @.@ 1 billion , and that over $ 700 million in federal estate taxes ( including penalties ) are due . The parties have been ordered to submit a status report to the Court on settlement negotiations by November 2 , 2015 .
= = Discography = =
Got to Be There ( 1972 )
Ben ( 1972 )
Music & Me ( 1973 )
Forever , Michael ( 1975 )
Off the Wall ( 1979 )
Thriller ( 1982 )
Bad ( 1987 )
Dangerous ( 1991 )
HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I ( 1995 )
Invincible ( 2001 )
= = Filmography = =
The Wiz ( 1978 )
Captain EO ( 1986 )
Moonwalker ( 1988 )
Michael Jackson 's Ghosts ( 1997 )
Men in Black II ( 2002 )
Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls ( 2004 )
Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 )
Bad 25 ( 2012 )
Michael Jackson : The Last Photo Shoot ( 2014 )
Michael Jackson 's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Bad ( 1987 – 89 )
Dangerous World Tour ( 1992 – 93 )
HIStory World Tour ( 1996 – 97 )
MJ & Friends ( 1999 )
This Is It ( 2009 – 10 ; cancelled )
= Steve Morison =
Steven ' Steve ' William Morison ( born 29 August 1983 ) is a Wales international footballer who currently plays for League One side Millwall .
Morison started his career at Northampton Town at the age of 16 , progressing through the club 's centre of excellence . After featuring regularly for the club 's reserve team , Morison made his first @-@ team debut in 2002 , and played a total of 28 times for the club during his three years with Northampton . He left Northampton and joined Conference South side Bishop 's Stortford for an undisclosed fee in November 2004 . Morison spent just under two years with Stortford , scoring prolifically , before joining another Hertfordshire team in the form of Stevenage for a " small four @-@ figure fee " in August 2006 .
During the 2006 – 07 season , Morison scored a total of 34 times in 53 games , including the winner in Stevenage 's 3 – 2 victory over Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Trophy final in May 2007 – the first competitive cup final to be held at the new Wembley Stadium . The following season , Morison netted 22 times in 45 matches , before scoring 30 times during the club 's 2008 – 09 campaign ; scoring again in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 win against York City in the FA Trophy final in May 2009 , his last game for the club . He subsequently joined Millwall for £ 130 @,@ 000 ahead of 2009 – 10 season , and helped the club to promotion to the Championship by scoring 23 goals in 52 games . He finished as Millwall 's top goalscorer the following season , before signing for Premier League side Norwich City for an undisclosed fee in June 2011 . In January 2013 , Morison signed for Leeds United as part of a swap deal . After just five months at Leeds , Morison rejoined Millwall on a season @-@ long loan in June 2013 . Morison earned eight caps for the England C team , scoring three goals . In August 2010 , Morison made his senior international debut for Wales .
= = Club career = =
= = = Northampton and Bishop 's Stortford = = =
Born in Enfield , London , Morison joined Northampton Town as part of the club 's youth system after a successful trial period with the club , having also spent time on trial at Leicester City . When Morison turned 18 , he signed a two @-@ year professional contract with Northampton . He impressed manager Kevan Broadhurst and subsequently made his debut at the end of the 2001 – 02 season in a 2 – 2 draw against Cambridge United . The following season , Morison featured regularly as a substitute , playing a total of 15 games , scoring his first goal for the Northamptonshire side in a 2 – 2 draw against Plymouth Argyle . However , the 2003 – 04 season witnessed Morison feature in only 5 games , getting on the scoresheet once . In June 2004 , he was offered a new six @-@ month contract at the club , and told by manager Colin Calderwood that he had to prove his worth at the club .
Morison played the opening five games of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , but failed to score . He featured two more times for the club , scoring Northampton 's equaliser away at Darlington in September 2004 . The following month , Morison joined Conference South side Bishop 's Stortford for an undisclosed fee . He scored on his debut in a 1 – 1 draw against Redbridge , and scored in the following game in Stortford 's 3 – 1 loss at Bognor Regis Town . He also helped Stortford reach the FA Trophy semi @-@ final and Morison finished the season as the club 's top goalscorer , as well as finishing as the 2004 – 05 FA Trophy top goalscorer . The following season , Morison struggled for form at the start of the club 's league campaign , and was subsequently used as a substitute during the first two months of the season . He started in a game against Histon in November 2005 , scoring a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 0 win . He followed this up with goals against St Albans City and Eastbourne Borough respectively , as well as scoring Stortford 's fourth in a 5 – 2 victory over Dorchester Town . He ended the season by scoring twice against Eastleigh , meaning he scored a total of 15 goals as he continued to impress at Woodside Park .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
He started the 2006 – 07 season by scoring two goals in two games for Stortford , before joining Conference National side Stevenage Borough on a two @-@ year deal in August 2006 for a " small four figure fee " . He scored on his debut in a 3 – 2 defeat against Crawley Town , also having a goal disallowed in the same game . He continued his goalscoring form at his new club by scoring a hat @-@ trick against Morecambe in a 3 – 3 draw at Christie Park , and then a brace two days later against Forest Green Rovers . The following week , he partnered George Boyd upfront , scoring once and assisting all of Boyd 's three goals in a 6 – 0 victory against Stafford Rangers . He went on to score doubles against Forest Green Rovers in the FA Cup , Oxford United , and Leigh RMI in the FA Trophy . He also scored goals in draws against Morecambe and Forest Green Rovers respectively in April 2007 , and scored his last league goal of the season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 win against Tamworth . Morison also helped the club to success in the FA Trophy , finishing the competition 's top goalscorer with 8 goals , including a goal in the final in May 2007 against Kidderminster Harriers , scoring the winner in a 3 – 2 victory at Wembley Stadium in front of a competition record crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . In total , Morison played 53 games during the season , scoring 34 times in all competitions and finishing as the club 's top goalscorer for the season .
Morison continued his scoring form throughout Stevenage 's 2007 – 08 campaign , scoring 22 times in 43 appearances , as the club narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs . He scored his first goal of the campaign in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 victory against Histon in the club 's first home fixture of the season , following this up with goals in victories against Weymouth , Stafford Rangers , and York City respectively . Morison scored his first brace of the season in a 4 – 0 win over Farsley Celtic in September 2007 . He went on to score six goals in four games during the Christmas period – scoring doubles against Altrincham , Stafford Rangers , and Droylsden . He also scored on the last day of the season in a 2 – 1 win against Halifax Town . Although his least prolific season at Stevenage , Morison still managed a one @-@ in @-@ two ratio . At the end of the season , Morison handed in a transfer request as he sought a return to the Football League . Despite the club granting him his wish , and attracting interest from League Two side Crewe Alexandra , nothing materialised and Morison signed a new three @-@ year contract at Stevenage . There was a clause in the contract that stated he could leave the club at the end of the 2008 – 09 season for a pre @-@ arranged fee if Stevenage failed to make it into the Football League .
He scored 30 goals in 51 games for the Hertfordshire outfit during the 2008 – 09 season , and captained the side for the majority of the campaign . His season got off to a bad start , however , with Stevenage losing 5 – 0 away to Wrexham ; a game in which Morison was sent @-@ off for an " off the ball headbutt " . He subsequently missed the next three games , but quickly re @-@ discovered his goalscoring form in early September 2008 , following up a hat @-@ trick against champions Burton Albion with a brace against Altrincham . Another brace followed shortly after in a 3 – 3 draw against York City , as well as scoring the winner in a 3 – 2 win against Mansfield Town . Morison 's goals were vital in ensuring Stevenage 's surge up the league table over the Christmas period ; notching braces against Rushden & Diamonds , Lewes , and Barrow , whilst also scoring Stevenage 's solitary goal in a 1 – 1 at Nene Park against Rushden . He later scored goals in away victories to both Weymouth and York City respectively , as well as scoring in a 3 – 1 win over Kidderminster Harriers to ensure Stevenage made the play @-@ offs , finishing in the final play @-@ off spot . Morison was also instrumental in the side 's successful FA Trophy campaign in the same season , scoring seven times in seven games , including once in the side 's 2 – 0 win against York in the Final , as captain Morison lifted the trophy at Wembley Stadium . However , Stevenage failed to achieve promotion to League Two following an aggregate 4 – 3 defeat to Cambridge United in the play @-@ offs ; with Morison scoring twice at Broadhall Way , but missing a " gilt edged " chance in the return leg . Subsequently , activating a release clause in his contract , Morison was allowed to leave and , shortly after , agreed personal terms with League One team Millwall in May 2009 , with a fee of £ 130 @,@ 000 being agreed for the transfer . During his three @-@ year tenure at the club , Morison made a total of 152 appearances , scoring 89 goals . Morison was also included in the club 's ' Wall of Fame ' , which features " the six greatest players in Stevenage 's history as voted for by the club 's supporters " .
= = = Millwall = = =
He made his debut for Millwall in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season , starting in the club 's 1 – 1 draw with Southampton ; providing the assist for Millwall 's equaliser . A month later , he scored his first goal for Millwall in a 3 – 1 victory over Huddersfield Town . Playing in a deeper role than when at Stevenage , Morison struggled for goals , but made the majority of Millwall 's goals throughout October , whilst also netting in a 5 – 0 win over Tranmere Rovers . In December 2009 , he scored a 91st @-@ minute winner in a 3 – 2 victory over Milton Keynes Dons , and also scored a similar goal in a 4 – 0 win over Staines Town in the FA Cup . Three days later , Morison scored twice in Millwall 's 2 – 1 victory over Walsall . His fine form through December continued , scoring twice in a 4 – 4 draw against Charlton Athletic at The Valley . He scored his seventh goal in as many games in a 2 – 0 win over Bristol Rovers , whilst also assisting the second goal . Morison scored his second goal of Millwall 's FA Cup campaign against Derby County at Pride Park in early January 2010 ; scoring in the 108th minute as Millwall were knocked out 5 – 3 on a penalty shootout . He provided the assists for both of Millwall 's goals in games against Southampton and Oldham Athletic respectively , before scoring the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over Brighton & Hove Albion ; his 11th goal of the season . This was followed up with a brace in a 3 – 1 win away to Carlisle United , whilst also setting up Millwall 's third goal . Morison scored another brace four days later , as Millwall beat Charlton Athletic 4 – 0 . His 17th of the season came in front of the Sky cameras against Leeds United at Elland Road . Shortly after , Morison scored his 18th goal of the campaign , scoring a header from an acute angle in Millwall 's 5 – 0 win over Stockport County . As a result of his fine goalscoring form throughout March , Morison was named Football League One Player of the Month . Another goal followed for Morison in a 2 – 1 win away at Colchester United . Morison 's 20th goal of the season came in a 2 – 1 victory over Leyton Orient , scoring Millwall 's second goal from the penalty spot . The goal subsequently means that Morison has now scored 20 goals or more in his last six seasons for three different clubs . On the last day of the season , Morison scored a brace against Swindon Town in a 3 – 2 victory . Morison 's first was a coolly dispatched penalty , whilst he supplied the cross that led to an own goal . Morison 's second goal of the game was a half @-@ volley from outside the area ; looping into the top right @-@ hand corner of the net . He scored his 23rd goal of the season in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win against Huddersfield Town as Millwall progressed to the League One play @-@ off final , where they beat Swindon Town 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium ; Morison 's third successive victory at the stadium .
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Morison scored in pre @-@ season friendlies against AFC Wimbledon and Stevenage respectively . He started the season by assisting two of Millwall 's goals in the club 's 3 – 0 win against Bristol City at Ashton Gate . In the club 's following league match , he scored two headed goals as Millwall beat Hull City comprehensively at The Den . He scored his third goal of the season from the penalty spot as Millwall beat Middlesbrough 2 – 1 in the League Cup . Four days later , Morison was on the scoresheet again , scoring a penalty to seal Millwall 's 3 – 1 win against Coventry City . He also provided the assist for Millwall 's first goal . He scored his fifth goal in six games in Millwall 's 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest at The City Ground , giving Millwall the lead in the fifth minute with a header . Ten days later , Morison added to his goal tally when he scored against Ipswich Town in the League Cup , scoring after the hour mark in a 2 – 1 home defeat . In October , Morison scored his seventh goal of the campaign in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win against Derby County , the club 's first home win since August . Two weeks later , Morison scored the opening goal of the game against Doncaster Rovers at the Keepmoat Stadium , but was unable to prevent Millwall from losing the match 2 – 1 . He went three games without scoring through November 2010 , before scoring two late goals in Millwall 's televised victory over Scunthorpe United in early December 2010 . On 15 December 2010 , it was widely reported that Millwall had rejected a £ 2million offer for Morison from Nottingham Forest , with Millwall manager Kenny Jackett claiming there is " no chance " that Morison will be sold in the January transfer window . A day later , Jackett said the club had not received a formal bid for Morison from Forest . Morison 's eleventh goal of the season came in Millwall 's last game of 2010 ; scoring the first goal in a 2 – 0 home win over Leicester City . He went on to score goals in home victories against Ipswich Town and Barnsley respectively . Morison signed a new 2 ½ year contract with Millwall on 5 February 2011 , ending transfer speculation about his long term commitment to the club , he stated " I 'm looking forward to playing my part in the future success of Millwall " . After a run of six games without a goal , Morison scored in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win over eventual Championship winners Queens Park Rangers , netting Millwall 's first goal in the 63rd minute . Eleven days later , Morison scored a lobbed effort against Cardiff City to restore parity in a game that ended 3 – 3 . His sixteenth goal of the 2010 – 11 campaign came on 2 April 2011 , scoring another lobbed effort , this time in a 1 – 0 away win at Hull City . A week later , Morison was on hand to score Millwall 's third goal in a 3 – 2 home win over Leeds United . He was sent @-@ off just three days later in the club 's 0 – 0 draw with Bristol City , receiving the red card for a " reckless lunge " on Bristol City 's Jamal Campbell @-@ Ryce . This subsequently meant Morison served a three @-@ game suspension , returning for Millwall 's two final league games of the season . Morison ended the season having scored 17 goals for Millwall in 43 appearances .
= = = Norwich City = = =
At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Morison handed in a written transfer request amid speculation about a move to newly promoted Premier League side Norwich City . Millwall subsequently rejected the transfer request . A day later , Morison revealed " Norwich have made a couple of bids that have been turned down so I 've done what I 've done . I want to play in the Premier League , I might not get another opportunity " . On 2 June 2011 , Millwall accepted an offer from Norwich City for Morison after the two clubs agreed a fee for the player , it was the fourth bid Norwich had made for Morison . He signed for the club on a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 6 June . Morison made his Norwich City debut against Wigan Athletic during the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 campaign , playing 75 minutes of the match in a 1 – 1 draw . He was crucial in Norwich 's equalising goal , beating Adrián López Rodríguez on the right wing and providing a cross that was ultimately turned in by Wes Hoolahan . He scored his first goal for the club in Norwich 's first home win of the season , a 2 – 1 victory against Sunderland on 26 September . The goal came shortly after half @-@ time , with Morison heading in Marc Tierney 's cross to give Norwich a two @-@ goal lead . Morison scored his second goal for Norwich in a 3 – 3 draw against Blackburn Rovers on 29 October , with the goal being described as a " stunning strike " from the edge of the area . A week later , he scored a header from an acute angle in Norwich 's 3 – 2 away defeat against Aston Villa . Morison 's fourth goal of the campaign came in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Arsenal on 19 November , scoring the opening goal of the game after he stole the ball from Per Mertesacker before calmly beating Wojciech Szczęsny in the Arsenal goal . He scored his fourth goal in five Premier League appearances on 3 December , beating Gaël Clichy at the back post to powerfully head the ball past Joe Hart in the Manchester City goal . Morison 's goal was a minor consolation in a 5 – 1 defeat at the City of Manchester Stadium . Morison was also on target for the Canaries in the club 's 4 – 2 home win over Newcastle United on 10 December , scoring Norwich 's third goal when he powerfully headed in Andrew Crofts ' cross from 12 @-@ yards out . He scored in Norwich 's first three games of 2012 despite featuring as a substitute in two of the matches , scoring once in the FA Cup in a 4 – 1 victory over Burnley , as well as netting late goals in 2 – 1 away victories against Queens Park Rangers and West Bromwich Albion respectively . After his goal at West Brom , Morison did not find the scoresheet for another three months — eventually scoring his tenth goal of the campaign in a 3 – 3 draw away to Arsenal at Emirates Stadium on 5 May 2012 . Morison 's late strike from a tight angle drew Norwich level after they had trailed 3 – 2 with five minutes remaining . During his first season at the club , he scored ten goals in 37 appearances .
The following season , under new Norwich manager Chris Hughton , Morison featured predominantly as a substitute ; starting just four games during the first half of the campaign . He scored his first goal of the season in a 5 – 2 home defeat to Liverpool in September 2012 , a match in which he started . He went on to score one further goal for the club , netting in Norwich 's 4 – 1 loss to Aston Villa in the League Cup quarter @-@ final on 11 December . He dedicated the goal to former team mate Mitchell Cole , who had recently died . Morison made his last appearance for Norwich in a 4 – 3 defeat to Manchester City in the club 's final game of 2012 . He made 59 appearances during his one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year spell at the club , scoring 12 goals .
= = = Leeds United = = =
On the last day of the 2013 January transfer window , Morison signed for Championship side Leeds United as part of a swap deal . The transfer involved Luciano Becchio moving to Norwich , as well as Norwich paying Leeds a " further undisclosed sum " . On signing Morison , the then @-@ Leeds manager Neil Warnock said that — " Steve meets all the requirements of the striker we 've been looking to bring in . For me , he is a player who has everything . He can score goals from anywhere – whether it 's 25 yards or a tap @-@ in – he has pace , and he has all the attributes you want " . He made his Leeds debut on 9 February 2013 , playing the whole match in the club 's 2 – 2 draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux . Morison scored his first goal for the club on his home debut on 20 February , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Blackpool . He scored twice for Leeds in the club 's 2 – 2 draw against Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park on 9 March . The two goals proved to be Morison 's last of the season , scoring three goals in 16 appearances during the second half of the 2012 – 13 campaign .
= = = = Millwall loan = = = =
Just a day after returning for pre @-@ season training with Leeds , on 28 June 2013 , Morison joined former club Millwall , also of the Championship , on a season @-@ long loan deal . On rejoining Millwall , Morison stated — " I 'm pleased to be back here . If anybody has any doubts about me all I 'd say is that I aim to score plenty of goals for Millwall and help this club to greater success " . Morison finished the season with 8 goals in 41 appearances , helping the London club stave off relegation from The Championship with a 19th @-@ place finish .
= = = = Return to Leeds = = = =
In June 2014 , after returning to Leeds , new Leeds owner Massimo Cellino revealed that Morison would be fully in Dave Hockaday 's plans for the following season , describing that " he needs to show if he ’ s still a good player because he used to be . " On 1 August , Morison was assigned the Leeds number 19 shirt for the 2014 – 15 season , with Morison 's previous shirt number going to team @-@ mate Matt Smith . Morison missed the opening games of the season through injury , making his first league appearance for Leeds in over a year as a substitute against Huddersfield Town on 20 September .
On 25 October 2014 , Morison was named in Leeds ' starting 11 for the first time in 18 months for the game against Wolverhampton Wanderers , replacing the suspended Souleymane Doukara . The match proved to be Darko Milanic 's last match as head coach .
On 19 April 2015 , Morison scored his first goal for Leeds since March 2013 , when he scored a volley in a 2 – 1 loss against Charlton Athletic . After scoring against Charlton , Morison followed this up by scoring in the consecutive game on 25 April in a 2 – 1 win against Yorkshire rivals Sheffield Wednesday . It would have been three goals in three games if his goal against Rotherham hadn 't been wrongly called offside .
He started off the 2015 / 16 pre season in good form , scoring against Harrogate Town on 10 July 2015 , and then scoring against Eintracht Frankfurt in a 2 – 1 defeat on 21 July 2015 . On 31 July 2015 , Morison was given the number 20 shirt for the upcoming 2015 / 16 season .
= = = Millwall = = =
On 4 August 2015 , Leeds announced that Morison had rejoined League 1 side Millwall for an undisclosed fee .
= = International career = =
= = = England C = = =
Morison was called up to the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ league level , in November 2006 , scoring in a European Challenge Trophy game against the Netherlands . Morison was then chosen to represent his country for the Four Nations Tournament hosted in Scotland in May 2007 , where he played in victories against Republic of Ireland C and Scotland C respectively , assisting two goals in the process . He was included in the 16 @-@ man squad for the Four Nations Tournament hosted in Wales in May 2008 , scoring in the side 's 1 – 0 win against Scotland C , as well as featuring against both Gibraltar and Wales C. He was subsequently called up for the England C tour of the Caribbean in June 2008 , in which Morison played both games against Grenada and Barbados respectively , scoring against the former in a 1 – 1 draw . Morison played a total of eight times for the England C side , scoring three times , before his age meant that he was ineligible to be selected .
= = = Wales = = =
In May 2010 , it was identified that Morison was eligible to represent Wales due to Welsh ancestry – as his grandmother was born in Tredegar , near Ebbw Vale . Wales assistant manager Roy Evans was present to watch Morison in Millwall 's 1 – 0 victory against Swindon Town , while Morison " registered his interest " in representing Wales . In July 2010 , Wales boss John Toshack named Morison in the Wales squad for a friendly against Luxembourg in Llanelli on 11 August 2010 . On being called up to the Wales squad , Morison said " It 's a fantastic achievement and it feels good to be recognised for my hard work " . Morison subsequently started in Wales ' 5 – 1 victory against Luxembourg , playing the whole match and assisting Ashley Williams ' goal . Following Morison 's debut , manager John Toshack said " I was very impressed with the debut of Steve Morison , he didn ’ t get on the scoresheet , but he certainly made his presence felt " . A week after his first appearance for Wales , Morison was called up again as part of the 25 @-@ man squad for Wales ' first UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against Montenegro in September 2010 . He started the match against Montenegro , but was substituted with ten minutes remaining as Wales lost 1 – 0 . In October 2010 , Morison was again included in Wales ' squad for their qualifiers against Bulgaria and Switzerland respectively . He started in Wales ' 1 – 0 home loss to Bulgaria , before appearing as a substitute with ten minutes remaining in the team 's 4 – 1 loss to Switzerland in Basel . Morison earned his fifth cap for Wales on 26 March 2011 , starting in Wales ' UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against England . The game ended 2 – 0 to England .
At the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Morison was called up for Wales ' friendly game against Australia , coming on as a 62nd @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat . Wales manager Gary Speed called Morison up for the country 's two UEFA Euro 2012 qualifiers in September 2011 . He scored his first international goal for Wales in a 2 – 1 victory against Montenegro , played at Cardiff City Stadium on 2 September . Morison 's goal came from six yards out , sliding to make contact with David Vaughan 's low cross . The victory was Wales ' first of the qualification group . He earned his tenth cap for Wales in a 1 – 0 defeat to England at Wembley Stadium four days later , on 6 September . Morison went on to make two further appearances in victories against Switzerland and Bulgaria respectively in October 2011 , before starting up @-@ front alongside Craig Bellamy in a 4 – 1 friendly win over Norway . Two further appearances in friendly matches against Costa Rica and Mexico took Morison 's appearances tally for Wales to 15 .
He opened the 2012 – 13 season by appearing in a 2 – 0 friendly loss to Bosnia and Herzegovina , coming on as a 69th @-@ minute substitute in the match . Morison started in Wales ' first two 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers , a 2 – 0 home defeat to Belgium on 7 September 2012 , followed by a 6 – 1 away loss to Serbia four days later . He started in Wales ' first win of the World Cup campaign a month later , playing the first 65 minutes as Wales came from behind to defeat Scotland at Cardiff City Stadium . Morison earned his 20th cap in a 2 – 0 defeat to Croatia in Osijek on 16 October 2012 .
= = Style of play = =
Morison plays as a striker and has been described as a " player who is always in the right place at the right time " , which is a reference to his goalscoring exploits . Ahead of the 2008 – 09 season , Stevenage manager Graham Westley sent Morison to a training camp whereby he would work on his pace , and later said " he is improving all the time " . He also described him as a player that " no defender would want to play against " due to his height , pace , and strength . In May 2010 , Millwall manager Kenny Jackett said that Morison " has a lot of strength and pace , which he uses on defenders perfectly " , as well as referring to him as a " physical threat " because of his aerial ability . Nick Szczepanik of The Times stated that Morison plays with " a fearless , all @-@ action style " , and that this was emphasised when he " played against Huddersfield Town with his head bandaged to protect a wound that required three stitches " .
= = Personal life = =
Morison attended Enfield Grammar School , leaving school at the age of 16 with one GCSE qualification . During his time at Northampton Town , Morison added to his qualifications with a National Diploma in Sports science , and also earned a coaching badge during his time at Protec . When Morison fell into part @-@ time football with Bishop 's Stortford in 2004 , he worked for a shredding company , " getting up at four in the morning shredding paper around London " . However , he said he " could not handle the early starts " and subsequently got " an easier job indoors " doing administration work in an office , where he met his wife , since then they have had a baby boy together , called Fenton . He quit the administration job immediately after signing for Stevenage in August 2006 .
Morison has always had an interest in greyhound racing , ever since he attended Walthamstow Stadium as a boy . In January 2013 , Morison set up a greyhound racing syndicate alongside his former strike partner at Norwich City , Grant Holt , and the two launched the SMGH Racing Club . Talking of the racing club , Morison stated — " I 've got lots of kennels myself , lots of animals , lots of dogs . So me and Grant got together bought a couple of dogs and it ’ s spiralled out of control a little bit , because we ’ ve bought seven now in the space of about three months . But it 's been brilliant " . When he finishes playing football , he says it would be " a dream " to be a greyhound trainer .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage Borough
FA Trophy ( 2 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09
Millwall
League One play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
League One Player of the Month ( 1 ) : March 2010
= = Career statistics = =
As of 15 May 2016
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Wales ' goal tally first
= Funeral ( Glee ) =
" Funeral " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ third overall . It first aired May 17 , 2011 on Fox in the United States , and was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker . The episode featured Jonathan Groff guest starring as Jesse St. James , who is brought in as a consultant to help the New Directions glee club prepare for the National Show Choir competition . Sue Sylvester 's ( Jane Lynch ) sister Jean ( Robin Trocki ) dies unexpectedly , and the glee club helps Sue plan her funeral .
The episode received a wide range of reviews , from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical . The performances of the five songs covered were generally well @-@ liked , though having four of them arranged as a series of auditions in the middle of the show met with disapproval . All five songs were released as singles , and three of them charted on the Billboard Hot 100 .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 97 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from the previous episode , " Prom Queen " . Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show , and submitted this episode for judging .
= = Plot = =
Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , director of New Directions , the McKinley High School glee club , hires Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) — an alumnus of championship @-@ winning rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline — as a consultant to help them develop a strategy to win the upcoming Nationals competition . Jesse convinces Will to use Vocal Adrenaline 's methodology , which is to identify the club 's best performer and center the entire performance on that person , and Will decides to hold auditions to determine who will be featured . Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) and Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) all audition , with Jesse and Will as judges . Jesse is highly critical of the performances by Santana , Kurt and Mercedes , while he praises his former girlfriend Rachel 's performance . He tells Will that Rachel is the clear winner , which angers the other three . Ultimately , Will decides to ignore Jesse 's advice and instead plans to do for Nationals what brought them victory at the Regionals competition : having the whole group sing original songs .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) is deeply upset by the death of her sister , Jean ( Robin Trocki ) . She lashes out by having the glee club 's flight to Nationals in New York City rerouted so it has a layover in war @-@ ravaged Tripoli , and kicks Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) off the Cheerios . Sue allows Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) and Kurt to plan Jean 's funeral and help her sort through Jean 's personal belongings , and agrees to have the glee club to perform at the funeral , as she believes no one will attend otherwise . While going through Jean 's belongings , Finn and Kurt discover that her favorite movie was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , and arrange a funeral inspired by the film . At the funeral , an emotional Sue is unable to continue reading her eulogy after a few sentences , and Will reads the remainder for her . The glee club then sings " Pure Imagination " , the theme song of the film . Touched by Will 's support , Sue later tells him that he is a good friend and he has what Jean had and she does not : a pure heart . She says that she will no longer attempt to destroy the glee club , and announces that she is planning to run for the United States House of Representatives . For the first time , she wishes him good luck . Sue also apologizes to Becky , reinstates her as a member of the Cheerios , and tells her she will be captain of the squad in the fall . Sue asks for and receives a hug from Becky .
Finn realizes his true feelings for Rachel during the funeral , and breaks up with Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) afterward . He later thanks her for not quitting glee club because of their breakup ; Quinn tells him that quitting would have ruined her " big plans " for New York , and refuses to tell him what they are . Finn sees Jesse and Rachel sharing a brief kiss on stage ; after they leave , he brings a flower from behind his back . Will 's ex @-@ wife , Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , who aided Sue 's earlier plot to sabotage the glee club 's flights , gives Will first @-@ class plane tickets to New York for the entire club , revealing that they were a donation from an airline executive . She tells him she is moving to Miami to start over with her life and to pursue her retail management career , and they say goodbye .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker . Two months before it aired , Murphy confirmed at PaleyFest 2011 that there was a death planned before the end of the season , but that it would not be recurring character Dave Karofsky , despite rumors that his death would be paving the way for Kurt 's return to McKinley High . Further details were eventually supplied by entertainment reporter Michael Ausiello , who reported on April 19 , 2011 that a " beloved character " would be dying in the " season 's penultimate episode " , and one week later that the character was female . Morrison confirmed in late April that there would indeed be a death , and added : " The episode right before the finale is called ' Funeral ' . We were actually at a funeral home yesterday , shooting all day . It was a very taxing day . " The day the episode aired , Lynch revealed in an interview that Murphy had conferred with her before proceeding with the storyline : " He took me aside at a party and said ' I want your blessing on this before we move forward . ' I said , ' It sounds like a really great storyline . ' It ’ s the thing that will break Sue Sylvester ’ s heart and get to where she lives . " Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show , and submitted " Funeral " to be the episode by which she would be judged .
Groff returns for the second of three consecutive episodes as Jesse . Terri 's colleague Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) also returns , and makes his only appearance of the second season after having featured in several episodes during the first . Other recurring guest stars in the episode include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , and in an uncredited appearance in a video shown during the funeral scene , Sue 's sister Jean Sylvester ( Robin Trocki ) . Additional guests include Becky 's mother Donna Jackson ( Kari Coleman ) , and Jim Metzler as the Reverend who presides at the funeral .
" Funeral " features cover versions of five songs : " Back to Black " by Amy Winehouse , sung by Rivera ; " Some People " from Gypsy , performed by Colfer ; " Try a Little Tenderness " by Otis Redding , sung by Riley ; " My Man " in the Barbra Streisand version from the film of Funny Girl , performed by Michele ; and " Pure Imagination " from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , sung by New Directions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Funeral " was first broadcast on May 17 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 97 million American viewers during its initial airing , despite airing simultaneously with the NCIS season finale on CBS , The Biggest Loser on NBC , Dancing With the Stars Freestyle Special on ABC , and the One Tree Hill season finale on The CW . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from those of the previous episode , " Prom Queen " — which was watched by 9 @.@ 29 million American viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 7 / 11 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon first airing on television .
The episode 's Canadian broadcast , also on May 17 , 2011 , drew 1 @.@ 58 million viewers . It was the fourteenth most @-@ watched show of the week , and ranked two places higher than the previous week 's " Prom Queen " , even though it drew 13 % fewer viewers than the 1 @.@ 82 million recorded for that episode . In Australia , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 07 million viewers on June 8 , 2011 , which made Glee the seventh most @-@ watched show of the night and the twenty @-@ first most @-@ watched for the week . This was up slightly from " Prom Queen " , which attracted 1 @.@ 04 million viewers on June 1 , 2011 , and was the eighth most @-@ watched program of the night and twenty @-@ sixth of the week . In the UK , the episode debuted on June 7 , 2011 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 19 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 76 million on E4 , and 427 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , which made it the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week . This was up slightly over " Prom Queen " , which aired on May 23 , 2011 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 11 million viewers , again the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Funeral " was met with a wide range of reviews , from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical . Lisa Respers France of CNN said it was " one of the best episodes ever " , and MTV 's Aly Semigran called it " authentic " and " one of the very best " of the season if not the series as a whole . Robert Canning of IGN wrote that it was " a great episode that truly showcased the talents of Jane Lynch " and rated it 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman said that the episode " felt like a recycled version of things we 've seen previously " and added that the show is " not as entertaining when it 's simply a showcase " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " C " and characterized the funeral scene as " the highlight of an uneven episode " . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon wrote , " Killing off Sue 's sister seemed cruel , but ultimately paid off — it 's too bad the episode completely derailed afterward , dying its own rapid death in turn . " Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times had little good to say , and singled out the writers for doing " such a crappy job " on the penultimate episode of the season .
Lynch as Sue received high praise for her acting . Canning wrote that she " stole the episode " and " perfectly portrayed a woman [ whose ] hard heart was trying terribly not to break , but not being able to stop it . " BuddyTV 's John Kubicek stated , " it 's impossible for me to say that Lynch wasn 't exceptional , because her slow breakdown and attempt to cover @-@ up her emotions was well done and fit perfectly with the character . " Respers France commented that " we got to see the range and complexity of Sue Sylvester " , and Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly said that Lynch did an " outstanding job of delivering even the funniest quips with an underlying sense of sadness " . Sue 's characterization in the series was criticized by several reviewers , however . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times stated that the " consistent inconsistency of Sue 's character is wearing thin " , and that " our sense of her fails to advance , wandering endlessly between pure evil and pure love for her sister . " Futterman called the episode a " too @-@ little @-@ too late attempt at redemption for Sue 's poor characterization this season . " VanDerWerff wrote that the episode " feels very self @-@ consciously like a way to just remove her character from the table for the season finale " , that " it feels very self @-@ consciously like an attempt by the show to address the fact that the character doesn 't make any sense " , and criticized the death of Jean : " killing her solely to right a wayward character arc is lazy writing , and no amount of actor commitment can wholly save it . " Fallon described the funeral plot line as " pure , classic Glee : Egregiously random , emotionally manipulative , wholly unnecessary to plot development , and , in the end , deeply moving . "
The secondary plot line , about the auditions for New Directions soloist at Nationals , was roundly criticized . Canning called it a " faux drama " , though he added that Jesse was " a delight to despise " , and VanDerWerff said it was " completely ridiculous to do this with Nationals coming up " in a week 's time , and " constructed almost entirely " to make Jesse a " jerk " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson also hit on the lack of preparation for the upcoming competition and stated that it seemed " like a very bad idea " to be going without a setlist already decided on , much less with songs unwritten . He said the four audition numbers were " awkwardly paced " , though he thought they were " fantastic " ; Reiter said they " stood out like glinting gems in a somewhat muddy episode " . Canning and VanDerWerff also criticized the block of four songs in the middle of the episode which , as VanDerWerff put it , " stops the show cold " . James Poniewozik of Time was unhappy for another reason altogether : " Having four people stand up and sing solos into a microphone may be music ; but it ain 't a musical . "
Poniewozik wrote of Will 's Broadway plans that " his ambitions , and guilt over them , make a much more believable and compelling conflict than Matthew Morrison has had to convey for much of the season . " VanDerWerff complimented Morrison on his portrayal of Will : " every time the show hands him anything to play that 's something that makes vague sense , he does a good job with it . " Other kudos for the actors were provided by Respers France , who highlighted the " further great acting " seen during " Finn and Quinn 's moment in his truck " , and E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins , who called the scene where Finn and Kurt help Sue with her sister 's room " positively heartbreaking " , and the trio of characters " magnificent " . Although Canning stated that " Terri leaving lacked much punch " , Poniewozik commented that it was " satisfying to see her realized as an adult for once " .
= = = Musical commentary = = =
While the placement of the four solos together in the middle of the episode was questioned , the songs themselves were met with approbation : VanDerWerff called all four " really good performances " . Santana 's rendition of " Back to Black " was declared " spot on " by Futterman , and Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that it was performed " with raspy sensitivity " , and went " deep into the emotional truth of the song " . Kubicek was less enthusiastic , and called it " pretty good , but nothing groundbreaking or special " , and Semigran called it " decent " . Benigno said that " Rivera 's delivery gives this song its smoldering swagger " and gave it an " A − " , and Poniewozik praised Rivera as " really impressive " .
" Some People " received adequate to good reviews . Gonzalez missed Kurt 's usual charisma and thought the performance " a bit lackluster " , and Benigno called it " kind of a boring cover " . It received their lowest grades of the show , " B " and " B − " , respectively . Kubicek stated , " Kurt has a unique voice that sounds positively beautiful with the right melodic song , but this is a terrible song for his style " , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk added , after he gave it two out of five stars , that it was " not the best showcase of Kurt 's talents " . Futterman and Reiter referred approvingly to Kurt 's " upper register " , and both Reiter and Respers France said he " ripped it " on his song .
" Try a Little Tenderness " received a stream of bouquets from the critics . Kubicek raved that Mercedes " gave 100 % of what she has to offer , which is pure greatness " , and Respers France said she " stole the night " and was " amazing " . Berk broke his own scale of one to five stars with six stars , and praised " the unstinting instrument that is Mercedes ' voice " . Gonzalez gave it an " A " and called it " pure perfection " , but Benigno was more restrained with a " B + " , and wrote " she hits a little too hard for my taste " and " the vocals … threaten to engulf the song itself " .
" My Man " was also lauded . Flandez called
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ético Madrid in the final .
= = Crest and colours = =
= = = Emblem = = =
The first crest had a simple design consisting of a decorative interlacing of the three initials of the club , " MCF " for Madrid Club de Fútbol , in dark blue on a white shirt . The first change in the crest occurred in 1908 when the letters adopted a more streamlined form and appeared inside a circle . The next change in the configuration of the crest did not occur until the presidency of Pedro Parages in 1920 . At that time , King Alfonso XIII granted the club his royal patronage which came in the form of the title " Real Madrid , " meaning " Royal . " Thus , Alfonso 's crown was added to the crest and the club styled itself Real Madrid Club de Fútbol .
With the dissolution of the monarchy in 1931 , all the royal symbols ( the crown on the crest and the title of Real ) were eliminated . The crown was replaced by the dark mulberry band of the Region of Castile . In 1941 , two years after the end of the Civil War , the crest 's " Real Corona " , or " Royal Crown " , was restored while the mulberry stripe of Castile was retained as well . In addition , the whole crest was made full color , with gold being the most prominent , and the club was again called Real Madrid Club de Fútbol . The most recent modification to the crest occurred in 2001 when the club wanted to better situate itself for the 21st century and further standardize its crest . One of the modifications made was changing the mulberry stripe to a more bluish shade .
= = = Home kit = = =
Real Madrid 's traditional home colours are all white , although before its foundation , in the club 's first game against themselves , they adopted a blue and a red oblique stripe on the shirt to differentiate the two teams ( the club crest design has a purple stripe which is not associated to this . It was incorporated the year they lost the royal crown , as it the traditional region of Castile colour ) ; but unlike today , black socks were worn . Lastly , the black socks will be replaced by dark blue ones . Real Madrid has maintained the white shirt for its home kit throughout the history of the club . There was , however , one season that the shirt and shorts were not both white . It was an initiative undertaken by Escobal and Quesada in 1925 ; the two were traveling through England when they noticed the kit worn by London @-@ based team Corinthian F.C. , one of the most famous teams at the time known for its elegance and sportsmanship . It was decided that Real Madrid would wear black shorts in an attempt to replicate the English team , but the initiative lasted just one year . After being eliminated from the cup by Barcelona with a 1 – 5 defeat in Madrid and a 2 – 0 defeat in Catalonia , President Parages decided to return to an all @-@ white kit , claiming that the other kit brought bad luck . By the early 1940s , the manager changed the kit again by adding buttons to the shirt and the club 's crest on the left breast , which has remained ever since . On 23 November 1947 , in a game against Atlético Madrid at the Metropolitano Stadium , Real Madrid became the first Spanish team to wear numbered shirts . English club Leeds United permanently switched their blue shirt for a white one in the 1960s , to emulate the dominant Real Madrid of the era .
Real 's traditional away colours are all blue or all purple . Since the advent of the replica kit market , the club has also released various other one colour designs , including red , green , orange and black . The club 's kit is manufactured by Adidas , whose contract extends from 1998 . Real Madrid 's first shirt sponsor , Zanussi , agreed for the 1982 – 83 , 1983 – 84 and 1984 – 85 seasons . Following that , the club was sponsored by Parmalat and Otaysa before a long @-@ term deal was signed with Teka in 1992 . In 2001 , Real Madrid ended their contract with Teka and for one season and used the Realmadrid.com logo to promote the club 's website . Then , in 2002 , a deal was signed with Siemens Mobile and in 2006 , the BenQ Siemens logo appeared on the club 's shirt . Real Madrid 's shirt sponsor from 2007 until 2013 was bwin.com following the economic problems of BenQ Siemens . It is currently Fly Emirates .
= = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = =
Source :
= = Grounds = =
After moving between grounds , the team moved to the Campo de O 'Donnell in 1912 , which remained its home ground for 11 years . After this period , the club moved for one year to the Campo de Ciudad Lineal , a small ground with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 spectators . After that , Real Madrid moved its home matches to Estadio Chamartín , which was inaugurated on 17 May 1923 with a match against Newcastle United . In this stadium , which hosted 22 @,@ 500 spectators , Real Madrid celebrated its first Spanish league title . After some successes , the 1943 elected president Santiago Bernabéu decided that the Estadio Chamartín was not big enough for the ambitions of the club , and thus a new stadium was built and was inaugurated on 14 December 1947 . This was the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium as it is known today , although it did not acquire the present name until 1955 . The first match at the Bernabéu was played between Real Madrid and the Portuguese club Belenenses and won by Los Blancos , 3 – 1 , the first goal being scored by Sabino Barinaga .
The capacity has changed frequently , peaking at 120 @,@ 000 after a 1953 expansion . Since then , there have been a number of reductions due to modernizations ( the last standing places went away in 1998 – 99 in response to UEFA regulations which forbids standing at matches in the UEFA competition ) , countered to some extent by expansions . The last change was an increase of about five thousand to a capacity of 85 @,@ 454 , effected in 2011 . A plan to add a retractable roof has been announced . Real Madrid has the fourth @-@ highest of the average attendances of European football clubs , behind only Borussia Dortmund , Barcelona and Manchester United .
The Bernabéu has hosted the 1964 European Championship final , the 1982 FIFA World Cup final , the 1957 , 1969 and 1980 European Cup finals and the 2010 Champions League Final . The stadium has its own Madrid Metro station along the 10 line called Santiago Bernabéu . On 14 November 2007 , the Bernabéu has been upgraded to Elite Football Stadium status by UEFA .
On 9 May 2006 , the Alfredo Di Stéfano Stadium was inaugurated in the City of Madrid , where Real Madrid usually trains . The inaugural match was played between Real Madrid and Stade Reims , a rematch of the 1956 European Cup final . Real Madrid won the match 6 – 1 with goals from Sergio Ramos , Antonio Cassano ( 2 ) , Roberto Soldado ( 2 ) and José Manuel Jurado . The venue is now part of the Ciudad Real Madrid , the club 's new training facilities located outside Madrid in Valdebebas . The stadium holds 5 @,@ 000 people and is Real Madrid Castilla 's home ground . It is named after former Real legend Alfredo Di Stéfano .
= = Records and statistics = =
Raúl holds the record for most Real Madrid appearances , having played 741 first @-@ team matches from 1994 to 2010 . Iker Casillas comes second with 725 appearances , followed by Manuel Sanchis , Jr. having played 711 times . The record for a goalkeeper is held by Iker Casillas , with 725 appearances . With 166 * caps ( 162 while at the club ) , he is also Real 's most capped international player while with 127 caps ( 47 while at the club ) , Luís Figo of Portugal is Real 's most capped foreign international player .
Cristiano Ronaldo is Real Madrid 's all @-@ time top goalscorer , with 360 goals . Five other players have also scored over 200 goals for Real : Alfredo Di Stéfano ( 1953 – 64 ) , Santillana ( 1971 – 88 ) , Ferenc Puskás ( 1958 – 66 ) , Hugo Sánchez ( 1985 – 92 ) and the previous goalscoring record @-@ holder Raúl ( 1994 – 2010 ) . Cristiano Ronaldo also holds the record for the most league goals scored in one season ( 48 in 2014 – 15 ) , alongside being Real 's top goalscorer of all time in La Liga history with 256 goals . Di Stéfano 's 49 goals in 58 matches was for decades the all @-@ time highest tally in the European Cup , until it was surpassed by Raúl in 2005 , which now is held by Cristiano Ronaldo with 93 goals . The fastest goal in the history of the club ( 15 seconds ) was scored by the Brazilian Ronaldo on 3 December 2003 during a league match against Atlético Madrid .
Officially , the highest home attendance figure for a Real Madrid match is 83 @,@ 329 , which was for a football cup competition , Copa del Rey , in 2006 . The current legal capacity of the Santiago Bernabéu is 80 @,@ 354 . The club 's average attendance in 2007 – 08 season was 76 @,@ 234 , the highest in European Leagues . Real has also set records in Spanish football , most notably the most domestic titles ( 32 as of 2012 – 13 ) and the most seasons won in a row ( five , during 1960 – 65 and 1985 – 90 ) . With 121 matches ( from 17 February 1957 to 7 March 1965 ) , the club holds the record for longest unbeaten run at home in La Liga .
The club also hold the record for winning the European Cup / UEFA Champions League ten times and for the most semi @-@ final appearances ( 27 ) . As of April 2016 , Cristiano Ronaldo is the all @-@ time top scorer in the UEFA Champions League , with 93 goals in total , 78 while playing for Real Madrid . The team has the record number of consecutive participations in the European Cup ( before it became the Champions League ) with 15 , from 1955 – 56 to 1969 – 70 . Among the club 's on @-@ field records is a 22 @-@ game winning streak in all competitions during the 2014 – 2015 season , a Spanish record . The same season the team tied the win @-@ streak for games in the UEFA Champions League , with ten .
In June 2009 , the club broke its own record for the highest transfer fee ever paid in the history of football by agreeing to pay Manchester United € 96 million ( US $ 131 @.@ 5 million , £ 80 million ) for the services of Cristiano Ronaldo . The fee of € 76 million ( over $ 100 million , £ 45 @.@ 8 million ) for Zinedine Zidane 's transfer from Juventus to Real Madrid in 2001 was the previous highest transfer fee ever paid . This record had been broken previously in June 2009 , for a few days , when Real Madrid agreed to buy Kaká from Milan . The transfer of Tottenham Hotspur 's Gareth Bale in 2013 was reportedly the new world record signing , with the transfer price expected at around € 100 million . In January 2016 , documents pertaining to Bale 's transfer were leaked which confirmed a world record transfer fee of € 100 @,@ 759 @,@ 418 . The club 's sale record came on 26 August 2014 , when Manchester United signed Ángel Di María for € 75 million .
= = Support = =
During most home matches the majority of the seats in the stadium are occupied by season ticket holders , of which there are average of 68 @,@ 670 . To become a season ticket holder one must first be a socio , or club member . In addition to members , the club has more than 1 @,@ 800 peñas ( official , club @-@ affiliated supporters ' groups ) in Spain and around the world . Real Madrid has the second highest average all @-@ time attendance in Spanish football and regularly attracts over 74 @,@ 000 fans to Santiago Bernabéu ; it was the second best @-@ supported La Liga team in the 2004 – 05 season , with an average gate of 71 @,@ 900 . Real Madrid is one of the best supported teams globally , and has the second largest social media following in the world among sports teams , after Barcelona , with over 85 million Facebook fans as of November 2015 .
Real Madrid 's hardcore supporters are the so @-@ called Ultras Sur supporters , or simply Ultras . They are known for their extreme right @-@ wing politics , akin to Barcelona 's hardcore supporters group Boixos Nois . The Ultras Surs have developed an alliance with other right wing groups , most notably Lazio Irriducibili fans , and have also developed an alliance with left @-@ wing groups . On several occasions , they have racially abused opposing players and have been investigated by UEFA for doing so . Florentino Pérez took it upon himself to ban the Ultras from the Bernabéu and assign their seats to the general public . This decision was controversial with some of the Bernabéu faithful , however , as the lively atmosphere of games would suffer as a result . The Ultras have since held protests outside the Bernabéu and have demanded to be reinstated and allowed to enter the grounds .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = El Clásico = = =
There is often a fierce rivalry between the two strongest teams in a national league , and this is particularly the case in La Liga , where the game between Real Madrid and Barcelona is known as " The Classic " ( El Clásico ) . From the start of national competitions , the clubs were seen as representatives of two rival regions in Spain , Catalonia and Castile , as well as of the two cities . The rivalry reflects what many regard as the political and cultural tensions felt between Catalans and the Castilians , seen by one author as a re @-@ enactment of the Spanish Civil War . Over the years , the record from Real Madrid and Barcelona is 81 victories for Madrid , 76 victories for Barcelona , and 39 draws .
During the dictatorships of Primo de Rivera and especially of Francisco Franco ( 1939 – 1975 ) , all regional cultures were suppressed . All of the languages spoken in Spanish territory , except Spanish ( Castilian ) itself , were officially banned . Symbolising the Catalan people 's desire for freedom , Barcelona became " More than a club " ( " Més que un club " ) for the Catalans . According to Manuel Vázquez Montalbán , the best way for the Catalans to demonstrate their identity was by joining Barcelona . It was less risky than joining a clandestine anti @-@ Franco movement , and allowed them to express their dissidence . During Franco 's regime , however , the Blaugrana team was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level , even giving two awards to him .
On the other hand , Real Madrid was widely seen as the embodiment of the sovereign oppressive centralism and the fascist regime at management level and beyond – Santiago Bernabéu , the former club president for whom Real Madrid 's stadium is named , fought on the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War . During the war , however , members of both clubs , such as Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra , suffered at the hands of Francoists .
During the 1950s , the rivalry was exacerbated further when there was a controversy surrounding the transfer of Alfredo Di Stéfano , who finally played for Real Madrid and was key to their subsequent success . The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice in a controversial knock @-@ out round of the European Cup , with Madrid receiving unfavourable treatment from the referee . In 2002 , the European encounter between the clubs was dubbed the " Match of The Century " by Spanish media , and Madrid 's win was watched by more than 500 million people .
= = = El Derbi madrileño = = =
The club 's nearest neighbour is Atlético Madrid , a rivalry being shared between fans of both football teams . Although Atlético was originally founded by three Basque students in 1903 , it was joined in 1904 by dissident members of Madrid FC . Tensions escalated further after Atlético were merged with the football team of the Spanish airforce ( and thus renamed Atlético Aviación ) , and in the 1940s , Atlético was perceived as the preferred team of Franco 's regime before he revelled in Real 's European success in the 1950s . Furthermore , Real supporters initially came from the middle and upper classes while the Atlético supporters were drawn from the working class . Today , however , these distinctions are largely blurred . They met for the first time on 21 February 1929 in matchday three of the first League Championship at the former Chamartín . It was the first official derby of the new tournament , and Real won 2 – 1 .
The rivalry first gained international attention in 1959 during the European Cup when the two clubs met in the semi @-@ final . Real won the first leg 2 – 1 at the Bernabéu while Atlético won 1 – 0 at the Metropolitano . The tie went to a replay , which Real won 2 – 1 . Atlético , however , gained some revenge when , led by former Real Madrid coach José Villalonga , it defeated its city rivals in two successive Copa del Generalísimo finals in 1960 and 1961 .
Between 1961 and 1989 , when Real dominated La Liga , only Atlético offered it any serious challenge , winning Liga titles in 1966 , 1970 , 1973 and 1977 . In 1965 , Atlético became the first team to beat Real at the Bernabéu in eight years . Real Madrid 's record against Atlético in more recent times is very favorable . A high point coming in the 2002 – 03 season , when Real clinched the La Liga title after a 0 – 4 victory at Atlético at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . Atlético 's first win over its city rivals since 1999 came with the Copa del Rey win in May 2013 . In 2013 – 14 , Real and Atlético were finalists of UEFA Champions League , the first final which hosted two clubs from same city . Real Madrid triumphed with 4 – 1 in extra time . On 7 February 2015 , Real suffered their first defeat in 14 years at the Vicente Calderón , a 4 – 0 loss . On 28 May 2016 , Real and Atlético met again for the Champions League title in Milan which resulted in a win for Real Madrid via Penalty Shootout .
= = = European rivalry = = =
Real Madrid and Bayern Munich are two of the most successful clubs in the UEFA Champions League / European Cup competition , Real winning eleven times and Bayern winning five times . Real Madrid versus Bayern is the match that has historically been played most often in the Champions League , with 16 matches and the European Cup with 22 matches . Real 's biggest loss at home in the Champions League came at the hands of Bayern on 29 February 2000 , 2 – 4 . Real Madrid supporters often refer to Bayern as the " Bestia negra " ( " Black Beast " ) . The two teams met in the 2011 – 12 Champions League semi @-@ finals , which resulted in 3 – 3 on aggregate , forcing extra time and penalties . Bayern won 3 – 1 on penalties to reach their first @-@ ever home Champions League final . They then again met in 2013 – 14 UEFA Champions League semi @-@ finals , a rematch of the 2012 semi @-@ final , with Real Madrid winning 5 – 0 on aggregate .
= = Finances and ownership = =
It was under Florentino Pérez 's first presidency ( 2000 – 2006 ) that Real Madrid started its ambition of becoming the world 's richest professional football club . The club ceded part of its training grounds to the city of Madrid in 2001 , and sold the rest to four corporations : Repsol YPF , Mutua Automovilística de Madrid , Sacyr Vallehermoso and OHL . The sale eradicated the club 's debts , paving the way for it to buy the world 's most expensive players , such as Zinedine Zidane , Luís Figo , Ronaldo and David Beckham . The city had previously rezoned the training grounds for development , a move which in turn increased their value , and then bought the site . The European Commission started an investigation into whether the city overpaid for the property , to be considered a form of state subsidy .
The sale of the training ground for office buildings cleared Real Madrid 's debts of € 270 million and enabled the club to embark upon an unprecedented spending spree which brought big @-@ name players to the club . In addition , profit from the sale was spent on a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art training complex on the city 's outskirts . Although Pérez 's policy resulted in increased financial success from the exploitation of the club 's high marketing potential around the world , especially in Asia , it came under increasing criticism for being too focused on marketing the Real Madrid brand and not enough on the performances of the team .
By September 2007 , Real Madrid was considered the most valuable football brand in Europe by BBDO . In 2008 , it was ranked the second @-@ most valuable club in football , with a value of € 951 million ( £ 640 million / $ 1 @.@ 285 billion ) , only beaten by Manchester United , which was valued at € 1 @.@ 333 billion ( £ 900 million ) . In 2010 , Real Madrid had the highest turnover in football worldwide . In September 2009 , Real Madrid 's management announced plans to open its own dedicated theme park by 2013 .
A study at Harvard University concluded that Real Madrid " is one of the 20 most important brand names and the only one in which its executives , the players , are well @-@ known . We have some spectacular figures in regard to worldwide support of the club . There are an estimated 287 million people worldwide who follow Real Madrid . " In 2010 , Forbes evaluated Real Madrid 's worth to be around € 992 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 323 billion ) , ranking them second after Manchester United , based on figures from the 2008 – 09 season . According to Deloitte , Real Madrid had a recorded revenue of € 401 million in the same period , ranking first .
Along with Barcelona , Athletic Bilbao and Osasuna , Real Madrid is organised as a registered association . This means that Real Madrid is owned by its supporters who elect the club president . The club president cannot invest his own money into the club and the club can only spend what it earns , which is mainly derived through merchandise sales , television rights and ticket sales . Unlike a limited company , it is not possible to purchase shares in the club , but only membership . The members of Real Madrid , called socios , form an assembly of delegates which is the highest governing body of the club . As of 2010 , the club has 60 @,@ 000 socios . At the end of the 2009 – 10 season , the club board of directors of the club stated that Real Madrid had a net debt of € 244 @.@ 6 million , € 82 @.@ 1 million lower than the previous fiscal year . Real Madrid announced that it had a net debt of € 170 million after the 2010 – 11 season . From 2007 to 2011 , the club made a net profit of € 190 million .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Real Madrid made € 150 million through ticket sales , which was the highest in top @-@ flight football . The club has the highest number of shirt sales a season , around 1 @.@ 5 million . For the 2010 – 11 season its wage bill totalled € 169 million , which was second @-@ highest in Europe behind Barcelona . However , its wage bill to turnover ratio was the best in Europe at 43 percent , ahead of Manchester United and Arsenal at 46 percent and 50 percent , respectively . In 2013 , Forbes listed the club as the world 's most valuable sports team , worth $ 3 @.@ 3 billion .
= = Popular culture = =
Real Madrid was the featured club in the second edition of the Goal ! football movie trilogy , Goal ! 2 : Living the Dream ... ( 2007 ) . The film follows former Newcastle United star Santiago Muñez as he is first scouted , and then signed by Real Madrid for the 2005 – 06 season . The film 's creators wanted to put emphasis on the changes in Muñez 's life after his move to Madrid . Production was done with the full support of UEFA , allowing the film crew to use many real life players in cameo roles . Real Madrid squad members featured in the film included Iker Casillas , Zinedine Zidane , David Beckham , Ronaldo , Roberto Carlos , Raúl , Sergio Ramos , Robinho , Michael Owen , Míchel Salgado , Júlio Baptista , Steve McManaman and Iván Helguera . Non @-@ Real Madrid players to make cameo appearances included Ronaldinho , Thierry Henry , Lionel Messi , Samuel Eto 'o , Andrés Iniesta , Pablo Aimar , Fredrik Ljungberg , Cesc Fàbregas and Santiago Cañizares . In the film , both Florentino Pérez and Alfredo Di Stéfano presented the fictional player Muñez to the club after his signing .
Real , The Movie is a 2005 part feature , part documentary film that showcases the world @-@ wide passion for Real Madrid C.F. Produced by the club and directed by Borja Manso , it follows five sub @-@ stories of fans from around the world and their love for Real Madrid . Along with the fictional portion of the film , it also contains real footage of the squad , during training at Ciudad Real Madrid , matches , and interviews . Although the film mentions all of the squad , it mainly focuses on galácticos such as David Beckham , Zinedine Zidane , Raúl , Luís Figo , Ronaldo , Iker Casillas , and Roberto Carlos , among others . The film was originally produced in Spanish , but has been dubbed for their world @-@ wide fanbase .
The book White Storm : 100 years of Real Madrid by Phil Ball was the first English @-@ language history of Real Madrid . Published in 2002 , it talks about the most successful moments of the club during its first centenary , having been translated into various languages . In late 2011 , Real Madrid released a digital music album , entitled Legends , and a remix of the club 's anthem , " Himno del Real Madrid , " was released as the first single from the album .
= = = Real Madrid TV = = =
Real Madrid TV is an encrypted digital television channel , operated by Real Madrid and specialising in the club . The channel is available in Spanish and English . It is located at Ciudad Real Madrid in Valdebebas ( Madrid ) , Real Madrid 's training centre .
= = = Hala Madrid = = =
Hala Madrid is a magazine published quarterly for the Real Madrid club members and the Madridistas Fan Club card holders . The phrase Hala Madrid , meaning " Forward Madrid " or " Go Madrid " , is also the title of the club 's official anthem , which is often sung by the Madridistas ( the club 's fans ) . The magazine includes reports on the club 's matches in the previous month , as well as information about the reserve and youth teams . Features often include interviews with players , both past and present , and the club 's historic matches .
= = Honours = =
As of 24 May 2014 , Real Madrid has won a record 32 La Liga , a record eleven European Cup / UEFA Champions League and a shared record three Intercontinental Cup trophies . The club was awarded with the recognition of " FIFA Club of the 20th Century " on 23 December 2000 , and named " Best European Club of the 20th Century " by the IFFHS in London on 11 May 2010 . It also received the FIFA Order of Merit in 2004 . Added to this , Real is allowed to wear a multiple – winner badge on their shirt during UEFA Champions League matches as they have won more than five European Cups .
= = = Domestic competitions = = =
La Liga
Winners ( 32 ) – record : 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 , 1953 – 54 , 1954 – 55 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1960 – 61 , 1961 – 62 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1966 – 67 , 1967 – 68 , 1968 – 69 , 1971 – 72 , 1974 – 75 , 1975 – 76 , 1977 – 78 , 1978 – 79 , 1979 – 80 , 1985 – 86 , 1986 – 87 , 1987 – 88 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1994 – 95 , 1996 – 97 , 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2011 – 12
Copa del Rey
Winners ( 19 ) : 1905 , 1906 , 1907 , 1908 , 1917 , 1934 , 1936 , 1946 , 1947 , 1961 – 62 , 1969 – 70 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1979 – 80 , 1981 – 82 , 1988 – 89 , 1992 – 93 , 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Supercopa de España
Winners ( 9 ) : 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1993 , 1997 , 2001 , 2003 , 2008 , 2012
Copa Eva Duarte ( the forerunner to the Supercopa de España )
Winners : 1947
Copa de la Liga
Winners : 1984 – 85
= = = European competitions = = =
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Winners ( 11 ) – record : 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1958 – 59 , 1959 – 60 , 1965 – 66 , 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000 , 2001 – 02 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
UEFA Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86
UEFA Super Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 2002 , 2014
= = = Worldwide competitions = = =
Intercontinental Cup
Winners ( 3 ) – shared record : 1960 , 1998 , 2002
FIFA Club World Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2014
= = Players = =
Spanish teams are limited to three players without EU citizenship . The squad list includes only the principal nationality of each player ; several non @-@ European players on the squad have dual citizenship with an EU country . Also , players from the ACP countries — countries in Africa , the Caribbean , and the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement — are not counted against non @-@ EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling .
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 20 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Current technical staff = = =
= = = Management = = =
= Steamtown , U.S.A. =
Steamtown , U.S.A. , was a steam locomotive museum that ran steam excursions out of North Walpole , New Hampshire , and Bellows Falls , Vermont , from the 1960s to 1983 . The museum was founded by millionaire seafood industrialist F. Nelson Blount . The non @-@ profit Steamtown Foundation took over operations following his death in 1967 . Because of Vermont 's air quality regulations restricting steam excursions , declining visitor attendance , and disputes over the use of track , some pieces of the collection were relocated to Scranton , Pennsylvania , in the mid @-@ 1980s and the rest were auctioned off . After the move , Steamtown continued to operate in Scranton but failed to attract the expected 200 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 visitors . Within two years the tourist attraction was facing bankruptcy , and more pieces of the collection were sold to pay off debt .
In 1986 , the United States House of Representatives , under the urging of Pennsylvania Representative Joseph M. McDade , voted to approve $ 8 million to study the collection and to begin the process of making it a National Historic Site . As a result , the National Park Service ( NPS ) conducted historical research on the equipment that remained in the Foundation 's possession . This research was used as a Scope of Collections Statement for the Steamtown National Historic Site . The scope was published in 1991 under the title Steamtown Special History Study . The report provided concise histories of each piece of equipment and made recommendations as to whether or not each piece belonged in the soon @-@ to @-@ be government @-@ funded collection .
By 1995 , Steamtown had been acquired and developed by the NPS with a $ 66 million allocation . Several more pieces have been removed from the collection as a result of the government acquisition . Part of the Blount collection is still on display at the Steamtown National Historic Site in Scranton .
= = History = =
= = = Formation of the collection = = =
F. Nelson Blount , the heir to the largest seafood processor in the United States , was an avid railroad enthusiast . When he was just seventeen years old he wrote a book on steam power . Acquiring the narrow @-@ gauge Edaville Railroad in Carver , Massachusetts in 1955 , he began amassing one of the largest collections of antique steam locomotives in the United States . By 1964 , another part of his collection housed at North Walpole , New Hampshire consisted of 25 steam locomotives from the United States and Canada , 10 other locomotives , and 25 pieces of rolling stock . The Monadnock , Steamtown & Northern Railroad , as the enterprise was then called , ran excursions between Keene and Westmoreland , New Hampshire . In addition to Edaville Railroad and Steamtown , Blount also ran excursions at Pleasure Island in Wakefield , Massachusetts and Freedomland U.S.A. in New York City . In the early 1960s , Blount came close to entering into an agreement with the state of New Hampshire in which he would donate 20 locomotives to a museum which was to be located in Keene . However , the plan , which was originally approved by New Hampshire governor Wesley Powell , in 1962 , was later rejected by the new governor , John W. King . An advisory committee had said of the proposed plan , that it " does not take advantage of anything that is singularly and peculiarly New Hampshire . "
In 1964 , incorporation papers were filed for the " Steamtown Foundation for the Preservation of Steam and Railroad Americana " . The non @-@ profit charitable , educational organization was to have nine non @-@ salaried directors , including the five incorporators of which Blount was one . The other incorporators were former New Hampshire governor , Lane Dwinell ; Emile Bussiere ; Robert L. Mallat , Jr . , mayor of Keene ; and Bellows Falls Municipal Judge , Thomas P. Salmon , who later became governor of Vermont . The president of the Campbell Soup Company , William B. Murphy , who had also served as National Chairman of Radio Free Europe , and Fredrick Richardson , then vice president of Blount Seafood , were among the other directors . The first order of business for the Steamtown Foundation was to acquire the Blount collection at North Walpole , and relocate it to property once owned by the Rutland Railroad , in Bellows Falls , Vermont .
= = = Steamtown in Vermont = = =
F. Nelson Blount was killed when his private airplane hit a tree during an emergency landing , in Marlboro , New Hampshire , on August 31 , 1967 . By that time a good deal of Blount 's collection was controlled by the Steamtown Foundation and had been relocated to Bellows Falls . Blount owned several corporations and one , the Green Mountain Railroad ( GMRC ) , controlled the tracks that lay between Walpole , Bellows Falls and Chester , Vermont , which Steamtown was to use for its excursions . When Blount died most of the controlling stock of the GMRC was transferred to the president of the railroad , Robert Adams .
Throughout its tenure in Vermont , Steamtown provided several types of excursions , primarily in the summer and during the peak foliage season of the autumn . Occasionally , these trips would be lengthy , like one that ran from Boston to Montreal , or those that ran between Bellows Falls and Rutland , Vermont . On a daily basis the excursions ran from Riverside station in Bellows Falls to Chester depot . The cost of the trip , which in 1977 was $ 5 @.@ 75 for an adult and $ 2 @.@ 95 for a child , was combined with entrance into the museum , which was the grounds of Riverside station . The station was located about 2 miles ( 3 km ) outside of town and was situated on the bank of the Connecticut River . One newspaper travel writer , Bill Rice , described the 13 miles ( 21 km ) trip from Riverside to Chester : " The trip to Chester affords a beautiful view of unspoiled Vermont countryside @-@ covered bridges , vintage farms with grazing livestock and cornfield and a winding river with a deep gorge and picturesque waterfall . " The river that Rice referred to was the Williams River , which crossed the route of the train seven times . The waterfall was at Brockway Mills Gorge and was seen from a bridge 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the gorge . Rice also said that at the time he was writing , 1977 , Steamtown had the largest collection of steam locomotives in the world .
In 1971 , the Board of Health of Vermont issued a waiver to the GMRC for Vermont 's air pollution regulations . The waiver permitted the operation of steam locomotive excursions between Steamtown 's Riverside station at Bellows Falls , and Chester depot . In 1974 , as the state of Vermont prepared for its celebration of the country 's bicentenary , in which the Steamtown excursion featured prominently , the subject of the air pollution regulations came up again . The tourist attraction was operating on temporary permits that allowed it to operate excursions in Vermont . By 1976 , the relationship between Steamtown and GMRC deteriorated as the two organizations fought over maintenance of the tracks , which were owned by the state of Vermont .
By 1978 , the Steamtown Foundation had begun scouting for a new location for Steamtown , U.S.A. Orlando and perhaps other locations in Florida were under consideration . In 1980 , Ray Holland , the Chairman of the Board of Steamtown Foundation , resigned after accusing the board of incompetence . His resignation was followed by that of Robert Barbera , a long @-@ time director of the board . In the year that followed , Steamtown did not run excursions . Don Ball , Jr . , had taken over direction of Steamtown by this time and discovered that the excursion train did not meet federal safety guidelines . In 1981 , despite its vast holdings of vintage railroad stock , Steamtown , U.S.A. had only 17 @,@ 000 visitors , while Connecticut 's Essex Valley Railroad , which ran two small engines , had 139 @,@ 000 visitors . Even in its best year , 1973 , the Vermont location had attracted only 65 @,@ 000 visitors .
Self @-@ syndicated newspaper columnist Michael McManus once said that his goal in writing his weekly column was " to suggest answers to problems of the old industrial states . " In March 1982 a substantial article by McManus appeared in the Bangor Daily News . In the article , McManus proposed several reasons why a city , like Chicago , Pittsburgh , or Scranton might find the addition of a tourist attraction like Steamtown beneficial . McManus went on to explain why the business was failing in Vermont . Among the reasons the article gave for poor attendance at the Vermont site were : past failed management , an isolated location and the lack of signs on Interstate 91 , which the state opposed . In addition to these problems , the roof of the largest storage shed on the site collapsed under heavy snow the previous winter , damaging several pieces of equipment . Among the injured were the Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1293 and the Meadow River Lumber Company No. 1 Shay ( shown in the infobox ) .
When asked by McManus to describe the value of the Steamtown collection , Jim Boyd , editor of Railfan magazine said , " Everything there is no longer obtainable anywhere , whether it is the " Big Boy " Union Pacific No. 4012 or the Rahway Valley No. 15 , a nice @-@ sized locomotive any museum would give a right arm for . Most of the other large collections do not have any serviceable equipment . " McManus closed his argument for the relocation of Steamtown by pointing out , " What is at stake is more than tourism and jobs . It is a significant part of America 's past before the welder 's torch is turned on the likes of the 1877 " Prince of Liege " , the rare Union Pacific diamond stack , etc . The steel alone is worth $ 3 million .
In June 1983 , McManus wrote about Steamtown again , this time announcing that Scranton had taken his suggestion . He said that other cities in contention for the relocation were Springfield , Massachusetts , and Willimantic , Connecticut . " But on May 24 , Scranton signed a contract to get it , pledging to raise $ 2 million to cover the cost of moving 40 ancient steam engines and 60 cars , few of which are operable , and to create a museum . " Steamtown sponsored its last Vermont excursion on October 23 , 1983 , using Canadian Pacific 1246 to pull a " dozen or so cars " on a 100 miles ( 160 km ) round trip from Riverside station to Ludlow , Vermont .
= = = Steamtown in Scranton and nationalization = = =
When Scranton agreed to take on Steamtown , U.S.A. , it was estimated that the museum and excursion business would attract 200 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 visitors to the city every year . In anticipation of this economic boon , the city and a private developer spent $ 13 million to renovate the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad ( DL & W ) station and transform it into a Hilton hotel , at a time when the unemployment rate in the city was 13 percent . Only 60 @,@ 000 visitors showed up at Steamtown in 1987 , and the 1988 excursions were canceled . After only three years , it was $ 2 @.@ 2 million in debt and facing bankruptcy . Part of the problem was the cost of restoration of the new property and the deteriorating equipment . In addition , while the tourists in Vermont had enjoyed the sights of cornfields , farms , covered bridges , a waterfall and a gorge on a Steamtown excursion , the Scranton trip to Moscow , Pennsylvania , cut through one of the nation 's largest junkyards , an eyesore described by Ralph Nader as " the eighth wonder of the world " .
In 1986 , the U.S. House of Representatives , under the urging of Scranton native , Representative Joseph M. McDade , voted to approve the spending of $ 8 million to study the collection and to begin the process of making it a National Historic Site . By 1995 , Steamtown was acquired and developed by the National Park Service ( NPS ) at a total cost of $ 66 million , and opened as Steamtown National Historic Site the same year . In preparation for its acquisition of the collection , the NPS had conducted historical research during 1987 and 1988 on the equipment that still remained in the foundation 's possession . This research was used for a Scope of Collections Statement for Steamtown National Historic Site and was published in 1991 under the title Steamtown Special History Study . Aside from providing concise histories of the equipment , the report also made recommendations as to whether or not each piece belonged in the now government @-@ funded collection . Historical significance to the United States was a criterion of the recommendations . Many of the pieces of equipment that did not meet the report 's recommendations were sold or traded for pieces that had historical significance to the DL & W grounds on which the site is located .
= = The collection = =
Before its move to Scranton , Steamtown , U.S.A. sold several pieces of the collection . After the facility was nationalized , several other pieces were sold or traded for pieces that were significant to the Scranton area . Some examples of the original collection are profiled below . In some cases , the pieces of equipment discussed here are still in the collection in Scranton , but several others are not . When possible the most recent information on the location of the equipment is provided .
= = = In operation at Bellows Falls = = =
Rahway Valley No. 15 was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works , June 1916 . It is a 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type locomotive . It was built for Oneida & Western Railroad and wore the number 20 for that company . The railroad 's initial purpose was to develop Tennessee 's coal and lumber industry , but it became a short line that connected the Cincinnati , New Orleans and the Texas Pacific Railways between Oneida and Jamestown , Tennessee .
In the mid @-@ 1930s the engine was purchased by Rahway Valley Railroad in New Jersey . Renumbered 15 , the locomotive served primarily while the company 's other locomotives were being serviced . The locomotive was the favorite of master mechanic Charles Nees . " Perhaps not the most efficient engine , Rahway Valley No. 15 qualified as the line 's most attractive . " When it was retired in 1953 , having been replaced with diesel power , No. 15 was put into well @-@ protected storage until it was purchased by F. Nelson Blount in 1959 .
Blount used No. 15 first for a static display at Pleasure Island , and then for excursions in New Hampshire and Vermont from 1962 to 1967 . It was used again at Steamtown , in 1973 , when it blew a flue while heading a triple header excursion from Riverside . The incident left veteran engineer Andy Barbera scalded and No. 15 in need of repair . Since the services of the locomotive were not needed at the time , the repairs were not done and remained undone by the time the Steamtown Special History was written . While in Blount 's possession , the locomotive appeared in the movie The Cardinal ( 1963 ) . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that the engine be cosmetically and operationally restored , as it had served in the northeastern quarter of the United States and had been serviced , at least once , at the Lackawanna 's Scranton shop . As of March 2012 , the locomotive is still displayed at Steamtown National Historic Site .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1293 was built in 1948 by Canadian Locomotive Company . It was retired after only eight years of service when diesel power made it obsolete . This was one of three type 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 , class G5d light @-@ weight " Pacific " model locomotives that were operational at the time that Steamtown was in Bellows Falls . The Steamtown Special History Study gave no details of the operational career of 1293 , but said that Blount purchased it under the name of Green Mountain Railroad , in January 1964 . The Steamtown Foundation purchased the locomotive from Green Mountain Railroad in 1973 and rebuilt it in 1976 . Making its debut as an excursion train in June of that year and sporting a green and black color scheme , 1293 served the state of Vermont as its " Bicentennial Train " , logging 13 @,@ 000 miles ( 21 @,@ 000 km ) . Leased by the state of Vermont for 80 miles ( 100 km ) excursions that were scheduled for the entire year , the engine was dubbed " The Spirit of Ethan Allen " . In 1979 , the locomotive was renumbered " 1881 " , painted black with silver stripes , and leased to a Hollywood company for use in the filming of the horror movie Terror Train ( 1979 ) , starring Jamie Lee Curtis . In 1980 , the locomotive was repainted with a color scheme used by Canadian Pacific in the 1930s . The black , gold , and Tuscan red paint job was popular with railroad enthusiasts and photographers . The number 1293 was also restored to the engine . In February 1982 , the headlights , handrails , and cab roof of 1293 were damaged when the roof of a Steamtown storage building gave way to heavy snow .
Although the Steamtown Special History Study reasoned that , since this type of locomotive had historically operated in New England , perhaps as far south as Boston , it qualified to be part of the federal government 's collection , the Canadian native sat unused for 12 years following the move to Scranton . Ohio Central Railroad System purchased it in 1996 , and it underwent a 13 @-@ month restoration . As of July 2010 , Ohio Central Railroad has lost control of most of its holdings , but former owner , Jerry Joe Jacobson , maintained a collection of vintage equipment including CPR 1293 and her sister , CRP 1278 , which is also a veteran of Steamtown , U.S.A. operational locomotives . No. 1293 is still operational as of October 2011 .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1278 , like her sister , CPR 1293 , CPR 1278 was also built by Canadian Locomotive Company in 1948 , and is a type 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 , class G5d light @-@ weight " Pacific " locomotive . It was purchased by Blount in May 1965 , and renumbered 127 . Blount had planned to renumber all three of the series 1200 CRP locomotives in his collection from 1246 , 1278 , and 1293 to 124 , 127 and 129 respectively , but 1278 was the only one of the three that underwent the change . The new number remained on the locomotive from 1966 until 1973 , when its former number was restored . The locomotive was leased to the Cadillac and Lake City Railroad in Michigan from 1970 to 1971 . After some repair work , the locomotive was returned to Bellows Falls where it served on excursion runs . After moving to Scranton , CPR 1278 was traded to the Gettysburg Steam Railroad in Pennsylvania .
Shortly after 7 p.m. Friday , June 16 , 1995 , an explosion in the firebox of CPR 1278 burned three members of its crew . One man , James Cornell , the son of the owner of the engine , was critically injured . The train that the locomotive was pulling had 310 passengers on board . None of the passengers , who were taking the " Summer Eve Dinner Excursion " to Mount Holly Springs , were hurt . An investigation done by the National Transportation Safety Board determined that the accident was caused by poor maintenance and operator training . The board also pointed out that the Canadian design of the firebox may have prevented further injuries and perhaps deaths . Jerry Jacobson , the owner of the Ohio Central Railroad , ( OCR ) bought the engine at an auction in 1998 . After Jacobson sold the OCR , in 2008 , he maintained ownership of the locomotive . As of 2009 , it is stored at Jacobson 's facility , the Age of Steam Roundhouse , in Sugarcreek , Ohio .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1246 was the third of the 1200 series Canadian Pacific locomotives in the collection . In the fall of 1983 , Steamtown said " farewell to Vermont " by offering two 100 miles ( 160 km ) excursions " through a landscape of covered bridges , rushing streams and scenic countryside " . The train , which had the capacity of 800 – 1000 passengers , was to be pulled by CRP 1246 . Built in 1946 , CPR 1246 is a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 type locomotive . After operating in Steamtown in Scranton between 1984 and 1986 , it was determined that 1246 was inadequate for service as it was " too light for the heavy grades and sharp curves of the Steamtown line " . The National Park Service sold it to the Connecticut Valley Railroad , in 1988 . This locomotive was on static display from 1996 to 2008 , at the Valley Railroad in Essex , Connecticut . In 2008 , it was moved to the Naugatuck Railroad which is operated by the Railroad Museum of New England , Thomaston , Connecticut .
= = Other pieces of the Blount collection = =
= = = Union Pacific No. 4012 = = =
" Big Boy " , a 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 type locomotive built by American Locomotive Company in November 1941 , is among the world 's largest steam locomotives and weighs 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 pounds ( 570 @,@ 000 kg ) . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that it remain at Steamtown as it is the only articulated type in the collection . It also recommended that it remain on static display , as it was doubtful that the " track , switches , culverts , trestles , bridges , wyes , turntables , and other facilities that would have to carry her [ could ] bear her great weight " . In fact , since the Steamtown turntable and roundhouse were inadequate for its size , Big Boy has remained out @-@ of @-@ doors since its arrival at Scranton , where it is still on display as of May 2015 .
= = = Meadow River Lumber Company No. 1 = = =
While at Steamtown , the Shay locomotive endured extensive damage when the building it was stored in collapsed under heavy snow in February 1982 . The Shay 's wooden cab was destroyed , but " its sand dome , its headlight , its front number plate , its bell and bell hanger , whistle , and other components " were missing before this incident . It was determined that it would remain at the National Historic Site as it was the only Shay and the only geared locomotive in the collection .
= = = Bevier & Southern Railroad No. 109 = = =
Bevier & Southern Railroad No. 109 was built by Brooks in 1900 . This 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 type locomotive served the Illinois Central Railroad under several numbers : 560 , 3706 and 3719 . As of July 2010 it is located at the Illinois Railroad Museum in Union and referred to as Illinois Central 3719 .
= = = Illinois Central No. 790 = = =
This locomotive was built in 1903 by American Locomotive Company as a 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type . It was originally owned by Chicago Union Transfer Railway and numbered 100 . It was sold to Illinois Central Railroad Company in 1904 and renumbered 641 . The railroad , which dated back to 1851 , operated 4 @,@ 265 miles of track between Chicago , Illinois and New Orleans , Louisiana . This locomotive pulled heavy freight in Tennessee and " must have seen hard service , for reportedly the Illinois Central rebuilt it in 1918 , modernizing it with a superheater , and possibly replacing the boiler and firebox " .
In 1943 it was renumber 790 and remained in service until it was replaced by diesel @-@ electric locomotives and put into storage , " the railroad nevertheless had to fire No. 790 up in the spring to assist Illinois Central trains through track inundated by flood waters near Cedar Rapids , because diesel @-@ electric locomotives with their electric motors shorted out in any water , whereas even the bottom of the firebox in a steam locomotive was much higher above the rail , hence above flood waters . " It was sold to Louis S. Keller of Cedar Rapids , Iowa , in 1959 who had hoped to use it for excursions . It was used for " flood duty " in April 1965 at the Clinton Corn Processing Company " where it plowed through overflow from the Mississippi River . " Later that year it was sold to David de Camp who planned to use it in the area of Lake Placid , New York . The plans were not met and it was sold to F. Nelson Blount in January 1966 .
The only surviving locomotive of the Chicago Union Transfer Railway , No. 790 is the only Illinois Central 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type of its class to survive . " About 146 standard gauge 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0s survive in the United States , including Illinois Central No. 790 " . The Steamtown National Historic Site retained this locomotive on the suggestion of the Steamtown Special History Study .
= = = Brooks @-@ Scanlon Corporation No. 1 = = =
No. 1 was once part of the Steamtown , U.S.A. collection . This type of locomotive was originally developed for use on the flat terrain of the prairie , such as the Great Plains of Kansas and surrounding states , and thus it was referred to as a Prairie @-@ type locomotive . The Prairie locomotives were later used by lumber companies which operated on flat forest terrain . This locomotive was built specifically for the lumber industry and served several lumber firms in Florida
The Carpenter @-@ O 'Brien Lumber Company was incorporated in Delaware in 1913 . The company , which operated in Florida , ordered this locomotive from Baldwin Locomotive Works , which completed it in 1914 . Locomotive No. 1 was put into service at the company 's Eastport sawmill in Florida . The locomotive , which could burn either coal or wood , was likely originally outfitted with a Rushton , or cabbage cinder catching stack . " If so , a later owner apparently replaced the Rushton stack with the ' shotgun ' stack now on the locomotive . "
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , the Carpenter @-@ O 'Brien Lumber Company was sold to Brooks @-@ Scanlon Corporation . By 1928 , Brooks @-@ Scanlon was operating in four Florida counties and producing 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 200 @,@ 000 m3 ) of lumber . This locomotive was probably used to haul logs in to the mill from the woods or to switch the yard around the Eastport plant , or both . In the following years the locomotive changed hands four of five times between several interconnected Florida lumber firms .
In 1959 , locomotive No.1 was taken out of service by its then owner , Lee Tidewater Cypress , in Perry , Florida . It was sold to F. Nelson Blount in 1962 by the Lee Tidewater Cypress parent company , J.C. Turner Company . It was moved to Walpole , New Hampshire and then , across the Connecticut River , to Bellows Falls , Vermont where it stayed until the Blount collection was relocated to Scranton , Pennsylvania .
= = = Simons Wrecking Company No. 2 = = =
Simons Wrecking Company No. 2 is a H.K. Porter , 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T steam engine built in 1941 . The tank engine , which is oil fired , worked for the US Navy during World War II in Virginia as # 14 . Later the engine was put into service with Simons Wrecking Co. as No. 2 .
Once part of Blount 's Steamtown collection , Locomotive # 2 was sold before Steamtown moved to Scranton , and languished for many years in an auto salvage yard in Newbury , Massachusetts . In 2006 , the engine was removed from the junkyard by Peabody , Massachusetts Public Works Director Dick Carnevale , and restoration began in hopes for it to be displayed in a city park in Peabody . The restoration of the engine was done by Carnevale personally , along with some volunteers . After he resigned in October 2008 , the city gave him 60 days to remove the engine from city property . Local residents contacted the Friends of Valley Railroad in Essex , Connecticut , who purchased the engine from Carnevale and transported it to Connecticut where , as of July 2010 , the locomotive is undergoing cosmetic restoration and will be displayed at Essex Steam Train and Riverboat .
= = = Canadian National Railways No. 1551 = = =
No. 1551 is a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 type locomotive , was built by Montreal Locomotive Works , March 1912 , and originally was numbered 1354 for the Canadian Northern Railway . Used primarily on Canadian commuter lines , the locomotive was renumbered 1551 in October 1956 and retired in 1958 . Blount bought the engine and restoration was begun , but never completed . In 1986 , Jerry Joe Jacobson traded a 1929 Baldwin Locomotive Works built shop switcher , Iron and Steel Company No. 3 , 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , for No. 1551 . It was restored and ran excursions for the Ohio Central Railroad until Jacobson lost control of the railroad . Jacobson still owns the locomotive . It is stored at Jacobson 's " Age of Steam Roundhouse " in Ohio and remains operational .
= = = Canadian National Railways No. 96 = = =
Canadian National Railways No. 96 , 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Mogul type , is also owned by Jerry Joe Jacobson . It was built in 1910 by the Canadian Locomotive Company and originally numbered 1024 for the Grand Trunk Railway , then 926 when Canadian National obtained it in a merger in 1923 , CN renumbered it 96 in 1951 . While owned by Blount , the locomotive was used for its parts . It was sold in the 1980s and went to Ontario . It was purchased by Jacobson in 1994 and as of 2009 is stored out of service .
= = = Southern Railway No. 926 ; Repton = = =
No. 926 is a Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 type locomotive , one of 40 named after British public schools . It is one of three Schools class locomotives to survive the onset of diesel power . It was completed in May 1934 and entered service on the Bournemouth route , with some time operating between Waterloo and Portsmouth before that line was electrified . It was one of the last of the class to be overhauled by British Railways in 1960 , so was considered a good choice for preservation . In December 1963 the engine was withdrawn from service , and in 1966 it was purchased and overhauled at Eastleigh Works , before moving to America . It was donated by the purchaser to Steamtown . Steamtown loaned the engine to the Cape Breton Steam Railway in Canada , where it operated a regular passenger service . In 1989 , it was sold again , and returned to the United Kingdom to the North Yorkshire Moors Railway ( NYMR ) , where it was again overhauled and found to be in good condition . As of March 2012 , the locomotive is awaiting boiler repair and a possible overhaul at NYMR .
= = = Canadian Pacific Railway Locomotive No. 2816 = = =
Canadian Pacific Railway Locomotive No. 2816 was acquired by Blount in January 1964 . It was built by Montreal Locomotive Works in 1930 . The 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 Hudson , H1b class locomotive had logged over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km ) in 30 years of service pulling passenger trains between Winnipeg and Calgary , and Winnipeg and Fort William , Ontario . Later , 2816 served on the Windsor @-@ to @-@ Quebec City corridor . The locomotive 's final run was on May 26 , 1960 , pulling a Montreal – Rigaud commuter train . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that the locomotive be kept in the collection , as it was the only 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 in the group , but the National Park Service sold it back to Canadian Pacific Railway , who restored it and put it back into service .
In 1998 , the Steamtown National Historic Site , which is funded by the federal government , began divesting itself of foreign equipment , including CPR 2816 . Canadian Pacific Railway acquired it and undertook a 3 @-@ year , 1 million dollar restoration which included converting it from coal @-@ burning to oil . In 2001 , renamed the " Empress " , 2816 was used for pricy excursions between Calgary and Vancouver , British Columbia . After taking a year off in 2009 , the Empress went on tour in 2010 offering rides to the general public across Canada . CPR donated the ticket proceeds to the Children 's Wish Foundation .
= = = Bullard Company No. 2 = = =
Bullard Company No. 2 is a small tank locomotive built by H.K. Porter Company for the Bullard Company , October 1937 . It is on display at Steamtown National Historic Site , as of September 2010 . According to the Steamtown Special History Study , this locomotive was used to switched cars around the Bullard tool plant in Bridgeport , Connecticut , for about 15 or 20 years before acquisition by Steamtown . The Bullard Company sold it to a used locomotive dealer , the American Machinery Corporation of Bridgeport , Connecticut , probably in the late 1950s or early 1960s . It was purchased by Blount in June 1963 . The SSHS also said that a catalog , believed to be the one the Bullard Company used to order the locomotive , was in the possession of the SNHS at the time the report was written .
= = = Union Pacific Railway No. 737 = = =
Union Pacific No. 737 , a 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 " American " , was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1887 . The oldest locomotive in the collection to have operated in the United States , it is the " oldest genuine Union Pacific in existence and the only Union Pacific 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 in existence " . At the time it was built it was the most common type of locomotive used for both passenger and freight trains in the United States and was therefore referred to as the " American Standard " or " American " . In 1904 the locomotive was sold to the Southern Pacific Company where its number was changed to 246 and then to 216 . It was retired from service on mainline railroads and put to use in industry in 1929 . The locomotive operated as 216 for the Erath Sugar Company and the Vermillion Sugar Company . It was retired by the latter company in 1956 and acquired by Blount in 1957 .
Originally the locomotive had a " diamond " smoke stack . It is unknown when that was changed to a straight " shotgun " stack . Sometime during the early 20th century the locomotive was converted from coal burning to oil burning and its wooden " cowcatcher " pilot was replaced with a steel pipe pilot . The wooden cab was replaced with an all @-@ steel cab , and its kerosene " box " headlamp was replaced with an electric one . When the engine was relocated from Louisiana to Vermont
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class laborers during the Song dynasty as 100 wen a day , about 5 times the estimated subsistence level of 20 wen a day and a very high level for preindustrial economies . Per capita consumption of grain and silk respectively was estimated by Cheng to be around 8 jin ( about 400 g each ) a day and 2 bolts a year , respectively .
= = Handicraft industry = =
= = = Steel and iron industries = = =
Accompanying the widespread printing of paper money was the beginnings of what one might term an early Chinese industrial revolution . For example , the historian Robert Hartwell has estimated that per capita iron output rose sixfold between 806 and 1078 , such that , by 1078 China was producing 127000000 kg ( 125 @,@ 000 t ) in weight of iron per year . However , historian Donald Wagner questions Hartwell 's method used to estimate these figures ( i.e. by using Song tax and quota receipts ) .
In the smelting process of using huge bellows driven by waterwheels , massive amounts of charcoal were used in the production process , leading to a wide range of deforestation in northern China . However , by the end of the 11th century the Chinese discovered that using bituminous coke could replace the role of charcoal , hence many acres of forested land in northern China were spared from the steel and iron industry with this switch of resources . Iron and steel of this period were used to mass @-@ produce ploughs , hammers , needles , pins , nails for ships , musical cymbals , chains for suspension bridges , Buddhist statues , and other routine items for an indigenous mass market . Iron was also a necessary manufacturing component for the production processes of salt and copper . Many newly constructed canals linked the major iron and steel production centers to the capital city 's main market . This was also extended to trade with the outside world , which greatly expanded with the high level of Chinese maritime activity abroad during the Southern Song period .
Through many written petitions to the central government by regional administrators of the Song Empire , historical scholars can piece evidence together to appropriate the size and scope of the Chinese iron industry during the Song era . The famed magistrate Bao Qingtian ( 999 – 1062 ) wrote of the iron industry at Hancheng , Tongzhou Prefecture , along the Yellow River in what is today eastern Shaanxi province , with iron smelting households that were overseen by government regulators . He wrote that 700 such households were acting as iron smelters , with 200 having the most adequate amount of government support , such as charcoal supplies and skilled craftsmen ( the iron households hired local unskilled labor themselves ) . Bao 's complaint to the throne was that government laws against private smelting in Shaanxi hindered profits of the industry , so the government finally heeded his plea and lifted the ban on private smelting for Shaanxi in 1055 . The result of this was an increase in profit ( with lower prices for iron ) as well as production ; 100 @,@ 000 jin ( 60 tonnes ) of iron was produced annually in Shaanxi in the 1040s AD , increasing to 600 @,@ 000 jin ( 360 tonnes ) produced annually by the 1110s , furbished by the revival of the Shaanxi mining industry in 1112 . Although the iron smelters of Shaanxi were managed and supplied by the government , there were many independent smelters operated and owned by rich families . While acting as governor of Xuzhou in 1078 , the famous Song poet and statesman Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) wrote that in the Liguo Industrial Prefecture under his administered region , there were 36 iron smelters run by different local families , each employing a work force of several hundred people to mine ore , produce their own charcoal , and smelt iron .
= = = Gunpowder production = = =
During the Song period , there was a great deal of organized labor and bureaucracy involved in the extraction of resources from the various provinces in China . The production of sulfur , which the Chinese called ' vitriol liquid ' , was extracted from pyrite and used for pharmaceutical purposes as well as for the creation of gunpowder . This was done by roasting iron pyrites , converting the sulphide to oxide , as the ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthenware furnace with a type of still @-@ head to send the sulfur over as vapour , after which it would solidify and crystallize . The historical text of the Song Shi ( History of the Song , compiled in 1345 AD ) stated that the major producer of sulfur in the Tang and Song dynasties was the Jin Zhou sub @-@ provincial administrative region ( modern Linfen in southern Shanxi ) . The bureaucrats appointed to the region managed the industrial processing and sale of it , and the amount created and distributed from the years 996 to 997 alone was 405 @,@ 000 jin ( roughly 200 tons ) . It was recorded that in 1076 AD the Song government held a strict commercial monopoly on sulfur production , and if dye houses and government workshops sold their products to private dealers in the black market , they were subject to meted penalties by government authorities . Even before this point , in 1067 AD , the Song government had issued an edict that the people living in Shanxi and Hebei were forbidden to sell foreigners any products containing saltpetre and sulfur . This act by the Song government displayed their fears of the grave potential of gunpowder weapons being developed by Song China 's territorial enemies as well ( i.e. the Tanguts and Khitans ) .
Since Jin Zhou was in close proximity to the Song capital at Kaifeng , the latter became the largest producer of gunpowder during the Northern Song period . With enhanced sulfur from pyrite instead of natural sulfur ( along with enhanced potassium nitrate ) , the Chinese were able to shift the use of gunpowder from an incendiary use into an explosive one for early artillery . There were large manufacturing plants in the Song dynasty for the purpose of making ' fire @-@ weapons ' employing the use of gunpowder , such as fire lances and fire arrows . While engaged in a war with the Mongols , in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Ko Zhai Za Gao , Xu Gao Hou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron @-@ cased bomb shells a month , dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time . One of the main armories and arsenals for the storage of gunpowder and weapons was located at Weiyang , which accidentally caught fire and produced a massive explosion in 1280 AD .
= = Commerce = =
This arrangement of allowing competitive industry to flourish in some regions while setting up its opposite of strict government @-@ regulated and monopolized production and trade in others was not exclusive to iron manufacturing . In the beginning of the Song , the government supported competitive silk mills and brocade workshops in the eastern provinces and in the capital city of Kaifeng . However , at the same time the government established strict legal prohibition on the merchant trade of privately produced silk in Sichuan province . This prohibition dealt an economic blow to Sichuan that caused a small rebellion ( which was subdued ) , yet Song Sichuan was well known for its independent industries producing timber and cultivated oranges . The reforms of the Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) sparked heated debate amongst ministers of court when he nationalised the industries manufacturing , processing , and distributing tea , salt , and wine . The state monopoly on Sichuan tea was the prime source of revenue for the state 's purchase of horses in Qinghai for the Song army 's cavalry forces . Wang 's restrictions on the private manufacture and trade of salt were even criticized in a famous poem by Su Shi , and while the opposing politically charged faction at court gained advantage and lost favor , Wang Anshi 's reforms were continually abandoned and reinstated . Despite this political quarrel , the Song Empire 's main source of revenue continued to come from state @-@ managed monopolies and indirect taxes . As for private entrepreneurship , great profits could still be pursued by the merchants in the luxury item trades and specialized regional production . For example , the silk producers of Raoyang County , Shenzhou Prefecture , southern Hebei province were especially known for producing silken headwear for the Song emperor and high court officials in the capital .
= = = Copper resources and receipts of deposit = = =
The root of the development of the banknote goes back to the earlier Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , when the government outlawed the use of bolts of silk as currency , which increased the use of copper coinage as money . By the year 1085 the output of copper currency was driven to a rate of 6 billion coins a year up from 5 @.@ 86 billion in 1080 ( compared to just 327 million coins minted annually in the Tang 's prosperous Tianbao period of 742 – 755 , and only 220 million coins minted annually from 118 BC to 5 AD during the Han dynasty ) . The expansion of the economy was unprecedented in China : the output of coinage currency in the earlier year of 997 AD , which was only 800 million coins a year . In 1120 alone , the Song government collected 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ounces ( 510 @,@ 000 kg ) of silver in taxes .
With many 9th century Tang era merchants avoiding the weight and bulk of so many copper coins in each transaction , this led them to using trading receipts from deposit shops where goods or money were left previously . Merchants would deposit copper currency into the stores of wealthy families and prominent wholesalers , whereupon they would receive receipts that could be cashed in a number of nearby towns by accredited persons . Since the 10th century , the early Song government began issuing their own receipts of deposit , yet this was restricted mainly to their monopolized salt industry and trade . China 's first official regional paper @-@ printed money can be traced back to the year 1024 , in Sichuan province .
Although the output of copper currency had expanded immensely by 1085 , some fifty copper mines were shut down between the years 1078 and 1085 . Although there were on average more copper mines found in Northern Song China than in the previous Tang dynasty , this case was reversed during the Southern Song with a sharp decline and depletion of mined copper deposits by 1165 . Even though copper cash was abundant in the late 11th century , Chancellor Wang Anshi 's tax substitution for corvée labor and government takeover of agricultural finance loans meant that people now had to find additional cash , driving up the price of copper money which would become scarce . To make matters worse , large amounts of government @-@ issued copper currency exited the country via international trade , while the Liao dynasty and Western Xia actively pursued the exchange of their iron @-@ minted coins for Song copper coins . As evidenced by an 1103 decree , the Song government became cautious about its outflow of iron currency into the Liao Empire when it ordered that the iron was to be alloyed with tin in the smelting process , thus depriving the Liao of a chance to melt down the currency to make iron weapons .
The government attempted to prohibit the use of copper currency in border regions and in seaports , but the Song @-@ issued copper coin became common in the Liao , Western Xia , Japanese , and Southeast Asian economies . The Song government would turn to other types of material for its currency in order to ease the demand on the government mint , including the issuing of iron coinage and paper banknotes . In the year 976 , the percentage of issued currency using copper coinage was 65 % ; after 1135 , this had dropped significantly to 54 % , a government attempt to debase the copper currency .
= = = The world 's first paper money = = =
The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money , issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit . By the early 12th century , the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins . By the 1120s the central government officially stepped in and produced their own state @-@ issued paper money ( using woodblock printing ) . Even before this point , the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute . It was recorded that each year before 1101 AD , the prefecture of Xinan ( modern Xi @-@ xian , Anhui ) alone would send 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng . In that year of 1101 , the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota , because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region . However , the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state 's new issuing of paper money . For the printing of paper money alone , the Song court established several government @-@ run factories in the cities of Huizhou , Chengdu , Hangzhou , and Anqi . The size of the workforce employed in these paper money factories were quite large , as it was recorded in 1175 AD that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day . However , the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point ; issues of banknotes were limited to regional zones of the empire , and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of 3 @-@ year 's time . The geographic limitation changed between the years 1265 and 1274 , when the late Southern Song government finally produced a nationwide standard currency of paper money , once its widespread circulation was backed by gold or silver . The range of varying values for these banknotes was perhaps from one string of cash to one hundred at the most . In later dynasties , the use and enforcement of paper currency was a method undertaken by the government as a response to the counterfeiting of copper coins .
The subsequent Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties would issue their own paper money as well . Even the Southern Song 's contemporary of the Jin dynasty to the north caught on to this trend and issued their own paper money . At the archeological dig at Jehol there was a printing plate found that dated to the year 1214 , which produced notes that measured 10 cm by 19 cm in size and were worth a hundred strings of 80 cash coins . This Jurchen @-@ Jin issued paper money bore a serial number , the number of the series , and a warning label that counterfeiters would be decapitated , and the denouncer rewarded with three hundred strings of cash .
= = = Urban employment and businesses = = =
Within the cities there were a multitude of professions and places of work to choose from , if one were not strictly inheriting a profession of his paternal line . Sinologist historians are fortunate enough to have a wide variety of written sources describing minute details about each location and the businesses within the cities of Song China . For example , in the alleys and avenues around the East Gate of the Xiangguo Temple in Kaifeng , historian Stephen H. West quotes one source :
Along the Temple Eastgate Avenue ... are to be found shops specializing in cloth caps with pointed tails , belts and waiststraps , books , caps and flowers as well as the vegetarian tea meal of the Ding family ... South of the temple are the brothels of Manager 's Alley ... The nuns and the brocade workers live in Embroidery Alley ... On the north is Small Sweetwater Alley ... There are a particularly large number of Southern restaurants inside the alley , as well as a plethora of brothels .
Similarly , in the " Pleasure District " along the Horse Guild Avenue , near a Zoroastrian temple in Kaifeng , West quotes the same source , Dongjing Meng Hua Lu ( Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital ) :
In addition to the household gates and shops that line the two sides of New Fengqiu Gate Street ... military encampments of the various brigades and columns [ of the Imperial Guard ] are situated in facing pairs along approximately ten li of the approach to the gate . Other wards , alleys , and confined open spaces crisscross the area , numbering in the tens of thousands — none knows their real number . In every single place , the gates are squeezed up against each other , each with its own tea wards , wineshops , stages , and food and drink . Normally the small business households of the marketplace simply purchase [ prepared ] food and drink at food stores ; they do not cook at home . For northern food there are the Shi Feng style dried meat cubes ... made of various stewed items ... for southern food , the House of Jin at Temple Bridge ... and the House of Zhou at Ninebends ... are acknowledged to be the finest . The night markets close after the third watch only to reopen at the fifth .
West points out that Kaifeng shopkeepers rarely had time to eat at home , so they chose to go out and eat at a variety of places such as restaurants , temples , and food stalls . Restaurant businesses thrived on this new clientele , while restaurants that catered to regional cooking targeted customers such as merchants and officials who came from regions of China where cuisine styles and flavors were drastically different than those commonly served in the capital . The pleasure district mentioned above — where stunts , games , theatrical stage performances , taverns and singing girl houses were located — was teeming with food stalls where business could be had virtually all night . West makes a direct connection between the success of the theatre industry and the food industry in the cities . Of the fifty some theatres within the pleasure districts of Kaifeng , four of these could entertain audiences of several thousand each , drawing huge crowds which would then give nearby businesses an enormous potential customer base . Besides food , traders in eagles and hawks , precious paintings , as well as shops selling bolts of silk and cloth , jewelry of pearls , jade , rhinoceros horn , gold and silver , hair ornaments , combs , caps , scarves , and aromatic incense thrived in the marketplaces .
= = = Foreign trade = = =
The Song dynasty actively promoted overseas trade . About fifty countries carried out overseas trade with the Song , among them Ceylon , Langkasuka , Mait , Samboja , Borneo , Kelantan , Champa , Chenla , Bengtrao , Java , India , Calicut , Lambri , Bengal , Kurum , Gujara , Mecca , Egypt , Baghdad , Iraq , Amman , the Almoravid dynasty , Sicily , Morocco , Tanzania , Somalia , Ryukyu , Korea , and Japan . Pearls , ivory , rhinocero horns , frankincense , agalloch eaglewood , coral , agate , hawksbill turtle shell , gardenia , and rose were imported from the Arabs and Samboja , herbal medicine from Java , costusroot from Foloan ( Kuala Sungai Berang ) cotton cloth , cotton yarn from Mait , and ginseng , silver , copper , and quick silver from Korea .
To promote overseas trade and maximize government profits in control of imported goods , in 971 the government established a Maritime Trade Supervisorate at Guangzhou , in 999 established a second one at Hangzhou , a third at Mingzhou ( now Ningbo city ) , followed by Quanzhou ( Zaitung ) in 1079 , Huating County ( now part of Shanghai ) in 1113 , and Jiangyin in 1145 . Initially the Maritime Trade Supervisorate was subordinate under the Department of Transportation or prefecture official , later made into a separate agency with its own supervisor . The roles of the Maritime Trade Supervisorate included :
Taxation of imported goods , tax rate varied over the Song dynasty , from 10 % to as high as 40 % ; however , during the reign of Emperor Shenzong ( 1048 – 1085 ) , the tax rate for imports was lowered to 6 @.@ 67 % . The tax was goods in kind , not money .
Government purchase and sale of imported goods . In 976 , all imported goods from overseas merchants had to be sold only to the government , private sales was prohibited , penalty for violation depended on the quantity of goods involved , and the highest penalty was tattooing of the face and forced labor . Later the 100 % rule was relaxed somewhat . The Maritime Trade Superisorate purchased a portion of the finest quality goods , for example 60 % for pearls , 40 % for rhinocero horn ; the low quality leftover goods were allowed to be traded in the market . The purchase rate applied to after tax goods , then paid in money , not according to market price , but according to a government @-@ accessed " fare value " . In the Southern Song , the Maritime Trade Supervisorates were short of funds and were not paid on time , causing huge losses in profits for overseas merchants ; the volume of incoming ships also dropped .
Issue foreign trade permits for local merchants .
= Dylan Penn =
Dylan Frances Penn ( born April 13 , 1991 ) is an American model and actress . She is the daughter of Sean Penn and Robin Wright . Her early public roles included modelling campaigns for Gap Inc . , a controversial magazine cover for treats ! , a music video appearance in Nick Jonas ' " Chains " and an acting role in Elvis & Nixon .
= = Early life = =
Penn 's mother , Robin Wright , had surrendered the role of Maid Marian in Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves due to her pregnancy with Dylan . Penn was born to Wright and Sean Penn in Los Angeles on April 13 , 1991 , and raised in Ross , a town in Marin County , California . Her father , Penn , is a two @-@ time Academy Award for Best Actor @-@ winner , while her mother , Wright , is a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama @-@ winner . She has a younger brother named Hopper Jack . She attended Marin Academy . After high school , she spent time living in New York City . Her parents ' divorce was finalized in 2010 . Before modeling , Penn had worked delivering pizzas , as a waitress and as a freelance screenplay editor . She also worked in New York City as a restaurant hostess and an intern at an advertising agency .
= = Public life = =
Penn gained public exposure when she dated Robert Pattinson in 2013 . According to Penn , the relationship was not serious . Her first modeling billboards were for Gap in 2013 . Then she appeared in GQ in December 2013 , in W in January 2014 , and Elle in March 2014 .
E ! Online reported on March 5 , 2014 , that Penn had declined a $ 150 @,@ 000 offer to pose for the cover of Playboy . However , she accepted an offer to pose for Tony Duran for the cover and a full layout in the seventh issue of treats ! , which was released on April 8 , 2014 . Although nude , Penn was not completely exposed , as she was partially obscured by a Fendi bag in the cover photo and similar accoutrements in the interior layout . Penn said that she had " always loved [ Duran 's ] black @-@ and @-@ white nudes " . At the time of the issue 's April 16 launch party in Los Angeles , she was filming Condemned in New York . She stated that she was experimenting with the profession of acting . Within weeks of the issue 's release , Penn signed a new modeling contract with Premier Model Management to represent her in the United Kingdom . Penn has noted that she only models to earn a paycheck . She aspires to be involved on the writing / directing end of the Hollywood business .
On May 23 , 2014 , Maxim revealed its annual Hot 100 list , which included Penn at # 68 . Penn was also listed at # 93 in the 2014 AskMen 99 Most Desirable Women list . During the last weekend in June 2014 , she filmed an undisclosed video project with Nick Jonas at the Hotel Alexandria . In July , Jonas revealed the video to " Chains " , including the Penn performance . In September 2014 , Penn received a lot of attention for appearing without pants alongside Poppy Delevingne in Rock Roll Ride , a short film directed by Julia Restoin Roitfeld , as biker chicks for shoe designer Stuart Weitzman during Paris Fashion Week . The pair modeled a wide variety of the latest boot designs . It was the first female @-@ directed ad campaign for the brand . She appeared on the cover of L 'Officiel that December and the cover of Asos in August 2015 . In January 2016 , Penn and her younger brother , Hopper , did their first joint fashion modeling campaign together , eventually making media appearances at Milan Fashion Week .
= = Acting = =
Her first film , the horror film Condemned , in which she plays the girlfriend of a band member living in a rundown building , is directed by Eli Morgan Gesner . The film opened on Friday the 13th in November 2015 . One of the highlights of her performance was a scene with Johnny Messner that was described as " intense " by Marlow Stern of The Daily Beast . Upon reviewing the film , Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter questioned Penn 's decision to get involved in this production . Noel Murray of Los Angeles Times described her performance as less than extraordinary and the role as limited . Another early role was in Elvis & Nixon , which stars Kevin Spacey . The movie was presented in at least one spring film festival and was released in April 2016 . In November 2015 it was announced that she had booked roles in a pair of independent films : GenRX and Unfiltered .
= Desde un Principio : From the Beginning =
Desde un Principio : From the Beginning is a greatest hits album from American recording artist Marc Anthony . The album was released on November 9 , 1999 by RMM Records & Video ( RMM ) . It was a result of Anthony leaving RMM Records and signing on with Columbia Records . The recording contains fourteen tracks from his years with RMM and " No Me Ames " by Jennifer Lopez and Anthony .
Allmusic 's Jose Promis praised Desde un Principio : From the Beginning , calling the album an " ideal introduction " to the artist , although he complained about the songs on it being " truncated " , particularly towards the end . The album received a Billboard Latin Music Award for Latin Greatest Hits Album of the Year . Desde un Principio : From the Beginning reached number one on both the Billboard Top Latin Albums and the Billboard Tropical Albums charts , and became the best @-@ selling album of 2000 on both charts . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after shipments reached 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
After the release of Contra la Corriente in 1997 , disputes over certain business practices arose between Marc Anthony and RMM executive Ralph Mercado . Columbia Records had approached Anthony to sign a contract with their record label . However , Mercado would not allow Anthony to leave RMM Records because of an earlier contract committing Anthony to record two more albums for RMM . Anthony filed a lawsuit , and with the backing of Columbia Records , bought out the remainder of the contract . As part of the settlement , Anthony allowed RMM Records to release a " greatest hits " collection from his earlier records .
= = Content = =
Desde un Principio : From the Beginning includes a total of fifteen songs , most of which came from his recordings with RMM . Four songs were selected from each of his earlier albums ( Otra Nota , Todo a Su Tiempo , and Contra la Corriente ) . The opener , a tropical version of " No Me Ames " , is a duet with American singer and actress Jennifer Lopez ; she included the recording on her debut album On the 6 ( 1999 ) . " Vivir lo Nuestro " , featuring La India , was originally recorded on the RMM Records compilation album Combinacion Perfecta . " Preciosa " is a cover of the Rafael Hernández song which Anthony had recorded for a tribute album to Hernandez , Romance Del Cumbanchero – La Musica del Rafael Hernández .
= = Commercial reception = =
The album debuted at number three on the Billboard Top Latin Albums on the week of November 27 , 1999 and reached number one the following week . The recording debuted atop the Billboard Tropical Albums chart on the week of November 27 , 1999 , and remained at number one for five consecutive months . Desde un Principio : From the Beginning peaked at number 151 on the Billboard 200 chart and became the best @-@ selling album of 2000 for the Top Latin Albums and Tropical Albums charts . It was then certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Jose Promis of Allmusic gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . He described it as a " superb collection " , and wrote that Desde un Principio " provides a wonderful introduction to the music of Marc Anthony , a singer that , undoubtedly , will one day rank among the best . " Promis also complained that the songs were " severely truncated " , especially near their end .
In 2001 , Anthony received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Latin Greatest Hits Albums of the Year " .
= = Track listing = =
The following track information is from Allmusic .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Album certification = =
= 1932 Freeport hurricane =
The 1932 Freeport hurricane was an intense tropical cyclone that primarily affected areas of the Texas coast in August of the 1932 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the second storm and first hurricane of the season , developing just off the Yucatán Peninsula on August 12 . While moving to the northwest , the storm began to quickly intensify the next day . It rapidly intensified from a Category 1 hurricane to a Category 4 with winds estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and an estimated central pressure of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) shortly before making landfall near Freeport , Texas , early on August 14 . After landfall , the hurricane began to quickly weaken before dissipating over the Texas Panhandle .
The storm caused heavy rainfall inland , peaking at 9 @.@ 93 in ( 252 mm ) in Angleton . Record rainfall rates were also reported in some areas . Power outages were reported in Galveston and San Antonio . The storm caused $ 7 @.@ 5 million in damages , mostly to crops , and 40 deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Freeport hurricane was first noted by ships on August 12 as a tropical disturbance in the Gulf of Mexico . However , it was suggested in later research that the disturbance may have originated from a low @-@ pressure area between Belize and Honduras on August 11 . Steadily moving to the northwest , the storm began to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on August 13 , and soon after reaching major hurricane strength later that day . A report remarked that the storm was " phenomenal " due to the fact that previously the storm had " seemed to be of only moderate intensity " while near land before rapidly intensifying .
The storm eventually reached winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The hurricane proceeded to make landfall early on August 14 just east of Freeport with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . A ship just offshore of the coast reported a minimum pressure of 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) , but the official estimate for the hurricane 's landfall intensity was set to 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) given the fact that the system was still rapidly intensifying at the time . Due to the storm 's small size , it quickly weakened to tropical storm strength later that day . The storm finally weakened into a tropical depression before dissipating the next day over the Texas Panhandle .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
In preparation for the storm , 150 vehicles evacuated out of Freeport , while water craft were taken up the Brazos River as far inland as possible . 100 families in Caplen and Gilchrist were also evacuated . The 38th division of the Texas National Guard , stationed in Palacios , was alerted due to the oncoming storm .
Heavy rainfall occurred across the coast and further inland due to the storm . Four locations set 24 @-@ hour rainfall records for the month of August , the highest of which was set near Angleton , recording 9 @.@ 93 in ( 252 mm ) of rain on August 13 . Angleton also faced a water shortage after its pumping station was destroyed . The remnants of the storm produced as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain in Oklahoma . Occupants in four vehicles were rescued by the United States Coast Guard near San Luis Pass . In Wharton , 800 birds went missing in the heavy rain . Galveston suffered primarily wind damage in the form of unroofed structures and broken windows . The Galveston Causeway was flooded by the heavy rain , preventing access from Galveston Island to the mainland . Several other roads were blocked by fallen trees . The city was also affected by a power outage after the storm caused loss of power and damaged communication lines . In addition , communication lines in San Antonio were damaged .
At William P. Hobby Airport in Houston , 11 planes were damaged when a hangar collapsed , resulting in losses of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Hermann Park was also affected by the storm , where nine goats began to roam within the park due to a broken fence caused by a fallen limb . 35 convicts were freed from the Ramsey Unit state prison during the storm due to the chance of the prison collapsing . However , after the storm , only eight returned to the prison , leaving 27 others missing .
After the storm , the American Red Cross brought supplies to areas affected by the hurricane , requesting as much as $ 10 @,@ 000 in relief work . Several other local relief committees also brought supplies to affected areas . An estimated $ 2 million in damages from the storm were attributed to crop damage alone , especially rice and cotton . The storm was estimated to have killed 40 people and caused $ 7 @.@ 5 million in damage .
= Gossip ( The Office ) =
" Gossip " is the sixth season premiere of the American comedy television series The Office , and the 101st overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 17 , 2009 . The episode was written and directed by Paul Lieberstein . It features Max Carver , Kelii Miyata and Elvy Yost in guest appearances as Dunder Mifflin 's summer interns .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael spreads a rumor about Stanley having an affair , then spreads a series of false rumors to try to convince everyone the original rumor was not true . The rumors cause Andy to question his sexuality , and Pam and Jim to debate whether or not to tell the office that Pam is pregnant .
" Gossip " confirmed the fact that protagonist Pam was pregnant , which was strongly hinted in the fifth season finale , " Company Picnic " . " Gossip " was the first episode to feature Ellie Kemper as a regular cast member , and the first Office episode since Ed Helms achieved box office success with the summer comedy film , The Hangover . " Gossip " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators particularly praising the subplot in which Andy questions whether the rumor about him being gay might actually be true . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 21 million viewers . Although The Office had the highest 9 p.m. rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the overall episode constituted an 18 percent drop in viewership compared to the fifth season premiere , " Weight Loss " . " Gossip " was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic comedy .
= = Synopsis = =
As the three summer interns prepare to depart , Michael ( Steve Carell ) hears from various members of the office that two of the interns might be dating , and feels upset that he was left out of the gossip . He talks about the situation with the third intern , and learns that the interns had recently gone out to a young people 's club , where they saw Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) dancing with a woman , presumably his wife Teri . Michael , wanting to start some gossip of his own , forms the conclusion that Stanley was out because he was having a mid @-@ life crisis and shares it with the office , but Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) claims Stanley does not like crowds and that Teri is out of town . When Michael confronts the interns about this , they insist they saw Stanley there " making out " with a woman . Now realizing that Stanley is possibly having an affair and he is the first person to learn of it , Michael starts telling the employees . Jim ( John Krasinski ) urges Michael to stop spreading a rumor that he does not know for certain to be true . When Stanley is leaving , Michael heads to the parking lot to discuss the rumor with him . Stanley initially denies it , but when Michael mentions that he was spotted in the club by the interns , he reveals that since Teri has been out of town constantly , he has been seeking company from a nurse named Cynthia , whom he met in rehab . Stanley urges Michael not to say anything since he is breaking it off with Cynthia , and Michael agrees , despite having already told the entire office .
Hoping to obscure the truth about Stanley 's affair , Michael starts spreading a variety of false rumors , among them that there is another person physically inside Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) ) , that Kelly is anorexic , that Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) is still a virgin , that Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) is pregnant , and that Andy ( Ed Helms ) is gay . When Andy hears about this , he realizes that many people have thought this about him in the past and gets increasingly insecure as he begins to question his sexual orientation . Jim and Pam , who were trying to keep Pam 's pregnancy a secret , think they have been found out . The couple then notice that there have been various absurd rumors about office employees being spread . When Jim brings it to everyone 's attention , they trace one particular rumor back to Michael , who then tries to slip out of the office .
The employees pursue Michael , and he confesses that he created the rumors to conceal the one true rumor . Andy fears that it might be the one about him . The employees urge Michael to tell them which one is true , but just as Michael is about to give in , Jim announces that Pam is actually pregnant to save Stanley . Michael denies it , but Pam shows her baby 's ultrasound picture to prove it . Later , while Michael discusses her pregnancy with Jim and Pam in his office , Stanley 's wife Teri returns Michael 's call from earlier . He picks up the phone with the intention of making an excuse for his earlier call so as to not tip her off , but he accidentally calls her Cynthia twice before Jim hangs up the phone for him . Teri had already been suspicious of Stanley and Cynthia , so Michael calling her Cynthia is enough for her to figure out what is going on . Michael , feeling guilty , watches from his office window as Stanley attacks Michael 's car with a tire iron in a fit of rage . At the end of the episode , the three interns discuss what they have learned at Dunder Mifflin , which they essentially reveal was nothing .
= = Production = =
" Gossip " was written and directed by Paul Lieberstein , a producer and screenwriter for the series who also plays Toby . The episode confirmed the fact that Pam was pregnant , which was strongly hinted in the fifth season finale , " Company Picnic " . " Gossip " was the first episode to feature Ellie Kemper as a full cast member ; she had guest starred in several episodes at the end of the fifth season
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Calypso is most closely associated with the island of Trinidad , but it has spread throughout the Lesser Antilles , and abroad . Similar traditions can be found natively on many of Caribbean islands . Within the Antilles , most of the popular calypso stars have come from Trinidad and Tobago ; the majority of the exceptions , such as Arrow from Montserrat , have come from other Anglophone islands . Music author Peter Manuel has argued that , despite the modern Anglophone focus to calypso @-@ like song forms , their origins lie in the " Afro @-@ French creole culture " , and notes that the ancestor of the word calypso , cariso , was first used to refer to a Martinican singer .
The calypso song complex is characterized by satirical , political , risque and humorous lyricism , a competitive and celebratory nature and its function in social organization and informal communication . Jamaican mento is perhaps the most well @-@ known form of calypso @-@ like music . The island of Carriacou is home to a calypso @-@ like song style , as well as canboulay feasts , calinda songs and steel bands , all similar to though distinct from the related Trinidadian traditions . Modern influences from Trinidad have organized the Carriacou song style , and there are competitions similar to calypso tents on the island . The Antiguan benna is part of the same song complex , featuring news @-@ oriented and ribald , often satirical lyrics and a rhythmic , uptempo style .
= = = Carnival = = =
Annual Carnival celebrations are an important part of the culture of all the Lesser Antillean islands . Carnival is celebrated at varying times of year , either pre @-@ Lent , Christmastime or in July and August , and feature a wide variety of dances , songs and parades . Contests are common , especially Calypso King and Queen contests , which are held on most of the British Antillean islands , the U.S. Virgin Islands as well as French Saint Martin and elsewhere . The British Antillean Carnivals are also mostly united by the J 'ouvert tradition , which involves calypso and soca band parades and are the highlight of their celebrations .
Summer Carnivals include those on Antigua , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Sint Eustatius , Saint John , Saint Lucia , Grenada , Saba , Nevis and Anguilla , the latter two of which are especially known for popular calypso competitions . Christmastime Carnivals are held on Montserrat , Saint Croix , Saint Martin and Saint Kitts ; Montserrat 's distinctive Carnival includes masquerades and steelbands , and both islands also feature calypso competitions . The Carnival of Sint Maarten , which takes place a month after Easter , is known for the burning of King Moui @-@ Moui as the culmination of the festival . Many islands , especially the French and Dutch Antilles , are home to pre @-@ Lenten Carnivals , including Martinique , Aruba , Saint @-@ Barthélemy , Bonaire , Curaçao , Dominica , Saint Thomas and Guadeloupe .
= = British Antilles = =
There are many popular traditions common to the English @-@ speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles . Calypso , originally an old folk music – based genre from West Africa , is popular throughout the islands ; other popular traditions , like soca originally from Trinidad , are also well known throughout the region . Steel drum ensembles is also found throughout the English @-@ speaking Lesser Antilles ( and abroad ) , especially in Trinidad and Tobago as well as Antigua and Barbuda . The British Antilles also share in certain folk traditions . Eastern Caribbean folk calypso is found throughout the area , as are African @-@ Caribbean religious music styles like the Shango music of Trinidad . Variants of the Big Drum festival occur throughout the Windward Islands , especially in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Carnival is an important folk music celebration on all the islands of the Lesser Antilles , and the rest of the Caribbean .
Calypso is part of a spectrum of similar folk and popular Caribbean styles that spans benna and mento , but remains the most prominent genre of Lesser Antillean music . Calypso 's roots are somewhat unclear , but we know it can be traced to 18th @-@ century Trinidad and other Caribbean islands like Saint Lucia . Modern calypso , however , began in the 19th century , a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song lavway , French Creole belair and the stick fighting chantwell . Calypso 's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves , including camboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions . Popular calypso arose in the early 20th century , with the rise of internationally known calypsonians like Attila the Hun and Roaring Lion. calypso remained popular throughout the Caribbean in the later 20th century , the islands began producing calypso stars . In the 1970s , a calypso variant called soca arose , characterized by a focus on dance rhythms rather than lyricism . Soca has since spread across the Caribbean and abroad .
Steel drums are a distinctively Trinidadian ensemble that evolved from improvised percussion instruments used in Carnival processions . By the late 1930s , bamboo tubes , a traditional instrumental , were supplemented by pieces of metal used percussively ; over time , these metal percussion instruments were pitched to produce as many as twenty @-@ some tones . Steel bands were large orchestras of these drums , and were banned by the British colonial authorities . Nevertheless , steel drums spread across the Caribbean , and are now an entrenched part of the culture of Trinidad and Tobago .
Though Trinidadian popular music is by far the most well @-@ known style of Lesser Antillean music , the other Anglophone islands are home to their own musical traditions . Carriacou and Grenada are home to Carnival celebrations that feature distinct form of calypso , canboulay feasts , calinda stick @-@ fighting songs and the steelband accompanied jouvert , as well as the Big Drum dance , which is also found in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines share other musics as well including the funereal music of the saraca rite , a call @-@ and @-@ response form with both European and African lyrics .
= = French Antilles = =
French Creole music is most famously associated with Martinique and Guadeloupe , though the islands of Saint Lucia and Dominica are also home to French Antillean music . Creole music is characterized by the prominence of the quadrille dance , distinct from the French version and related to the Haitian mereng . The quadrille is a potent symbol of French Antillean culture .
Martinique and Guadeloupe are also home to their own distinct folk traditions , most influentially including Guadeloupan gwo ka and Martinican tambour and tibwa . Gwo ka is a type of percussion music which consists of seven basic rhythms and variations on them . It has been modernized into gwo ka moderne , though traditional rural performances ( lewoz ) are still common . Tambour and ti bwa ensembles are the origin of several important Martinican popular styles , including chouval bwa and biguine , and also exerted an influence on zouk . Lucian folk music features ensembles of fiddle , cuatro , banjo , guitar and chak @-@ chak ( a rattle ) , with the banjo and cuatro being of iconic importance , and recreational , often lyric song forms called jwé . The French Creole folk music of Dominica is based on the quadrille , accompanied by ensembles called jing ping . Folk storytelling ( kont ) and songs ( bélé ) are also a major part of the country 's musical identity .
= = = Kadans / Compas = = =
In the 1970s , a wave of Haitian , mostly musicians , to Dominica and the French Antilles ( Guadeloupe and Martinique ) brought with them the kadans , a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences . These Haitians drew upon previous success from mini @-@ jazz artists like Les Gentlemen , Les Leopards , and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe .
Later in the decade and into the 1980s , the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence @-@ lypso . Gordon Henderson 's Exile One innovated this style , as well as turned the mini @-@ jazz combos into guitar @-@ dominated big bands with full @-@ horn sections and keyboard synthesizers , paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks , Experience 7 , among others . Drawing on these influences , the supergroup Kassav ' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like " Zouk @-@ La @-@ Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni " . Kassav ' formed from Paris in 1978 .
= = = Cadence @-@ lypso = = =
Cadence @-@ lypso is the Dominican kadans of the 1970s . The leading figure in the promotion of the Cadence @-@ lypso was the Dominican group Exile One ( based on the island of Guadeloupe ) and Grammacks that featured the Haitian Cadence rampa or compas with the Trinidadian calypso , hence the name cadence @-@ lypso ; however , most of the bands repertoire was kadans
This fusion of kadans and calypso accounts only for a small percentage of the band 's repertoire : Exile One like all Dominica kadans bands featured reggae , calypso and mostly kadans or compas music .
The Dominican kadans has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean / Latin rhythms , as well as rock guitars , soul @-@ style vocals and funk bass and horn styles - music from the United States . By the end of the 1970s , Gordon Henderson defined Cadence @-@ lypso as " a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary " . It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica , and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim .
Exile One , based in Guadeloupe , is a leading Dominican kadans group of the 1970s that was very influential in the development of caribbean music . The full @-@ horn section kadans band Exile One led by Gordon Henderson was the first to introduce the newly arrived synthesizers to their music that other young cadence or compas bands from Dominica , Haiti ( mini @-@ jazz ) and the French Antilles emulated in the 1970s . Exile One was the most promoted creole band of the Caribbean . The first to sign a production contract with major label Barclay Records . The first to export kadans music to the four corners of the globe : Japan , the Indian Ocean , Africa , North America , Europe , The Cape Verde islands .
= = = Zouk = = =
The inspiration for Zouk 's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas , as well as music called cadence @-@ lypso - Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One . Elements of gwo ka , tambour , ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk . Though there are many diverse styles of zouk , some commonalities exist . The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element , and are a distinctive part of the music . Generally , zouk emphasises star singers , with little attention given to instrumentalists , and performances consist almost entirely of studio recordings .
Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault believes zouk 's evolution was influenced by other Caribbean styles especially Dominica cadence @-@ lypso , Haitian cadence and Guadeloupean biguine . Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s , using elements of previous styles of antillean music , as well as importing other genres .
The band Kassav ' remain the best known zouk group . Kassav ' drew in influences from balakadri and bal granmoun dances , biguine 's and mazurka 's , along with more contemporary Caribbean influences like compas , reggae and salsa music . Zouk live shows soon began to draw on American and European rock and heavy metal traditions , and the genre spread across the world , primarily in developing countries .
Zouk has diversified into multiple subgenres . These include zouk @-@ love , pop ballads by artists like Edith Lefel and Gilles Floro , Zouk @-@ R & B , and ragga @-@ zouk bands like Lord Kossity who fused the genre with other influences .
= = = Zouk @-@ love = = =
Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or compas , characterized by a slow , soft and sexual rhythm . The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems .
The music kizomba from Angola and cabo @-@ love from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas music style , which sounds basically the same , although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres . A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie . Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies , the Netherlands , and Africa .
Popular artists include French West Indian artists Edith Lefel and Nichols , or like Netherlands based Suzanna Lubrano and Gil Semedo , the African artist Kaysha .
= = = Bouyon = = =
Bouyon ( Boo @-@ Yon ) is a form of popular music of Dominica , also known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique . The best @-@ known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture ( WCK ) , who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting elements of kadans ( or cadence @-@ lypso ) , lapo kabwit drumming , the folk style jing @-@ ping , and a quick @-@ paced electronic drum pattern . From a language perspective , Bouyon draws on English and Dominican Creole French . More recently , deejays with raggamuffin @-@ style vocals ( bouyon @-@ muffin ) have moved to the fore , updating the sound for the New Generation .
Due to the popularity of Triple K International , Ncore , and the New generation of bouyon bands who toured the French Antilles , a popular offshoot of bouyon from Guadeloupe is call bouyon gwada . The jump up had its heyday from the 90s with songs such as Met Veye WCK , but remained stamped background music or carnival . Over the years , thanks to inter @-@ trade with the Dominicans and the mass participation of Guadeloupe at the World Creole Music Festival , the flagship group as Triple kay and MFR band began to democratize and local artists were inducted including the remix Allo Triple kay with Daly and " Big Ting Poppin ' Daly alone .
A popular offshoot within the bouyon gwada is call bouyon hardcore , a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics . Popular Bouyon gwada musicians include , Wee Low , Suppa , Doc J , Yellow gaza , etc .
= = = Popular folk music = = =
Though zouk is the most well @-@ known form of modern French Antillean music , the island of Martinique has also produced the chouval bwa and biguine styles , which were especially popular in the early 20th century . Chouval bwa is includes multiple distinctive instruments and internationally famous performers like Claude Germany , Dede Saint @-@ Prix , Pakatak and Tumpak , while biguine has achieved international fame since the 1920s and has since been modernized and adapted for pop audiences , making it a major influence on zouk . Between the 1930s and 1950s , the dance biguine was popular among the islands ' dance orchestras . The biguine uses a cinquillo variant related to that found in other Caribbean genres like méringue and Compas . In the 1940s and 1950s , these dance bands absorbed influences from Cuban , American and Haitian popular music .
= = Dutch Antilles = =
The islands of Curaçao , Bonaire , Aruba , Sint Eustatius and Saint Martin share musical styles , as well as maintain their own sets of folk and popular dances , ranging from the impromptu Statian road block to calypso , zouk and soca . African , indigenous and European ancestry predominate , though more recent immigrants have brought musical styles from Lebanon , China and India . In popular music , the islands are known for the Combined Rhythm , like local favorites the Happy Peanuts and Expresando Rimto i Ambiente . Kaseko music from the mainland country Suriname is also popular . Traditional music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles , however , is primarily African , characterized by the use of complex , highly developed polyrhythms , dance styles and drums like the tambú . Other African @-@ derived instruments include metal percussion rods , agan , the rasp wiri , aerophones like the cachu trumpet , becu transverse double @-@ reed wind instrument , and the bow benta .
The tambu is an instrument , and a form of music and dance found on Aruba , Bonaire ( where it is sometimes known as bari ) , and Curaçao . The tambu is an especially important symbol of Curaçaoan identity . Instrumentation for the tambu uses the agan , chapi , triangle , wiri and other instruments , many of which are also part of the African @-@ derived muziek di zumbi , or spirit music , of Curaçao . Curaçao 's folk music also includes a rich tradition of work songs with apentatonic lyrics sung in Guene or a Papiamento variant called seshi . The Simadan harvest festival is found across the islands , and features the cachu trumpet , made from a cowhorn . Bonaire 's Simadan festival is also notable for the use of the becu , an aerophone made from the stalk of a sorghum plant , and the kinkon , made from a conch shell and known elsewhere as the carco . Folk song forms range from the harvest seu , simadan and wapa . Other songs were imported beginning in the 19th century , including the South American joropo and pasillo , Spanish Caribbean merengue and other new songs , dances and instruments . This diverse mixture was the origin of the Dutch Antilles ' most distinctive and long @-@ standing popular tradition , the tumba .
The smaller islands of Saint Martin , Saba and Sint Eustatius largely share in the same folk instruments , dances and songs as their neighbors ; however , these islands remain largely unstudied . Saba is home to a vital percussive music tradition , most closely associated with private parties , using instrumentation similar to Curaçao , Bonaire and Aruba . Saint Martin is home to a national dance form called the ponum , which dates to the 19th century and was only displaced by string bands in the mid @-@ 20th century . Saint Martin is also home to a calypso @-@ like quimbe song form , that remains a major part of the island 's culture .
= = Indo @-@ Antillean = =
Indo @-@ Caribbean people in the Lesser Antillean music area are clustered in Guyana , Suriname , and Trinidad and Tobago . Indo @-@ Caribbean folk traditions include the chowtal songs from the springtime festival phagwa , and Hindi bhajans which are still sung at temples despite there being few people who understand Hindi . Guyanese and Trinidadian Indo @-@ Caribbeans developed a tradition that fused elements of calypso with the folk music of North India , a style that was referred to as local music .
Indo @-@ Caribbean music plays a vital role in various annual festivals like the springtime phagwa , where chowtal is traditionally performed competitively and in teams . Indo @-@ Caribbean Shia Muslims celebrate Hosay ( Muharram ) with floats accompanied by barrel drums called tassa . Wedding music is another important part of Indo @-@ Caribbean music , and is dominated by tan singing . Tan singing is accompanied by the dholak drum and dhantal , and sometimes includes verbal duels influenced by picong . Indo @-@ Caribbean popular music gained international attention in the late 1980s , with the rise of chutney music . Chutney is a dance music , in its modern form accompanied by soca instrumentation , such as synthesizers and pressure drums . This style is called chutney @-@ soca .
= Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne =
Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne ( French : Les patineurs à Longchamp ) is an oil @-@ on @-@ canvas landscape painting by the French artist Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , created during the winter of 1868 . The painting depicts a snowscape with a large number of Parisians , young and old , spending leisure time on a frozen park lake . Due to Renoir 's strong dislike of cold temperatures and snow , the piece is one of his few winter landscapes .
= = Background = =
Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir ( 1841 – 1919 ) first met landscape painters Alfred Sisley ( 1839 – 1899 ) , Claude Monet ( 1840 – 1926 ) , and figure painter Frédéric Bazille ( 1841 – 1870 ) at the art studio of Swiss artist Charles Gleyre in 1861 . In addition to their friendship , all would prove influential in Renoir 's work . For the next several years , Renoir attended the École des Beaux @-@ Arts . He first exhibited a large painting at the Salon in 1863 , but destroyed his work . That same year , Renoir was living in a studio with Bazille who introduced him to Paul Cézanne ( 1839 – 1906 ) and Camille Pissarro ( 1830 – 1903 ) .
An early painting , The Cabaret of Mère Anthony ( 1866 ) , represents for Renoir " some of the most agreeable memories " of his life with friends at a village inn during this time . He soon moved to the village of Chailly near Marlotte and the forest of Fontainebleau , and began working with model Lise Tréhot who posed for him between 1866 and 1872 . Renoir began painting at La Grenouillère , a popular middle class day resort with a floating dance hall , in late 1868 . Like Monet and several other Impressionists , Renoir worked en plein air , painting outdoors , but unlike Monet , who was known for painting in the cold and snow , Renoir was not fond of cold temperatures . Years later , he told art dealer Ambroise Vollard that he could not stand the cold : " But then , even if you can stand the cold , why paint snow ? It is a blight on the face of Nature . " Although it is unknown when his symptoms began , Renoir was known to suffer from rheumatoid arthritis from at least 1892 onward , an affliction which would severely restrict his artistic production in late life .
= = Description = =
Renoir , who was then 26 years old , painted Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne in the public park of Bois de Boulogne in Paris en plein air during the cold winter month of January 1868 . Newspaper accounts of the time recorded freezing temperatures allowing people to walk across the Seine and ice skate on rivers and streams . Due to Renoir 's dislike of cold temperatures , it is one of the few winter landscapes he completed aside from a few minor studies . At the time of the painting , the park itself was relatively new , with construction beginning in 1852 under a public works program led by Georges @-@ Eugène Haussmann under the direction of Napoleon III . Under Haussmann 's renovation of Paris , the Bois de Boulogne was completed in 1858 .
The scene is thought to have been painted near the Lac pour le patinage ( Skating Lake ) , an artificial lake . Renoir chose the park because he preferred painting crowds . The painting has an unfinished , sketch @-@ like quality to it , in the style of a pochade , but the brushwork is bold and the composition fully realized . The scene represents the western part of the park , using an elevated perspective . The theme evokes older Dutch ice skating landscapes made popular by painters like Hendrick Avercamp ( 1585 – 1634 ) . Several dogs can be seen in the work , reflecting Renoir 's thematic interest in the lives of the Parisian bourgeoisie . The motif of social leisure depicted in the piece would come to define Renoir 's subsequent work .
= = Other work = =
There are at least four known snowscapes by Renoir : Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne ( 1868 ) ; Winter Landscape ( 1868 ) ; Snowy Landscape ( 1870 – 75 ) ; and another work also titled Snowy Landscape ( 1875 ) . Along with Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne , Renoir would return to the imagery of the Bois de Boulogne years later with a large painting called The Morning Ride ( 1873 ) , alternatively titled Madame Henriette Darras , which was rejected by the Salon in that year .
= = Provenance = =
The piece is currently held in the private art collection of William I. Koch , who lent the work for exhibition by the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 2005 . Previous owners include :
Ambroise Vollard
The Marquess of Northampton
Richard L. Feigen & Co .
= SS West Nohno =
SS West Nohno was a cargo ship for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) launched shortly after the end of World War I. The ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Nohno ( ID @-@ 4029 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name .
West Nohno was built in 1919 for the USSB , as a part of the West ships , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 24th ship built at Northwest Steel in Portland , Oregon . Completed too late for that conflict , she operated for a number of years as a merchant ship sailing to African ports for the American West African Line .
In November 1941 , West Nohno became the first American merchant ship to be armed prior to the United States ' entry into World War II . Shortly after the U.S. entry to that conflict , she was employed for one roundtrip to the Soviet Union in March 1942 . After her return , she sailed mainly between the United States and United Kingdom ports . In 1943 , a civilian crewman aboard West Nohno was convicted of sedition for trying to incite a rebellion among members of the ship 's crew and Naval Armed Guard . In February 1944 , she sailed from the United States for the final time , and was scuttled in June as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion , earning a battle star for the ship .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Nohno , the one of some 40 West ships built by the Northwest Steel of Portland , Oregon . West Nohno ( Northwest Steel yard number 24 , USSB hull number 1080 ) was launched 12 February 1919 and completed in May 1919 .
West Nohno was 6 @,@ 186 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 9 inches ( 124 @.@ 89 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull and had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 580 DWT . Sources do not give West Nohno 's other hull characteristics , but West Cheswald , a sister ship also built at Northwest Steel had a displacement of 12 @,@ 200 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 34 m ) , and a hold 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep . West Nohno power plant consisted of a single steam turbine that drove a single screw propeller , which moved the ship at up to 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
West Nohno was inspected by the United States Navy after completion for possible use and was assigned the identification number of 4029 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Nohno ( ID @-@ 4029 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Information on West Nohno 's early career is incomplete , but through the end of 1920 the cargo ship sailed on a New York – Glasgow route . By early 1922 , West Nohno was sailing for the USSB @-@ owned American West African Line . The principal ports visited by American West African ships were Dakar , Freetown , Monrovia , and Lagos . News items reported that West Nohno also visited Teneriffe , Accra , Las Palmas , Grand @-@ Bassam , Seccondee , and Saint Vincent . West Nohno was still on African routes as late as 1928 , when the USSB began accepting bids for the purchase of the American West African Line .
From 1928 to 1941 , little is known about West Nohno 's activities . At some point during this period , she was laid up as part of a reserve fleet , in which she remained as late as 1939 . By May 1941 , now under ownership of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) ( a successor to the USSB ) , the ship had been reactivated and was scheduled to sail in Red Sea service under the operation of American Export Lines . In this Red Sea service , ships would carry materiel for the British to Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ports and carry strategic materials needed by the United States on return journeys .
= = World War II = =
When amendments to the U.S. Neutrality Acts in late 1941 allowed United States merchant ships to be armed for service in the Atlantic , West Nohno became the first vessel so equipped when a large deck gun and three anti @-@ aircraft gun emplacements were installed by workers at the Tietjen & Lang Drydock in Hoboken , New Jersey in late November . Navy officials , citing secrecy concerns , would not reveal the size of the gun , but allowed that the bore was between 3 and 6 inches ( 76 and 152 mm ) . While at the shipyard , West Nohno 's wheelhouse and radio shack were reinforced with thick walls of concrete to protect against machine @-@ gun bullets , and the ship was repainted " battleship gray " .
After her guns were installed , West Nohno had made her way to Sydney , Nova Scotia , by 27 December when she sailed as a part of transatlantic Convoy SC 86 . With her destination set for Murmansk , West Nohno peeled off from the convoy and headed to Reykjavík , Iceland . While at anchor in Iceland , West Nohno experienced a winter storm from 15 to 19 January 1942 . On 15 January , the storm , packing winds of 80 knots ( 150 km / h ) and gusts of up to 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) , drove West Nohno into USS Wichita , damaging the heavy cruiser . Apparently suffering no major damage herself in the collision , West Nohno joined Arctic convoy PQ 9 , which sailed on 1 February and arrived at Murmansk nine days later . Though the convoy had arrived at its destination , the danger of German attack was still present . The nearest German airfield was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away — about 7 to 10 minutes flying time — which gave almost no advance warning of air raids . German dive bombers would silently glide in below Soviet anti @-@ aircraft fire , drop their payloads , and fly away . Despite the fact that Murmansk had limited port facilities and typically slow unloading of cargo , sometimes requiring ships to remain in port for weeks or months , West Nohno was ready to sail in Convoy QP 8 on 1 March , returning to Reykjavik on 11 March . She sailed for Halifax eleven days later and arrived on 7 April .
West Nohno had made her way to Hampton Roads , Virginia , by 29 May , when she sailed for Key West , Florida . After her 4 June arrival at Key West , she began a nine @-@ month journey to Alexandria , Cairo , and other ports . During this extended voyage , three crewmen entered one of West Nohno 's fuel tanks to clean it while the ship was at Suez on 29 September 1942 . The crewmen did not use gas masks and were soon overcome by fumes . The second mate of the Norwegian tanker Britannia , Henning Vaagsnes , entered the tank and removed all three men . Two of West Nohno 's men survived but the third , despite two hours of attempts to revive him by Vaagsnes , did not . For his efforts , Vaagsnes received a pair of binoculars from U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt and a gold watch from the ship owners . He was also awarded St. Olav 's medal with Oak Branch , a medal awarded for personal courage and bravery by the Norwegian government .
In February 1943 , the West Nohno completed her nine @-@ month journey when she arrived at Mobile , Alabama , after sailing via Guantánamo Bay , Cuba , and Key West . The Chicago Daily Tribune reported that during this voyage , seaman James Orville Couchois had incited subordination and disloyalty among the crew . The head of the Naval Armed Guard detachment aboard West Nohno reported Couchois ' activities , as well as comments from other crew members on the ship . After the ship had docked at Mobile , Couchois was removed from the ship and ultimately faced a trial for sedition . Couchois , who was the deck manager for the National Maritime Union of the Congress of Industrial Organizations , was convicted and sentenced to a prison term of five years .
In late March , West Nohno began the first of three Boston – Liverpool round trips . On the Halifax – Liverpool leg of this first trip , she had some unspecified problem that required her return to Halifax , but it must have been a minor problem since she sailed again for Liverpool a week later . The cargo ship returned to Boston on 3 June and began her second voyage to Liverpool on 30 June . While in the UK she called at Loch Ewe , Methil , and Oban in July and August before her 6 September return to Boston . Her third journey was an extended one that began by sailing from Boston on 3 October . She arrived at Liverpool three weeks later . During the next seven weeks , she made her way to Milford Haven , from which she began her last westbound transatlantic crossing on 13 December . West Nohno arrived in Boston on 5 January 1944 .
= = Final voyage = =
West Nohno had been selected to become one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Though the specific modifications performed on West Nohno are not revealed in sources , modifications for other ships do appear . In November 1944 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Nohno , had been loaded with " tons of sand and cement " and had been rigged with explosive charges before departing the port . Further , existing antiaircraft weapons had been moved higher up on the ship and supplemented by additional guns . An account by Cesar Poropat , chief engineer aboard West Honaker , another blockship dispatched from Boston , mentions that transverse bulkheads aboard that ship were cut open to facilitate sinking .
West Nohno departed Boston on 24 February and arrived at Halifax two days later . Departing from that port on 29 February , she sailed in Convoy HX @-@ 281 and arrived at Milford Haven on 15 March . She departed there for Portsmouth the same day . West Nohno 's whereabouts and movements through early June are not recorded . Other ships that had been selected as blockships assembled in a " corncob " fleet at Oban , though it 's not clear if West Nohno did or not . The " corncob " fleet was the group of ships intended to be sunk to form the " gooseberries " , shallow @-@ water artificial harbors for landing craft . Poropat reports that once the ship crews were told of their mission while anchored at Oban , they were not permitted to leave the ships .
Three " corncob " convoys , consisting of what one author called the " dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool " , departed from Poole and reached the Normandy beachhead the next day , shortly after the D @-@ Day landings . Poropat reports that the corncob ships traveled under cover of darkness and , stripped of all unnecessary equipment , carried no radios , having only a signal lamp ( with a spare bulb ) for communication . Once at the designated location , the ships were put into position and scuttled over the next days , under heavy German artillery fire . Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks ; West Nohno 's gunners assisted in shooting down several planes on 10 June . All the while , harbor pilots — about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association , according to one source — carefully positioned the ships . West Nohno and West Cheswald were the last two ships sunk off Utah Beach when they went down on 11 June . Even though she had been sunk , West Nohno continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews until 18 June , and by Army crews after that date . West Nohno 's naval gunners were awarded a battle star for participation in the Normandy Landings .
= Alma @-@ class ironclad =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were a group of seven wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvettes built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s . Three of the ships attempted to blockade Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870 during the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Three others patrolled the North Sea and the Atlantic , while the last ship was en route to Japan when the war began and blockaded two small Prussian ships in a Japanese harbor . Afterwards they alternated periods of reserve and active commissions , many of them abroad . Three of the ships participated in the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 while another helped to intimidate the Vietnamese Government into accepting status as a French protectorate and played a small role in the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 .
= = Design and description = =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments . Unlike their predecessor the ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads . The original plan for these ships was to have a two @-@ deck battery with four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns on the battery deck and four 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns mounted above them on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery . This design was changed to substitute four barbettes for the upper battery , but the addition of armored bulkheads proved to be very heavy and the rear pair of barbettes had to be deleted to save weight . In partial compensation the 164 @-@ millimeter guns in the remaining forward barbettes were replaced by an additional pair of 194 @-@ millimeter guns . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ships were built from the same general plan , but differed amongst themselves . They measured 68 @.@ 75 – 69 @.@ 03 meters ( 225 @.@ 6 – 226 @.@ 5 ft ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 13 @.@ 94 – 14 @.@ 13 meters ( 45 @.@ 7 – 46 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ships had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 26 – 6 @.@ 66 meters ( 20 @.@ 5 – 21 @.@ 9 ft ) and displaced 3 @,@ 569 – 3 @,@ 889 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 513 – 3 @,@ 828 long tons ) . Their crew numbered 316 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Alma @-@ class ships had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engine was powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced between 1 @,@ 585 – 1 @,@ 896 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 182 – 1 @,@ 414 kW ) and the ships reached 10 @.@ 48 – 11 @.@ 99 knots ( 19 @.@ 41 – 22 @.@ 21 km / h ; 12 @.@ 06 – 13 @.@ 80 mph ) . Unlike the single funnels of the others , Jeanne d 'Arc and Thétis had two funnels , mounted side @-@ by @-@ side . The ships carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 310 – 1 @,@ 620 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 430 – 3 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 510 – 1 @,@ 860 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area between 1 @,@ 338 – 1 @,@ 454 square meters ( 14 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 650 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships mounted four of their 194 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1864 breech @-@ loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 194 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . The four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were also mounted on the upper deck . Alma is the only ship positively known to have exchanged her 194 mm guns for newer Modèle 1870 guns . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 20 @-@ caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165 @.@ 3 pounds ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
The Alma @-@ class ships had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , backed by 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of wood . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 Thétis , Jeanne d 'Arc and Armide were assigned to the Northern Squadron that attempted to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until ordered to return to Cherbourg on 16 September 1870 . Montcalm , Atalante , and Reine Blanche cruised the North Sea and Montcalm later watched a Prussian corvette in Portuguese waters . Alma was en route to the Far East when the war began and she blockaded a pair of Prussian corvettes in Yokohama harbor once she arrived at Japan .
After the end of the war many of the ships were placed in reserve or sent to foreign stations , often as the flagship . During the Third Carlist War of 1872 – 76 Thétis , Reine Blanche and Jeanne d 'Arc spent time in Spanish waters where they could protect French citizens and interests . In 1875 the latter ship rammed and sank the dispatch vessel Forfait . On 3 July 1877 Thétis rammed Reine Blanche who had to be run ashore to prevent her from sinking .
Further abroad Reine Blanche and Alma bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . Atalante participated in the Battle of Thuan An in August 1883 . This was an attack by the French on the forts defending the mouth of the Perfume River , leading to the Vietnamese capital of Huế in an attempt to intimidate the Vietnamese government . During the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 the ship was in Huế in early September 1884 , but she carried Admiral Amédée Courbet to Keelung , Taiwan on 23 September .
= The Boat Race 1987 =
The 133rd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1987 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by four lengths . The race featured the tallest , heaviest , youngest and oldest crew members in the event 's history .
Oxford 's crew rebelled in the prelude to the race , with several American rowers and the cox leaving the squad in February after their coach Dan Topolski removed their compatriot Chris Clark from the crew , replacing him with Scottish rower Donald Macdonald . The rebels were replaced in the main by the reserves . Umpired by former Oxford Blue Colin Moynihan , it was the first year that the race was sponsored by Beefeater Gin , replacing Ladbrokes after ten years .
In the 23rd reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis by one length . Cambridge won the 42nd Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " and the " Light Blues " respectively ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and is followed throughout the United Kingdom ; the races are broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1986 race by seven lengths , and led overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 62 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The 1987 race was the first race to be sponsored by Beefeater Gin .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = = Mutiny = = =
Following defeat in the previous year 's race , Oxford 's first in eleven years , American Chris Clark was determined to gain revenge : " Next year we 're gonna kick ass ... Cambridge 's ass . Even if I have to go home and bring the whole US squad with me . " He recruited another four American post @-@ graduates : three international @-@ class rowers ( Dan Lyons , Chris Huntington and Chris Penney ) and a cox ( Jonathan Fish ) , in an attempt to put together the fastest Boat Race crew in the history of the contest .
Disagreements over the training regime of Dan Topolski , the Oxford coach , ( " He wanted us to spend more time training on land than water ! " lamented Lyons ) led to the crew walking out on at least one occasion , and resulted in the coach revising his approach . A fitness test between Clark and Scottish former Blue Donald Macdonald ( in which the American triumphed ) resulted in a call for the Scotsman 's removal ; it was accompanied with a threat that the Americans would refuse to row should Macdonald remain in the crew . As boat club president , Macdonald " had absolute power over selection " and after announcing that Clark would row on starboard , his weaker side , Macdonald would row on the port side and Briton Tony Ward was to be dropped from the crew entirely , the American contingent mutinied . After considerable negotiation and debate , much of it conducted in the public eye , Clark , Penny , Huntington , Lyons and Fish were dropped and replaced by members of Oxford 's reserve crew , Isis .
= = Crews = =
Oxford 's crew weighed an average of nearly 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) a rower more than their opponents . The race featured the tallest and heaviest ( Oxford 's stroke Gavin Stewart ) , youngest ( Cambridge 's Matthew Brittin ) and oldest ( Oxford 's president Donald Macdonald ) crew members in the event 's history . The Cambridge boat saw four returning Blues while Oxford welcomed back just one , in Macdonald . Oxford 's coach was Topolski , his counterpart was Alan Inns .
= = Race = =
With a more experienced crew and less disruption in the preparation for the race , Cambridge were considered favourites . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station . A malfunction to umpire Colin Moynihan 's barge caused a delay to the start ; as a consequence the crews avoided racing in a lightning storm . Straight from the start , Oxford steered towards Middlesex to seek shelter from the inclement weather . Cambridge eventually followed , taking on water , and receiving warnings for encroaching into Oxford 's water . Almost a length ahead by Craven Cottage , Oxford steered across and in front of Cambridge to control the race before the Mile Post . A seven @-@ second advantage at Hammersmith Bridge became twelve seconds by Barnes Bridge and remained so by the finishing post , with Oxford winning by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 59 seconds .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by one length , their first victory in three years . Cambridge won the 42nd Women 's Boat Race , their fourth victory in six years .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Macdonald was triumphant : " It was a fairy @-@ tale . " Topolski acknowledged his crew 's luck in winning the toss combined with the conditions : " We had been praying for rough water . " He also appeared conciliatory
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: " I wish the Americans had been there . It has nothing to do with vindication . We just won the race , that 's all . " Cadoux @-@ Hudson said , " I thought Cambridge would murder us but we took 20 colossal strokes and there was a primeval scream from the crew . There was a huge release . "
= = Legacy = =
In 1989 Topolski and author Patrick Robinson 's book about the events , True Blue : The Oxford Boat Race Mutiny , was published . Seven years later , a film based on the book was released . Alison Gill , the then @-@ president of the Oxford University Women 's Boat Club wrote The Yanks in Oxford , in which she defended the Americans and claimed Topolski wrote True Blue in order to justify his own actions . The journalist Christopher Dodd described True Blue as " particularly offensive " .
Oxford 's stroke Gavin Stewart , writing in The Times in 1996 , had chosen to mutiny because " Macdonald as president had lost the respect of the squad and the selection system had lost credibility " . In 2003 , Clark had " broken his silence " , stating " Mutiny is such a loaded term ... Rebellion would be a more apt description . On the face of it , I have no regrets whatsoever . However , I now lament my own personal maturity level . In hindsight my callowness had the effect of exacerbating a complicated but manageable situation . " On the twentieth anniversary of the race , Topolski insisted " It was just a selection dispute , an argument which every club in every sport has from time to time . The media just took the story and hyped it up . "
= Pokémon , I Choose You ! =
" Pokémon - I Choose You ! " ( ポケモン ！ きみにきめた ！ , Pokémon ! Kimi ni Kimeta ! ) is the first episode of the first season of the Pokémon anime series . It was first broadcast in Japan on April 1 , 1997 and was first broadcast in the United States on September 8 , 1998 .
In the episode , Ash Ketchum gets his Pokémon journey off to a rough start when he receives his first Pokémon , the reluctant Pikachu . After many failed attempts at capturing some Pokémon , Ash throws a rock at a Spearow , which gets angry and starts attacking Ash and Pikachu . Soon , an entire flock of Spearow start chasing them , and Pikachu is the only one who is able to step in and stop the flock .
Nintendo , which publishes the Pokémon video games , asked for changes to be made to the English adaptation of the episode . Some graphic sequences involving punching were taken out , including one where Misty slaps Ash on the cheek . The script was translated by Paul Taylor . Veronica Taylor , who provided the English voice of Ash in this episode , said she enjoyed the script and recording Ash 's lines .
Since airing , the episode has received negative reviews from television critics . Andrew Wood of The Plain Dealer praised the episode for staying true to the games , but thought it focused too much on the character Ash . A children 's book adaptation of " Pokémon - I Choose You ! " was released in July 1999 , and the episode was released on Game Boy Advance Video in 2004 .
= = Plot = =
Ash Ketchum is about to receive his very first Pokémon from Professor Oak . At the age of ten , boys and girls like Ash can get the license to become Pokémon trainers . On the day he is supposed to get his first Pokémon , Ash accidentally breaks his alarm clock and oversleeps . When he wakes up , he runs in his pajamas to Professor Oak 's laboratory , but when Ash enters to receive his Pokémon , he is told that all three starter Pokémon have already been taken . Ash pleads for one and Oak replies that he still has one left , but there is a slight problem with it . Ash does not care and receives the Pokémon , which turns out to be the electric @-@ type Pokémon Pikachu . Ash thinks that it is cute , but it gives him an electric shock when he picks it up to hug it . Oak gives Ash a Pokédex and six Poké Balls before he heads out on his journey to become the greatest Pokémon trainer of all time .
As Ash carries the reluctant Pikachu , he hopes that they can be friends , but Pikachu acts aloof and openly shows his distrust of Ash . Just then , a Pidgey flies by and Ash unsuccessfully tries to catch it by throwing his Poké Ball . Ash uses his Pokédex and finds out that in order to catch a Pokémon , a trainer must first use their Pokémon to battle it , thereby weakening it , to be caught by a Poké Ball . With Pikachu being uncooperative , Ash tries to fight the Pidgey himself , but is easily beaten , much to the amusement of Pikachu . Frustrated , Ash throws a rock at what he believes is the Pidgey . However , it turns out to be a Spearow , which starts attacking Pikachu and Ash . Pikachu shocks Spearow , and in the process alerts a whole flock . Ash grabs Pikachu and dives down a waterfall in order to escape from the flock of Spearow , and the two are fished out by a young girl named Misty , who tells Ash to take the injured Pikachu to the Pokémon Center in Viridian City . Seeing the Spearow flock approaching , Ash escapes with Pikachu by " borrowing " Misty 's bike .
When the Spearow flock find Ash and Pikachu on the way to Viridian City , Ash risks his life by protecting Pikachu from the attacking Spearow . Pikachu , after seeing how much Ash cares for it , performs a powerful Thunder attack which drives the Spearow away , but also destroys Misty 's bike . Ash carries Pikachu into Viridian City , and Pikachu licks Ash 's cheek to signify the new bond they share as good friends . As the rain @-@ clouds part , a mysterious golden bird flies over the rainbow .
= = Production = =
" Pokémon - I Choose You ! " was the first episode of the Pokémon anime to be made and aired in Japan . The episode was written by Shoji Yonemura , and directed by Masamitsu Hidaka . When the production staff started on the anime , they wanted a specific character to focus on . They chose Pikachu because it was relatively popular compared with the other Pokémon and the staff thought that " potentially both boys and girls would like it " . The episode was animated by Shogakukan in Japan , and it was aimed at elementary school students .
= = = English adaptation = = =
Just before 4Kids Entertainment revealed that they were planning on producing an English adaptation dub of the anime in the United States , the episode " Dennō Senshi Porygon " caused controversy when it aired in Japan on December 16 , 1997 . In the episode , there was a scene with a huge explosion that flashed red and blue lights . At this point , viewers started to complain of blurred vision , headaches , dizziness , seizures , blindness , and lost consciousness . A total of 685 viewers were taken to hospitals by ambulances . Alfred R. Kahn , chief executive of 4Kids Entertainment , announced on January 1 , 1998 , that the anime would be edited for the American market . Many American parents worried about the safety of their children now that the anime would air in the United States , but Kahn said : " We 're confident it won 't be a problem . [ ... ] We 've taken the problem seriously and fixed it . "
Nintendo asked for changes to be made to the original Japanese show in the English adaptation . " We tried not to have violence or sexual discrimination or religious scenes in the United States , " said Masakazu Kubo , executive producer of Shogakukan . Some graphic sequences involving punching were taken out , including one from " Pokémon , I Choose You ! " where Misty slaps Ash on the cheek . The names of the characters and monsters were Westernized : Satoshi became Ash , and Shigeru became Gary , and the Pokémon were given descriptive names . For example , of the three starter Pokémon , Hitokage , a salamander with a ball of fire on its tail , became Charmander ; Fushigidane , a dinosaur with a green garlic bulb on its back , became Bulbasaur ; and Zenigame , a turtle who squirts water , became Squirtle .
= = = = Voice acting = = = =
Veronica Taylor , who provided the voice of Ash in this episode and all episodes from season one to eight , said that recording Ash 's lines for the episode was " really great " for her . " Playing a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy with that energy and excitement , and the battles that he 's in , and his low , husky voice was really terrific , " she said .
I really enjoy playing [ Ash ] and he ’ s really a great character , [ ... ] but I feel that after the first ten episodes everything has kind of loosened up . The script 's loosened up , the characters were able to come into their own a bit more , and I think everyone has relaxed a bit ; we 're able to play with it more , whereas in the first ten episodes , I think it was so new , and everyone was trying to make sure it was done right . I enjoy playing him now much more than I did in the very beginning because I can have fun with him more , and we know him and can work out how he really would react .
Taylor explained the process of recording an episode in an interview with Animerica Magazine ; first , the script is translated from Japanese into English , it is then adapted to fit the lip flap ( movement of the mouth ) . Taylor said that she is the only one in the recording booth when she works , as they record each voice separately throughout each episode . Taylor added that she is often the first one to record so she has to imagine how the previous line would be said . " Luckily , I work with a great director who helps with the interpretation of the line , matching of the lip flap , and consistency of the voice , " she said .
= = Reception = =
The episode first aired in the United States on September 8 , 1998 . Since then , it has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Andrew Wood of The Plain Dealer had mixed feelings for the episode , stating the episode did a good job of setting up the world of Pokémon , and that it was faithful to the game . However , Wood thought it was " apparent " in this episode that without a traveling partner , " Ash just isn 't all that interesting " . Andrew Tei of Mania.com said that " one great thing about listening to early dubs is how the voice actors haven 't completely gotten into their roles yet . Ash 's and James ' voices are much deeper than where they end up at . " Louis Bedigian of GameZone believed the best moment of the episode to be the Pokémon battle on television at the beginning , stating that " the Pokémon battle side @-@ to @-@ side in black and white . Their movements are slow and appear to be turn @-@ based . It emulates the game perfectly , then quickly transforms into a more realistic , full @-@ color battle . Few game @-@ based anime series incorporate the game elements so well . " X @-@ Entertainment considered the best part of the episode to be the moment when Ash spots the mysterious Ho @-@ Oh , a Pokémon whose data was not included in the Pokédex at the time .
= = Book adaptation and re @-@ releases = =
A children 's book adaptation of the episode was released in July 1999 . It was published by Scholastic Corporation and written by Tracey West . The episode was released on VHS and DVD on November 24 , 1998 , and December 13 , 1998 , respectively .
Nintendo announced on September 24 , 2004 , that two Game Boy Advance Video cartridges , featuring " classic " episodes from the early days of the Pokémon series , would hit stores on September 27 that year . The Pokémon episodes were packaged in two separate packs containing two episodes each , and the four episodes available were " Pokémon , I Choose You ! " , " Here Comes the Squirtle Squad " , " Beach Blank @-@ Out Blastoise " , and " Go West Young Meowth " , all from season one .
= Jack Hobbs =
Sir John Berry " Jack " Hobbs ( 16 December 1882 – 21 December 1963 ) was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey from 1905 to 1934 and for England in 61 Test matches between 1908 and 1930 . Known as " The Master " , he is regarded by critics as one of the greatest batsmen in the history of cricket . He is the leading run @-@ scorer and century @-@ maker in first @-@ class cricket , with 61 @,@ 760 runs and 199 centuries . A right @-@ handed batsman and an occasional right @-@ arm medium pace bowler , Hobbs also excelled as a fielder , particularly in the position of cover point .
Born into poverty in 1882 , Hobbs wished from an early age to pursue a career in cricket . His early batting was undistinguished , but a sudden improvement in 1901 brought him to the attention of local teams . In 1903 he successfully applied to join Surrey , with the support of England batsman Tom Hayward . His reputation grew and when he qualified to play for Surrey , he scored 88 on his first @-@ class debut and a century in his next game . Over the following seasons , he established himself as a successful county player and in 1908 made his Test debut for England , scoring 83 in his first innings . After some mixed early performances for England , Hobbs ' success against South African googly bowlers made his place secure , and by 1911 – 12 , when he scored three centuries in the Test series against Australia , critics judged him the world 's best batsman . In county cricket , he developed an attacking , dynamic style of play and was very successful up until 1914 . After serving in the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War , he maintained his reputation when cricket resumed in 1919 , but his career was threatened by appendicitis , which caused him to miss most of the 1921 season . When he returned , he was a more cautious batsmen and used a safer style of play . Subsequently , he became more consistent and scored prolifically in both Test and domestic cricket until his retirement . In this period , he played some of his most acclaimed innings .
Hobbs ' success was based on fast footwork , an ability to play many different shots , and excellent placement of the ball . Among the first batsmen to succeed against previously devastating googly bowlers , he adapted his technique to meet the new styles of bowling that arose early in his career ; he mixed classical shots with an effective defence . He was particularly successful on difficult pitches for batting . An opening batsman , Hobbs established several effective opening partnerships ; with Tom Hayward and Andy Sandham for Surrey and with Wilfred Rhodes and Herbert Sutcliffe for England . His partnership with Sutcliffe remains in 2016 the most effective for the first wicket , in terms of average partnership , in Test history . Contemporaries rated Hobbs extremely highly , and critics continue to list him among the best batsmen of all time .
Hobbs was very close to Ada , his wife of 56 years ; the pair were able to live comfortably in later life through Hobbs ' substantial wage from Surrey , his commercial endorsements , and the proceeds of the sporting goods shop he opened in 1921 and ran for the rest of his life . After his cricketing retirement , he also worked in journalism . Knighted in 1953 , the first professional cricketer to be so honoured , he spent his later years nursing his wife . He died , aged 81 , a few months after her in 1963 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and early cricket = = =
Hobbs was born in Cambridge on 16 December 1882 , the first of 12 children to John Cooper Hobbs , a slater , and his wife Flora Matilda Berry . Hobbs was raised in a poor , run @-@ down area of the city , and he spent most of his childhood in near @-@ poverty . Hobbs senior , a lover of cricket , changed his career to become a professional cricketer , and in 1889 was appointed groundsman and umpire at Jesus College .
From an early age , Hobbs played cricket whenever he could . His first games were played in the streets near his house . He was educated at a primary school affiliated with his local Anglican church , St Matthew 's , and moved in 1891 to York Street Boys ' School , a fee @-@ paying establishment ; Hobbs later admitted to being a poor scholar but was successful at sports . He played cricket regularly for the St Matthew 's choir team and the York Street school team , and during holidays helped his father at Jesus College . In his final year at York Street , to supplement the family budget , Hobbs took a job working before school hours in the domestic service of a private house . On leaving school in 1895 , he worked as an errand boy until his father 's connections at the university secured him a summer job as a college servant , chiefly assisting the cricket team . Aged 16 , Hobbs became an apprentice gas fitter , and practised cricket on Parker 's Piece , an open area of common land in Cambridge , in his spare time . He played for various local clubs but did not initially stand out as a cricketer : although better than most other Cambridge batsmen , no coaches or major teams approached him , and his batting gave little indication of the success which came later .
Hobbs ' breakthrough came in 1901 . His batting improved throughout the season , during which he scored 102 for Ainsworth against the Cambridge Liberals , his first century . At the end of the season , he was included in a Cambridge XI , a team chosen from the best local cricketers , to play a prestigious match against a team of professional cricketers brought by the Cambridge @-@ born Surrey cricketer Tom Hayward . Hobbs ' overall record was unremarkable , but at the end of the season he was invited to play as an amateur for Cambridgeshire ; he achieved little in his appearances .
Early in 1902 , Hobbs was appointed as assistant to the professional cricket coach at Bedford School , working as a groundsman and bowling in the nets . In late August , he returned to Cambridge to play as a professional for the first time . For a fee of ten shillings , Hobbs appeared for a team from the nearby town of Royston against Hertfordshire Club and Ground and scored 119 runs . His success delighted his family and made him a local celebrity . Hobbs ' father , who had helped to arrange his appearance in the match , died from pneumonia a week later . Despite local fund @-@ raising efforts for the bereaved family , Hobbs senior 's death left his wife and children facing great financial hardship . Francis Hutt , a former friend and colleague of the father , contacted Essex County Cricket Club to request a trial for Hobbs . That county never replied — Hobbs later scored his maiden first @-@ class century against them — but Hutt was more successful when he asked Hayward to look at Hobbs with a view to recommending him to Surrey . Consequently , in late 1902 , Hobbs batted on Parker 's Piece against Hayward and Bill Reeves , an Essex cricketer born in Cambridge , impressing Hayward in the process . In the winter of 1902 – 03 Hobbs assumed his father 's duties as groundsman at Jesus College .
= = = Surrey cricketer = = =
Hobbs was summoned to Surrey for a trial in April 1903 , and subsequently offered a contract with the ground staff at the Oval on a basic wage during the season of 30 shillings a week . Hobbs could not immediately play for Surrey owing to the qualification rules in place at the time for the County Championship — a player had to be born in a county or to have lived there for two years in order to represent it . To achieve qualification , he moved to the Surrey area of London . Around this time he played football for local teams as a forward with some success , but struggled financially during the winter months and found it hard to find employment .
While qualifying , Hobbs played for Surrey 's Colts side and for the Club and Ground Eleven , both of which were teams for young cricketers . Although he made some substantial scores , according to his biographer , Leo McKinstry , " just as he had done for much of his early life , [ Hobbs ] performed satisfactorily without doing anything startling " . In the 1903 season he scored 480 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 29 , as well as taking 19 wickets as his bowling improved . The following season , Hobbs played only for the Club and Ground , increased his average to 43 @.@ 90 , and impressed people connected with the Surrey county side . His sudden improvement brought about a temporary return to the Cambridgeshire team , for which he remained qualified by birth . His batting was praised , particularly when he scored 195 and 129 in two matches against Hertfordshire . In total , he scored 696 runs in 13 innings for Cambridgeshire , averaging 58 @.@ 00 .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
By the start of the 1905 season , Hobbs had qualified for Surrey and was already being noted as a player of promise . At the time , Surrey needed an opening batsman to partner Tom Hayward . Although Hobbs had rarely opened the batting , he was selected as Hayward 's opening partner for Surrey 's first game of the season . He made his debut on 24 April 1905 against a team representing the " Gentlemen of England " ; after scoring 18 runs in the first innings , he scored a rapid 88 in the second before rain ensured the match was drawn . The Surrey team and committee were impressed , and Hobbs retained his place for the club 's opening County Championship match against Essex . When he scored 155 runs in around three hours during Surrey 's second innings , the Surrey captain Lord Dalmeny awarded Hobbs his County Cap . Over the following weeks , Hobbs scored consistently , hitting another century against Essex and 94 runs against the touring Australian cricket team . But a combination of fatigue from continuous cricket and the pressure of first @-@ class cricket adversely affected his form , and he struggled for the remainder of the season even as the county tried various measures to help him . In first @-@ class cricket that season , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 317 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 82 , including two centuries and four other scores over fifty , to finish ninth in the Surrey batting averages . As an occasional medium @-@ paced bowler , he took six wickets . Reviewing Surrey 's season , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack singled Hobbs out for attention , praising his early @-@ season form ; it suggested that he was the best professional batsman Surrey had found for a long time . The Times noted that , while performing well , Hobbs had fallen short of the standards suggested by his start .
After a winter of practice , Hobbs displayed greater consistency in 1906 . Displaying a wider range of shots , he scored four centuries , including another against Essex , and established an effective opening partnership with Hayward . Between his debut and Hayward 's retirement in 1914 , the pair shared 40 opening partnerships in excess of 100 runs . Hobbs was generally the junior partner , and was overawed by Hayward , to the extent that he did not feel confident enough to invite him to his wedding . Hayward influenced Hobbs ' mental approach , particularly his running between the wickets , but the pair were dissimilar in style . In all first @-@ class cricket in 1906 , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 913 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 70 with a highest score of 162 , placing him second in the Surrey averages . Wisden praised his improved fielding and commented that he was " one of the best professional bats of the year " . Hobbs made further advances in 1907 . Unusually frequent rain during the season — Wisden described the season as the wettest ever — meant that pitches often favoured bowlers . After a poor start , Hobbs successfully adapted to the conditions , and scored consistently well . In June , he and Hayward shared four century opening partnerships in one week . Hobbs scored four centuries in total and by the end of the season had scored 2 @,@ 135 runs , averaging 37 @.@ 45 . He was one of only three men to pass 2 @,@ 000 runs ; he was second to Hayward in the Surrey averages , and eighth nationally . His performances brought him to the attention of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) selectors , and he was chosen for the Players in the prestigious Gentlemen v Players matches in July , although he scored few runs in either game .
= = Test match cricketer = =
= = = First appearances = = =
Hobbs was selected to tour Australia in the 1907 – 08 season with an MCC team , given his opportunity by the unavailability of several leading players . Throughout the outward voyage , Hobbs was severely affected by sea @-@ sickness , a condition which afflicted him on sea voyages throughout his life ; in later tours , he travelled overland as far as possible to reduce his time on ships . Consequently , he missed the first two games of the tour against the Australian state teams . His appearances were further limited by the reluctance of the MCC captain , Arthur Jones , to select him . He played in only two of the early matches , failing on both occasions , and was left out of the team for the first Test match . After England lost the game , Hobbs was chosen for the second Test . Hobbs made his Test debut on 1 January 1908 at Melbourne Cricket Ground . Opening the England batting on the second day , Hobbs scored 83 runs in 182 minutes . Eventually , England needed 282 to win and did so by one wicket ; Hobbs scored 28 . He retained his place for the rest of the series . In the fourth match , he scored 57 on a pitch badly affected by rain ; by adopting a policy of attacking the bowling he hit ten fours . He concluded his series with an innings of 72 in the final game , but could not prevent a third successive English defeat — the home side won the five @-@ match series 4 – 1 . He scored 302 runs in the Tests at an average of 43 @.@ 14 . In other first @-@ class matches , he scored centuries against Tasmania and Victoria , totalling 876 runs at 41 @.@ 71 .
Hobbs scored fewer runs in 1908 , despite better conditions for batting . Even so , he scored 81 in the Gentlemen v Players game , achieved a batting average over 40 in the County Championship and scored six centuries for Surrey . In all first @-@ class games , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 904 runs at 37 @.@ 33 . For his achievements that season , Hobbs was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation noted that " at the present time there is perhaps no better professional batsman in England except Hayward and Tyldesley " .
Hobbs began the 1909 season with a succession of large scores , including a double century in one match and two separate centuries in another . Such form placed him in contention for a place in the England team to play Australia that year , despite the English batting strength . But the England captain , Archie MacLaren , was unconvinced that Hobbs possessed the required quality . The Surrey captain and England selector H. D. G. Leveson Gower persuaded the committee to include Hobbs in the squad , then convinced a reluctant MacLaren to play him in the team . In the first Test , played at Edgbaston , Hobbs opened the batting with MacLaren but was dismissed from the first ball he received . The match was a low @-@ scoring one , and Australia set England 105 runs to win . Hobbs , this time opening the batting with C. B. Fry , hit 62 not out and England passed the target without losing a wicket . England lost the next two matches , and Hobbs was unsuccessful , with a top @-@ score of 30 in four innings . A badly injured finger meant that he missed the remainder of the Test series ; in three games , he scored 132 runs at an average of 26 @.@ 40 . England lost the series when the remaining two matches were drawn . Hobbs struggled to regain his form when he recovered ; he averaged 40 @.@ 65 for the season , but of the 2 @,@ 114 first @-@ class runs he scored , nearly half came in the first month of the season .
= = = Dominance in South Africa = = =
Hobbs accepted an invitation to tour South Africa that winter with the MCC . The cricketing conditions were challenging : matches were played on matting pitches , unfamiliar to English players , and the South African googly bowlers had previously troubled most leading English batsmen , provoking debate over how batsmen could combat the new delivery . The MCC captain , Leveson Gower , selected Wilfred Rhodes to open the batting with Hobbs for the first Test . Rhodes , a defensively @-@ minded batsman who excelled at taking quick singles , had begun his career as a bowler who batted down the order . He steadily improved his batting , eventually becoming an opening batsman . Hobbs and Rhodes , between 1910 and 1921 , opened the batting 36 times for England and shared eight century partnerships ; their average of 61 @.@ 31 runs per opening partnership remains the second highest in Test history . In other first @-@ class cricket , they shared a further five century opening partnerships . Their association was notable for effective running ; the pair developed such an unusually good understanding that they were able to run without calling to each other . They scored singles by pushing the ball just past nearby fielders and running quickly . Critics believed that they raised the art of running to a new level .
This tactic developed from the first day that Hobbs and Rhodes batted together in the first Test ; they added 159 runs for the first wicket . Hobbs scored 89 in the first innings and 35 in the second , and while England lost narrowly , he appeared much more comfortable than the other English batsmen against the googly . Hobbs and Rhodes shared a partnership of 207 in the tour match following the Test , in which Hobbs scored 163 . England also lost the second Test , but Hobbs scored 53 and 70 , sharing two substantial opening partnerships with Rhodes . The failure of the other batsmen , defeated by the googly bowlers , caused consternation in the English press . As England had few effective pace bowlers on the tour , Hobbs opened the bowling in the first two Tests , as well as the batting . In the third Test , he scored 93 not out to guide England to a three @-@ wicket victory . However , the series was lost when England were defeated in the fourth match ; Hobbs scored 0 and 1 , the only time in his Test career that he failed to reach double figures in either innings , and his worst match return in first @-@ class cricket . In the final game of the series , he scored his first Test hundred , opening the batting and sharing a partnership of 221 with Rhodes which was a record at the time for the first wicket in Test matches . Hobbs scored 187 , an innings praised by Wisden for its " brilliancy " . In this match he once more opened the bowling , dismissing Reggie Schwarz , his only Test wicket . England won the match by nine wickets and the series finished 3 – 2 against them . Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 124 first @-@ class runs at an average of 66 @.@ 11 on the tour , while in the Test matches , he scored 539 runs at 67 @.@ 37 . None of the other English batsmen came close to matching his success against the googly , and by the end of the series , critics were beginning to describe him as the world 's leading batsman . Wisden commented : " Beyond everything else from the English point of view the feature of the trip was the superb batting of Hobbs , who easily adapted himself to the matting wickets and scored from the famous googly bowlers with amazing skill and facility . When they came home the other members of the team could not say too much in his praise . "
Fatigue from the South African tour affected Hobbs in 1910 . He scored 1 @,@ 982 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 03 , the lowest average of his career apart from his first season . More effective during 1911 , after a long rest during the winter , Hobbs was consistently successful in a hot , dry summer which produced good batting pitches . He played few large innings , but was very effective in high @-@ pressure games , and scored 2 @,@ 376 runs at 41 @.@ 68 . Bowling more frequently than in other seasons , Hobbs took 28 first @-@ class wickets . Against Oxford University , Hobbs bowled throughout the second innings to take seven wickets for 56 runs , the best figures of his career .
= = = Success against Australia = = =
Hobbs was an automatic selection for the MCC tour of Australia in the winter of 1911 – 12 . During the first Test , which Australia won by 146 runs , Hobbs scored 63 in the first innings , although by his own admission he did not play well . Rhodes was in the team , but did not open the batting owing to his poor form ; Hobbs opened with Septimus Kinneir . England recovered to win the second Test ; after bowling Australia out for 184 and taking a first @-@ innings lead of 81 , the visiting team eventually faced a target of 219 to win . Hobbs and Rhodes , restored to the opening position , began with a partnership of 57 . Hobbs scored 126 not out , his first century against Australia , and scored particularly well from the bowling of H. V. " Ranji " Hordern , a googly bowler who had taken 12 wickets in the first Test . Wisden commented that Hobbs " played one of the finest innings of his life " , and England won by eight wickets . Australia were once more bowled out for a low score in the third Test ; this time Hobbs and Rhodes added 147 for the first wicket and Hobbs scored 187 . England reached a total of 501 and won the match by seven wickets .
Having established a lead in the series , England began the fourth Test by bowling Australia out for 191 . At the end of the first day , Hobbs and Rhodes had scored 54 together , and the next day they took their partnership for the first wicket to 323 , setting a new record for the highest partnership for any wicket in Test matches . Their partnership remained an overall Test record for 22 years and the highest for the first wicket until 1948 . As of 2016 , this remains England 's highest opening partnership against Australia . The pair scored easily from the bowling but faced criticism for slow batting . Even so , Hobbs reached a century in 133 minutes and proceeded to play more aggressively afterwards . He was finally dismissed for 178 . England reached a total of 589 and bowled Australia out for 173 to win the match by an innings and regain the Ashes . England also won the final Test to take the series 4 – 1 ; Hobbs scored 32 and 45 , sharing a partnership of 76 with Rhodes in the second innings . Hobbs ended the series with an aggregate of 662 runs at an average of 82 @.@ 75 , setting a new record number of runs for an individual batsman in a Test series . His average was far greater than any other batsman on either team , and the tour established him as the world 's best batsman . In addition , he ran out 15 batsmen while fielding at cover point . The Australians did not dare run when he fielded the ball for fear of the speed of his throw . In all first @-@ class matches , Hobbs scored 943 runs at 55 @.@ 47 .
The 1912 season was unusually wet , which resulted in some very difficult pitches for batting . Wisden remarked that Hobbs did not bat particularly well for Surrey . The press criticised him for trying to score too quickly and losing his wicket in the process . During the summer , both Australia and South Africa toured England , taking part in the Triangular Tournament . Hobbs made a slow start to the competition when he was bowled in the first over in England 's opening match , and his form was uncertain in the early part of the season . However , he scored a century against Australia at Lord 's Cricket Ground on a very difficult batting pitch in England 's second game , sharing a partnership of 112 with Rhodes . He continued with scores of 55 and 68 in the next two games against South Africa , and his batting was praised by the press ; for the first time , in the Times , he was referred to as " a great master " . South Africa were defeated in five of their six games ( the other was drawn ) . As the first two games between England and Australia were drawn , the final match was designated as the deciding match for the tournament . Hobbs and Rhodes opened with 107 , and Hobbs scored 66 . These runs were crucial and England won the game by 244 runs . Hobbs had the best batting average for the summer from all three teams ; he averaged 40 @.@ 75 against South Africa and 56 @.@ 00 against Australia . In all first @-@ class cricket his aggregate was 2 @,@ 042 runs at 37 @.@ 81 .
= = = Years before the war = = =
In 1913 , batting in a more controlled fashion , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 605 runs at an average of 50 @.@ 09 , placing him second in the national averages . He continued to score quickly , twice scoring 100 runs before lunch on the first day of a match ; against Worcestershire , he and Hayward shared an opening partnership of 313 in 190 minutes . In the winter of 1913 – 14 , the MCC sent a strong team to South Africa . The opposition team lacked effective players , and England won the five @-@ Test series 4 – 0 , mainly as a result of the bowling of Sydney Barnes . Hobbs scored 443 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 28 in the series ; he did not score a century , but accumulated scores of 82 , 92 and 97 , while he and Rhodes shared two century opening partnerships and another of 92 . Hobbs adopted a cautious approach , and Wisden noted that he was " not quite so brilliant as in England " but said that he was " an absolute master on matting wickets [ pitches ] . " In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 489 runs at 74 @.@ 45 .
After a slow start to the 1914 season , Hobbs recorded a string of centuries , including a score of 226 , his highest at that time . The looming First World War overshadowed much of the season . Cricket initially continued once the war began , but as the Oval had been requisitioned by the military , Hobbs ' benefit match was moved from the Oval to Lord 's . This move , and the public 's preoccupation with the war , consigned the game to a financial failure ; in total Hobbs ' benefit raised £ 657 , lower than most benefits and far less than usually raised for cricketers of Hobbs ' standing . The Surrey committee agreed to give him another benefit when the war concluded . Hobbs scored his 11th century of the season before public pressure terminated the cricket season . During the winter , the MCC declared Surrey as County Champions ; although the war prevented the completion of all the matches , Surrey led comfortably enough for the other counties not to object . This was the only time in Hobbs ' career that Surrey were champions . In all first @-@ class games in 1914 , he scored 2 @,@ 697 runs at 58 @.@ 63 . As the war began , Hobbs reputation was at its peak ; he was described by Wisden as " one of the greatest bats of his generation " . McKinstry states that during the season : " With his free @-@ scoring method , [ Hobbs ] had dazzled in a way that he was never to do again . "
= = First World War = =
Unlike many other cricketers , Hobbs did not immediately join the army , but worked in a munitions factory , possibly as a clerk . Writing later , Hobbs related that he was criticised for not joining up , but suggested he did not realise how serious the war would be , and was conscious of the need to care for his family . From March 1915 he found extra work as coach at Westminster School , and in May began to play on Saturdays as a professional for Idle in the Bradford Cricket League . The continuation of competitive cricket in Bradford , when all other such cricket had ceased , was controversial . Several clubs hired top @-@ class professionals and matches became very popular . Although his arrival was eagerly anticipated , Hobbs never reached the expected heights , averaging 36 @.@ 63 throughout the 1915 season . But his signing provoked an angry exchange of correspondence between the Yorkshire president Lord Hawke , who was highly critical of the employment of professionals , and John Booth , the president of the Bradford League . Hobbs never publicly commented on the matter , but was instrumental in recruiting Frank Woolley to play in the league . He continued to play for Idle in 1916 , and was more successful , scoring 790 runs at 52 @.@ 60 and taking 65 wickets at 6 @.@ 27 . But his conscription after the season into the Royal Flying Corps ended his regular cricket in the league .
Hobbs joined the Corps in October 1916 as an air mechanic and after training was posted to London , then Norfolk ; at first he had time to appear in charity cricket matches and in several games for Idle . In November 1917 , he joined 110 Squadron which remained in England despite plans to send it to France . By 1918 , the cricket authorities began to arrange more matches and Hobbs played successfully several times at Lord 's . In September 1918 , 110 Squadron , as part of the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , was sent to France and took an active part in the fighting , but Hobbs never discussed his career in the RAF . Even so , some of his family remained critical and felt that the worst of the war was over when Hobbs went to France . He was demobilised in February 1919 .
= = Career after the war = =
= = = Resumption of cricket = = =
When first @-@ class cricket resumed in 1919 , Surrey awarded Hobbs a five @-@ year contract worth £ 400 a year . During the season , he began to open the batting with Andy Sandham , who succeeded to Hayward 's position as Hobbs ' partner ; in the following years , the pair established an effective partnership . In total , they shared 66 century opening partnerships and averaged over 50 for the first wicket . Like Hobbs ' other successful partnerships , this one was based on quick running . Sandham , even when successful , was often overshadowed by his partner ; on one occasion , Sandham scored a century but the headlines were reserved for Hobbs ' duck . Sandham usually played the subordinate role and Hobbs took most of the bowling .
Hobbs made a good start to the 1919 season and , despite a brief spell of failure through over @-@ aggression , batted consistently . He scored a double century for Surrey against a touring Australian Imperial Forces cricket team and centuries in each of the three Gentlemen v Players matches — the only player ever to do so in one season . His rescheduled benefit match raised £ 1 @,@ 670 , money he used to open a sports shop in London . The shop was successful and he ran it until just before his death . The additional income gave him considerable financial independence . In total that year , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 594 runs in first class matches , more than anyone else , at an average of 60 @.@ 32 . After a winter working in his shop , his good form continued into 1920 . Four of his eleven first @-@ class centuries came in consecutive innings in June , and he totalled 2 @,@ 827 runs at 58 @.@ 89 . He also took five wickets for 21 runs against Warwickshire , and his 17 wickets at an average of 11 @.@ 82 placed him at the top of the Surrey bowling averages .
Hobbs toured Australia with the MCC during the 1920 – 21 season , under the captaincy of J. W. H. T. Douglas , when Australia won every match of the five @-@ Test series . He was one of the few English successes . He scored two centuries in the opening three first @-@ class games , and in the first Test top @-@ scored in both England innings with 49 and 59 . In the second Test , he scored 122 on a difficult pitch which had been affected by rain . Wisden commented that this was " from the English point of view , the finest innings of the tour " . He also scored a century in defeat in the third Test , hitting 123 in the final innings as England failed to score 489 to win the game . He did not pass 50 again in the series ; after a failure on the fourth Test , he tore a thigh muscle batting in a game before the final Test . Persuaded by Douglas to play anyway , he scored 40 and 34 but struggled to field effectively . One unsuccessful attempt to chase the ball caused some of the crowd to jeer him , which led to controversy when two amateur members of the team , Percy Fender and Rockley Wilson , wrote scathingly about the incident . Hobbs scored a total of 924 first @-@ class runs on the tour , at an average of 51 @.@ 33 ; in Test matches , he scored 505 runs at 50 @.@ 50 . Although he and Rhodes resumed their opening partnership , apart from in the first Test , when C. A. G. Russell partnered Hobbs , they could not replicate their former successes , and shared only one stand worth more than fifty .
Hobbs played just five first @-@ class matches in 1921 , when Australia toured England . In his opening first @-@ class game , he played against the touring team , but tore the same thigh muscle injured in Australia . He missed the opening two Tests , but once recovered , scored a century for Surrey ; as England trailed 2 – 0 in the five @-@ Test series , the selectors chose him for the third Test . In the days approaching the match , played in Leeds , he suffered from increasing stomach pain but reluctantly played . On the first day of the match , he had to leave the field , and after a day of rest the pain worsened . He consulted Sir Berkley Moynihan , a prominent surgeon based in Leeds , who diagnosed acute appendicitis and operated the same day . In the opinion of the surgeon , Hobbs would not have lived another five hours without surgery . He missed the rest of the season .
Hobbs returned to cricket in 1922 and batted effectively throughout the first months of the season , scoring 10 first @-@ class centuries in total . One of the centuries came in the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's , in which he captained the Players team for the first time . Towards the end of the season , his form faded owing to the lingering effects of his illness and operation the previous year . Wisden observed that he frequently tired during longer innings and often tried to get out soon after reaching three figures ; this habit of giving up his innings continued throughout the remainder of his career . The season also marked a turning point in his batting approach where he preferred to score more slowly and take fewer risks , in contrast to his adventurous pre @-@ war tactics . Second in the national batting averages for 1922 , he scored 2 @,@ 552 runs at an average of 62 @.@ 24 , but declined an invitation to tour South Africa that winter with the MCC . Less successful during the wet 1923 season , Hobbs failed on many occasions and was unsuccessful in both Gentlemen v Players games . He was still struggling with the after @-@ effects of his operation and Wisden noticed he once more tried to score too quickly early in an innings . However , against Somerset , he scored the 100th century of his first @-@ class career , the third man to reach the landmark after W. G. Grace and Hayward . Overall in the season , he scored 2 @,@ 087 runs at 37 @.@ 95 .
= = = Partnership with Sutcliffe = = =
Hobbs signed a new contract worth £ 440 a season before the 1924 season . His form recovered to the extent that his biographer , John Arlott , described it as the beginning of " his quite phenomenal second lease of cricketing life " . Batting conditions were good throughout the summer and Hobbs ' opening partnership with Sandham for Surrey began to approach its peak of effectiveness . Hobbs also established an opening partnership with Yorkshire 's Herbert Sutcliffe ; the pair had opened together briefly in previous seasons and were chosen to open in a Test trial early in 1924 , beginning a six @-@ year Test association . They were often successful in difficult batting conditions ; Hobbs , generally the dominant partner , usually faced more of the bowling . By the time of his retirement , they had opened the batting 38 times in Tests , shared 15 century opening partnerships , and added 3 @,@ 249 runs together ; their average partnership was 87 @.@ 81 , the highest in all Tests for a pair of opening batsmen as of 2016 . In all first @-@ class matches , they had added 100 for the first wicket 26 times and had an average partnership of over 77 . As with Hobbs ' other partnerships , they ran well between the wickets , and established a particular reputation for reliability ; according to McKinstry , they became an " English institution " . The cricket writer Gerald Howat suggests that " ' Hobbs and Sutcliffe ' became almost a synonym for English stability . "
Following their success in the 1924 trial match , Hobbs and Sutcliffe were selected for the England team to play the first Test against South Africa . When England batted first , the pair added 136 for the first wicket ; Hobbs , playing a Test innings in England for the first time since 1912 , scored 76 . England won the match by a large margin . In the second Test , Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened with 268 runs for the first wicket ; Hobbs scored 211 , his highest Test score . At the time , the innings was the highest played at Lord 's in a Test and equalled the highest in a Test match in England . England scored 531 for the loss of two wickets and won the match by an innings . Having initially declined an invitation to tour Australia with the MCC in the coming winter , Hobbs was left out of the team for the fourth Test . After the MCC accepted his request to allow his wife Ada to accompany him — the wives of professionals were not usually permitted to tour — he changed his mind , and was added to the England team for the fifth Test . In the series , he scored 355 runs at an average of 71 @.@ 00 , while in all first @-@ class matches he totalled 2 @,@ 094 runs at 58 @.@ 16 . He finished second in the national averages , and the cricket press noted that , although Hobbs scored more slowly and in less spectacular fashion than previously , he batted in a safer , secure style which was more successful in terms of run @-@ scoring .
The MCC team which toured Australia under the captaincy of Arthur Gilligan in 1924 – 25 lost the Test series 4 – 1 , but critics thought the winning margin flattered the host country . Between them in the Test matches , Hobbs and Sutcliffe scored seven centuries and shared four opening partnerships which passed 100 runs . Hobbs began the tour well , and scored consistently in the matches before the Tests . In the first Test , in reply to Australia 's first innings of 450 , Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened with 157 runs . Hobbs went on to his seventh century against Australia , beating the previous record number in England @-@ Australia Tests by Victor Trumper . Australia eventually set England a target of 605 runs . Hobbs and Sutcliffe shared their second century opening partnership of the game , but England lost by 193 runs . During the match , Hobbs became the leading run @-@ scorer in Test cricket , passing the previous record of 3 @,@ 412 runs set by Clem Hill in 1912 . In the second Test , Australia scored 600 during the opening two days . In reply , Hobbs and Sutcliffe batted throughout the third day without being separated , scoring 283 . They concentrated on defence but both men reached centuries , and the press praised their achievements . Even so , Australia won the game by 81 runs , and in the aftermath of the defeat , Cecil Parkin , a former Test bowler and vocal critic of Gilligan 's captaincy , wrote a newspaper article suggesting that Hobbs should assume the leadership of the side . This suggestion provoked a reaction from Lord Hawke — " Pray God , no professional will ever captain England " — and subsequent press debate over the idea of Hobbs as captain . In reality , Hobbs had no desire to captain England .
Australia once more batted first in the third Test , scoring 489 . For tactical reasons , Hobbs did not open the batting but scored 119 and shared another century partnership with Sutcliffe . Wet weather altered the course of the match and , despite an opening partnership of 63 between Hobbs and Sutcliffe , Australia won by 11 runs . The opening batsmen shared their fourth century partnership of the series in the fourth Test as England won by an innings , but Australia won the final match to win the series 4 – 1 and in a heavy defeat , Hobbs failed in both innings . In the series , he scored 573 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 66 , and made two half @-@ centuries in addition to his three hundreds . Critics in Australia and England once more recognised him as the leading batsman in the world . Hobbs and Sutcliffe far outscored the remaining MCC batsmen and Wisden judged that with better support from other batsmen they could have won the series . In all games , Hobbs scored 865 first @-@ class runs at 54 @.@ 06 .
= = = Peak of popularity = = =
Hobbs was particularly successful in 1925 . Early in the season a string of centuries , including a run of four in consecutive innings , made him the first batman to reach 1 @,@ 000 runs that season and brought him close to Grace 's record of 126 first @-@ class hundreds . He scored the 125th century of his career against Kent on 20 July , but amid intense press and public interest , Hobbs lost form through a combination of anxiety and fatigue . He continued to score well , but could not reach three figures in an innings — after one innings of 54 , a newspaper headline proclaimed that " Hobbs Fails Again " . It was not until 15 August , against Somerset , that Hobbs scored 101 to reach the landmark , an achievement praised and feted throughout the country over the following weeks . On the final day of the match , Hobbs scored another century to become the outright record holder . He ended his season with an innings of 266 in a Gentlemen v Players match at the Scarborough Festival , his highest to date and the best score made in the Gentlemen v Players series , and 104 for the Rest of England against Yorkshire , the County Champions . In total , he scored 16 centuries — setting a record for most centuries in a season — and totalled 3 @,@ 024 runs at an average of 70 @.@ 32 to top the national averages for the first time . Following his successful season , Hobbs was in great demand . He attended several functions in his honour but rejected offers to appear on stage , in film and to stand as a Liberal parliamentary candidate .
Hobbs was given a third benefit by Surrey in 1926 which raised £ 2 @,@ 670 . Further recognition came when he and Rhodes joined the England selection committee for the Ashes series to be played that summer ; for professional cricketers to serve as England selectors was unprecedented . Hobbs began the season well , and after the first Test , which was badly affected by rain , he remained in form by scoring 261 against Oxford University , sharing an opening partnership of 428 with Sandham ; this remained a Surrey first wicket record as of 2016 . In the drawn second Test , he and Sutcliffe shared an opening stand of 182 . Hobbs scored 119 but was criticised for slowing down later in his innings , leading to accusations that he was more concerned with reaching three figures than batting for the team . The third Test was also drawn . England followed on in the face of a large Australian total , but Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened the second innings with a partnership of 156 and Hobbs scored 88 as the game was saved . During the fourth Test , he temporarily assumed the captaincy when Arthur Carr withdrew from the match owing to illness ; Hobbs became the first professional to captain England at home . The selectors and players on both teams believed Hobbs performed well tactically . He scored 74 in England 's innings , but heavy rain ensured a fourth successive draw .
As everything depended on the final game , the Imperial Cricket Conference agreed that the match be played to a finish . Carr was replaced as captain by Percy Chapman , a decision which proved controversial in the press ; Rhodes was also recalled to the team , aged 48 . Amid huge public interest , the match was evenly balanced at the end of the second day when England began their second innings . Overnight rain seriously damaged the pitch before the third morning and few critics — including members of the home team — expected England to score many runs . But Hobbs and Sutcliffe , who had scored 49 on the second evening , began to bat confidently before the effects of a hot sun drying a damp pitch made batting even more hazardous . Concentrating on defence , but scoring whenever possible , the pair added 172 in total . Immediately after reaching 100 , Hobbs was out and received a prolonged ovation from the crowd . Many critics believed that , given the conditions , match situation and pressure , this was his greatest innings . England built up a large lead and bowled Australia out to
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" , and that only Trey Parker and Matt Stone actually know . Parker said it was one of the most common questions he was asked about the show , along with the identity of Cartman 's father , which was resolved in the fourteenth season episode " 201 " . Parker and Stone originally said there was no actual answer to Mysterion 's identity , as they never chose a specific character to be him . In the original ending of the episode , after Mysterion is arrested , Kyle is shown to be in prison and it is believed he is the superhero . However , the real Mysterion visits him , and Kyle explains he pretended to be Mysterion so the real superhero could remain free and continue fighting crime . As a thank you , Mysterion revealed his identity by showing his face , but like in the actual episode , the viewer cannot determine who he is because all the children look alike without hats . The ending was ultimately cut because Parker and Stone decided it took too much time for a simple throwaway gag and to show that Kyle was not Mysterion . The clip is available as a deleted scene in the thirteenth season DVD and Blu @-@ ray sets . The superhero characters from " The Coon " returned in the fourteenth season episodes " Coon 2 : Hindsight " , " Mysterion Rises " and " Coon vs. Coon and Friends " , in which Mysterion is revealed .
Keo Thongkham and Kevin Dalton , who serve as South Park storyboard artists , drew the detailed image of Mysterion that appeared in a news broadcast within the episode . Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , the online retailer Zazzle and South Park Studios , the official South Park website , released T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode , including one with an image of Cartman as the Coon , and one of Mysterion with the words , " Who is Mysterion ? "
= = Cultural references = =
" The Coon " is primarily a parody of dark @-@ toned comic book movies . The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , The Spirit ( 2008 ) and Watchmen ( 2009 ) are the most commonly referred to films , but others such as Spider @-@ Man 3 ( 2007 ) are also frequently referenced . Matt Stone said the episode started as a parody specifically of Watchmen , but then elements of other comic book films were added as the writing progressed . The music used in " The Coon " is inspired by the style of film scores by James Newton Howard and Hans Zimmer , both of whom collaborated on the scores for Batman Begins ( 2005 ) and The Dark Knight . To promote the Coon , Cartman uses a similar tagline as was used to promote Darkman , printing shirts asking " Who is The Coon ? " The Coon and Mysterion use deep and ominous voices similar to that used by Christian Bale in the Batman films and Jackie Earle Haley as Rorschach in Watchmen . Stone said he found Bale 's voice particularly annoying in The Dark Knight , and found it amusing that so many comic book movies had heroes whose voices were so low , it sounded like they were " whispering , like you 've been up all night smoking " .
Cartman and Mysterion both refer to themselves as " the symbol this town needs " , a line from The Dark Knight , and Cartman encourages Butters to film a video threatening to blow up a hospital , the same as the Joker from a scene in that film . The opening shot of " The Coon " is also inspired by a sequence from Watchmen : both feature a close @-@ up of a city sidewalk and zoom out to someone looking down from the top of a tall skyscraper . A poster of the Coon shown at Cartman 's Coonicon 2009 is inspired by the front cover of The Dark Knight Returns , the Batman graphic novel by Frank Miller . Other common comic book film traits parodied in " The Coon " include costumes that do little to actually conceal secret identities , trophies adorning superhero secret lairs , and sudden disappearing exits and entrances .
Cartman 's Coonicon 2009 convention is held at the Airport Hilton , the same place where he holds his " ginger pride " event in the episode " Ginger Kids " and the AIDS benefit in the episode " Tonsil Trouble " . Butters dresses up as Professor Chaos , and Dougie dresses as General Disarray , both of which are the supervillain alter egos they first take on in the sixth season episode " Professor Chaos " . Based on the physique of the Coon , Butters considers heavyset gay entertainers Bruce Vilanch and Harvey Fierstein as suspects for his secret identity . Vilanch sent a card to Parker and Stone after " The Coon " aired , thanking them for referring to him in the episode . Cartman plans to purchase detonators for his TNT from Ace Hardware , a real @-@ life Illinois @-@ based hardware company chain . Cartman refers to the economic recession as one of the primary factors that has led to an increase in crime . News footage of a group of South Park residents talking about Mysterion which focuses on a man with gold teeth and a blue baseball cap was inspired by the Crichton Leprechaun sighting YouTube video .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Coon " was watched by 3 @.@ 27 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among adults aged between 18 and 49 , making it the most watched cable entertainment program in that age group for the week of March 16 to 22 .
The episode received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of iF magazine said , " The mockery of comic book based movies is perfectly done ... Though not quite as funny as last week ’ s ' The Ring ' , ' The Coon ' is right up there as a classic episode , ... A beacon of hope in the sometimes drab world of television , " while at the same time , he believed the episode title , " The Coon " ( being a well @-@ known ethnic slur against black people ) was a jab intended for Barack Obama , the first African American U.S. President .
Percy Olsen , television editor for Student Life , said " The Coon " was an improvement over " The Ring " because it was less heavy @-@ handed in its morals . Olsen also said it raised the question , " What ever happened to the goofy superhero movies ? From Batman to the Hulk , it seems like every comic book hero movie has been given a splotch of mud and some dim lighting before being sent out the door . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + grade , although she did not like the " non @-@ reveal " ending . She also said the target material for " The Coon " is too easy , but she said the episode was " really likable " and she particularly liked Cartman 's growing frustration when his superhero persona is ignored . Travis Fickett of IGN also said he did not like the ending and , although he liked Butters ' part in the episode and the riffing on comic book stereotypes , Fickett felt the episode lacked any " brilliant moments " and " ultimately runs out of steam with the super @-@ hero riff " . Mitchell Geller of The Tufts Daily said the episode would be more enjoyable to people familiar with the comic book film franchise it was spoofing than it would be for those who are not , although he said Cartman " never ceases to be funny " .
= = Home release = =
" The Coon " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
" The Coon " was also released as a special " bonus episode " , on the season fourteen DVD on April 26 , 2011 .
= Aviation in Indonesia =
Aviation in Indonesia serves as a critical means of connecting the thousands of islands throughout the archipelago . Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world , extending 5 @,@ 120 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 181 mi ) from east to west and 1 @,@ 760 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from north to south , comprising 13 @,@ 466 islands , with 922 of those permanently inhabited . With an estimated population of over 255 million people — making it the world 's fourth @-@ most @-@ populous country — and also due to the growth of the middle @-@ class and the advent of low @-@ cost carriers in the recent decade , Indonesia is widely regarded as an emerging market for air travel in the region . Between 2009 and 2014 , the number of Indonesian air passengers increased from 27 @,@ 421 @,@ 235 to 94 @,@ 504 @,@ 086 , an increase of over threefold .
However , safety issues continue to be a persistent problem in Indonesian aviation . Several accidents have given Indonesia 's air transport system the reputation of the least safe in the world . Indonesian aviation faces numerous challenges , including poorly maintained , outdated , and often overwhelmed infrastructure , the factor of human error , bad weather , haze problems caused by plantation fires , and volcanic ash spewed by numerous area volcanoes that disrupts air transportation .
In Indonesia , there are 22 commercial scheduled airlines that carry more than 30 passengers , and 32 commercial scheduled airlines that transport 30 or less passengers , as well as chartered airlines . Garuda Indonesia is the flag carrier of Indonesia .
The Indonesian Air Force has 34 @,@ 930 personnel equipped with 224 aircraft , among them 110 combat aircraft . The Indonesian Air Force possesses and operates numerous military air bases and military airstrips across the archipelago .
The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) has predicted that Indonesia will become the world 's sixth largest air travel market by 2034 . Around 270 million passengers are predicted to fly from and within Indonesia by 2034 .
= = Air transit policy = =
As a large country spanning over three timezones , Indonesia possesses a vast airspace . However , Indonesia is not a participant of the International Air Services Transit Agreement ( IASTA ) , therefore both Indonesian airspace and airports are closed for foreign commercial airlines ' freedoms of the air , unless there were bilateral transit agreements negotiated with other countries . Indonesia and Australia for example , signed a bilateral agreement relating to air service on 7 February 2013 . According to this agreement , each nations grants to the other party the right to fly across its territory without landing , and the right to make stops in its territory for non @-@ traffic purposes ( 1st and 2nd freedom ) , and the rights for designated airlines to operate services .
Indonesia is the largest aviation market in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) . However , Indonesia is not yet a full member of the ASEAN open sky agreement , which plans to lift regional flying restrictions throughout Southeast Asia on member country airlines by the end of 2015 or early 2016 . Indonesia is considering opening up only five of its international airports under this policy ; they are Jakarta , Medan , Bali , Surabaya and Makassar . To date , Indonesia has agreed to open access to Jakarta , yet , Indonesia remains opposed to opening up its secondary cities . Currently Indonesia adopt limitations for foreign airlines to operate in Indonesia . This rather protectionist stance was meant to protect Indonesian aviation business against competitors , particularly from Singapore and Malaysia . Basically , this stance is stemmed from a systematic imbalance between ASEAN nations ; as a large nation , Indonesia is able to offer hundreds of access points , while other fellow ASEAN members may offer far less points of access . Singapore for example has only one point of access , while Malaysia may offer two or three access points . This systematic imbalance for exchange of traffic rights has led Indonesian carriers to lobby their government to refrain from entering into multilateral agreement on ASEAN Single Aviation Market .
Access to foreign carriers on domestic routes is disallowed , while international flights will be subject to bilateral agreements . To get around this policy , in order to operate within Indonesia , foreign airlines first have to own and operate an Indonesian @-@ based airline . An example of this practice is Indonesia AirAsia , a branch of Malaysian AirAsia ; it previously operated as local airline Awair in 2004 , before changed to Indonesia AirAsia in 2005 .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial era = = =
Aviation service was pioneered in the early 20th century in colonial Dutch East Indies . On 1 October 1924 , KLM started its first intercontinental flight , connecting Amsterdam to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) in a Fokker F @-@ VII airplane . By September 1929 KLM had started regularly scheduled service between Amsterdam and Batavia . The route connected Amsterdam to Marseille , Rome , Brindisi , Athens , Merza Matruh , Cairo , Gaza , Baghdad , Bushire , Lingeh , Ojask , Gwadar , Karachi , Jodhpur , Allahabad , Calcutta , Akyab , Rangoon , Bangkok , Alor Star , Medan , Palembang , and Batavia , and extended to Bandung . Until the outbreak of the Second World War , this was the world 's longest @-@ distance scheduled service .
The Koninklijke Nederlandsch @-@ Indische Luchtvaart Maatschappij ( KNILM ) — the airline of the former Dutch East Indies — was established on 16 July 1928 . Its first regular operations were between Batavia – Bandung , and Batavia – Semarang , starting on 1 November 1928 . The inaugural ceremony was held at Cililitan airport in Batavia ( now Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport ) . The Batavia @-@ Semarang flight was later extended to Surabaya . Gradually , the services were expanded to include other islands in the archipelago , namely Palembang and Medan in Sumatra , Balikpapan and Tarakan in Kalimantan , and Denpasar in Bali . Immediately before the Pacific War , KNILM also created a network in the east of the East Indies archipelago , serving towns such as Ambon . For this purpose , amphibious aircraft such as the Sikorsky S @-@ 42 and S @-@ 43 and the Grumman G @-@ 21 seaplanes were used , due to the lack of airstrip facilities in the region .
As early as 1930 , KNILM began its first international flight to Singapore . In June 1937 , several cities in the Dutch East Indies were visited by Amelia Earhart during her attempted circumnavigation . From Singapore , Earhart flew to Bandung , Surabaya , and Kupang before continuing her journey to Darwin , Australia . On 3 July 1938 , KNILM began operations to Sydney , stopping at Darwin , Cloncurry , and Charleville . KNILM did not fly to the Netherlands , as the Amsterdam @-@ Batavia weekly service was operated by KLM .
During the Japanese attack of the Dutch East Indies , KNILM was utilized for evacuation flights and transport of troops . KNILM could not operate in East Indies because of World War II and the ensuing Indonesian war for independence , and disbanded completely on 1 August 1947 . Its remaining assets were transferred to KLM , which created the KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf ( Interinsular Service ) .
= = = Republic era = = =
The Republic of Indonesia declared its independence on 17 August 1945 and the war of independence ensued . After enduring five years of war and securing recognition of Indonesian Independence in late 1949 , the aviation service reopened for business . The KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf was nationalized by the Indonesian government in December 1949 as Garuda Indonesia , the national airline of the republic , and began to operate air services in the Indonesian archipelago .
In the early years of the Indonesian Republic , Garuda Indonesia dominated the air transport service in the country , connecting major cities in the archipelago . In 1956 , the Garuda Indonesia operated its first hajj flight to Mecca with Convair aircraft , carrying 40 Indonesian pilgrims . In 1963 , the airline launched flights to Hong Kong . By the mid 1960s , the airline took delivery of its first Douglas DC @-@ 8 and grew beyond the Asian market , beginning scheduled flights to Amsterdam and Frankfurt via Colombo , Bombay , and Prague . Rome and Paris became the airline 's third and fourth European destinations , with flights stopping in Bombay and Cairo to refuel . Flights to the People 's Republic of China began that same year , with service to Canton via Phnom Penh .
In 1962 , the government @-@ owned Merpati Nusantara Airlines was established to serve penerbangan perintis ( pioneer flights ) with small aircraft to connect remote locations in the archipelago . The airline however , ceased its operations in February 2014 and subsequently filed for bankruptcy .
In 1969 , Indonesia 's private aviation service began to grow with the establishment of Mandala Airlines , followed by Bouraq in 1970 . These two airlines directly competed against the government @-@ owned Garuda Indonesia and Merpati Nusantara airlines , and survived until the 2000s . The Bouraq ceased its operations in 2005 . Mandala was bought by Singapore @-@ based Tigerair Group in 2012 , but Tigerair Mandala ceased its operation in 2014 .
In 2000 , the Indonesian government announced the aviation deregulation policy , which makes it easier to acquire a permit to establish a new airline company . The policy was meant to stimulate air transportation investments and increase air @-@ travel business in the country , as well as to serve and stimulate tourism industry in the region . As a result , many new airlines began to spring up in Indonesia , among them Lion Air ( est . 1999 ) , Sriwijaya Air ( est . 2003 ) , Adam Air ( operating from 2002 to 2008 ) , and Batavia Air ( operating from 2002 to 2013 ) . The deregulation also spurred the low @-@ cost carrier service in Indonesia . Previously , air travel service was dominated by well @-@ established airlines such as Garuda Indonesia and Merpati .
Due to poor government control and supervision , however , aviation service deregulation provoked price wars among low @-@ cost carriers , resulting in fierce commercial competition at the expense of poor maintenance and service breakdown . Consequently , throughout the 2000s , the number of Indonesian aviation accidents and incidents spiked tremendously . The most notable aviation accidents that occurred during this period were Lion Air Flight 538 in Surakarta ( 30 November 2004 , killing 25 ) and the Adam Air Flight 574 crash into the Makassar Strait ( 1 January 2007 , killing 107 ) . The aviation safety records in Indonesia continued to plummet in a series of flight accidents , including Garuda Indonesia Flight 421 emergency landing on the Bengawan Solo River ( 16 January 2002 , killing 1 stewardess ) , and Garuda Indonesia Flight 200 in Yogyakarta ( 7 March 2007 , killing 21 ) .
In June 2007 , the European Union banned Garuda Indonesia , along with all other Indonesian airlines , from flying into any European country due to poor safety records . The ban on Garuda Indonesia was lifted in July 2009 .
By the 2010s , the condition of Indonesian aviation began to improve compared to the previous decade . The air travel incident rate in 2010 also dropped by 40 % compared to 2009 . Nevertheless , several accidents occurred in the ensuing period .
The most significant current problems in Indonesian aviation are poor development and maintenance of air transportation infrastructure , especially in remote areas . Other significant problems include overcapacity ; the massive surge of air travelers in recent years , prompted by the growth of low @-@ cost carrier passengers , has put intense stress on the aging airport infrastructure in Indonesia .
= = Airports = =
Indonesia possesses 673 airports in 2013 , ranging from grand international airports to modest unpaved airstrips on remote islands or inland interior areas located throughout the archipelago . In November 2011 , Indonesia had more than 230 conventional airports , most of them operated by Transportation Ministry technical operation units and state @-@ owned PT Angkasa Pura I & II . Major airports are managed by Angkasa Pura ; Angkasa Pura I operates 13 airports in Eastern Indonesia , while Angkasa Pura II operates 13 airports in Western Indonesia . After the 2000 aviation deregulation , Indonesian airports endured a surge of passengers , especially catalyzed by the advent of low @-@ cost carriers . According to the Indonesian Transportation Ministry , 9 of the 13 airports managed by PT Angkasa Pura I have exceeded their passenger capacity .
Jakarta 's Soekarno – Hatta International Airport serves as the country 's main air transportation hub as well as the nation 's busiest . Since 2010 , it has become the busiest airport in Southeast Asia , surpassing Suvarnabhumi and Changi airports . In May 2014 , it became the eighth busiest airport in the world with 62 @.@ 1 million passengers . It is also the busiest airport in the Southern Hemisphere . In October 2015 , the airport is named as Asia 's largest megahub , and ranked the 17th most @-@ connected airport in the world .
Next to Soekarno @-@ Hatta , the top five busiest airports in Indonesia which serve as the nation 's regional hubs are Juanda ( Surabaya ) , Ngurah Rai ( Bali ) , Sultan Hasanuddin ( Makassar ) , and Kuala Namu ( Medan ) .
The surge of air travellers , catalyzed by low @-@ cost carriers and the rise of air @-@ transport demands among Indonesia 's rising middle class , has put intense stress on Indonesia 's aging airports . Nevertheless , there has been some efforts to improve and upgrade airport facilities , such as the construction of Medan 's brand @-@ new Kuala Namu Airport to replace the overwhelmed , aging , and accident @-@ prone Polonia Airport . Other newly built airports include Lombok Airport , replacing the old Selaparang Airport in Lombok ; and Minangkabau Airport , replacing the old Tabing Airport in Padang . Existing airports that have undergone massive expansion and upgrades include Ngurah Rai Airport in Bali , Juanda Airport in Surabaya , and Sultan Hasanuddin Airport in Makassar . There are plans to build a second Bali airport in Kubu Tambahan near Singaraja , northern Bali , a new larger airport in Kulon Progo near Yogyakarta to replace the crowded and overwhelmed Adisutjipto Airport , and a new airport in Kertajati , Majalengka , to replace Bandung 's Husein Sastranegara Airport and also to serve the vicinity of Cirebon . To improve transportation interconnectivity , the government plans to build railways connecting airports all over Indonesia with nearby city centers . Currently , only Kuala Namu and Adisutjipto airports have a railway connection to the city center , while airport railways are currently under construction in Soekarno – Hatta and Minangkabau airports .
Airports – with paved runways
Airports – with unpaved runways
Heliports
= = Airlines = =
In Indonesia , there are 22 commercial scheduled airlines with flights carrying than 30 passengers ( AOC 121 ) , and 32 airlines that only operate flights with fewer than 30 passengers ( AOC 135 ) . Some notable Indonesian airlines , among others , include :
Garuda Indonesia , the government @-@ owned flag carrier of Indonesia .
Citilink , the low @-@ cost carrier subsidiary of Garuda Indonesia group .
Lion Air , currently the largest private low @-@ cost carrier airline in Indonesia .
Batik Air , the premium subsidiary of Lion Air group .
Wings Air , the regional short @-@ haul subsidiary of Lion Air group , connecting towns and small regional airports .
Sriwijaya Air , currently the largest medium service carrier in Indonesia , also the country 's third largest carrier .
NAM Air , regional short @-@ haul subsidiary of Sriwijaya Air , also using " Medium Service " concept .
Indonesia AirAsia , the Indonesian branch of Malaysian @-@ based AirAsia .
Express Air , a medium service airline . Mostly serving cities in eastern and central Indonesia , but also have several routes in western Indonesia .
Kalstar , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving Kalimantan ( Indonesian Borneo ) .
Trigana Air , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving eastern and central Indonesia .
TransNusa Air Services , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving Nusa Tenggara routes .
Susi Air , regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Started as a chartered cargo airline carrying fresh seafood from Pangandaran to Jakarta , owned by Susi Pudjiastuti .
In mid 2015 , Lion Air rules Indonesia 's domestic air travel market share by 41 @.@ 6 percent , while Garuda Indonesia came in second with 23 @.@ 5 percent share . Sriwijaya Air came in third with a market share of 10 @.@ 4 percent , followed by Garuda 's low @-@ cost subsidiary Citilink ( 8 @.@ 9 percent ) and Lion Air 's short @-@ haul subsidiary Wings Air ( 4 @.@ 7 percent ) . Indonesia AirAsia , a unit of the Malaysian budget airline , had a 4 @.@ 4 percent market share .
Overall , Indonesian domestic air travel business is overwhelmingly ruled by two groups ; Lion Air group and Garuda Indonesia group . By mid 2015 , Lion Air group accounted for 43 @.@ 17 percent of market share , while Garuda Indonesia group had a 37 @.@ 08 percent market share .
= = Military and government = =
The Indonesian Air Force has 34 @,@ 930 personnel , equipped with 224 aircraft , among them 110 are combat aircraft . The inventory includes Su @-@ 27 and Su @-@ 30 as the main fighters supplemented by F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcons . Major military transportation aircraft include Lockheed L @-@ 100 @-@ 30 Hercules , CN @-@ 235 , and Puma helicopter .
The Indonesian Air Force possess and operate numerous military airbases and military airstrips across the archipelago . The notable ones are Halim Perdana Kusuma Airbase in Jakarta , serving Indonesia 's VVIP , where Indonesian Presidential Aircraft stationed . While airforce bases such as Iswahyudi Air Force Base in Madiun , Abdulrachman Saleh in Malang , Sultan Hasanuddin in Makassar , Supadio in Pontianak , and SSK II in Pekanbaru , are especially vital for regional air defense . Since 2014 , Indonesian Airforce also had upgrading its military airbase in Ranai , Natuna islands , and increasing its presence in South China Sea region .
= = Aircraft industry = =
PT . Industri Pesawat Terbang Nurtanio was officially established in Bandung in 1976 as a state @-@ owned aircraft manufacturer company . It was expanded from a research and industrial facility under the auspices of the Indonesian Air Force , namely Lembaga Industri Penerbangan Nurtanio ( LIPNUR ) . Dr. BJ . Habibie was appointed as the President Director , and he has developed the company capability as an aircraft manufacturer .
In 1985 the company 's name changed to Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara ( IPTN ) . In 2000 the company assumed its new name as Indonesian Aerospace ( IAe ) ( Indonesian : PT . Dirgantara Indonesia ( DI ) ) . Its notable product is CN @-@ 235 civil , military , and maritime version ( joint development with CASA Spain ) .
The Indonesian aircraft manufacture industry took the hardest hit during 1997 Asian financial crisis . Many of its projects , such as N @-@ 250 were discontinued for a certain period due to financial constraints . Nevertheless , other projects such as N @-@ 219 are being restarted and continued to be developed .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
= Ontario Highway 35 =
King 's Highway 35 , also known as Highway 35 , is a provincial highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , linking Highway 401 with Peterborough , Kawartha Lakes , and Algonquin Park . The highway travels from west of Newcastle , through Lindsay and the Kawarthas and into Haliburton before terminating at Highway 60 to the west of Algonquin Park , the province 's largest . The winding course of the highway , combined with the picturesque views offered along its length , have led some to declare it the most scenic highway in Ontario .
Most of the highway , including a portion of today 's Highway 60 , was assumed by the Department of Highways by 1940 . In 1961 , Highway 115 was signed concurrently with Highway 35 for 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . This was widened to a divided expressway in the late eighties . In the mid @-@ 1950s , several bypasses were constructed to divert Highway 35 away from town centres such as Lindsay , Fenelon Falls and Minden .
Highway 35 is patrolled along its entirety by the Ontario Provincial Police . The speed limit for most of the length of the highway is 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) , slowing to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) within built @-@ up areas , and increasing to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) when it connects with Highway 115 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 35 begins at a trumpet interchange with Highway 401 , and is concurrent with Highway 115 for 18 @.@ 9 km ( 11 @.@ 7 mi ) to Enterprise Hill . For the length of this concurrency , it is a divided four lane expressway with no left turns , known as right @-@ in / right @-@ out ( RIRO ) . At Enterprise Hill , Highway 35 exits the divided highway ( which continues as Highway 115 east to Peterborough ) and proceeds north as a two lane road . The highway crosses the Oak Ridges Moraine as it passes into the City of Kawartha Lakes . The terrain flattens approaching Lindsay , which the highway bypasses . Between Lindsay and Coboconk , the route is generally straight and crosses through a mix of agricultural lands and forest . After passing through Coboconk , it descends from the flat limestone plateau into the rocky Canadian Shield south of Norland . The highway hugs the Gull River north of Norland and cuts through granite along its route into the Haliburton Highlands . After passing Minden , the scenic highway begins diving into valleys and along cliffs overlooking several lakes .
Highway 35 generally follows the former Bobcaygeon Colonization Road north of Minden , though several realignments over the years have led to its current winding route . At Carnarvon , it meets with Highway 118 . Heading northward into increasingly mountainous terrain , the highway crosses into Muskoka near Dorset , and shortly thereafter reaches its terminus at Highway 60 west of Algonquin Park .
Traffic volumes on Highway 35 vary considerably over the length of the highway , as well as over the course of the year due to its use for recreational purposes , including snowmobiling , cottaging and camping . Along the Highway 35 and Highway 115 concurrency , the average daily vehicle count is above 20 @,@ 000 . This drops as Highway 35 splits off at Enterprise Hill to under 10 @,@ 000 . This volume is fairly consistent as far north as Minden , at which point the vehicle count drops below 5 @,@ 000 and tapers off as low as 2 @,@ 000 at Highway 60 .
= = History = =
Highway 35 , like many highways that begin at Lake Ontario and eventually cross into the Canadian Shield , began as several trails connecting settlements . Most of the southern portion of the highway follows various sidelines and concessions . Between Lindsay and Fenelon Falls , Highway 35 follows the former Fenelon Road , while north of there it follows The Cameron Road , a trail carved in the 1850s between Fenelon and Minden . North of Minden , the highway generally follows The Bobcaygeon Road , a colonization road built as far north as Dwight in the 1850s .
The Highway 35 designation was first applied in 1931 to the road between Lindsay and Fenelon Falls . In 1934 it was extended along the road between Fenelon Falls and Rosedale , bringing the length of the highway up to 38 @.@ 9 km ( 24 @.@ 2 mi ) . The Department of Northern Development had meanwhile spent the early 1930s upgrading the trails north of the Trent – Severn Canal that fell under their jurisdiction . A new road was constructed north of Dorset as part of the Ontario Northern Highways Program , avoiding the straight Bobcaygeon Road . The entire route from Rosedale to Huntsville became part of Highway 35 on April 1 , 1937 when the Department of Northern Development merged into the Department of Highways , adding 138 @.@ 4 km ( 86 @.@ 0 mi ) to the route . Finally in 1938 , Highway 35 was extended south to Newcastle .
At this point , much of the assumed route was a gravel road . Only the section south of Orono was paved . The Lindsay to Norland section was paved in the 1940s , and north of that point beginning in 1954 . It would take until 1958 for paving to commence south of Lindsay .
In 1953 , Highway 115 was built as a two lane road eastward from Highway 35 near Pontypool . It was completed to Peterborough by 1954 , and co @-@ designated with Highway 35 southwards in 1961 . Construction began to widen both to four lanes beginning in 1984 , which was completed in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The concurrency with Highway 60 was removed from Highway 35 after 1961 , but before 1969 .
Beginning in 1954 , several bypasses were constructed around the towns and villages along the route . The first of these was in Minden , bypassing the old route along the Bobcaygeon Road and South Water Street . This was followed by the bypassing of Fenelon Falls in 1955 . Highway 35 followed present day Kawartha Lakes Road 121 and Kawartha Lakes Road 8 into and out of the village until the Seventh Concession Line was paved and the highway rerouted onto it . In 1956 , Newcastle was bypassed and Highway 35 connected directly to the then eastern terminus of Highway 401 west of the village . The former route is now Durham Regional Road 19 . By 1958 , construction had begun on several bypasses of Lindsay , including the Lindsay Bypass that Highway 7 and 35 follow today . Prior to the opening of the bypass , Highway 35 followed Lindsay Street to Kent Street and jogged northwest along William Street and Colborne Street . It then followed today 's Kawartha Lakes Road 4 north and west to the current intersection with Highway 35 . This routing became Highway 35B when the bypass opened in 1959 . In the 1960s , the route through Pontypool ( now known as John Street ) was bypassed .
Prior to 2007 , the highway was extensively rehabilitated between Kawartha Lakes Road 121 , near Fenelon Falls and Highway 118 in Carnarvon . This included widening the highway for a third passing lane , as well as the resurfacing of several sections .
On the day before Remembrance Day , 2009 , the section of Highway 35 between Lindsay and Norland was renamed the Midland Regiment Commemorative Highway , in honour of veterans of World War II . Signs are placed along the highway at regular intervals to acknowledge the designation . On April 25 , 2012 , four bridges along the highway were renamed in memory of police officers killed in the line of duty : The Constable Randall F. Skidmore Bridge over the Trent – Severn Waterway in Rosedale ; the Constable Eric Nystedt Bridge over the Gull River in Moore Falls ; and the Corporal James Smith Bridge and Detective Sergeant Lorne J. Chapitis Bridge between Miners Bay and Minden .
= = Future = =
The MTO is currently performing an environmental assessment on Highway 35 between the Highway 115 split and Lindsay , in preparation for a four @-@ lane expansion . Work has also commenced on the widening of the Lindsay Bypass section of Highways 35 and 7 from two lanes to four .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 35 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Mélanie Laurent =
Mélanie Laurent ( French pronunciation : [ melani loʁɑ ̃ ] ; born 21 February 1983 ) is a French actress , singer , screenwriter and director . Born in Paris to a Jewish family , she was introduced to acting at the age of sixteen by French filmmaker Gérard Depardieu , who cast her in a minor role in the romantic drama The Bridge ( 1999 ) . The recipient of two César Awards , a Étoiles d 'or du cinéma français , and a Lumières Award , Laurent has established herself as an accomplished actress in the French film industry .
Laurent gained recognition for her supporting work in several French films , most notably the 2006 Franco @-@ Belgian comedy Dikkenek for which she won Étoiles d 'Or for Best Female Newcomer . Her breakthrough role came in the 2006 French drama film Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine for which she later won the César Award for Most Promising Actress , and the Prix Romy Schneider . Laurent made her Hollywood debut in 2009 with the starring role as Shosanna Dreyfus in Quentin Tarantino 's blockbuster war film Inglourious Basterds . She garnered critical acclaim for her performance in the film and won the Online Film Critics Society and the Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress .
While she has worked mainly in independent films , including Paris ( 2008 ) and Enemy ( 2013 ) , Laurent has also appeared in commercially successful Hollywood films including , the comedy drama Beginners ( 2011 ) , and the caper film Now You See Me ( 2013 ) , the former earning her a nomination at the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress . Laurent 's other notable works include the art @-@ house drama The Round Up ( 2010 ) , the comedy drama Et soudain , tout le monde me manque ( 2011 ) , and Night Train to Lisbon ( 2013 ) . She is also known for voicing Mary Katherine and Disgust in the French dubs of Epic ( 2013 ) and Inside Out ( 2015 ) respectively .
In addition to her film career , Laurent has appeared in stage productions in France . She made her theater debut in 2010 in Nicolas Bedos 's Promenade de santé . The short film De moins en moins ( 2008 ) marked her debut as a filmmaker . Her feature film directorial debut Respire ( 2014 ) was screened at the International Critics ' Week section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival . She made her singing debut with a studio album En t 'attendant in May 2011 ; the album contains twelve songs , five of which are co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Irish folk musician Damien Rice .
= = Early life = =
Laurent was born in Paris , France the daughter of Annick , a ballerina , and Pierre Laurent , a voiceover actor ( who dubs the character Ned Flanders in the French version of The Simpsons ) . She is Jewish , of both Ashkenazi ( from Poland ) and Sephardic ( from Tunisia ) ancestry . Her grandfather survived deportation by the Nazis . Her maternal grandparents were film poster editors . She grew up in the 9th arrondissement of Paris . Her Jewish grandfather was deported from Poland during the Nazi occupation .
Laurent visited the set of Asterix and Obelix with her friend and the latter 's father . Her acting career began when actor Gérard Depardieu , seeing Laurent there , asked her if she wanted to be in films . Laurent replied , " Why not ? " . He strongly advised her not to take acting classes because he believe she already had the necessary skills . When Laurent was 16 , Depardieu gave her a part in The Bridge , a drama he starred in and co @-@ directed with Fréderic Auburtin . Laurent played the role of Lisbeth Daboval , the daughter of one of the protagonist of the film , Claire Daboval .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and early success ( 2006 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Laurent played minor roles in a number of films early in her career . She appeared in Michel Blanc 's drama Summer Things , Jackie Chan 's comedy @-@ drama Rice Rhapsody , Jacques Audiard 's drama The Beat That My Heart Skipped and the war film Days of Glory about the Free French Forces .
Laurent breakthrough role came in 2006 , when she played a sullen 19 @-@ year @-@ old who longed for her lost twin brother , in Philippe Lioret 's Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine . She won a César Award for Most Promising Actress for her performance . In a review for Variety , Ronnie Scheib praised Laurent and wrote that she , " makes her vibrant character ’ s downward spiral totally believable without indulging in moody sullenness " . That same year , she and Belgian actor Jérémie Renier were awarded France 's Romy Schneider and Jean Gabin Prizes for most promising actor and actress . Laurent then starred in the Franco @-@ Belgian Dikkenek , a comedy directed by Olivier Van Hoofstadt that has attained a cult film over the years owing to its Belgian @-@ style humour . For her performance in the film , Laurent won the Étoiles d 'Or for Best Female Newcomer .
In 2007 , Laurent appeared in films including Le tueur and Hidden Love . She was nominated for the Lumières Award for Best Actress for her performance in La Chambre des morts . Laurent next appeared in Cédric Klapisch 's 2008 comedy drama Paris , a French film concerning a diverse group of people . The film has an ensemble cast including Laurent , Juliette Binoche , Romain Duris , Fabrice Luchini , and François Cluzet . The film was well received by the critics with praise directed majorly towards Laurent and the rest of its cast .
Laurent made her directorial debut with De moins en moins , which she also wrote , a 7 @-@ minute film about a patient who " remembers less and less " in front of her psychiatrist . The film was nominated for Best Short Film at the 61st Annual Cannes Film Festival . She also directed À ses pieds , an erotic short film aired on the French television channel Canal + on 25 – 26 October 2008 , as part of a series of short films , called X Femmes .
= = = Hollywood debut and breakthrough ( 2009 @-@ 2010 ) = = =
Laurent was scheduled to direct her first play , Mi @-@ cuit cœur pistache ( the name of a dessert she particularly likes ) in January 2009 at the Théâtre Marigny in Paris . She had to abandon the project when she was cast as Shosanna Dreyfus , a Parisian theater owner whose family was killed by Nazi Colonel Hans Landa ( Christoph Waltz ) , who seizes the opportunity to lure the S.S. into her theater for murderous revenge in the Quentin Tarantino film Inglourious Basterds alongside Brad Pitt , Diane Kruger and Christoph Waltz . It was a French @-@ language role for which she learned to speak English for a few scenes . The film was a huge commercial and critical success , grossing over $ 321 million in theaters worldwide . Laurent 's performance was praised by several critics . Kyle Buchanan of Movieline wrote : " Mélanie Laurent provides Inglourious Basterds its heart and soul . It falls to the 26 @-@ year @-@ old French actress to anchor some of the World War II film 's most
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= = = Dreams and cinema = = =
Others have argued that the film is itself a metaphor for film @-@ making , and that the filmgoing experience itself , images flashing before one 's eyes in a darkened room , is akin to a dream . Writing in Wired , Jonah Lehrer supported this interpretation and presented neurological evidence that brain activity is strikingly similar during film @-@ watching and sleeping . In both , the visual cortex is highly active and the prefrontal cortex , which deals with logic , deliberate analysis , and self @-@ awareness , is quiet . Paul argued that the experience of going to a picturehouse is itself an exercise in shared dreaming , particularly when viewing Inception : the film 's sharp cutting between scenes forces the viewer to create larger narrative arcs to stitch the pieces together . This demand of production parallel to consumption of the images , on the part of the audience is analogous to dreaming itself . As in the film 's story , in a cinema one enters into the space of another 's dream , in this case Nolan 's , as with any work of art , one 's reading of it is ultimately influenced by one 's own subjective desires and subconscious . At Bir @-@ Hakeim bridge in Paris , Ariadne creates an illusion of infinity by adding facing mirrors underneath its struts , Stephanie Dreyfus in la Croix asked " Is this not a strong , beautiful metaphor for the cinema and its power of illusion ? "
= = Cinematic technique = =
= = = Genre = = =
Nolan combined elements from several different film genres into the film , notably science fiction , heist film , and film noir . Marion Cotillard plays " Mal " Cobb , Dom Cobb 's projection of his guilt over his deceased wife 's suicide . As the film 's main antagonist , she is a frequent , malevolent presence in his dreams . Dom is unable to control these projections of her , challenging his abilities as an extractor . Nolan described Mal as " the essence of the femme fatale " , the key noir reference in the film . As a " classic femme fatale " her relationship with Cobb is in his mind , a manifestation of Cobb 's own neurosis and fear of how little he knows about the woman he loves . DiCaprio praised Cotillard 's performance saying that " she can be strong and vulnerable and hopeful and heartbreaking all in the same moment , which was perfect for all the contradictions of her character " .
Nolan began with the structure of a heist movie , since exposition is an essential element of that genre , though adapted it to have a greater emotional narrative suited to the world of dreams and subconscious . Or , as Denby surmised , " the outer shell of the story is an elaborate caper " . Kristin Thompson argued that exposition was a major formal device in the film . While a traditional heist movie has a heavy dose of exposition at the beginning as the team assembles and the leader explains the plan , in Inception this becomes nearly continuous as the group progresses through the various levels of dreaming . Three @-@ quarters of the film , until the van begins to fall from the bridge , are devoted to explaining its plot . In this way , exposition takes precedence over characterisation . Their relationships are created by their respective skills and roles . Ariadne , like her ancient namesake , creates the maze and guides the others through it , but also helps Cobb navigate his own subconscious , and as the sole student of dream sharing , helps the audience understand the concept of the plot .
Nolan drew inspiration from the works of Jorge Luis Borges , the anime film Paprika ( 2006 ) by the late Satoshi Kon as an influence on the character " Ariadne " , and Blade Runner ( 1982 ) by Ridley Scott .
= = = Ending = = =
The film cuts to the closing credits from a shot of the top apparently starting to show an ever so faint wobble , inviting speculation about whether the final sequence was reality or another dream . Nolan confirmed that the ambiguity was deliberate , saying , " I 've been asked the question more times than I 've ever been asked any other question about any other film I 've made ... What 's funny to me is that people really do expect me to answer it . " The film 's script concludes with " Behind him , on the table , the spinning top is STILL SPINNING . And we – FADE OUT " . Nolan said , " I put that cut there at the end , imposing an ambiguity from outside the film . That always felt the right ending to me — it always felt like the appropriate ' kick ' to me ... The real point of the scene — and this is what I tell people — is that Cobb isn 't looking at the top . He 's looking at his kids . He 's left it behind . That 's the emotional significance of the thing . " Also , Michael Caine explained his interpretation of the ending , saying , " If I 'm there it 's real , because I 'm never in the dream . I 'm the guy who invented the dream . "
Some pundits have pointed out that the top was not in fact Cobb 's totem , rendering the discussion irrelevant . They point out that the top was Mal 's totem ; Cobb 's was his wedding ring , as he can be seen wearing it whenever he is in a dream and without it whenever he isn 't . As he hands his passport to the immigration officer , his hand is shown with no ring ; thus he was conclusively in reality when seeing his children . Furthermore , the children were portrayed by different actors , indicating they had aged .
Mark Fisher argued that " a century of cultural theory " cautions against accepting the author 's interpretation as anything more than a supplementary text , and this all the more so given the theme of the instability of any one master position in Nolan 's films . Therein the manipulator is often the one who ends up manipulated and Cobb 's " not caring " about whether or not his world is real may be the price of happiness and release .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. spent $ 100 million marketing the film . Although Inception was not part of an existing franchise , Sue Kroll , president of Warner 's worldwide marketing , said the company believed it could gain awareness due to the strength of " Christopher Nolan as a brand " . Kroll declared that " We don 't have the brand equity that usually drives a big summer opening , but we have a great cast and a fresh idea from a filmmaker with a track record of making incredible movies . If you can 't make those elements work , it 's a sad day . " The studio also tried to maintain a campaign of secrecy — as reported by the Senior VP of Interactive Marketing , Michael Tritter , " You have this movie which is going to have a pretty big built in fanbase ... but you also have a movie that you are trying to keep very secret . Chris [ Nolan ] really likes people to see his movies in a theater and not see it all beforehand so everything that you do to market that — at least early on — is with an eye to feeding the interest to fans . "
A viral marketing campaign was employed for the film . After the revelation of the first teaser trailer , in August 2009 , the film 's official website featured only an animation of Cobb 's spinning top . In December , the top toppled over and the website opened the online game Mind Crime , which upon completion revealed Inception 's poster . The rest of the campaign unrolled after WonderCon in April 2010 , where Warner gave away promotional T @-@ shirts featuring the PASIV briefcase used to create the dream space , and had a QR code linking to an online manual of the device . Mind Crime also received a stage 2 with more resources , including a hidden trailer for the movie . More pieces of viral marketing began to surface before Inception 's release , such as a manual filled with bizarre images and text sent to Wired magazine , and the online publication of posters , ads , phone applications , and strange websites all related to the film . Warner also released an online prequel comic , Inception : The Cobol Job .
The official trailer released on May 10 , 2010 through Mind Game was extremely well received . It featured an original piece of music , " Mind Heist " , by recording artist Zack Hemsey , rather than music from the score . The trailer quickly went viral with numerous mashups copying its style , both by amateurs on sites like YouTube and by professionals on sites such as CollegeHumor . On June 7 , 2010 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette on the film was released in HD on Yahoo ! Movies .
= = = Home media = = =
Inception was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 3 , 2010 , in France , and the week after in the UK and USA ( December 7 , 2010 ) . Warner Bros. also made available in the United States a limited Blu @-@ ray edition packaged in a metal replica of the PASIV briefcase , which included extras such as a metal replica of the spinning top totem . With a production run of less than 2000 , it sold out in one weekend .
= = = Putative video game = = =
In a November 2010 interview , Nolan expressed his intention to develop a video game set in the Inception world , working with a team of collaborators . He described it as " a longer @-@ term proposition " , referring to the medium of video games as " something I 've wanted to explore " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Inception was released in both conventional and IMAX theaters on July 16 , 2010 . The film had its world premiere at Leicester Square in London , United Kingdom on July 8 , 2010 . In the United States and Canada , Inception was released theatrically in 3 @,@ 792 conventional theaters and 195 IMAX theaters . The film grossed $ 21 @.@ 8 million during its opening day on July 16 , 2010 , with midnight screenings in 1 @,@ 500 locations . Overall the film made $ 62 @.@ 7 million and debuted at No.1 on its opening weekend . Inception 's opening weekend gross made it the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing debut for a science @-@ fiction film that was not a sequel , remake or adaptation , behind Avatar 's $ 77 million opening weekend gross in 2009 . The film held the top spot of the box office rankings in its second and third weekends , with drops of just 32 % ( $ 42 @.@ 7 million ) and 36 % ( $ 27 @.@ 5 million ) respectively , before dropping to second place in its fourth week , behind The Other Guys .
Inception grossed US $ 292 million in the United States and Canada , US $ 56 million in the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta and US $ 475 million in other countries for a total of $ 823 million . Its five highest @-@ grossing markets after the USA and Canada ( US $ 292 ) were China ( US $ 68million ) , the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( US $ 56 million ) , France and the Maghreb region ( US $ 43 million ) , Japan ( US $ 40 million ) and South Korea ( US $ 38 million ) . It was the sixth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2010 in North America , and the fourth @-@ highest internationally , behind Toy Story 3 , Alice in Wonderland and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 . The film currently stands as the 44th @-@ highest @-@ grossing of all time . Inception is the third most lucrative production in Christopher Nolan 's career — behind The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises — and the second most for Leonardo DiCaprio — behind Titanic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 86 % based on reviews from 331 critics , with an average score of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 . The website offers the consensus : " Smart , innovative , and thrilling , Inception is that rare summer blockbuster that succeeds viscerally as well as intellectually . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 74 ( out of 100 ) based on 42 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " generally favorable reviews . " In polls conducted by CinemaScore during the opening weekend cinemagoers gave Inception an average score of " B + " .
While some critics have tended to view the film as perfectly straightforward , and even criticize its overarching themes as " the stuff of torpid platitudes , " online discussion has been much more positive . Heated debate has centered on the ambiguity of the ending , with many critics like Devin Faraci making the case that the film is self @-@ referential and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , both a film about film @-@ making and a dream about dreams . Other critics read Inception as Christian allegory and focus on the film 's use of religious and water symbolism . Yet other critics , such as Kristin Thompson , see less value in the ambiguous ending of the film and more in its structure and novel method of storytelling , highlighting Inception as a new form of narrative that revels in " continuous exposition " .
The film has had excellent reviews in general . Perhaps playing off the film 's game imagery , Rolling Stone magazine 's Peter Travers called Inception a " wildly ingenious chess game , " and concluded " the result is a knockout . " In Variety , Justin Chang praised the film as " a conceptual tour de force " and wrote , " applying a vivid sense of procedural detail to a fiendishly intricate yarn set in the labyrinth of the unconscious mind , the writer @-@ director has devised a heist thriller for surrealists , a Jungian 's Rififi , that challenges viewers to sift through multiple layers of ( un ) reality . " Jim Vejvoda of IGN rated the film as perfect , deeming it " a singular accomplishment from a filmmaker who has only gotten better with each film . " Relevant Magazine 's David Roark called it Nolan 's greatest accomplishment , saying , " Visually , intellectually and emotionally , Inception is a masterpiece . "
Empire magazine rated it five stars in the August 2010 issue and wrote , " it feels like Stanley Kubrick adapting the work of the great sci @-@ fi author William Gibson ... Nolan delivers another true original : welcome to an undiscovered country . " Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B + rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote , " It 's a rolling explosion of images as hypnotizing and sharply angled as any in a drawing by M.C. Escher or a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ biz video game ; the backwards splicing of Nolan 's own Memento looks rudimentary by comparison . " The New York Post gave the film a four @-@ star rating and Lou Lumenick wrote , " DiCaprio , who has never been better as the tortured hero , draws you in with a love story that will appeal even to non @-@ sci @-@ fi fans . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film a full four stars and said that Inception " is all about process , about fighting our way through enveloping sheets of reality and dream , reality within dreams , dreams without reality . It 's a breathtaking juggling act . " Richard Roeper , also of the Sun @-@ Times , gave Inception a perfect score of " A + " and called it " one of the best movies of the [ 21st ] century . "
BBC Radio 5 Live 's Mark Kermode named Inception as the best film of 2010 , stating , " Inception is proof that people are not stupid , that cinema is not trash , and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing . "
In his review for the Chicago Tribune , Michael Phillips gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and wrote , " I found myself wishing Inception were weirder , further out ... the film is Nolan 's labyrinth all the way , and it 's gratifying to experience a summer movie with large visual ambitions and with nothing more or less on its mind than ( as Shakespeare said ) a dream that hath no bottom . " Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote the film 's " noble intent is to implant one man 's vision in the mind of a vast audience ... The idea of moviegoing as communal dreaming is a century old . With Inception , viewers have a chance to see that notion get a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art update . " Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan felt that Nolan was able to blend " the best of traditional and modern filmmaking . If you 're searching for smart and nervy popular entertainment , this is what it looks like . " USA Today rated the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and Claudia Puig felt that Nolan " regards his viewers as possibly smarter than they are — or at least as capable of rising to his inventive level . That 's a tall order . But it 's refreshing to find a director who makes us stretch , even occasionally struggle , to keep up . "
Not all reviewers gave the film positive reviews . New York magazine 's David Edelstein claimed in his review to " have no idea what so many people are raving about . It 's as if someone went into their heads while they were sleeping and planted the idea that Inception is a visionary masterpiece and — hold on ... Whoa ! I think I get it . The movie is a metaphor for the power of delusional hype — a metaphor for itself . " Rex Reed of The New York Observer explained the film 's development as " pretty much what we 've come to expect from summer movies in general and Christopher Nolan movies in particular ... [ it ] doesn 't seem like much of an accomplishment to me . " A. O. Scott of The New York Times commented " there is a lot to see in Inception , there is nothing that counts as genuine vision . Mr. Nolan 's idea of the mind is too literal , too logical , and too rule @-@ bound to allow the full measure of madness . " David Denby , writing in The New Yorker , considered the film not nearly as much fun as Nolan imagined it to be , concluding , " Inception is a stunning @-@ looking film that gets lost in fabulous intricacies , a movie devoted to its own workings and to little else . "
Several sources have noted many plot similarities between the film and the 2002 Uncle Scrooge comic The Dream of a Lifetime by Don Rosa .
In April 2014 , The Daily Telegraph placed the title on its top ten list of the most overrated films . Telegraph 's Tim Robey stated , " It 's a criminal failing of the movie that it purports to be about people ’ s dreams being invaded , but demonstrates no instinct at all for what a dream has ever felt like , and no flair for making us feel like we 're in one , at any point . " The film won an informal poll by The Los Angeles Times as the most overrated movie of 2010 .
In March 2011 , the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their ninth favorite film of all time . In 2012 , Inception was ranked the 35th Best Edited Film of All Time by the Motion Picture Editors Guild . In the same year , Total Film named it the most rewatchable movie of all time . In 2014 , Empire ranked Inception the tenth greatest film ever made on their list of " The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time " as voted by the magazine 's readers , while Rolling Stone magazine named it the second best science fiction film since the turn of the century . Inception was ranked 84th on Hollywood 's 100 Favorite Films , a list compiled by The Hollywood Reporter in 2014 , surveying " Studio chiefs , Oscar winners and TV royalty " .
= = = Top ten lists = = =
Inception was listed on many critics ' top ten lists .
= = = Accolades = = =
Inception appeared on over 273 critics ' lists of the top ten films of 2010 , being picked as No.1 on 55 of those lists . It was the second most mentioned film in both the top ten and No.1 lists only behind The Social Network and was one of the most critically acclaimed films of 2010 , alongside the former , Toy Story 3 , The King 's Speech , and Black Swan .
The film won many awards in technical categories , such as Academy Awards for Best Cinematography , Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects , and the British Academy Film Awards for Best Production Design , Best Special Visual Effects and Best Sound . In most of its artistic nominations , such as Film , Director , and Screenplay at the Oscars , BAFTAs and Golden Globes , the film was defeated by The Social Network and The King 's Speech . However , the film did win the two highest honors for a science fiction or fantasy film : the 2011 Bradbury Award for best dramatic production and the 2011 Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation , long form .
= = In popular culture = =
Asaf Avidan 's " The Labyrinth Song " , from his album " Gold Shadow " , is set in the film and speaks from one of the character 's perspectives . Numerous pop and hip @-@ hop songs reference Inception , including Common ( Blue Sky ) , N.E.R.D. ( Hypnotize U ) , XV ( The Kick ) , The Black Eyed Peas ( Just Can ’ t Get Enough ) , Lil Wayne ( 6 Foot 7 Foot feat . Cory Gunz ) , J. Lo ( On The Floor feat . Pitbull ) , and B.O.B. ( Strange Clouds ) , while TI had Inception @-@ based artwork in two of his mixtapes . An instrumental track by Joe Budden is titled Inception .
Numerous television shows have also made reference to or have parodied Inception .
= Watch n ' Learn =
" Watch n ' Learn " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , for her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was written by Priscilla Renea , Chauncey Hollis , Rihanna and Alja Jackson . The production was done by Hollis under his stage @-@ name Hit @-@ Boy . When Renea came with an idea and concept for the song , Hollis had already started working on the composition , without having in mind any particular artist . With the work on the track being finished , it was forwarded to Rihanna and her label , which eagerly accepted it .
" Watch n ' Learn " is a dancehall song with prominent reggae characteristics . The song 's instrumentation uses finger @-@ snapping , percussions , background clicks , synths and " island @-@ flavored " drum beat . Lyrically , it is about a woman who teaches her partner how to love her in the right way , throughout which she uses sexual references . " Watch n ' Learn " received predominantly positive reviews from music critics , with many of them praising its composition and sound . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted at number 80 on the singles chart in South Korea .
= = Background and development = =
" Watch n ' Learn " was written by Priscilla Renea , Chauncey Hollis , Rihanna and Alja Jackson . The production of the song was helmed by Hollis under his stage @-@ name Hit @-@ Boy . Hollis had previously worked with music artists like Lil Wayne , The Throne , Eminem and Jennifer Lopez . " Watch n ' Learn " wasn 't originally meant for any particular artist when Hit @-@ Boy started to work on it . In an interview with Jocelyn Vena from MTV News he explained : " I was at the studio with this amazing [ songwriter ] Priscilla Renea , and I was going to tell her to go home , but I was like , ' Stay here and see if you could come up with an idea for this [ the song ] ' " . Renea previously penned Rihanna 's 2011 single " California King Bed " ( Loud , 2010 ) . Hollis further explained that by the time he left the studio and came home , Renea already sent him the idea and concept for the song through IChat . He was eventually satisfied with it and sent the song to Rihanna , in which her team " went crazy " when they heard it . Rihanna then recorded the song for inclusion on her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) .
In the same interview for the publication , Hollis explained the title of the song : " It 's called ' Watch n ' Learn , ' and people will understand what it 's about once it comes out . It 's a very sexy record , but it 's fun . It 's [ got ] great melodies ; it 's catchy ; the beat knocks . It 's so many different elements to it . " When asked how is he satisfied with Rihanna 's vocals and his prediction on the song he further stated : " She definitely murdered it vocally . I was just at the studio last week listening to a mix of it , and man , she killed it . I really feel like , this song , it 's going to be big . I 'm really excited about it . " " Watch n ' Learn " was recorded at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and at Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg in Paris . The song was mixed by Marcos Tovar . Its vocal production was completed by Kuk Harrell and assisted by TT. and Jennifer Rosales .
= = Composition = =
" Watch n ' Learn " is a dancehall song with prominent reggae characteristics that runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds . It begins with a reggae drum fill that according to Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly originates from Bob Marley 's 1983 single " Buffalo Soldier " ( Confrontation , 1983 ) . " Watch n ' Learn " uses finger @-@ snapping , percussions , background clicks , " swirling / swelling " synths and " island @-@ flavored " drum beat .
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard complimented the balance between the synths and percussion while calling it " taut and engaging " . Flavour Magazine 's Maz Halima thought that the beat sounds futuristic and reminds her of a new version of an old beat that was predominantly used in the songs performed by rapper Kanye West . Edward Keeble from Gigwise wrote that " Watch n ' Learn " cares influence from the works by American hip hop and R & B band TLC , as well as sounds like a " call back to the " synthpop group Art of Noise .
Lyrically , the song is about a woman who teaches her partner how to love her in the right way , throughout which she uses sexual references . MTV News ' Jocelyn Vena concluded that song has " sassy " lyrics , but its melody is soft enough and makes you forget that " the track is actually kind of dirty " . Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound stated that during the interpretation of the lyrics , Rihanna is proud and sexual and her confidence comes from elsewhere . Rihanna reveals her sex fantasies through singing the lyrics : " I 'mma do it do it do it / On the bed on the floor on the couch / Only cause your lips say make it to my mouth / Just because I can 't kiss back / Doesn 't mean you can 't kiss that " , which were described as the " nastiest " on the song by Brad Wete of Complex . As the song continues further , Rihanna is " not @-@ so @-@ subtly " instructing her lover within the lines " It ’ s your turn now / Watch and learn now / Watch and learn how / If you learn how / I 'll stay " .
= = Critical reception = =
Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound called " Watch n ' Learn " a " reggae jam " and further concluded that " low @-@ key Rihanna , without heaps of easily identifiable help or loads of over @-@ saturated gimmicks , is still a knockout " . Matthew Horton of Virgin Media called the song a " wonderfully sunny tribal disco " track with a thematics regarding oral sex . In a review of Talk That Talk , Mesfin Fekadu of The Boston Globe stated that Rihanna is " raunchy " on the new album and it works . Regarding the song he further commented that she 's [ Rihanna ] schooling her man in the bedroom on the fun " Watch N ' Learn . " . Giovanny Caquais of CultureBlues concluded that the track " strips away " from the techno and David Guetta influences which according to him the album is " drowning in " . He further thought that " sassy women will absolutely love to sing [ the song ] in their cars . " Maz Hallima of Flavour Magazine positively reviewed " Watch n ' Learn " , considering her favorite song from the album together with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and " You da One " . Hallima thought that the song has Rihanna 's signature sound and wrote she " really enjoyed the contrast between the light beat and her husky voice – pure catchiness . "
Glenn Gamboa of Newsweek considered " Watch n ' Learn " an " answer to Janet Jackson 's " Doesn 't Really Matter " for its similar production and " playful " nature . Los Angeles Times ’ Randal Roberts while reviewing the song stated : Rihanna " reels off her carnal intentions with an impressive though not entirely believable candor . " Julianne Shepherd of Spin called the track Rihanna 's game in which there is a very little chance for winning — " but she 'd love it if you tried " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic commended the melody of the song and noted that " Watch n ' Learn " is more unique than Hit @-@ Boy 's work on Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z 's 2011 single " Niggas in Paris " ( Watch the Throne , 2011 ) . Chelsea Lewis from The Celebrity Cafe concluded that Rihanna " is expressing her independence as a woman in the music industry , as she is making a statement with ' Watch n ’ Learn ' and Talk That Talk as a whole . " Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams while comparing the song with the other sexual themes on the album , stated that " Watch n ' Learn " is " at least instructional " . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times linked " Watch N ' Learn " to Beyoncé Knowles ' " Party " , however he concluded that even though it has " good mouth feel but no taste " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg , Room 538 , Paris , France
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , due to digital downloads " Watch n ' Learn " charted in lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 80 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 049 digital copies .
= Oblivion ( roller coaster ) =
Oblivion is a steel roller coaster located at Alton Towers in England . The ride opened as the world 's first dive coaster on 14 March 1998 , amidst a large publicity campaign . It was the second in a long line of ' Secret Weapon ( SW4 ) ' rollercoasters to have opened at Alton Towers . The ride has a height restriction of 55 inches ( 140 cm ) . With a maximum speed of 68 mph , it is the third fastest roller coaster in the UK , behind Stealth at Thorpe Park and the Big One at Blackpool Pleasure Beach .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
During 1997 , Fantasy World ( the area of Alton Towers in which Oblivion was eventually situated ) was closed off and all the old fantasy @-@ themed rides were removed except the Black Hole . Details about Oblivion were not revealed until March 1998 .
The " SW4 " codename stood for " Secret Weapon 4 " . SW3 was Nemesis , and SW 1 and 2 were unbuilt roller coasters originally intended for the Nemesis site .
Oblivion 's opening was accompanied by a massive publicity drive , including appearances on Blue Peter , The Gadget Show , news channels and cereal boxes . In 1997 , before Oblivion opened , some marketing memorabilia was released , including its own brand of deodorant .
= = = Opening = = =
When Oblivion did open , the area was re @-@ themed to look like a sinister government facility , unlike Fantasy World 's fairground theme , and renamed X @-@ Sector . The only surviving ride from Fantasy World , the Black Hole roller coaster , was also changed ; the large tent that it was situated in was repainted to blue and silver instead of green and yellow stripes . To make the new X @-@ Sector a major ride area , Alton Towers added two old rides from other parts of the park : Energizer and Enterprise ( both from Festival Park , now Dark Forest ) . Both rides were repainted to fit to the new theme .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
On 21 April 2011 the area around Oblivion was given a slight revamp to incorporate promotion for Fanta , the ride 's new sponsor . The sponsorship included posters saying ' 15 @,@ 000 ft drop , bring it on ' , despite the fact that the drop is actually 180 ft ( 60m ) . However , these were later removed after complaints from riders .
= = = 2012 incident = = =
On 8 May 2012 , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man climbed over safety fences and accessed the underground ride area . He reportedly dropped into the hole from which the roller coaster track re @-@ emerges from the underground tunnel , walked through the underground section and emerged on a ledge where the track enters the ground . Neither he nor any guests on the ride were harmed following the ride cars being held at the boarding station . He was arrested for a public order offence , and the ride returned to normal operation the following day .
= = = 2013 = = =
With the new roller coaster The Smiler opening in 2013 , Oblivion is no longer the only coaster in X Sector , as it had been since Black Hole 's closure in 2005 . In late January / early February 2013 , Alton Towers began a process of repainting Oblivion 's fading grey track , which had become very worn since opening in 1998 .
The repaint took over 6 weeks to complete , with some cosmetic upgrades also being made to the station building and queue line structures . The coaster is now the same dark grey colour as its neighbour The Smiler .
In June , Oblivion suffered downtime owing to a gearbox component failing . The ride remained closed for a few weeks while a replacement part was manufactured . The ride re @-@ opened on 25 June .
= = Ride experience = =
While riders queue they are shown three briefing videos featuring actor Renny Krupinski as a sinister man surrounded in darkness , who explains at length the physical and psychological effects of riding on Oblivion . Although based on scientific facts , his speeches are deliberately exaggerated with hyperbole and dark humour to give riders a sense of intimidation while preparing for Oblivion . The man remains unnamed throughout the videos , although the character was originally referred to as the Lord of Darkness during production . The final preshow video features a second character whose image appears inverted and therefore glowing white , who argues with the Lord of Darkness as to whether Oblivion is really safe for riders to experience ; to which he is repeatedly ignored . The Lord of Darkness maintains that the ride is safe , before the video ends with the sound of his ominous laughter .
The queue line takes riders through a large , drawn out upwards helix , repeatedly passing under , through and over various buildings of abstract architecture , before traversing metal bridges into the elevated station building . Here they are batched into rows and board their ride cars , while various technical graphics are displayed on overhead screens . As the cars dispatch , the screens play an automated video featuring the Lord of Darkness in his final appearance as he recites the following monologue :
For some things , there is no rational explanation . There is no way out . There is no happy ending to the story . Welcome to the unknown ; welcome to eternal darkness ; welcome ... to Oblivion .
The roller coaster has a simple layout with a 150 ft drop at 89 @.@ 5 degrees , and is the world 's first vertical drop rollercoaster The car slowly ascends 60 feet at a 45 degree angle to build tension , then levels out , slowly travelling around a curve on a unique chain system , seen only on Oblivion , as the cars approach the drop . As each car reaches the drop it is held by a holding chain for a maximum of five seconds , giving the rider a clear view of the long drop , before a brake is released allowing the car to drop into the tunnel . This is followed by a highly banked turn that climbs up and makes the train lie on its side as it goes through . Then after dropping out of the turn the train climbs over a small rise in the track to the brakes , slowing down , and then pulls around back to the station . The open design cars accommodate sixteen passengers in two rows of eight . The back row is slightly raised to give passengers a clear view of the drop . A pre @-@ recorded and disembodied voice saying ' don 't look down ' was played just before release . In 2004 , this sound effect was removed due to sound restrictions on the park and the words " Don 't look down " have instead been painted on the floor of the guest observation area which is visible to riders when the train is hanging over the edge .
= = Reception = =
When Oblivion opened , it was very well received , partly due to a massive advertising campaign by Alton Towers However , it never appeared in the top 25 list of the Golden Ticket Awards . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , it peaked at number 43 in 1999 , and has had a mixed performance since
= SM U @-@ 10 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 10 or U @-@ X was the lead boat of the U @-@ 10 class of submarines for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during World War I. She was originally a German Type UB I submarine commissioned into the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) as SM UB @-@ 1 .
SM UB @-@ 1 was constructed in Germany and shipped by rail to Pola where she was assembled and launched in January 1915 . She was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy later that same month and sank an Italian torpedo boat in June . The boat was handed over to Austria @-@ Hungary and commissioned as SM U @-@ 10 in July . In May 1917 , U @-@ 10 was fired upon by a British submarine , but both of the torpedoes that were launched missed . In July 1918 , U @-@ 10 hit a mine and was beached with heavy damage . She was towed to Trieste for repairs which remained unfinished at the war 's end . U @-@ 10 was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 10 was a small , coastal submarine that displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) surfaced and 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) submerged . She featured a single shaft , a single 60 bhp ( 45 kW ) Daimler diesel engine for surface running , and a single 120 shp ( 89 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . U @-@ 10 was capable of up to 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) while surfaced and 5 @.@ 5 knots ( 10 @.@ 2 km / h ; 6 @.@ 3 mph ) while submerged at a diving depth of up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She was designed for a crew of 17 officers and men .
U @-@ 10 was equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . German Type UB I submarines were additionally equipped with a 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun , but it is not clear from sources if U @-@ 10 , as a former German boat , was either equipped with one or , if so , retained it in Austro @-@ Hungarian service . In October 1916 , U @-@ 10 's armament was supplemented with a 37 @-@ mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun . This gun was replaced by a 47 @-@ mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun in November 1917 .
Construction of UB @-@ 1 was started on 1 November 1914 at Germaniawerft in Kiel . After her assembly was complete UB @-@ 1 was launched on 22 January 1915 .
After extended negotiations between Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , in March 1915 it was decided for Germany to supply five submarines of the UB I type . This model was familiar to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy since the Imperial German Navy had reassembled UB3 , UB 8 , and UB 9 at the Pola factory . The first boat was bought on April 4 , 1915 , a " sample " UB 1 boat . This submarine was shipped by rail in sections to Pola , where the sections were riveted together . Though there is no record of how long it took for UB @-@ 1 's parts to be assembled , a sister boat , UB @-@ 3 , shipped from Germany in mid @-@ April 1915 , was assembled in about two weeks .
= = Operational history = =
SM UB @-@ 1 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Franz Wäger on 29 January . An Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy officer was assigned to the boat for piloting and training purposes . On 26 June 1915 , UB @-@ 1 sank an Italian torpedo boat Torpediniere 5 Pn in the Gulf of Venice .
On 4 June 1915 , after being disassembled into three sections and transported by rail to Pola for reassembling , UB @-@ 1 was handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and commissioned as U @-@ 10 under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Karl Edler von Unczowski .
British submarine H4 had an encounter with U @-@ 10 on 11 May 1917 . While cruising off Pola , H4 came across U @-@ 10 and fired a spread of two torpedoes at the submarine . The torpedoes were aimed to be 5 ° apart at a distance of 365 metres ( 400 yd ) which was apparently too wide , because the captain of H4 observed the torpedoes miss just ahead and just astern of U @-@ 10 .
On 9 July 1918 , U @-@ 10 hit an Italian mine near Caorle in the northern Adriatic Sea at position 45 ° 30 ′ N 13 ° 00 ′ E , and was beached with heavy damage . Although she was looted by Austro @-@ Hungarian Army troops , she was later towed to Trieste for repairs , which remained unfinished at war 's end ; all of the 13 crew personnel were saved . U @-@ 10 was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped at Pola by 1920 . U @-@ 10 sank no ships in her Austro @-@ Hungarian service .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= International Gendarmerie =
The International Gendarmerie was the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania . It was established by the decision of the ambassadors of the six Great Powers that participated in the London Peace Conference . This decision was made on the basis of the London Treaty signed on May 30 , 1913 . Since most of the members were from the Netherlands , this force was also known as the Dutch Military Mission .
The first gendarmerie members arrived in Albania on November 10 , 1913 . They were soon faced with a peasant revolt . One International Gendarmerie officer was killed and many were imprisoned after the revolt erupted in June 1914 . Dutch officers were gradually replaced by officers from Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , who arrived in Durrës on July 4 . Soon , World War I broke out and by August 4 , most of the Dutch officers had returned to the Netherlands . By September 19 , 1914 , the last two imprisoned officers were released .
= = Background = =
The ambassadors of the six Great Powers decided to constitute the Principality of Albania on July 29 , 1913 during the 54th meeting of the London Conference . The new country needed a sovereign , borders , government and military police force . To ensure the gendarmerie 's neutrality , the Powers decided that its members should come from a different country . Their first choice was Sweden , but that country was already busy with a similar mission in Persia , they chose the Netherlands for its neutrality , lack of direct interest in Albania and extensive colonial experience in the Dutch East Indies . On October 15 , 1913 they established the International Commission of Control to administer the country until its own political institutions were established . Wilhelm of Wied was selected as the first prince .
= = Leadership = =
The Netherlands ' War Minister initially chose Major Lodewijk Thomson to head the Gendarmerie , but after a Dutch unrelated political crisis and the formation of a new government , the new Minister appointed Colonel Willem De Veer instead , placing Thomson as his second @-@ in @-@ command on October 20 , 1913 .
De Veer and Thomson prepared a classified 150 @-@ page report on the setting up of the gendarmerie . There were discussions of 5 @,@ 000 gendarmes led by Dutch officers provided by the government of the Netherlands . On February 24 , 1914 , 13 Dutch officers arrived at Vlorë : Captain Fabius , Major Kroon , Major De Waal , Major Sluys , Captain Doorman , Major Roelfsema , Dr. De Groot , Captain Sar , Major Verhulst , Major Snellen van Vollenhoven , First Lieutenant Mallinckrodt , Captains Reimers and Sonne .
= = Mission = =
The International Gendarmerie was only one of numerous armed groups in the principality during Wilhelm 's reign . Others included irregular bands of southerners led by local leaders ; native outlaws ; Bulgarian outlaw Komitadjis ; Greek rebels from the Northern Epirus ; peasant rebels in central Albania ; Essad Pasha 's gendarmerie ; volunteers from Kosovo led by Isa Boletini ; and Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern mountains under the command of Prênk Bibë Doda .
One of the first tasks of the new gendarmerie was to train Albanian recruits in order to take control of southern Albania after the Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence of February 28 , 1914 .
Essad Pasha Toptani , as minister of war and interior , was against a peaceful solution of the problem . He opposed the International Commission of Control which believed that the problem could be solved by diplomatic means . The Prince and his cabinet accepted Essad Pasha 's proposals for a military solution . Several thousand Italian rifles and Austrian machine and mountain guns were purchased and distributed to the ( predominantly Muslim ) population of central Albania . They believed that the new regime was a tool of the ( Christian ) Great Powers and the landowners that owned half of the arable land . On the basis of those beliefs they revolted .
When thousands of rebels surrounded Shijak on May 17 , only 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from Durrës , Essad Pasha was accused of fomenting the revolt against William of Wied . He was exiled to Italy on May 20 , without trial .
The revolt intensified after Essad 's exile . In order to gain support from the 1 @,@ 000 Mirdita Catholic paid volunteers from the northern mountains , Prince of Wied appointed their leader , Prênk Bibë Doda , as foreign minister . Isa Boletini and his men , mostly from Kosovo , also joined the International Gendarmerie to fight the rebels . Dutch gendarmes together with the Mirdita attempted to capture Shijak , but when they engaged on May 23 , they were surrounded and captured , along with another expedition from Durrës which attempted to release the captured gendarmes . Captain Sar did not know that the northern Catholic tribes refused to fight the rebels because General Besa was agreed when the Prince of Wied took over the throne . Rebels attacked Durrës , firing on it with light weapons . The people in Durrës panicked , and the Prince took his family to shelter in an Italian ship anchored in the bay .
During the early morning surprise attack , on June 15 , 1914 , Thomson was shot in the chest ( despite the fact that rebels were attacking behind him ) and died within a few minutes . It is probable that an Italian sniper was responsible .
Captain Fabius established a volunteer artillery unit . According to the Austrian government , the volunteers who bombarded the rebels were recruited by the Albanian Committee in Vienna . Till the end of June 1914 Dutch officers were captured by rebels in most of the central Albania . They were gradually replaced with officers from Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , who arrived in Durrës on July 4 . On July 27 , 1914 Colonel De Veer officially tendered the officers ' resignations . Soon the First World War broke out and by August 4 most of the officers had returned home . The rebels captured Berat on July 12 and Vlore , without fight , on August 21 . The last two captured officers ( Verhulst and Reimers ) were released on September 19 , 1914 .
= = End of the Mission = =
In autumn 1914 Essad Pasha accepted an invitation from the Senate of Central Albania ( established by the rebelling towns in mid and north Albania ) to return to Albania to take control . His first task was to provide financial backing for his government . Therefore , he travelled to Niš , Kingdom of Serbia , where he and Serbian prime minister Pašić signed a secret treaty of Serbian @-@ Albanian alliance on September 17 . In October 1914 Essad Pasha returned to Albania . With Italian and Serbian financial backing he established armed forces in Dibër and captured the interior and Durrës at the beginning of October , without a fight .
= Italian cruiser Umbria =
Umbria was a protected cruiser of the
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managed by a Dean who is advised by a 22 @-@ member Board of Overseers . As of the 2008 – 2009 academic year , the school operates on a budget of $ 237 million .
Besides research conducted within the infrastructure of academic departments , research at Geisel is also organized around over a dozen research centers and institutes . The centers cover various medical subjects such as neuroscience , oncology ( Norris Cotton Cancer Center ) , psychiatry , and pediatrics . Funded research at Geisel School of Medicine amounted to $ 140 million during the 2012 @-@ 2013 academic year ;
= = Publications = =
The Medical School publishes a magazine for alumni and friends , Dartmouth Medicine . In addition , the school also publishes an innovative literary journal , Lifelines ( literary journal )
= = = Admissions and rankings = = =
In the fall of 2013 , 85 students enrolled in the Doctor of Medicine program from an applicant pool of 4 @,@ 290 , with the Office of Admissions offering an acceptance rate of 6 percent . Applicants from the previous year had an average score in the numerically graded sections of the Medical College Admission Test ( MCAT ) of 33 and an average undergraduate grade point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 65 . Applicants to the M.D. program are expected to have a background in chemistry , biology , physics , and calculus , and are required to have at least three years of undergraduate education .
In November 2013 , the nation 's sole medical school accrediting body , the Liaison Committee for Medical Education ( LCME ) , granted the Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine a full eight @-@ year term of accreditation — the longest available from the LCME . None of the residency programs of Mary Hitchcock Medical Center , which are administered by Geisel School of Medicine faculty , are on probation by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education .
For 2014 , the Geisel School of Medicine was ranked by U.S. News & World Report as 34th on the " Top Medical Schools – Research " list and 18th on the " Top Medical Schools – Primary Care " list .
= = People = =
= = = Student profile and student life = = =
The Geisel School of Medicine 's enrollment as of October 2013 totaled 700 students : 360 M.D. candidates and 340 graduate students . In addition to the student body , over 350 resident physicians and research fellows were on campus as of July 2007 . The student population is split approximately evenly between men and women , while about 25 percent of the student body is made up of international or minority students . From an average class size of 75 , over 60 undergraduate institutions and most of the U.S. states are represented . According to The Princeton Review , the small class size at Geisel helps to establish " a strong sense of community and collaborative spirit " . The school offers dozens of community service , recreational , professional , and other student groups .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of November 2007 , the Geisel School of Medicine employs a staff of 2 @,@ 315 faculty and researchers : 766 full @-@ time faculty , 1 @,@ 301 part @-@ time faculty and non @-@ faculty instructors , and 248 research positions . The ratio of full @-@ time , on @-@ site faculty to students is given by the school as 2 : 1 . Notable current faculty include Stuart Gitlow , palliative care physician Ira Byock , former astronaut and Democratic politician Jay C. Buckey , psychoanalyst Peter A. Olsson , former LFHCfS member Mark R. Spaller , and Jay Dunlap , professor and chair of genetics at the Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine and a member of the National Academy of Sciences . Notable former faculty include biochemist Mahlon Hoagland , pathologist and geneticist Kurt Benirschke , and former Surgeon General of the United States C. Everett Koop .
= = = Alumni = = =
As of June 2013 , the Geisel School of Medicine claims 4 @,@ 891 living graduates active in medicine around the world . Geisel cites its required clerkships as a mechanism for allowing students to make connections and obtain real @-@ world experience . Fourth @-@ year students are prepared for residency with counseling classes ; recent graduates have most commonly taken their residencies at Geisel itself , Harvard Medical School , Tufts University School of Medicine , and Brown Medical School . Alumni of Geisel / Dartmouth Medical School who have become notable medical practitioners , educators and researchers include physician and freethinker Charles Knowlton , consciousness researcher John C. Lilly , physician Robert O. Blood , ophthalmologist and epidemiologist John D. Bullock , and attending physician at the United States Capitol John Francis Eisold . Alumni in other fields include U.S. Representatives Richard S. Molony and Robert Burns , Governor of New Hampshire Noah Martin , and television personality Ian Smith .
= Henry Vane the Younger =
Sir Henry Vane ( baptised 26 March 1613 – 14 June 1662 ) , son of Henry Vane the Elder ( often referred to as Harry Vane to distinguish him from his father ) , was an English politician , statesman , and colonial governor . He was briefly present in North America , serving one term as the Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , and supported the creation of Roger Williams ' Rhode Island Colony and Harvard College . A proponent of religious tolerance , he returned to England in 1637 following the Antinomian controversy that led to the banning of Anne Hutchinson from Massachusetts .
He was a leading Parliamentarian during the English Civil War and worked closely with Oliver Cromwell . He played no part in the execution of King Charles I , and refused to take oaths that expressed approval of the act . Vane served on the Council of State that functioned as the government executive during the Interregnum , but split with Cromwell over issues of governance and removed himself from power when Cromwell dissolved Parliament in 1653 . He returned to power during the short @-@ lived Commonwealth period in 1659 – 1660 , and was arrested under orders from King Charles II following his restoration to the throne . After long debate , Vane was exempted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , and was thus denied amnesty granted to most people for their roles in the Civil War and Interregnum .
Although he was formally granted clemency by Charles II , he was charged with high treason by Parliament in 1662 . In a court proceeding in which he was denied counsel and the opportunity to properly prepare a defence , he was convicted by a partisan jury . Charles withdrew his earlier clemency , and Vane was beheaded on Tower Hill on 14 June 1662 .
Vane was recognised by his political peers as a competent administrator and a wily and persuasive negotiator and politician . His politics was driven by a desire for religious tolerance in an era when governments were used to establish official churches and suppress dissenting views . Although his views were in a small minority , he was able to successfully build coalitions to advance his agenda . His actions were often ultimately divisive , and contributed to both the rise and downfall of the English Commonwealth . His books and pamphlets written on political and religious subjects are still analyzed today , and Vane is remembered in Massachusetts and Rhode Island as an early champion of religious freedom .
= = Early life = =
Henry Vane was baptised on 26 May 1613 at Debden , Essex . He was the eldest child of Sir Henry Vane the Elder , who came from the landed gentry , and Frances Darcy , who came from minor nobility . The elder Vane used the family 's money to purchase positions at court , rising by 1629 to be Comptroller of the Household . Vane was educated at Westminster School , where his classmates included Arthur Heselrige and Thomas Scot , two other men who would figure prominently in English politics . Vane 's friend and biographer George Sikes wrote that Vane was " [ ignorant ] of God " and of a temperament that made him " acceptable to those they call good fellows " , but that he had a religious awakening at 14 or 15 , after which he " and his former jolly company came to a parting blow . " Vane then enrolled at Magdalen Hall , Oxford , where he studied in spite of his refusal to take the necessary matriculation oaths . He then traveled to Europe , where he was reported to be studying at Leiden and possibly in France and at Geneva .
Vane 's father had been upset by his open adoption of Puritan views , fearing this would hamper his opportunities for advancement at court . In 1631 he sent the young Vane to Vienna as an assistant to Robert Anstruther , the English ambassador . This was apparently a quite privileged role , for Vane 's writings of the time include messages written in French and in cipher . During this trip the elder Vane was sent to negotiate with Swedish King Gustavus for an alliance ; King Charles ' unwillingness to act in the matter meant the effort was in vain . He was introduced to the king after returning to England , and encouraged by his father to seek a position in the privy chamber . His father engaged in numerous attempts to get him to give up his nonconformist views , without success . In order to worship as he chose , Vane then decided to go the New World , joining the Puritan migration .
= = New England = =
Vane left for the Massachusetts Bay Colony , arriving in Boston in October 1635 on a ship also carrying John Winthrop the Younger and Hugh Peter . The elder John Winthrop described Vane as " a young gentleman of excellent parts " , and by the following month he had already been admitted as a freeman in the colony . He began playing a role in its judicial administration , deciding whether legal disputes had sufficient merit to be heard by a full court . Vane was instrumental in brokering the resolution to a dispute between the elder Winthrop and Thomas Dudley concerning matters of judicial conduct . In the spring of 1637 Vane was elected governor of the colony , succeeding John Haynes . The situation he faced was complex , with issues on religious , political and military fronts . His biographers describe his term in office as " disastrous " .
The colony was split over the actions and beliefs of Anne Hutchinson . She had come with her husband and children to the colony in 1634 , and began holding Bible sessions at home , gaining a wide audience and sharing her opinions that the colonial leaders labeled as Antinomianism , the view that existing laws and practices were not necessary for salvation . Most of the older colonial leadership , including Dudley and Winthrop , espoused a more Legalist view . Vane was a supporter of Hutchinson , as was at first the influential pastor John Cotton , and this was the faction that propelled Vane into the governor 's seat in 1636 . Vane , however , immediately alienated some of the colonists by insisting on flying the English flag over Boston 's fort . The flag had recently been the subject of controversy , since its depiction of the Cross of St George was seen by many colonists as a symbol of papacy , and John Endecott had notoriously cut the cross out of the Salem militia 's flag . Vane 's popularity went down further when he learned in December 1636 that there were issues in England requiring his presence , and he attempted to resign . Although the court of assistants accepted his resignation , he withdrew it upon the request of the congregation of the Boston church .
During Vane 's tenure a dispute with the Pequot tribe of present @-@ day southeastern Connecticut boiled over into war . In 1636 the boat of a Massachusetts trader named John Oldham was found near Block Island , overrun by Indians . Further examination by the discoverers ( after the Indians fled in canoes ) uncovered Oldham 's body on board . The attackers were at the time believed to be from tribes affiliated with the Narragansetts , but Narragansett leaders claimed that those responsible had fled to the protection of the Pequots . The Pequots were aggressively expansionist in their dealings with the surrounding native tribes ( including the Narragansett ) , but had until then generally kept the peace with nearby English colonists . Massachusetts authorities were already angry that the Pequots had failed to turn over men implicated in the killing of another trader on the Connecticut River ; the slaying of Oldham led to calls for action . Despite the fact that Roger Williams had warned him that the Narragansetts were more likely responsible for Oldham 's slaying , Governor Vane in August 1636 placed John Endecott at the head of a 90 @-@ man force to extract justice from the Pequots . Endecott 's heavy @-@ handed expedition did little more than destroy Pequot settlements , and sparked a military backlash . The Pequots struck back at settlements recently established on the Connecticut River by colonists from Massachusetts , and at the Saybrook Colony of the younger John Winthrop . In April 1637 the ostensibly pacifist Vane called a session of the general court that authorized the colonial militia to assist the other New England colonies in continuing the war , which resulted in the destruction of the Pequots as a tribal entity .
Vane lost his position to the elder John Winthrop in the 1637 election . The contentious election was marked by a sharp disagreement over the treatment of John Wheelwright , another Hutchinson supporter . Winthrop won in part because the location of the vote was moved to Cambridge , reducing the power of Vane 's Boston support . In the aftermath of the election Anne Hutchinson was put on trial , and eventually banished from the colony . Many of her followers seriously considered leaving after the election . At the urging of Roger Williams , some of these people , including Hutchinson , founded the settlement of Portsmouth on Aquidneck Island in the Narragansett Bay ( later named Rhode Island and joined to Providence to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations ) . Vane decided to return to England , apparently with the notion that he would acquire a royal governorship to trump the colonial administration . Before his departure , he published A Brief Answer to a Certain Declaration , a response to Winthrop 's defense of the Act of Exclusion ; this act was passed after the election to restrict the immigration of people with views not conforming to the colony 's religious orthodoxy .
Despite their political differences , Vane and Winthrop developed an epistolary relationship in the following years . Vane 's legacy from his time in the New World includes the colonial legislation appropriating £ 400 for the establishment of an institute of higher learning now known as Harvard University , and his support of Roger Williams in the acquisition of Aquidneck Island from the local Indians that resulted in the formal beginnings of Rhode Island . The surviving accounts do not say that Vane provide the funds for the acquisition ; Williams credits Vane as being " an instrument in the hand of God for procuring this island " .
According to historian Michael Winship , Vane 's experiences in Massachusetts significantly radicalized his religious views , in which he came to believe that clergy of all types , including Puritan ministers , " were the second beast of Revelations 13 : 11 " , " pretending to visible Saintship " . This conviction drove his political activities in England , where he sought to minimize the power and influence of all types of clergy . Biographer Violet Rowe writes that " Vane 's guiding principles in religious policy seem to have been two : a rooted distrust of clerical power , whether of bishops or presbyters , and a belief that the State should abstain from interference in church matters altogether . "
Vane 's stance can be seen in the way the first Rhode Island patent was drafted in 1643 , when he sat on the Parliamentary committee charged with colonial affairs . Unique among all of the early English colonial charters , it contains provisions guaranteeing freedom of religion . ( Vane assisted Roger Williams again in 1652 , when the latter sought a confirmation of the Rhode Island charter and the revocation of a conflicting charter that had been issued to William Coddington . )
= = Return to England = =
On his return to England , he procured , with the assistance of the Earl of Northumberland and his father , a position as Treasurer of the Royal Navy in 1639 . In this position he had the personally distasteful yet highly profitable task of collecting the hated ship money ( a tax to support the Navy imposed by Charles I without Parliamentary approval ) . In June 1640 he was awarded a knighthood by King Charles . He married Frances Wray , daughter of Sir Christopher Wray , on 1 July 1640 , after which his father settled upon him most of the family 's holdings . These included Fairlawn in Kent , and Raby Castle , where Vane would make his home . According to his biographers , the relationship with Frances was anchored by shared spiritual goals and intimacy , and was happy and fulfilling .
The connection with the admiralty secured for him election to the Short and Long Parliaments representing Hull . Vane had already formed or renewed associations with prominent opponents of Charles ' policies , including John Pym and John Hampden . In the Short Parliament he was noted to be " capable of managing great affairs " , with a " penetrating judgment " and an " easy and graceful manner of speaking . " With others like Nathaniel Fiennes , he represented a younger generation of Puritans in the leadership of the Long Parliament that effectively managed affairs : as identified by Clarendon in his history , these included Hampden , Pym , and Oliver St John in the Commons , and Earl of Bedford and Viscount Saye and Sele in the Lords .
Vane was instrumental in the 1641 impeachment and execution of the Earl of Strafford , a member of the Privy Council . Vane discovered some confidential notes his father had made of a council meeting , and passed them to John Pym . The wording in those notes could be interpreted to mean that Strafford had proposed that Charles use the Irish Army to subjugate England . The evidence against Strafford was weak , and the impeachment failed . Pym consequently orchestrated the passage of a bill of attainder against Strafford , who was then executed in May 1641 . The illicit means by which Pym acquired the notes caused a rift between the Vanes that only healed when the elder Vane eventually came to oppose the king .
In the Root and Branch petition debate in the Commons , from December 1640 and into 1641 , Vane supported , as did Nathaniel Fiennes , the call for radical reforms in the Church of England , a position that put Vane in opposition to his father . Amid a sea of complaints about church governance , he and Fiennes in February 1641 were added to a committee that had been established the previous November to draft a report on the state of the kingdom . Their efforts led Vane to introduce the Root and Branch Bill in May 1641 . The debate on the bill was acrimonious , and resulted in a clear indication of parliamentary support for church reform . In its wake mobs invaded churches , removing " scandalous images " and other signs of " popery " . Vane made an impassioned speech that brought him to the front of his faction , claiming episcopacy ( the governing structure of the Church of England ) was a corrupt doctrine " hastening us back again to Rome . " The bill died without a vote in August , when more critical matters arose to occupy Parliament . When Charles went to Scotland to rally Scottish forces to the royalist cause , the Commons began drafting what became known as the Grand Remonstrance . Many historians have claimed Vane had a role in drafting some of its language ; this matter is disputed , but either way Vane did not participate in the debate . Narrowly passed by the Commons in November 1641 , the document catalogued many grievances against the king and church , and served to further polarize political affairs . The king refused to enact any of the requested reforms . Upon his return from Scotland , the king also deprived both Vanes , father and son , of their administrative posts , in revenge for their roles in the execution of Strafford .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early years = = =
In the first six months of 1642 , relations between the king and Parliament broke down completely , and factions supporting both sides took up arms . Parliament returned Vane to his post as Treasurer of the Navy , where he used connections to bring significant naval support to the Parliamentary side after Charles attempted to arrest five MPs on charges of high treason in December 1641 . In June 1642 Charles rejected the Nineteen Propositions , the last substantive set of demands made by Parliament prior to the outbreak of the First English Civil War . After hostilities began that June with the Siege of Hull , Vane was given a seat on the Committee of Safety , which oversaw Parliamentary military activities .
After the failure of the Root and Branch Bill , Parliament in 1643 called together the Westminster Assembly of Divines , a body of lay politicians , lords , and clergy whose purpose was to reform church governance . Vane sat on this body , which met periodically until 1648 , as one of the lay representatives of the Independent faction . Not long after its first meeting in July , Vane was sent at the head of a Parliamentary commission seeking military assistance from the Scots . The Scots , who had been opposed to Charles in the Bishop 's Wars ( 1639 – 40 ) over religious issues , were willing to assist the English Parliament if the latter were willing to allow the extension of the Presbyterian system of church polity to England . Vane was opposed to both Presbyterianism and Episcopalianism , but found a way to finesse an agreement . He proposed that the agreement , which covered a combination of religious and political topics , be called the Solemn League and Covenant , and he introduced slippery language into the agreement concerning " the example of the best Reformed churches " . This language permitted the Scots to believe that their ideas would be adopted , while the English could interpret it to mean that English ( i.e. Independent ) practices could be adopted . The league and covenant were eventually approved by authorities in Scotland , England , and Ireland , and paved the way for Scottish entry into the war .
Following Vane 's success in negotiating the Scottish agreement , the death of John Pym at the end of 1643 propelled Vane into the leadership of Parliament , along with Oliver St John , Henry Marten , and Arthur Heselrige . He promoted , and became a chief member of , the Committee of Both Kingdoms , established in February 1644 as a point were English and Scottish authorities could coordinate war activities . Vane was then sent to York in June 1644 , then besieged by three Parliament armies , to urge Sir Thomas Fairfax and the Earl of Manchester to divert some of those forces to face Prince Rupert of the Rhine , who had recently taken Liverpool and was pillaging properties of Parliamentary supporters in Lancashire . While there he also proposed to the generals the establishment of a government without the king . This idea was roundly rejected by the old guard generals who believed Charles could still be accommodated , but found support with the rising star of Oliver Cromwell .
On 13 September 1644 Vane acted with St John and Cromwell in the Commons to set up a " Grand Committee for the Accommodation " , designed to find a compromise on religious issues dividing the Westminster Assembly . He sought in its debate to identify loopholes for religious tolerance on behalf of the Independents . This exposed Vane 's opposition to Presbyterianism , and created a rift between the pro @-@ war Independents , led by Vane and Cromwell , and the pro @-@ peace Scots and other supporters of Presbyterianism . The latter included the Earl of Essex , whose failures in the west of England reduced popular support for his cause , even as the military success of Cromwell at Marston Moor raised his profile . Robert Baillie , on the realization that the Parliamentary Independents , despite previous claims of support by Vane , were not on the side of the Scots , wrote " Sir Henry Vane and The Solicitor [ St John ] ... without any regard for us , who have saved their nation and brought their two persons to the height of power now they enjoy and use to our prejudice " .
= = = Parliamentary victory = = =
Overtures for peace talks were begun in November 1644 between king and Parliament . Vane was one of many negotiators sent to Uxbridge in a failed attempt to negotiate peace . Vane and the Independents were seen by some as a principal reason for the failure of these talks , because the Scots and Charles were prepared to agree on issues of church polity and doctrine and the Independents were not . The talks , which lasted from late January through most of February 1645 , were overshadowed by the execution after impeachment by attainder of Archbishop Laud .
Parliament began discussing a reorganization of its military as early as November 1644 , in part to remove some poorly @-@ performing commanders , and to eliminate the regional character of the existing forces . In debate that principally divided the Commons from the Lords , Vane and Cromwell supported passage of the Self @-@ denying Ordinance , forbidding military officers from serving in Parliament , and the establishment of the New Model Army , which would be capable of fighting anywhere in the country . The provisions of the Self @-@ denying Ordinance also extended to individuals ( like Vane ) who held civil service posts , but included exceptions for those ( like Vane ) who had been turned out office by Charles and restored by Parliament . Vane then began drawing on fees and stipends that he had previously refused , and failed to pay half of his treasurer 's fees to Parliament , as required by the law .
Following the decisive Parliamentary victory at Naseby in June 1645 , the first phase of the civil war was effectively over , but it dragged on for another year , before Charles surrendered to Scottish army commanders . During this time , a new political faction began to rise within the military . Known as Levellers and led by John Lilburne and others , this populist force was in favour of greater press freedoms , and was opposed to at least some of the privileges of the aristocracy , including the existence of the House of Lords .
In January 1646 , amid ongoing peace negotiations , Charles attempted to separate the Independents from other factions by proposing in letters to Vane an alliance with his faction against the Presbyterians . Vane was not amused by this , and responded by pointing out that he preferred the rights of " tender consciences " to be granted by Parliament than by the duplicitous king ( papers exposing the king 's negotiating positions as facades had been captured at Naseby , and had largely silenced the Royalist elements in Parliament ) . The Vane estates were not spared in the maelstrom of war ; Vane 's father reported that Raby Castle had been " visited four times " , suffering damages of £ 16 @,@ 000 . In September 1645 , the Vanes succeeded in getting Parliamentary approval to fortify Raby .
= = = Interwar politics = = =
By the end of the war the Presbyterian group in the Commons , led by Denzil Holles , William Strode , and Sir Philip Stapleton , was slightly stronger than the Independents . They proceeded to introduce legislation hostile to the views on religious tolerance held by Vane and Independents in the army . Vane apparently came to realize that the Presbyterian actions posed a threat equal to that of the Episcopalians , and that military action , having sidelined the latter , might also work against the former . There was also mutual distrust between Vane and the Levellers , because Vane held the somewhat aristocratic view that voting rights should be reserved to the propertied gentry . The Independents attempted to negotiate terms favourable to them with Charles , but these were unsuccessful .
In 1647 Vane and Oliver Cromwell , the leader of the army 's Independents , came to work closely together . The Presbyterian majority sought to disband the army to reduce the threat of those Independents , but issues over pay ( which was in arrears ) , widows ' pensions , and other grievances , prompted the Presbyterians to enter into negotiations with the army . A bitter debate over an army petition led Levellers to charge the Independents , Vane among them , with attempting to " oppress the people " and wanting to " hold the reins of power ... not for a year , but forever . " Cromwell was eventually able to appease the army , but a Parliamentary purge of Independent officers followed , and the army was ordered to disband . Some Parliamentary leaders also began negotiating with the Scots for the return of their army , this time to oppose the English army . The Parliament army mutinied , and under Cromwell 's orders ( possibly prompted by a warning from Vane ) a detachment of troops seized Charles , who had been placed under a comfortable house arrest at Holmby . This forced the Presbyterian leadership to meet the army 's demands for pay . They also established a commission to treat with the army , on which they placed Vane , presumably because of his influence with the military .
The negotiations between the army and Parliament were acrimonious . Mobs in Presbyterian @-@ dominated London threatened Vane and other Independents . More than 50 Independent MPs , Vane among them , fled the city on 2 August for the protection of the army . The army then marched on London , with Vane and others at its head , and the Independents were again seated in Parliament . The Parliament then debated the army 's Heads of Proposals for fixing the term and powers of Parliament and church governance . Key among its terms of interest to Vane was one that effectively stripped the church , either Episcopal or Presbyterian , of any coercive powers . The Heads of Proposals was also sent to Charles , who indicated agreement to some of its terms and opposition to others , and proposed further negotiations .
The king 's proposal split the Independents between those , such as Vane and Cromwell , who were willing to negotiate with the king , and those who were not . Reverend Hugh Peter spoke out in favor of the " non @-@ addresses " ( i.e. no longer negotiating with the king ) , as did the Levellers . John Lilburne was particularly critical , saying " I clearly see Cromwell 's and Vane 's designs , which is to keep the poor people everlastingly ( if they can ) in bondage and slavery . " In November 1647 , while the debate continued , Charles escaped his confinement at Hampton Court and made his way to the Isle of Wight . There he was recaptured and imprisoned in Carisbrook Castle . Offered proposals by the Scots and the Independents , he chose alliance with the Scots . Sectional violence between royalists , Presbyterians , and Independents , spread throughout the country , although the army maintained a tenuous peace in London .
= = = War renewed = = =
Violence flared throughout the country as the various factions armed and organized . A mutiny in the Royal Navy in May thrust Vane into attempts to prevent it from spreading , and to regain the support of the mutineers , who had declared for Charles . By mid @-@ July , the army had regained control of most of England , and Cromwell defeated the Scottish army in August at the Battle of Preston . In the tumult , Vane appeared at times to be in opposition to some of the Independent factions , even having a falling out ( quickly healed ) with Cromwell , and many factions came to distrust him . Despite this he was one of the Parliamentary representatives for negotiations with Charles at Newport in September 1648 . He was widely blamed for the failure of those negotiations over his insistence on " an unbounded liberty of conscience " .
In the debates of late 1648 concerning the king 's fate , Vane argued that the Parliament should constitute a government without the king " to make themselves the happiest nation and people in the world . " His forceful speech on 2 December suggesting that the king would need to be eliminated as a political force was opposed by others , including Nathaniel Fiennes , who claimed that the concessions the king had made to date were sufficient that an agreement might be reached . Others suggested that rather than dividing the house by opposition to the king , it be divided by separating those who had gained in the war from those who had not , and that financial contributions be made from one group to the other . After an impassioned conciliatory speech by William Prynne , Parliament finally voted on 5 December that the king 's concessions were sufficient , but Clement Walker and other opponents of Vane whispered that both Vanes had abused their positions of power during the war for profit . Walker compiled a long list of MPs he claimed had acted corruptly , but Vane was not on it . Instead , Walker charged the Vanes with benefiting by buying at a discount " sleeping pensions " , or debts owed by the public purse to individuals , and then pursuing payment of them to enrich themselves . There is today no substantive way to assess the validity of Walker 's charges .
On 6 December , the military stepped in to take control of matters . Troops led by Thomas Pride surrounded the Houses of Parliament , and systematically arrested arriving MPs who had been supportive of negotiation with the king . Vane did not appear that day — he either was aware of what was going to happen , or he may have stayed away because his side had lost the vote . This action , known as " Pride 's Purge " , resulted in the exclusion of more than 140 MPs . The Parliament that sat became known as the Rump Parliament , and its first main order of business was the trial and execution of King Charles . During this process Vane refused to attend Parliament , although he was present as a spectator when the trial began on 20 January 1649 . He later claimed to oppose putting the king on trial because of " tenderness of blood " , and continued to fulfill the duties of his government posts , signing admiralty papers on the day Charles was executed .
= = The Commonwealth and Oliver Cromwell = =
After the execution of Charles , the House of Commons voted to abolish both the crown and the House of Lords . To replace the executive functions of the crown , it established a Council of State to which Vane was appointed . He refused to be seated until he could do so without taking any oath , in particular the first one , which required an expression of approval for the regicide . Vane served on many of the council 's committees . In his role on committees overseeing the military he directed the provisioning of supplies for Cromwell 's conquest of Ireland . As a leading member of the committee overseeing the navy ( where he was joined by schoolmate Thomas Scot ) , he directed affairs in the naval First Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1652 – 1654 ) . After the navy 's disastrous performance against the Dutch in 1652 , Vane headed the committee that reformed the navy , drafting new Articles of War and formally codifying naval law . Vane 's reforms were instrumental in the navy 's successes later in the war . He was also involved in foreign diplomacy , going on a mission to France ( whose purpose is unknown ) in 1652 to meet with Cardinal de Retz , and traveling again to Scotland to organize the government there after Cromwell 's victories in the Third English Civil War .
Vane was also active in domestic affairs . He sat on a committee that disposed of Charles I 's art collection , and made many enemies in his role on the committees for Compounding and Sequestration . These committees , on which Vane had also sat in the 1640s , were responsible for the distribution of assets seized from royalists and other government opponents , and for negotiating with those who had failed to pay taxes and other government charges . Some of the enemies he made while engaged in this work would one day sit in judgment against him .
The process by which the Parliament carried out the duties of the executive was cumbersome , and this became an issue with Cromwell and the army , who sought the ability to act more decisively . This attitude drove a wedge between Cromwell and Vane . Under pressure from Cromwell for new elections , the Parliament began to consider proposals for electoral reform . In January 1653 a committee headed by Vane made one such proposal . It called for suffrage to be allowed on the basis of property ownership , and it specifically sought to eliminate a number of so @-@ called " rotten boroughs " , which had small numbers of voters and were controlled by wealthy patrons . The proposal also called for some of the current members , whose republican credentials were deemed suitable , to retain their seats , so that the fledgling commonwealth might , as Harry Marten put it , would be shepherded by " the mother that brought it forth " . This latter clause was specifically proposed at the urging of the army by Vane , who realised that those who were charged with its implementation would be able to retain power . However , Cromwell , seeking a general election , was opposed to this scheme , and the two sides were unable to reconcile .
Although Parliamentary leaders , Vane among them , had promised Cromwell on 19 April 1653 to delay action on the election bill , Vane was likely one of the ringleaders that sought to have the bill enacted the next day before Cromwell could react . Cromwell was however alerted by a supporter , and interrupted the proceedings that would otherwise have passed the bill . Bringing troops into the chamber , he put an end to the debate , saying " You are no Parliament . I say you are no Parliament . I will put an end to your sitting . " Vane protested , " This is not honest ; yea , it is against morality and common honesty " , to which Cromwell shouted in response , " O Sir Henry Vane , Sir Henry Vane ; the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane ! " This ended the commonwealth , and Cromwell began to rule as Lord Protector . Vane , " daily missed and courted for his assistance " , was invited to sit on Cromwell 's council , but refused .
Effectively in retirement , Vane wrote the Retired Man 's Meditations , published in 1655 amid rumors that Vane was fomenting rebellion against Cromwell , principally among Quakers and Fifth Monarchists . This work , a jargon @-@ laden religious treatise in which Vane wanders between literal and symbolic interpretation of Biblical scriptures , was treated by contemporaries and later analysts , including David Hume , as " absolutely unintelligible " and " cloudily formed " . The same year , after Cromwell called for a fast day to consider methods by which his government might be improved , Vane wrote A Healing Question . In this more carefully structured political work , he proposed a new form of government , insisting as before upon a Parliament supreme over the Army . He was encouraged to publish it by Charles Fleetwood , who had shown it to Cromwell . In a postscript to the work Vane wrote the words " the good old cause " , a coinage that became a rallying cry in the next few years for Vane 's group of republicans .
A Healing Question was seen by John Thurloe , Cromwell 's Secretary of State , as a thinly @-@ veiled attack on Cromwell , and its publication prompted a number of opposition political groups to step up their activities . Rumors circulated that protests raised by fringe religious groups like the Anabaptists and Quakers were due to Vane 's involvement , prompting Cromwell 's council to issue an order on 29 July 1656 , summoning Vane to appear . Vane was ordered to post a bond of £ 5 @,@ 000 " to do nothing to the prejudice of the present government and the peace of the Commonwealth " , but refused . He was arrested shortly afterward and imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle . While there he addressed a letter to Cromwell in which he repudiated the extra @-@ parliamentary authority Cromwell had assumed . Vane was released , still unrepentant , on 31 December 1656 .
During Vane 's retirement he established a religious teaching group , which resulted in a group of admirers known as " Vanists " . The Puritan pastor Richard Baxter classified Seekers , Ranters , Behmenists and Vanists together , as religious wild men . He also cultivated pamphleteers and other surrogates to promote his political views . Henry Stubbe , introduced to Vane by Westminster head Richard Busby , became a supporter , and defended him in his Essay in Defence of the Good Old Cause , and in Malice Rebuked ( 1659 ) .
= = Richard Cromwell and after = =
Following Oliver Cromwell 's death in September 1658 , his son Richard succeeded him as Lord Protector . The younger Cromwell lacked the political and military skills of his father , and the political factionalism of the earlier Commonwealth began to resurface . When elections were called for a new parliament in December 1658 , Cromwell attempted to prevent the election of both royalists and republicans . Vane , as a leader of the republican faction , was specifically targeted , but managed to win election representing Whitchurch . In the parliament 's session , the republicans questioned Cromwell 's claim to power , argued in favour of limiting it , and spoke against the veto power of the Cromwellian House of Lords , which was packed with supporters of the protector . The republicans were unsuccessful in enacting any substantive changes .
Vane formed an alliance with a group of republican military officers known as the Wallingford House party , who met secretly in violation of laws enacted to limit military participation in political matters . The Cromwellian factions in the parliament overreached in their attempts to control republican sentiment in the military , and Cromwell was forced to dissolve the parliament in April 1659 . Cromwell , with little support in the military , abdicated several days later . Following a purge of pro @-@ Cromwell supporters from the military and a widespread pamphleteering campaign , Cromwell 's council recalled the Rump Parliament in May .
In the reconstituted Rump Parliament , Vane was appointed to the new council of state . He also served as commissioner for the appointment of army officers , managed foreign affairs , and examined the state of the government 's finances , which were found to be in dismal condition . Through his work General John Lambert was sent to quell Booth 's Rebellion , a royalist uprising in August 1659 . Lambert 's support of non @-@ mainstream religious views like Quakerism , however , ensured his political downfall . After he and other officers were stripped of their command by Parliament in October , they rallied their troops and marched on Parliament , forcibly dissolving it . A committee of safety was formed , composed of the army grandees , and including Vane . He agreed to serve in part because he feared the republican cause was destined to fail without army support . This committee only served until December , when the advance of General George Monck 's army from Scotland led to the melting away of Lambert 's military support , and the restoration of the full Long Parliament . For taking part in the committee of safety , Vane was expelled ( over vocal objections from allies like Heselrige ) from the Commons , and ordered into house arrest at Raby Castle . He went to Raby in February 1660 , but only stayed there briefly , and eventually returned to his house at Hampstead .
During the tumultuous year of the late 1650s proposals for how the government should be structured and how powers should be balanced were widely debated , in private , in public debates in Parliament , and through the publication of pamphlets . Vane used all of these methods to promote his ideas . In 1660 he published A Needful Corrective or Balance in Popular Government . This open letter was essentially a response to James Harrington 's The Commonwealth of Oceana , a 1656 treatise describing Harrington 's view of a utopian government , which included limitations on property ownership and a legislature with an elected upper chamber . Harrington 's thesis was that power arose from property ownership , and concentrated land ownership led to oligarchic and monarchic forms of government . Vane disagreed with this , arguing instead that power came from godliness , and presented a somewhat apocalyptic argument in support of his idea . Vane supporter Henry Stubbe stated openly in October 1659 that permanent Senators would be required . These proposals caused a terminal split in Vane 's alliance with Heselrige , whose followers mostly deserted Vane .
= = The Restoration = =
In March 1660 the Long Parliament finally dissolved itself , and elections were held for the Convention Parliament , which sat in May . This body , dominated by royalists and Presbyterians , formally proclaimed Charles II as king , and he was restored to the throne on 29 May 1660 . In order to minimize acts of reprisal and vengeance for acts taken during the Interregnum , the parliament passed the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , under whose terms most actions were forgiven . Specific exceptions were made for those directly involved in the regicide , and after long debate , Vane was also named as an exception . The act was not passed until August 1660 , and Vane was arrested on 1 July 1660 on the orders of the king and imprisoned in the Tower of London . The parliament , after passing the Indemnity Act , petitioned Charles to grant clemency to Vane and others , asking that his life might be spared . This petition was granted .
Despite the clemency , Vane remained in the Tower , and the income from his estates was seized . He suffered the privations of the prison , and was unable to discharge debts that ran to £ 10 @,@ 000 . He was transferred to the Isles of Scilly in October 1661 in order to limit access to him by potential conspirators who might be scheming to free him . He continued to write , principally on religious themes , seeking to come to terms with the political state of affairs and his condition . According to The People 's Case Stated , written by Vane in this time , power originated with God , but resided primarily with the people : " The power which is directive , and states and ascertains the morality of the rule of obedience , is in the hand of God ; but the original , from whence all just power arises , which is magistratical and co @-@ ercitive , is from the will or free gift of the people , who may either keep the power in themselves or give up their subjection and will in the hand of another . " King and people were bound by " the fundamental constitution or compact " , which if the king violated , the people might return to their original right and freedom .
Following Vane 's move to Scilly , the Cavalier Parliament passed a resolution in November 1661 demanding his return to the Tower for trial . Charles temporized , and in January 1662 the Parliament renewed the demand . Vane was moved back to the Tower in April 1662 , and on 2 June 1662 he was arraigned on charges of high treason against Charles II . The trial began on 6 June before the Court of King 's Bench , with four judges headed by Lord Chief Justice Robert Foster presiding , and with the king 's attorney general Sir Geoffrey Palmer prosecuting . As was typical of those accused of treason , Vane was denied legal representation . He defended himself against charges of making war against the king during the civil war by asserting the sovereign power of parliament . Accused of imagining the death of the king in 1659 , he argued that it was not possible to commit treason against a king not in possession of the crown . When the prosecution argued that the king was always in de jure possession , Vane pointed out that this rendered invalid the charges that he conspired to keep Charles II from exercising his power . The judges stepped in to point out this was irrelevant . The jury , which was packed with royalists , convicted him after thirty minutes of debate .
Vane attempted to appeal his conviction , and tried to get the magistrates to sign a Bill of Exclusion in which Vane catalogued all the problems he saw with his trial . However , the magistrates refused . Informed of Vane 's conduct before and during the trial , Charles II now felt that Vane was too dangerous a man to be left alive , and retracted his clemency . ( Unlike Vane , John Lambert at his trial had thrown himself on the mercy of the court , and was consequently exiled to Guernsey after his conviction . ) Although Vane had been sentenced to the commoner 's death of being hanged and then drawn and quartered , Charles was persuaded to grant him the gentleman 's death of beheading . On 14 June 1662 Vane was taken to Tower Hill and beheaded . Noted diarist Samuel Pepys was there and recorded the event :
He made a long speech , many times interrupted by the Sheriff and others there ; and they would have taken his paper out of his hand , but he would not let it go . But they caused all the books of those that writ after him to be given the Sheriff ; and the trumpets were brought under the scaffold that he might not be heard . Then he prayed , and so fitted himself , and received the blow ; but the scaffold was so crowded that we could not see it done .... He had a blister , or issue , upon his neck , which he desired them not hurt : he changed not his colour or speech to the last , but died justifying himself and the cause he had stood for ; and spoke very confidently of his being presently at the right hand of Christ ; and in all things appeared the most resolved man that ever died in that manner , and showed more of heat than cowardize , but yet with all humility and gravity . One asked him why he did not pray for the King . He answered , " Nay , " says he , " you shall see I can pray for the King : I pray God bless him ! "
In his final days Vane had made his peace with God , and had also carefully prepared the speech he intended to make at the execution . In order to preserve the speech , he gave copies to close friends who visited him in those days , which were later printed . Many viewed him as a martyr for continuing to espouse his cause , and some thought the king had lost more than he gained by having him executed . His body was returned to his family , who interred him in the church at Shipbourne , near the family estate of Fairlawn in Kent .
= = Family = =
Vane and his wife Frances had ten children . Of their five sons , only the last , Christopher , had children , and succeeded to his father 's estates . He was created Baron Barnard by William III .
= = Works = =
A number of Vane 's speeches to Parliament and other bodies were printed during his lifetime or shortly after , including The Speech Intended to Have been Spoken on the Scaffold , published in 1662 .
Vane 's other printed works include :
A Brief Answer to a Certain Declaration , 1637
The Retired Man 's Meditations , 1655
A Healing Question Propounded , 1656
Of Love of God and Union with God , 1657 ?
The Proceeds of the Protector ... Against Sir Henry Vane , Knight , 1658
A Needful Corrective or Balance in Popular Government , 1659
Two Treatises : " Epistle General to the Mystical Body of Christ " and " The Face of the Times " , 1662
The Cause of the People of England Stated , 1689 ( written 1660 @-@ 1662 ; the title may have been intended to be " Case " instead of " Cause " )
A Pilgrimage into the Land of Promise , 1664
The Trial of Sir Henry Vane , Knight , 1662
The last work contains , in addition to his last speech and details relating to the trial , The People 's Case Stated , The Valley of Jehoshaphat , and Meditations concerning Man 's Life .
Some contemporary works were incorrectly attributed to him . Clarendon , in his History of the Rebellion , assigns to Vane credit for one speech in support of the Self @-@ Denying Ordinance ; later historians find this attribution spurious . The Speech against Richard Cromwell is probably the composition of a later writer , while The Light Shining out of Darkness may have been written by Henry Stubbe .
= = Reputation = =
Vane was widely recognized by contemporary chroniclers as a gifted administrator and a forceful orator . Even the royalist Clarendon had good words for him , and wrote of him as follows : " He had an unusual aspect , which ... made men think there was something in him of the extraordinary ; and his whole life made good that imagination . " Also , Clarendon credited Vane with having possessed " extraordinary parts , a pleasant wit , a great understanding , a temper not to be moved " , and in debate " a quick conception and a very sharp and weighty expression " . The 1662 biography The Life and Death of Sir Henry Vane the Younger by Vane 's chaplain George Sikes included John Milton 's " Sonnet 17 " , written in 1652 in praise of Vane , and presented to Vane that year .
The religious writings of Vane were so unusual as to have been found difficult to understand , even baffling , by readers as varied as Richard Baxter , Clarendon , Gilbert Burnet and David Hume , and continue to be seen so today . Civil War historian Blair Worden comments that " Vane 's opaque political ideas and religious beliefs are now barely intelligible " , and biographer David Parnham writes " He presented himself as a ' witness ' of light , as a spiritualist , as one dispensing advanced wisdoms in the epistemological setting of an imminent and apocalyptic age of the Spirit " .
Vane 's reputation was at its height in the nineteenth century , especially in the United States . English historian John Andrew Doyle wrote of Vane that he had acquired " a more dazzling reputation than has been granted to the lofty public spirit and statesmanlike foresight of Winthrop . " William Wordsworth referenced Vane in his sonnet Great Men Have Been Among Us ( 1802 ) . Charles Dickens included the exchange between Vane and Cromwell at the end of the Rump Parliament in his A Child 's History of England , part @-@ published in the early 1850s . In English Traits ( 1856 ) , Ralph Waldo Emerson placed Vane on a list of historical English greats . Sean Gabb , a modern British libertarian , notes that Vane was in the vanguard on issues of religious freedom . Although he was " among a small and easily defeated minority " , his successors 150 years later " were responsible for the clearest and most solid safeguards of civil and religious freedom ever adopted into a constitution . "
In 1897 the Royal Society of the Arts marked Vane 's demolished Hampstead house on Rosslyn Hill , Vane House , with a blue plaque .
James Kendall Hosmer , editing Winthrop 's Journal in 1908 , wrote of Vane :
... his heroic life and death , his services to Anglo @-@ Saxon freedom , which make him a significant figure even to the present moment , may well be regarded as the most illustrious character who touches early New England history . While his personal contact with America was only for a brief space , his life became a strenuous upholding of American ideas : if government of , by , and for the people is the principle which English @-@ speaking men feel especially bound to maintain , the life and death of Vane contributed powerfully to cause this idea to prevail .
= Vortigaunt =
Vortigaunts are a fictional extra @-@ dimensional species in the Half @-@ Life series of video games by Valve Corporation . In Half @-@ Life and its three expansions , Vortigaunts are frequently encountered by the player as hostile non @-@ player characters . The Vortigaunts are depicted in Half @-@ Life as being an enslaved race in an alternative dimension called Xen , subservient to a large creature called the Nihilanth , which itself is a slave to undisclosed masters . In Half @-@ Life 2 , the Vortigaunts have broken free of their slavery , and actively assist the player and other humans in resisting the Combine occupation of Earth .
Vortigaunts are shown as a very communal and cultural race , believing in a force that binds the fabric of the universe and each Vortigaunt together , as well as producing a tradition of poetry and music . Vortigaunts also display the ability to summon and command electrical energy without the need for technology . This ability is used for various activities , such as a means of attack , powering electrical equipment , and healing .
The fictional creatures have received a range of critical responses from their various appearances . In addition to their role within the Half @-@ Life series , Vortigaunts have been adapted for machinima productions and have been made into a plush toy by Valve .
= = Character design = =
Louis Gossett , Jr. provides the voice for the Vortigaunts in Half @-@ Life 2 , and was partially chosen due to his role as the alien in the film Enemy Mine . In Episode Two , the Vortigaunts ' voicing was done by Tony Todd . Graphically , the Vortigaunts in both Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 were designed by concept artists Dhabih Eng and Chuck Jones .
Initially , Vortigaunts were planned to begin Half @-@ Life as enemy non @-@ player characters , which the player has to win over as allies and lead in rebellion . This idea , however , proved impractical and was abandoned in favor of keeping the Vortigaunts as adversaries . The plan re @-@ emerged for Half @-@ Life 2 , in which the species are active allies of the player . The Vortigaunts in Half @-@ Life 2 were originally going to be fully integrated in City 17 alongside the humans under Combine rule . This did not reach fruition ; due to the focus on developing the city combat , the resources to accomplish this were not available . As there were so few resulting Vortigaunts in the city , the developers instead decided to involve the Vortigaunts far more substantially in the sections of the game taking place in the countryside surrounding the city . The few Vortigaunts placed inside the city were used to hint at the story arc for the Vortigaunts later in the game . Midway through Half @-@ Life 2 , the player witnesses a scene with a deceased Vortigaunt in a prison . Originally , the developers were intending to feature this Vortigaunt as an ally character who , if players rescue him , would fight enemy characters alongside the player . The developers liked this idea , but it was too late in the development to attempt this ; instead , the idea was preserved for use in Episode Two . The concept was later showcased in an Episode Two trailer shown at the Games Convention in 2006 .
According to series writer Marc Laidlaw , one of the most important goals with Episode Two was to expand on the Vortigaunts as characters , as opposed to just " purveyors of bugbait or Xen koans " . As such , Valve added new behaviours , new animations , and new audio to the Vortigaunts . Combine devices called " Vorti @-@ Cells " were to be encountered in Half @-@ Life 2 . They were meant to siphon power from captive Vortigaunts in City 17 . The player would then be able to free Vortigaunts from these devices to gain their assistance .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Society = = =
Vortigaunts are very intelligent and social creatures . In Half @-@ Life , they serve as basic ground units for the Xen forces , often supporting heavier troops fighting the player and the humans in the Black Mesa Research Facility . They are capable of developing intelligent strategies and tactics to take on their enemies . Initially , Vortigaunts are enslaved to the Nihilanth , a large creature on Xen , who , in turn , claims it is a slave to unknown superiors . On Xen , the Vortigaunts are used as factory workers and drones . In Half @-@ Life 2 , Vortigaunts indicate that this slavery has lasted for generations . Despite this , Vortigaunts are shown to have developed an intellectual culture , valuing poetry , music and philosophy . In addition , Vortigaunts practise the husbandry of antlions , large insectoids that live in underground hives , as an ancestral tradition . The death of the Nihilanth at the hands of Gordon Freeman at the end of Half @-@ Life frees the Vortigaunts from their slavery ; consequently the Vortigaunts see Freeman as a messianic figure .
Vortigaunts possess their own method of vocal communication , " flux shifting " , which they can be heard using in Half @-@ Life 2 . This method of communication involves both speakers vocalising at the same time and cannot be understood by other species who lack the auditory anatomy to interpret the sounds . In addition to standard conversation , flux shifting can be used by Vortigaunts to communicate over long distances . Vortigaunts use scattered English words in Half @-@ Life to taunt the player , although by Half @-@ Life 2 they have learned to speak at least the English language fluently , albeit using archaic words and grammatical structures . In addition , the Vortigaunts believe in a binding life @-@ force referred to as the " Vortessence " . The exact nature of the Vortessence is left unclear , although it is revealed that Vortigaunts believe the Vortessence is the fabric of the universe and connects everything .
= = = Depiction = = =
In general , a Vortigaunt is a somewhat humanoid figure with two legs and two arms , but has an additional arm protruding from its thorax . Vortigaunts have mottled green skin and digitigrade legs , allowing them to move quickly . Typically , Vortigaunts have a slightly hunched posture . In addition , Vortigaunts have sharp teeth , clawed hands , strong senses , and their faces are dominated by a large red eye . In Half @-@ Life , this eye is surrounded by five smaller eyes , although , in Half @-@ Life 2 , this has been reduced to three smaller eyes . A key aspect of the Vortigaunts is their ability to summon energy to their command without the need for any equipment . In @-@ game , this ability is most commonly used as a means of attack , with Vortigaunts ' hurling the energy towards foes in the form of green electrical bolts . In addition , Vortigaunts have been shown to be able to use the energy for other purposes , such as assisting in repair work , removing rubble and blockages , recharging the player 's HEV suit or powering up electrical generators . Enslaved Vortigaunts are depicted with green collars and shackles , although the means by which these control Vortigaunts is not explored . Vortigaunts are not typically seen wearing clothing , although several Vortigaunts are observed wearing lab coats and chef 's clothing in the course of Half @-@ Life 2 and its expansions . Vortigaunts are depicted as meat eaters ; the player can observe Vortigaunts ' eating human corpses in Half @-@ Life and cooking headcrabs in Half @-@ Life 2 , although Half @-@ Life 2 also shows Vortigaunts working in kitchens with chef hats , preparing soups and salads , suggesting that Vortigaunts are omnivores .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Half @-@ Life = = =
Vortigaunts are first introduced as one of the primary enemies in Half @-@ Life . They are frequently encountered by players throughout Half @-@ Life and its three expansions , Opposing Force , Blue Shift and Decay . They are portrayed as one of the sentient races of Xen , often working in groups or with more heavily armored Xen troops . In the later stages of Half @-@ Life , Vortigaunts are seen working in factory @-@ like environments , constructing or maturing the more heavily armored Xen troops in cocoon @-@ like capsules under the direction of other aliens in the Xen hierarchy .
In the cooperative multiplayer expansion Decay , players have the opportunity to assume the role of two Vortigaunts if they score highly on all missions . In this bonus mission , entitled " Xen Attacks " , two Vortigaunts , designated as Drone Subjects X @-@ 8973 and R @-@ 4913 , are given a mission by the Nihilanth to retrieve a number of crystals stolen from Xen by human scientists from the Black Mesa Research Facility .
= = = Half @-@ Life 2 = = =
The role of the Vortigaunts is drastically changed in Half @-@ Life 2 . Now acting as allies to the player , Vortigaunts have been freed as a result of protagonist Gordon Freeman killing the Nihilanth at the end of Half @-@ Life . Instead of acting with hostility towards humanity , the Vortigaunts are actively engaged in assisting the human resistance against the Combine , a multi @-@ dimensional empire that has invaded and occupied Earth in between Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 . Vortigaunts are frequently seen at resistance compounds and stations , often performing maintenance work or providing help with experiments , and sometimes assist the player by using their energy abilities to recharge the player 's HEV suit . However , a number of Vortigaunts are still in captivity , as at various points in the game , Vortigaunts are shown used as slave labor by the Combine ; for example , one Vortigaunt is seen cleaning the floor of a Combine train station with a broom , wearing a similar collar to those worn in Half @-@ Life .
Vortigaunts play a greater part in the story of the series in Half @-@ Life 2 's continuations , Episode One and Episode Two . In Episode One , Vortigaunts use unexplained powers to rescue Alyx Vance , the series ' main female character , from the top of the Combine Citadel in City 17 , saving her from the explosion of the Citadel 's reactor at the end of Half @-@ Life 2 . The Vortigaunts also free Gordon Freeman from the stasis imposed on him at the end of Half @-@ Life 2 by his enigmatic employer , the G @-@ Man , much to the G @-@ Man 's irritation . Episode Two dedicates much of the early part of the game to the Vortigaunts , with a group of four Vortigaunts working to heal Alyx Vance after she is mortally wounded by a Combine Hunter , while tracking and killing the Combine Advisors that fled the Citadel . One Vortigaunt accompanies the player and acts as combat support on an expedition into an antlion hive . In the latter stages of Episode Two , a number of Vortigaunts are observed in the White Forest missile silo , performing various tasks to facilitate the launch of a satellite to close a Combine super portal .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
The use of sandbox applications like Garry 's Mod have allowed for the Vortigaunt to be used in a variety of webcomics and machinima productions . For example , in the webcomic Concerned , the inability for the players to harm allied non @-@ player characters such as the Vortigaunt in Half @-@ Life 2 forms a recurring joke , where the protagonist Gordon Frohman constantly tries to shoot Vortigaunts due to their role as enemies in Half @-@ Life . This eventually backfires on him , as when Vortigaunts try to rescue Frohman from the destruction of the Citadel , his hostile nature leads them to simply abandon him to his fate . Vortigaunts are occasionally featured in machinima productions , often taking on the roles of minor characters , such as janitors under Combine jurisdiction . In addition , Vortigaunts are central to one Half @-@ Life single @-@ player modification , POV – Point of View , in which the player assumes the role of a Vortigaunt slave attacking Black Mesa .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
The character of the Vortigaunt has been popular enough to inspire the creation of a Vortigaunt plush toy . The toy was designed by Dhabih Eng and was sold and distributed via Valve 's online store . The toy was released in December 2006 and due to the proximity to Christmas , the Vortigaunt was accompanied by a to @-@ scale Santa Claus hat . Reviews of the plush toy were favorable , praising the toy as sturdy , as well as giving credit for its articulation and detail .
= = = Reception = = =
The change of the Vortigaunts from enemy characters to allied characters in Half @-@ Life 2 was described as " intriguing " by reviewers , with PC Zone stating that the Vortigaunts were one of the most interesting characters in the game , playing a role " somewhere between Yoda and ET " .
The role of the Vortigaunts in Episode Two was met with more approval by critics , who described the Vortigaunt who accompanies the player in the early parts of the game as " a great joy to fight alongside " , praising the improved artificial intelligence and noting that " the fact that they 're not trying
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had become increasingly attracted to bebop after meeting and jamming with the leaders of that new movement , Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker . In 1945 Marmarosa moved to Los Angeles . He was pianist in March of the following year for Parker 's first recordings for Dial Records . Two of the tracks recorded , " Ornithology " and " Yardbird Suite " , have been included in the Grammy Hall of Fame .
Marmarosa recorded extensively as a sideman in the period 1945 – 47 , in both bebop and swing contexts . Leaders of these sessions included Wardell Gray , Lionel Hampton , Mel Tormé , Willie Smith , Lester Young , and , with Marmarosa as house pianist for Atomic Records , Slim Gaillard and Barney Kessel . With a few exceptions , however , Marmarosa only rarely played in public with the leaders whose studio recordings he appeared on during his time on the West Coast . Between the frequent recording sessions , he played " in big bands ( especially Boyd Raeburn and Tommy Pederson ) , at jazz concerts , as a soloist in nightclubs [ ... ] or jamming after hours . " Raeburn 's orchestra was a progressive group that used " modern arrangements seeking to bridge the gap between bop and advanced European music " .
Marmarosa made his first recordings as leader in 1946 , with trio tracks that included Ray Brown on bass and Jackie Mills on drums , and in a quartet with saxophonist Lucky Thompson added . He also recorded his only vocal track , " I 've Got News for You " , in the same year . In 1947 Marmarosa led a trio session for Dial with Harry Babasin on cello and Jackie Mills on drums ; these were the first pizzicato jazz cello recordings . In the same year , he featured in some of Gene Norman 's Just Jazz concerts , and was given Esquire magazine 's New Star ( piano ) award .
According to Mills , his housemate in 1946 – 47 , " Dodo was the most dedicated of players . He practiced an incredible amount of hours , often all day long . He wouldn 't stop to eat . He would eat at the piano with one hand and keep playing with the other . He had no other interests that I was aware of . He could play forever . " At this time , Marmarosa did not drink or take hard drugs , but his behavior was often eccentric . Mills reported that " Dodo was just a big kid [ ... ] He never really grew up because he never allowed anything but the piano to be important to him . The piano was his life . He heard things in his head that he wasn 't able to play and it frustrated him . Once , he got mad at the old upright piano we had and chopped it up with an axe . "
In the spring of 1948 Marmarosa returned to Pittsburgh because of illness . He toured again with " Scat " Davis ( April – July 1949 ) and Shaw ( September – November 1949 ) . He left Shaw 's band for the final time during one concert after they had twice played Shaw 's hit , " Frenesí " , Marmarosa had threatened to leave if Shaw called for it again , and the leader had done so after the audience requested a third playing . Shaw reported that Marmarosa " was gentle and fragile , [ ... and ] never learned to deal with the world of a musician . " The pianist returned to Pittsburgh in 1950 , signed " a term contract " with Savoy Records , and recorded four trio sides for them in July , but the quality did not match his earlier playing .
= = = 1951 – 59 = = =
For around a decade , Marmarosa was much less active as a musician . Shaw and DeFranco raised the idea of psychiatric treatment , but the former was rebuffed by Marmarosa himself , and the latter by the pianist 's parents : " They were not reconciled to his needing professional help . They were from the old school , they saw it as a stigma . I got into a big argument about it with his father . He really blew up . "
In 1952 , two years after marrying , Marmarosa moved with his wife and their two daughters to California . The marriage was short lived , and he again returned to his parents ' home in Pittsburgh in the fall of that year . His ex @-@ wife remarried and asked him to allow her to change the children 's names in exchange for not having to pay her any more money ; following the advice of his parents , he signed the documents . A friend of his later stated that never seeing his children again " was the great blight of his life . It tore him apart " . Another friend commented more generally that , " After the marriage broke up , he seemed to lose the spark , the drive he once had " .
A tour of a few months in Charlie Spivak 's band in 1953 preceded Marmarosa being drafted into the army the following year . This exacerbated his problems : several months in a Veteran Administration hospital preceded his discharge , at which point he was in a poor psychological condition . Back in Pittsburgh , where he played locally from March 1956 , Marmarosa continued to be erratic , sometimes disappearing for weeks at a time , and giving his money away : " It was like he was on the road to self @-@ destruction " , commented trumpeter Danny Conn . Amateur recordings from the pianist 's concerts in Pittsburgh in 1958 were released four decades later by Uptown Records .
= = = 1960 – 2002 = = =
Marmarosa departed for California by car in 1960 , but problems with the vehicle halted him in Chicago . Promoter Joe Segal organized an Argo Records session for him there , but Marmarosa departed suddenly and the recording was delayed until the following year . The resultant trio music from two days in May was released as Dodo 's Back ! in 1962 . Leonard Feather described it as " required listening for anyone with a serious interest in the history of modern jazz piano " , but it failed to gain Marmarosa more than a brief resurgence of interest . He made his final studio recordings in 1962 . One album from these , Jug & Dodo , contained trio and quartet tracks , with saxophonist Gene Ammons ; it was released on Prestige Records more than a decade later . The other , in a quartet with trumpeter Bill Hardman , was released in 1988 . Segal commented that Marmarosa " didn 't talk much , was very mild @-@ mannered . He just drank an awful lot , shot and a beer all day long . It would 've put nine out of ten people under the table , but he was still walking around . " The pianist shuttled between Chicago and Pittsburgh for a time , then settled again in the latter .
Marmarosa continued to perform in Pittsburgh , albeit irregularly . Around 1963 , DeFranco dropped by ; he recalled that the pianist " would play brilliantly for half a tune , then just stop and walk away . He didn 't even know who I was " . Marmarosa 's last performance in public has been dated variously as occurring in 1968 or the early @-@ to @-@ mid 1970s . Diabetes contributed to his permanent retirement . " Even the resurgence of interest in bebop in the 1970s and 80s did not bring him back to national attention " , reported The New York Times .
For the rest of his life , Marmarosa alternated between living with his sister Doris ' family and in a veterans ' hospital , both in the Pittsburgh area . Some of his friends blamed Marmarosa 's family for keeping him in their home because of shame about his mental problems , and suggested that the family blamed musicians and music for his instability . Marmarosa himself did not explain his withdrawal from performing . Irritated by telephone calls from a fan seeking an interview in 1992 , Marmarosa passed on the news that he had died ; this led to premature obituaries being published in two British newspapers . He sometimes played piano in the family 's basement or for other residents at the hospital . His mother died in 1995 , after his father . Marmarosa died of a heart attack on September 17 , 2002 , in a veterans ' hospital in Pittsburgh . He was survived by his two sisters .
= = Playing style and influence = =
Pianist Dick Katz wrote that , " In the opinion of many , Dodo Marmarosa was the most gifted of all the pianists who figured in the bebop saga . Blessed with a beautiful legato touch and a fluid technique , he developed an original style , which [ ... ] blended perfectly with the bop idiom , as well as with earlier styles . He combined advanced chordal and scalar elements with graceful rhythmic phrasing . "
In some of his 1944 playing , Marmarosa was progressively bebop @-@ directed , employing melodies derived from the harmony and varying the rhythmic positioning of accents ; soon after , he added more space to his playing , using shorter sequences of notes than typical in bebop . Jazz critic Marc Myers , in comparing Marmarosa with other pianists of the early bebop period , observed that he was less aggressive than Bud Powell , and more expressive and complex than Al Haig , and that he " had a punctuating , full @-@ keyboard approach , developing ideas in the middle and widening out to express them . "
Critic and musician Brian Priestley wrote that " What was so distinctive about Dodo 's work was partly his harmonic sense and knowledge of the additional notes [ ... in bebop . ] Many pianists were trying to find ways to voice these satisfactorily in full chording , but none did so as pleasingly or as fluently as Marmarosa . Partly it was also the way he alternated between employing his hands together and in opposition to each other , and allied to this was his unusual time feeling . "
By the time of his 1960s recordings , Marmarosa had a more relaxed playing style . Biographers commented that " his even , classically derived articulation had given way to a more rhythmically pronounced , jazz @-@ oriented playing , and , above all , his musical personality seemed still more determined and coherent . "
Pianist Cecil Taylor commented in 1961 that " The first modern pianist who made any impression on me was Dodo Marmarosa , with Charlie Barnet . " Marmarosa also encouraged DeFranco to take up bebop .
= = Discography = =
Compilations of previously released material , and recordings from or for radio broadcasts , are not listed .
= = = Albums as leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = Albums as sideman = = =
= = = Singles as leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = Singles as sideman = = =
Tracks recorded but not released as singles are not listed .
Main sources :
= = Filmography = =
Thrill of a Romance ( made 1944 ; released 1945 )
= Earl Cain =
Earl Cain ( Japanese : 伯爵カインシリーズ , Hepburn : Hakushaku Kain Shirīzu ) , also known as Count Cain , is a gothic shōjo manga series written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Earl Cain consists of five parts or " Series " : Forgotten Juliet ( 忘れられたジュリエット , Wasurerareta Jurietto ) , The Sound of a Boy Hatching ( 少年の孵化する音 , Shōnen no Fukasuru Oto ) , Kafka ( カフカ , Kafuka ) , The Seal of the Red Ram ( 赤い羊の刻印 , Akai Hitsuji no Kokuin ) , and the sequel series Godchild ( ゴッド チャイルド , Goddo Chairudo ) .
Appearing as serials in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume , the chapters of Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram ran from 1991 to 1994 , and the Godchild chapters appeared between the May 2001 issue and the October 2003 issue . Together , the series spans 13 tankōbon volumes , with five for Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram and eight for Godchild . Two drama CDs based on the series were also released . Set in 19th @-@ century England , the series focuses on a young earl named Cain Hargreaves who solves murders while encountering his father 's secret organization , Delilah , that experiments with reviving the dead .
Earl Cain is licensed for English @-@ language release in North America by Viz Media , which published Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram as The Cain Saga . The first volume of The Cain Saga was published in October 2006 ; the final volume was published in June 2007 . Godchild was released simultaneously , as well as being serialized in Viz 's manga anthology Shojo Beat from July 2005 to June 2006 .
The setting of the manga was inspired by " the darker , grislier side " of the Victorian upper class and her admiration of films set in the Victorian time period . For Godchild , she traveled to London to do historical research and visited seven historical sites there . In the series , she refers to the Bible as well as real @-@ life literary works , films and people . Reviewers have found a range of themes in the series . Critical reaction to The Cain Saga was mixed : some felt that the mysteries were well @-@ done with detailed art , while others found the art crude and the short stories confusing and predictable . Reviewers praised Godchild as an overdone , entertaining series with detailed and distinct art .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Set during the late Victorian era in London , the series focuses on its eponymous protagonist Cain C. Hargreaves ( カイン ・ C ・ ハーグリーヴス , Kain Shĩ Hāgurīvuzu ) the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old son of Alexis Hargreaves and Alexis 's elder sister , Augusta . Abused physically and emotionally by his father for her subsequent insanity , Cain poisoned him , after a dying Augusta warned him to escape . Before Alexis plunged into the sea , he cursed his son to have a miserable life and die alone . Cain inherited his father 's title of earl as a result of his presumed death . Accompanying him is his twenty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old butler Riffael " Riff " Raffit ( リフェール ・ ラフィット , Rifēru Rafitto ) , a former medical student with whom he shares a close bond . Cain 's uncle and legal guardian Neil Hargreaves ( ニール ・ ハーグリーヴス , Nīru Hāgurīvuzu ) tends to become upset with his behavior and course of action . Often annoyed by Cain 's relationships with women , Cain 's ten @-@ year @-@ old half sister , the outgoing and strongwilled Mary Weather Hargreaves ( マリーウェザー ･ ハーグリーヴス , Marīwezā Hāgurīvuzu ) also lives with them . Previously , she lived on the streets as a fortuneteller , after her mother died to protect her . One of Cain 's friends , Oscar Gabriel , becomes her self @-@ proclaimed fiancé to win back his father 's attention . As the series progresses , he risks his life to protect her , and she realizes that he genuinely cares for her .
Alexis Hargreaves ( アレクシス ・ ハーグリーヴス , Arekushisu Hāgurīvuzu ) and his secret organization , Delilah , serve as the antagonists of the series . Delilah conducts experiments to revive the dead , creating " deadly dolls " or resurrected corpses surviving on the fresh blood and organs of others . The deadly dolls each possess a supernatural ability , such as seeing the future . Among the deadly dolls is the spider @-@ controlling Mikaila ( ミケイラ ) , who is a doll of Suzette ( シュゼット , Shuzetto ) , Augusta 's daughter and Cain 's childhood love . Cain 's half brother and Alexis 's illegitimate son , Jizabel Disraeli ( ジザベル ・ ディズレーリ , Jizaberu Dizurēri ) works as a doctor for the organization , conducting experiments on humans . Although Alexis physically abused and emotionally traumatized him as well , he refuses to escape from him , and simultaneously despises and envies the bond between Cain and Riff as he believes unconditional love does not exist . His thirty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old assistant Cassian ( カシアン , Kashian ) , whose body stopped growing due to a rare strain of dwarfism and who was subsequently sold to a circus as a child by his parents , shows concern for Jizabel and his involvement with Alexis and Delilah .
= = = Story = = =
Having vowed to end Delilah 's experiments with the dead , Cain solves murders while periodically running into Jizabel and other members of Delilah . After encountering Mikaila , who professes her one @-@ sided love for him and wants to become Suzette , he becomes obsessed with destroying the organization and learns that it is secretly building a memorial temple . Meanwhile , despite Jizabel 's efforts to delay Riff 's second , hidden , and cruel personality from awakening , the hypnosis suppressing it breaks . Riff later declares to Cain that he secretly works for Delilah : the loyal , kind @-@ hearted Riff Cain had known is an alternative personality used to deceive others . Alexis had intended for Cain to develop a close bond with Riff , only to break it , to remind Cain that he is unloved . After Riff 's departure , Cain resolves to confront Alexis and promises Mary that they will have a tea party after the conflict with Delilah ends . Led by Cassian , whose brain has been transplanted into an adult body , he reaches the tower within the temple where Alexis plans to sacrifice the brainwashed people of London to revive Augusta . Within the tower , Riff reveals his intent to overthrow Alexis . Unconcerned , Alexis divulges that Riff is Delilah 's longest surviving doll and will soon die . Riff attacks Cain , but Riff 's other personality resurfaces , causing him to deliberately shoot himself . Riff 's loyal personality triumphs over the cruel one , but he and Cain are separated . Because Riff 's wound cannot heal , Jizabel commits suicide so Riff can use his blood to briefly remain alive and return to Cain . Meanwhile , Cain successfully poisons his father and with his death , the tower begins to crumble . Cain , unable to escape and hurt by the falling debris , reunites briefly with Riff . However , the ceiling collapses and Riff tries to push him away . Cain embraces him , choosing to stay .
After Cain 's disappearance , Mary becomes head of the Hargreaves . Augusta possesses Alexis , and seeks out Mary in the mausoleum Cain had built before leaving to confront Alexis . Augusta reveals that she manipulated Alexis into abusing his sons and trying to resurrect her for her amusement . Before she can kill Mary , Augusta triggers Cain 's trap in the mausoleum and dies . Years later , Mary is married to Oscar and pregnant with their child , although she still waits for his return . Crehador , a medium close to Cain , sets up a tea party for Mary , fulfilling Cain 's promise ; he then reminisces on how he found Cain being held by Riff 's corpse within the ruined tower . The bunkoban @-@ exclusive epilogue expands the ending slightly . It shows an elderly Mary , who lies on her deathbed attended by a woman nearby and hears the laughter of Jizabel 's ghost as he plays with his pet sheep . Sensing a presence nearby , she dies , and taking the form of her ten @-@ year @-@ old self , her soul joins Cain hand @-@ in @-@ hand at a tea party with their friends and loved ones — although they exist as spirits , a boy nearby can hear them .
= = Development = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki chose the Victorian era as the setting for Earl Cain because she liked films from that time period and was inspired by " the darker , grislier side " of the Victorian upper class . Yuki considered Kafka , a vampire @-@ themed mystery which introduced the secret society led by the protagonist 's father , to be the beginning of the series ' plot . The " pretty risqué theme " of Kafka " embarrassed [ her ] at the time . " After completing the first four parts of Earl Cain , Yuki was uncertain about continuing the series . She wrote her supernatural fantasy manga series Angel Sanctuary ( 1994 – 2000 ) and the chapter " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " as a " self @-@ introduction " which convinced her to start Godchild . Yuki did historical research for Godchild , traveling to London , England , and visiting seven historical sites : Westminster Abbey , Big Ben , the Tower of London , Windsor Castle , the British Museum , Thames River , and Hyde Park . Because of the gap of several years between the publication of the final The Seal of the Red Ram volume and the first Godchild volume , Yuki included the characters in order of previous appearance with past episodes , and short explanations in the first Godchild volume . Yuki noted that her drawing style differed from her previous series . The darker plot of Godchild worried Yuki , but helped her to decide the series ' ending . Her method of creating suspense in Godchild included adding " lots " of black screentone , " exaggerating " the characters ' expressions , having an elaborate setting , and opening the chapter with an everyday scene to contrast with the " scary scenes " .
Yuki believed that the original story was unclear and added extra pages to clarify the twist ending of the series . Because of her decision , the ending chapter of Godchild was eight pages longer than the usual thirty pages for a manga . Yuki was divided between a happy or tragic ending for Cain , noting how readers of Angel Sanctuary had wanted a happy ending for the protagonists . She felt that the ending of Godchild was ambiguous as to whether Cain survived because there is neither blood nor a fatal wound on him . Yuki chose the final line of Godchild from the rhyme " Simple Simon " , joking in the postscript that at least the series did not conclude with the line " And then there were none " . As of finishing the series , Yuki said that she has no plans for additional chapters or side stories . Despite this , she included a five @-@ page epilogue in the 2010 bunkoban release of the entire series .
= = = Influences and cultural references = = =
Earl Cain contains references to real @-@ life people and literary works . The first Godchild chapter , " Mad Tea Party " , focuses on a mystery with elements from Lewis Carroll 's 1865 novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , a work which Yuki has expressed her fondness for . Yuki 's minor character , Victoria , was inspired by Carroll 's character , the Queen of Hearts . Carroll 's 1876 nonsense poem , The Hunting of the Snark , provided Yuki with the name of Jizabel 's childhood pet , Snark . Additionally , the title of the third part of the series , Kafka , refers to the Austrian writer Franz Kafka , and a translation of the first line of his 1915 novella The Metamorphosis appears in the beginning of the volume . Yuki also based the story of Mikaila on the fairytale " Mermaid Princess " . The chapter " Oedipal Blade " takes its name from the Greek character Oedipus Rex , who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother . Yuki also incorporates tales for children and lullabies into the mysteries of the series ; for example , the chapter " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " uses the nursery rhyme " Solomon Grundy " , while " The Twisted Fairy Tale " refers to the Brothers Grimm fairytale " The Juniper Tree " . References to the bible also appear in the series . The protagonist shares his name with the murderer Cain , and Augusta is compared to Delilah by her father . Additionally , the series alludes to the story of the Kiss of Judas , in which Judas Iscariot betrays Jesus of Nazareth to Roman soldiers by identifying him through a kiss .
The influence of films is also seen in Earl Cain . As Yuki enjoys the American television series Twin Peaks ( 1990 – 1991 ) , reviewers have noted its influence on Forgotten Juliet , the first part of Earl Cain . Yuki felt that two minor characters that appear in Forgotten Juliet , Maddi and Leland in the chapter " Branded Bibi " , are reminiscent of the series . Yuki also drew inspiration from the film Young Sherlock Holmes ( 1985 ) for " The Boys Who Stopped Time " , and based the appearance of Cain 's aunt on Charlotte from A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . In the chapter " Double " , one of the characters shares his first name with the actor Emilio Estevez , and director Dario Argento served as the model for the antagonist . While there is no model for Cain , British actor Rupert Graves " left a strong impression " on her with his performance in A Room with a View . Additionally , Riff 's name comes from The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , which Yuki considers a visual influence along with the films Gothic ( 1986 ) , The Legend of Billie Jean ( 1985 ) , Aliens ( 1986 ) , Lost Boys ( 1987 ) , and Torch @-@ song Trilogy ( 1988 ) . Overall as a manga artist , Yuki has been influenced by Western films and MTV , which she watched in her youth .
= = Themes = =
Reviewers have focused on a range of themes in Earl Cain . Noting " themes of incest and suicide " in the first four parts of the series , Thompson states that Godchild 's portrayal of incest adheres to " a more classical tormented sense " which results in " guilt , madness , and the punishment of heaven " for the characters . According to Lori Henderson , reviewer and contributor to School Library Journal 's blog Good Comics for Kids , Yuki frequently uses the " power of love " as a theme in her works ; Godchild focuses on " the darker side of love " and its effects on the characters , although she writes that the manga does explore love as a source of empowerment . Henderson also notes the theme of betrayal present in the sixth volume . Writing for IGN , A.E. Sparrow writes that the " issues of beauty , loneliness , jealousy , and family ties " appear in the first volume of Godchild 's mysteries . A French reviewer for Manga News wrote that the theme of " the soiled childhood " occurs throughout the series , depicted by abused children or children 's items , such as dolls , pudding , and puppets , playing a role in some mysteries ; the children 's items appear either in the background as in " The Little Crooked House " or as a major part of the plot as in " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki , Earl Cain is the collective name for Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , The Seal of the Red Ram , and the sequel series Godchild . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume , the chapters of Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram ran from 1991 to 1994 , and were published in five tankōbon volumes by Hakusensha from July 17 , 1992 , to October 1994 . Godchild was serialized in the same manga magazine from the May 2001 issue to the October 2003 issue , and was published by Hakusensha in eight volumes from November 19 , 2001 , to January 16 , 2004 . Hakusensha later combined chapters from Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram into two volumes and published them from December 20 , 2004 , to January 28 , 2005 . Hakusensha also re @-@ released the series in six bunkoban volumes from July 15 , 2009 , to March 16 , 2010 .
Viz Media licensed Earl Cain for an English @-@ language release in North America . It serialized Godchild in its manga anthology Shojo Beat from the July 2005 issue through the June 2006 issue . It published the series ' first volume on March 7 , 2006 ; the final volume was released on February 5 , 2008 . Viz published Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram as The Cain Saga and released the first volume during the Godchild release , on October 3 , 2006 ; the final volume was released on June 5 , 2007 . Earl Cain is also licensed for regional language releases in Germany and Sweden by Carlsen Comics , in Italy by Planet Manga , in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing , in Spain by Glénat , and in France by Editions Tonkam . Godchild ran in multiple manga anthologies : the French Magnolia , the German Daisuki , and the Swedish Shojo Stars .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
On April 21 , 1999 , Geneon Entertainment released a drama CD titled Hakushaku Kain Shiriizu : Kafuka ( 伯爵カインシリーズ ~ カフカ ) . With music by Tomohiko Kira , it featured Hideo Ishikawa as Cain , Koyasu Takehito as Riff , Kawada Taeko as Mary Weather , Miki Shinichiro as Dr. Allen , and Jūrōta Kosugi as Alexis . The same company released a second drama CD , HCD Hakushaku Kain Shiriizu : Kirikizamareta Taberareta Miss Pudding no higeki ( HCD伯爵カインシリーズ ｢ 切り刻まれ食べられたミス · プディングの悲劇 ) , on November 17 , 1999 . The drama CD featured Hideo Ishikawa , Kyoko Hikami , Takehito Koyasu , from Kafuka and included Taeko Kawada and Junko Asami .
= = Reception = =
The Cain Saga received mixed reviews from critics . Manga Sanctuary awarded the French edition of the first volume five stars , describing it as " excellent . " IGN 's A. E. Sparrow described it as " a wonderful introduction to shojo manga for the uninitiated " and felt that both The Cain Saga and its sequel Godchild could " appeal to a very broad audience . " The Book Report 's Courtney Kraft praised the " fine attention to detail and aesthetics " of the art and liked the concept of murder mysteries based on children 's rhymes and stories , commenting that Yuki " masters the art of creating a mystery . "
Conversely , Mania Entertainment 's Danielle Van Gorder considered the art " still much less refined than her later work in Angel Sanctuary , " and commented on the amount of tragedy in the series . Manga News rated the first volume 15 out of 20 , commenting that the male characters looked similar and had similar facial expressions in contrast to the more recognizable female ones . In Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson rated the series two and a half stars out of four , stating : " In its best moments , The Cain Saga captures the genuine ghoulishness of the Victorian era , or at least of its stereotypes . " The Cain Saga was also criticized for scenes with " poorly organized " artwork , one @-@ dimensional characters , predictable mysteries , and confusing plot , caused by the back @-@ story and characters .
Conversely , the sequel , Godchild , received positive reviews . When the first chapter premiered in Shojo Beat , critics commented on the potiental and art of the series , but found the chapter " listless " and confusing . Reviews of the bound volumes were positive . Writing for The Book Report , Robin Brenner described the mysteries as " unsettling , splatter @-@ filled , and deliciously in line with the melodramatic , horrific traditions of Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Shelley . " Leroy Douresseaux of Coolstreak Cartoons wrote : " By turns bizarre and unsettling , Godchild is actually quite engaging , but can be difficult to follow for those who didn 't come in at the beginning " . Writing for Sequential Tart , Sheena McNeil described Godchild as " a masterpiece in every sense of the word . " In reviews of subsequent volumes , she lowered her score , and praised Yuki 's characterization , mysteries , and artwork ; she concluded : " Godchild is a fantastic and different story that can 't be denied . "
Critics praised the art of the series as detailed and distinct , with several noting the difference in the illustrations of The Cain Saga and Godchild . B. D. Gest 's M. Natali wrote that " one senses immediately how the art of Kaori Yuki has evolved and improved since [ The Cain Saga ] " . About.com 's Deb Aoki placed the series on her recommended reading list of horror manga , commenting on the " ravishing " artwork and " lush gothic details . " While describing the series as " the manga equivalent of Twizzlers " and the premise as " ahistoric and just plain silly , " Katherine Dacey of Popculture Shock added , " Kaori Yuki 's distinctive artwork and macabre sensibility make this overripe setup entertaining , even if the occasionally slangy dialogue and CSI @-@ style forensics seem implausible in a Victorian London setting . "
According to Publishers Weekly , Yuki 's art consists of " startlingly odd angles and abrupt jumps from closeups to distant shots " with which she establishes " a giddy mood " that enables the readers to be sympathetic to the events . Although Yuki 's character designs stuck to " certain shōjo conventions " , they were seen as detailed and " perfect " for the mood of Godchild . Reviewers enjoyed the conclusion to the series , although one wanted a clearer fate for Cain and another commented on the " rushed " ending scenes . Godchild was also criticized for the characters ' cruelty , Jizabel 's disturbing back @-@ story , and limited appeal of the series ' universe .
= Cogan House Covered Bridge =
The Cogan House Covered Bridge is a Burr arch truss covered bridge over Larrys Creek in Cogan House Township , Lycoming County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . It was built in 1877 and is 94 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 7 m ) long . The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 , and had a major restoration in 1998 . The Cogan House bridge is named for the township and village of Cogan House , and is also known by at least four other names : Buckhorn , Larrys Creek , Day 's , and Plankenhorn .
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was constructed by a millwright who assembled the timber framework in a field next to the sawmill , before it was reassembled at the bridge site . It was the only bridge on Larrys Creek that survived the flood of June 1889 , and one of only a handful that were left intact in the county . Although the bridge used to carry a steady flow of tannery and sawmill traffic , the clearcutting of the surrounding forests meant the end of those industries by the early 20th century .
Since then much of the surrounding area has reverted to second growth forest , and the one @-@ lane bridge is now on a dead end road in a remote valley with little traffic . It is the oldest and longest of the three covered bridges remaining in the county . Despite the 1998 restoration and other repairs , as of 2009 the bridge structure 's sufficiency rating on the National Bridge Inventory was 17 @.@ 2 percent and its condition was deemed " basically intolerable requiring high priority of corrective action " .
= = Names = =
The covered bridge is 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) south of Pennsylvania Route 184 on Campbell Road ( Township Road 784 ) , 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) past the intersection with Covered Bridge Road . Its official name on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) is " Cogan House Covered Bridge " . It is the only covered bridge ever built in Cogan House Township and the name comes from the township , as well as the village of Cogan House , which is northeast of the bridge . Cogan House Township and the village are named for David Cogan , who settled on Larrys Creek in 1825 . Cogan was one of the few settlers in the area for many years and grew tired of living nearly alone in the wilderness . In 1842 he abandoned his homestead , as did a neighbor named Carter . Their houses were used by hunters and travelers and the name Cogan 's House was given to the area . Cogan House Township was formed from parts of Jackson and Mifflin Townships on December 6 , 1843 .
Since the bridge 's 1998 restoration , the Lycoming County Commissioners have officially called it the " Buckhorn Covered Bridge " . The name comes from the bridge 's location at the base of Buckhorn Mountain , and from the road to the former village of Buckhorn , which crossed the creek on it . This is the name used on the official plaque erected by the commissioners to mark its restoration and placement on the NRHP , despite the different name used on the Register itself . The commissioners chose " Buckhorn Covered Bridge " based on one of the names used in Benjamin and June Evans ' 1993 book Pennsylvania 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide . Historically , the commissioners used " Cogan House Covered Bridge " as the official name .
Historian Milton W. Landis uses " Larrys Creek Covered Bridge " since it crosses Larrys Creek , and notes this was the name used by other local historians . Larrys Creek is named for Larry Burt , who was the first settler at the mouth of the creek when the surveyors came through in 1769 . Landis acknowledges the " Cogan House " name , and says the bridge has also been known by the names of " several tenants who lived in the little farm adjacent " to it .
While Landis does not give these different names , two other names for the bridge are known and may come from some of these tenants . The first of these is " Day 's Bridge " and it is clear that this is another name for the Cogan House Covered Bridge . The second of these , " Plankenhorn Bridge " , is a name in a list of existing and vanished covered bridges in Lycoming County . Although the association of this name with the Cogan House Covered Bridge is not made explicitly , it is described as still standing on Larrys Creek and being north of a bridge in Mifflin Township . This is the only known covered bridge that meets those criteria .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first covered bridge in the United States was built over the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania in 1800 . Some of the first Burr arch truss covered bridges were also built in the state . Pennsylvania is estimated to have once had at least 1 @,@ 500 covered bridges , and is believed to have had the most in the country between 1830 and 1875 . In 2001 Pennsylvania had more surviving historic covered bridges than any other state , with 221 remaining in 40 of the commonwealth 's 67 counties .
Covered bridges were a transition between stone and cast @-@ iron and steel bridges . In 19th @-@ century Pennsylvania , lumber was an abundant resource for bridge construction , but did not last long when exposed to weather and the elements . The roof and enclosed sides of covered bridges protected the structural elements , allowing some of these bridges to survive well over a century . A Burr arch truss consists of a load @-@ bearing arch sandwiching multiple King posts , resulting in a bridge which is both stronger and more rigid than one built using either element alone .
In 1850 a plank road was built in Lycoming County , from the mouth of Larrys Creek to the borough of Salladasburg , Pennsylvania . It was later extended north along the Second Fork of Larrys Creek as far as the unincorporated villages of Brookside and White Pine in Cogan House Township , and eventually went as far as the large tannery in the village of English Center in Pine Township on Little Pine Creek . Another branch of the plank road followed Larrys Creek itself north from Salladasburg . While its exact length is unknown , Landis reports it may have reached nearly to the site of the covered bridge .
Before there was a bridge , there was a ford at the site where the bridge was later built . Wagons of finished leather and raw hides came from and went to the English Center tannery via White Pine , seeking to avoid traffic on the plank road along the Second Fork . Other traffic went to and from a large sawmill at White Pine and other mills to the west and north . Traffic from the north crossed Larrys Creek , and continued either east over Buckhorn Mountain to the Williamsport and Elmira Railroad at the village of Cogan Station on Lycoming Creek , or south down the road along Larrys Creek . This road led to a tannery on Larrys Creek about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the ford , and to the plank road along the main branch of the creek . The plank road was a toll road and connected with another railroad , the West Branch Division of the Pennsylvania Canal , and the West Branch Susquehanna River at the creek 's mouth .
Because the ford was often impassable in winter or bad weather , or during high water , a petition from the citizens of Cogan House Township for a bridge to be built was filed in September 1876 . They asked the county to build the bridge as it was beyond the resources of the township to do so . The petition was read on September 30 , 1876 , and three viewers were appointed on November 3 to examine the site and report back . The viewers reported back in favor of building the bridge on November 25 . On January 23 , 1877 , the county grand jury approved the report and the construction of the bridge .
= = = Construction and description = = =
Landis is not certain if the bridge was built in 1877 or 1878 , but every other source that mentions the date agrees it was 1877 . Valentine ( " Tine " ) Meyers ( or Meyer ) , a millwright and resident of the hamlet of Quiggleville in Lycoming Township , built the bridge . The timbers for the bridge were cut at an " up and down " , steam powered sawmill owned by Robert Wood , a short distance north of the bridge site . The head sawyer at the mill was John Mecum . The wood used was pine , cut in nearby forests and hauled in ox carts to the mill . The largest timbers used in the bridge are up to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) long .
Meyers is not believed to have had much experience building bridges and set about construction in a unique manner . The timber framework was first assembled in a field next to the sawmill , with each new piece bolted into place after being cut . If a piece did not fit , more careful measurements were made and a new piece was cut and tested . The outlines of the sections for curved beams for the Burr arch were first marked with chalk on the wood , then the saw crew lifted and guided it by hand against the sawblade to cut the curve . After the framework was completed in the field , it was taken apart , loaded onto the same ox carts used to bring the logs to the mill , and taken to the bridge site . There the framework was reassembled on the bridge abutments . Bolts were used to hold all of the large pieces together , while cross @-@ pieces and small braces were nailed in place .
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was added to the NRHP in 1980 and was listed on the 2009 National Bridge Inventory ( NBI ) . According to the NBI , the covered bridge is 94 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 7 m ) long , with a roadway 14 feet 5 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide , and a maximum load of 7 @.@ 2 short tons ( 6 @.@ 5 t ) . According to the NRHP , the bridge 's " road surface width " is 19 feet 7 inches ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) , the load is 4 @.@ 0 short tons ( 3 @.@ 6 t ) , and the clearance height is 10 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . The width is only sufficient for a single lane of traffic . As of 2011 , the clearance height posted on the bridge itself has been reduced to 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) , and the posted maximum load has been reduced to 3 @.@ 0 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) . According to Landis , the top of the Burr arch is nearly 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above the floor of the bridge .
The covered bridge rests on the original stone abutments , which have since been reinforced with concrete made of cement . The bridge deck is made of crosswise planking , overlaid with runners in the western half and lengthwise planking in the eastern half . The upper part of the portals and the clapboard siding is made of pine boards , and stops 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) below the roof line . Although the bridge was painted red as part of its 1998 restoration , in 1964 it was described as unpainted , and it does not seem to have been painted in 1980 , as the NRHP nomination form describes how " its rough horizontal siding ... help [ s ] this small bridge blend into the surrounding forest " . The roof was originally covered with wooden shingles . The bridge does not have parapets and has " no steel reinforcements " .
= = = Use and restoration = = =
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was the only one on Larrys Creek to survive a major flood on June 1 , 1889 , which washed out most other bridges throughout Lycoming County . A large fallen maple tree formed a dam across Larrys Creek , just upstream of the bridge ; this dam blocked debris and diverted the brunt of the floodwaters . The same flood destroyed the Larrys Creek plank road and the canal at the creek 's mouth . The same storm system also caused the Johnstown Flood , which killed over 2 @,@ 200 people .
After the flood the plank road was only reconstructed as far north as Salladasburg , so for a time all the traffic from the English Center tannery went over the bridge on the way to the railroad at Cogan Station . However , the virgin timber which supplied the local tanneries and sawmills was all clear @-@ cut within several years of the flood . Without timber , the industries that used the roads leading to the bridge closed and the local villages declined , or , in the case of Buckhorn , disappeared .
By 1900 , there were four remaining covered bridges on Larrys Creek : going upstream they were at the hamlet of Larryville in Piatt Township , at or near Mud Run in Mifflin Township , in Salladasburg , and in Cogan House Township . As of 2011 , the Cogan House Covered Bridge is the oldest and longest of three 19th @-@ century covered bridges remaining in Lycoming County ( the others are the Buttonwood Covered Bridge in Jackson Township over Blockhouse Creek , and the Lairdsville Covered Bridge in Moreland Township over Little Muncy Creek ) .
The bridge had " needed repairs " made in 1964 , and the original stone abutments were reinforced with concrete prior to 1966 . It was added to the NRHP on July 24 , 1980 in a Multiple Property Submission of seven Covered Bridges of Bradford , Sullivan and Lycoming Counties , and was " painted and creosoted " in 1981 . The 1980 NRHP form and Zacher 's 1994 book both list the bridge 's condition as good . The Lycoming County Commissioners had the bridge " rehabilitated " in 1998 , at a cost of $ 105 @,@ 493 . The general contractor for the restoration was Lycoming Supply Inc . , which replaced some structural beams with treated southern pine and the " Dutch lap " or clapboard siding with white pine . The purlins and rafters were reconstructed using treated yellow pine , and support a new roof of cedar shake shingles . The deck and floor of the bridge were solid and required few repairs . The bridge was painted red , and a stone pillar was built with plaques marking the restoration and the bridge 's inclusion on the NRHP .
Because the bridge is listed on the NRHP , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission had to approve the renovation . Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) and Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) funds helped pay for the work done . The dedication ceremony was held on October 30 , 1998 , with Lycoming County Commissioner Russell Reitz and PennDOT Director of Municipal Services Thomas Lyons cutting a plank on wooden sawhorses with an old crosscut saw as the ribbon cutting ceremony . The other county commissioners and the local state representative and state senator were also present and spoke , as did a representative of the " Theodore Burr Covered Bridge Society of Pennsylvania " .
In August 2000 an inspection revealed that one of the timber arches of the Cogan House Covered Bridge was damaged by a vehicle which was over the weight limit crossing the bridge . A propane delivery truck making a delivery to the private hunting cabin served by the bridge is thought to have caused the damage . Lycoming Supply Inc. won the bid to do the repair work in December , at a cost of $ 6 @,@ 300 . Before the repair the bridge remained open and was safe to use . The Evans ' 2001 book describes the condition of the bridge as excellent .
Despite the restoration and repairs , the 2009 FHWA National Bridge Inventory found the sufficiency rating of the bridge structure to be 17 @.@ 2 percent . The inventory found the condition of the bridge deck and the substructure was satisfactory , while the superstructure was poor . It further found that the bridge 's foundations were " determined to be stable for assessed or calculated scour conditions " , however the railings " do not meet currently acceptable standards " . Its overall condition was deemed " basically intolerable requiring high priority of corrective action " ; the 2006 NBI estimated the cost to improve the bridge at $ 143 @,@ 000 .
The bridge is still used , although the public dirt road to it ends in a cul de sac on the east side . A gated private road continues to the private hunting camp and provides access to Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 114 . The bridge has a posted speed limit of 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) and its average daily traffic was ten vehicles in 2009 . Pennsylvania 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide notes that despite being " located in a rather remote area , it is worth the trip to see this beautifully restored historic treasure . "
= = Bridge data = =
The following table is a comparison of published measurements of length , width and load recorded in five different sources using different methods , as well as the name or names cited . The NBI measures bridge length between the " backwalls of abutments " or pavement grooves and the roadway width as " the most restrictive minimum distance between curbs or rails " . The NRHP form was prepared by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) , which surveyed county engineers , historical and covered bridge societies , and others for all the covered bridges in the commonwealth . The Evans visited every covered bridge in Pennsylvania in 2001 and measured each bridge 's length ( portal to portal ) and width ( at the portal ) for their book . The data in Zacher 's book was based on a 1991 survey of all covered bridges in Pennsylvania by the PHMC and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , aided by local government and private agencies . The article uses primarily the NBI and NRHP data , as they are national programs .
= = Note = =
= Mycena maculata =
Mycena maculata , commonly known as the reddish @-@ spotted Mycena , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , have conic to bell @-@ shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish @-@ gray when young , reaching diameters of up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . They are typically wrinkled or somewhat grooved , and have reddish @-@ brown spots in age , or after being cut or bruised . The whitish to pale gray gills also become spotted reddish @-@ brown as they mature . The stem , up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and covered with whitish hairs at its base , can also develop reddish stains . The mycelium of M. maculata has bioluminescent properties . The saprobic fungus is found in Europe and North America , where it grows in groups or clusters on the rotting wood of both hardwoods and conifers . The edibility of the fungus is unknown . Although the species is known for , and named after its propensity to stain reddish , occasionally these stains do not appear , making it virtually indistinguishable from M. galericulata .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first described scientifically by the German mycologist Petter Karsten in 1890 . The name Mycena maculata was also used by the Australian mycologist John Burton Cleland in 1934 , but that usage was considered illegitimate , and the species he described has since been renamed to Mycena austromaculata by Cheryl Grgurinovic and Tom May in 1997 .
The specific epithet maculata is derived from the Latin word " spotted " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " reddish @-@ spotted Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. maculata varies in shape from broadly conic to convex initially , soon expanding to bell @-@ shaped or broadly convex at maturity ; when expanded the cap diameter is typically between 2 and 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 6 in ) . It usually has a distinct umbo , which can be abruptly convex in some individuals and very broad and low in others . The cap margin closely approaches the stem when young , but often flares or curves upward with age . The cap surface is smooth , slimy to the touch , often opaque when young but becomes partially translucent so that the outlines of the gills underneath the cap may be seen nearly to the center , before fading . It is often somewhat wrinkled or has the radial gill grooves deepening with age . It is initially dirty blackish @-@ brown or nearly black , becoming paler dirty brown to brownish @-@ gray with age , and usually with reddish @-@ brown spots . The flesh is somewhat thick under the umbo , but becomes abruptly thinner over the area of the margin ( about 0 @.@ 15 mm ) . It is cartilaginous and firm , dark or pale watery gray , changing slowly to dirty reddish @-@ brown when cut or bruised . It has no distinguishable odor , and a taste ranging from mild to slightly farinaceous ( like flour ) .
The gills are bluntly adnate , later becoming toothed and somewhat sinuate . The gills are narrow , becoming moderately broad ( 4 – 5 mm ) , whitish to pale gray in color , soon staining with reddish spots . Sometimes the gills separate slightly from the cap , but remain attached to each other to form a collar . The gill spacing is close to subdistant , with about 17 – 24 gills reaching the stem ; there are additionally about three tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) . The stem is usually 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick , occasionally much longer , often with a long pseudorhiza ( a cordlike structure resembling a plant root ) 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) that can root into the substrate . The stem is densely covered with sharp , stiff white hairs on the lower portion , and smooth above . It is sometimes twisted , nearly equal in width throughout , hollow , and cartilaginous . The top portion of the stem is pallid , while the remainder is the same color or paler than the cap . The stem base becomes stained reddish @-@ brown to purplish , or the entire lower portion turns a dirty wine red . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , amyloid ( meaning they turn bluish @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 30 – 35 by 7 – 8 μm , and four @-@ spored . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are embedded in the hymenium and inconspicuous , measuring 20 – 28 by 6 – 12 μm . They are irregular in form ; some have short rodlike projections on the upper part , others have irregular branched finger @-@ like protuberances , while others have wavy walls and an elongated contorted apex . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) in Mycena maculata . The gill tissue is hyaline or very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown when stained in iodine . The cap tissue has a thin pellicle , and the region directly under it is made of hyphae with only slightly enlarged cells , while the remainder is filamentous , and stains yellowish to slightly vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . The mycelium of M. maculata is bioluminescent ; this property has not been reported for the fruit bodies .
= = = Similar species = = =
In the absence of the characteristic reddish staining ( particularly in young specimens ) , M. maculata is indistinguishable in the field from M. galericulata , which also tends to grow in groups or tufts on wood . Microscopically , the latter species has larger spores , ranging from 8 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm . Another Mycena that stains reddish is M. inclinata ; it can be distinguished by its slightly larger spores , typically 7 – 9 by 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm , and the white flecks that develop on the lower part of the stem . It is common in eastern North America , and prefers to grows on decaying hardwood . M. haematopus also grows in clusters on wood , but can be differentiated by its scalloped cap margin , a stem which bleeds a reddish juice when cut or broken , and a preference for growing on hardwoods . M. purpureofusca has a purplish cap , gills with purple edges , and usually grows on pine cones . M. atrochalybaea , a species known from Italy and Switzerland , has more gills that reach the stem ( usually between 30 and 40 ) , smooth hyphae in the cortical layer of the stem , and smooth , uninflated cystidia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The fruit bodies of M. maculata grow in groups to clumps on the wood and debris of both coniferous and deciduous trees . The fungus is found in North America and Europe ( Germany and Norway ) . The North American distribution ranges north from Quebec , Canada , south to Mexico . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith , in his 1947 monograph on the genus , called it " the most abundant Mycena on conifer wood in the Pacific Northwest . " It has also been recorded as a new species in Turkey ( Kahramanmaraş district ) in 2006 .
= Solomon , King of Hungary =
Solomon , also Salomon ( Hungarian : Salamon ; 1053 – 1087 ) was King of Hungary from 1063 . Being the elder son of Andrew I , he was crowned king in his father 's lifetime in 1057 or 1058 . However , he was forced to flee from Hungary after his uncle , Béla I , dethroned Andrew in 1060 . Assisted by German troops , Solomon returned and was again crowned king in 1063 . On this occasion he married Judith , sister of Henry IV , Holy Roman Emperor . In the following year he reached an agreement with his cousins , the three sons of Béla I. Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert acknowledged Solomon 's rule , but in exchange received one @-@ third of the kingdom as a separate duchy .
In the following years , Solomon and his cousins jointly fought against the Czechs , the Cumans and other enemies of the kingdom . Their relationship deteriorated in the early 1070s and Géza rebelled against him . Solomon could only maintain his rule in a small zone along the western frontiers of Hungary after his defeat in the Battle of Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 . He officially abdicated in 1081 , but was arrested for conspiring against Géza 's brother and successor , Ladislaus .
Solomon was set free during the canonization process of the first king of Hungary , Stephen I , in 1083 . In an attempt to regain his crown , Solomon allied with the Pechenegs , but King Ladislaus defeated their invading troops . According to a nearly contemporaneous source , Solomon died on a plundering raid in the Byzantine Empire . Later legends say that he survived and died as a saintly hermit in Pula ( Croatia ) .
= = Early life = =
Solomon was a son of King Andrew I of Hungary and his wife , Anastasia of Kiev . His parents were married in about 1038 . He was born in 1053 as his parents ' second child and eldest son .
His father had him crowned king in 1057 or 1058 . Solomon 's coronation was a fundamental condition of his engagement to Judith , a sister of Henry IV , King of Germany . Their engagement put an end to the more than ten @-@ year @-@ long period of armed conflicts between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire . However , Solomon 's coronation provoked his uncle , Béla , who had until that time held a strong claim to succeed his brother Andrew according to the traditional principle of seniority . Béla had , since around 1048 , administered the so @-@ called ducatus or duchy , which encompassed one @-@ third of the kingdom .
According to the The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle , a 14th @-@ century chronicle :
Because carnal love and ties of blood are wont to prove a hindrance to truthfulness , in King Andreas love for his son overcame justice , so that he broke the treaty of his promise , which in kings should not be ; in the twelfth year of his reign , when he was worn out with age , he caused his son Salomon , who was still a child of five years , to be anointed and crowned king over all Hungary . He pretended that he did this to prevent injury to his kingdom , for the Emperor would not have given his daughter to his son Salomon unless he had crowned him . When therefore they sang at Salomon 's coronation : " Be lord over thy brethren , " and it was told to Duke Bela by an interpreter that the infant Salomon had been made king over him , he was greatly angered .
According to the Illuminated Chronicle , in order to secure Solomon 's succession , his father arranged a meeting with Duke Béla at the royal manor in Tiszavárkony . The king proposed that his brother choose between a crown and a sword ( which were the symbols of royal and ducal power , respectively ) , but had previously commanded his men to murder the duke if Béla picked the crown .
The duke , whom a courtier had informed of the king 's plan , chose the crown , then left Hungary after the meeting . He sought the assistance of Duke Boleslaus the Bold of Poland and returned with Polish reinforcements . Béla emerged the victor in the ensuing civil war , during which Solomon 's father was mortally injured in a battle . Solomon and his mother fled to the Holy Roman Empire and settled in Melk in Austria .
Béla was crowned king on 6 December 1060 , but the young German king 's advisors , who were staunch supporters of Solomon ( the fiancé of their monarch 's sister ) , refused to conclude a peace treaty with him . In the summer of 1063 , the assembly of the German princes decided to invade Hungary in order to restore Solomon . Solomon 's uncle died in an accident on 11 September , before the imperial army arrived . His three sons — Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert — left for Poland .
= = Reign = =
Accompanied back to Hungary by German troops , Solomon entered Székesfehérvár without resistance . He was ceremoniously " crowned king with the consent and acclamation of all Hungary " in September 1063 , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . The same source adds that the German monarch " seated " Solomon " upon his father 's throne " , but did not require him to take an oath of fealty . Solomon 's marriage with Henry IV 's sister , Judith — who was six years older than her future husband — also took place on this occasion . Judith , along with her mother @-@ in @-@ law Anastasia , became one of her young husband 's principal advisors .
Solomon 's three cousins - Géza and his brothers - returned after the German troops had been withdrawn from Hungary . They arrived with Polish reinforcements and Solomon sought refuge in the fortress of Moson at the western border of his kingdom . The Hungarian prelates began to mediate between them in order to avoid a new civil war .
Solomon and his cousins eventually reached an agreement , which was signed in Győr on 20 January 1064 . Géza and his brothers acknowledged Solomon as lawful king , and Solomon granted them their father 's one @-@ time ducatus . In token of their reconciliation , Duke Géza put a crown on Solomon 's head in the cathedral of Pécs on Easter Sunday . Their relationship remained tense ; when the cathedral burned down during the following night , they initially accused each other of arson . The episode is described in the Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle as follows :
[ Sudden ] flames seized that church and the palaces and all nearby buildings , and they collapsed in one devastating conflagration . Everyone was gripped with fear at the shock of the roaring flames and the terrible shattering of the bells as they fell from the towers ; and none knew where to turn . The King and the Duke were in an amazed stupor ; terrified by the suspicion of foul work , each went his separate way . In the morning they were apprised through faithful messengers that in truth there had not been on either side any evil intention of treachery , but that the fire had been happening of chance . The King and the Duke came together again in the goodness of peace .
The king and his cousins closely cooperated in the period between 1064 and 1071 . Both Solomon and Géza were , in 1065 or 1066 , present at the consecration of the Benedictine Zselicszentjakab Abbey , established by Palatine Otto of the Győr clan , a partisan of the king . They invaded Bohemia together after the Czechs had plundered the region of Trencsén ( present @-@ day Trenčín , Slovakia ) in 1067 . During the following year , nomadic tribes broke into Transylvania and plundered the regions , but Solomon and his cousins routed them at Kerlés ( present @-@ day Chiraleş , Romania ) . The identification of the marauders is uncertain : the Annales Posonienses and Simon of Kéza write of Pechenegs , the 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles refer to Cumans , and a Russian chronicle mentions the Cumans and the Vlachs .
Pecheneg troops pillaged Syrmia ( now in Serbia ) in 1071 . As the king and the duke suspected that the soldiers of the Byzantine garrison at Belgrade incited the marauders against Hungary , they decided to attack the fortress . The Hungarian army crossed the river Sava , although the Byzantines " blew sulphurous fires by means of machines " against their boats . The Hungarians took Belgrade after a siege of three months . However , the Byzantine commander , Niketas , surrendered the fortress to Duke Géza instead of the king ; he knew that Solomon " was a hard man and that in all things he listened to the vile counsels of Count Vid , who was detestable in the eyes both of God and men " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle .
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Voice of Liberation , peasants throughout the countryside were worried that a fifth column attack was imminent , and so large numbers went to the government and asked for weapons to defend their country . They were repeatedly told that the army was " successfully defending our country . " Nonetheless , peasant volunteers assisted the government war effort , manning roadblocks and donating supplies to the army . Weapons shipments dropped by rebel planes were intercepted and turned over to the government .
The Árbenz government also pursued diplomatic means to try and end the invasion . It sought support from El Salvador and Mexico ; Mexico declined to get involved , and the Salvadoran government merely reported the Guatemalan effort to John Peurifoy . Árbenz ' largest diplomatic initiative was in taking the issue to the United Nations Security Council . On 18 June the Guatemalan foreign minister petitioned the Council to " take measures necessary ... to put a stop to the aggression , " which he said Nicaragua and Honduras were responsible for , along with " certain foreign monopolies which have been affected by the progressive policy of my government . " The security council looked at Guatemala 's complaint at an emergency session on 20 June . The debate was lengthy and heated , with Nicaragua and Honduras denying any wrongdoing , and the U.S. stating that Eisenhower 's role as a general in World War II demonstrated that he was against imperialism . The Soviet Union was the only country to support Guatemala . When the U.S. and its allies proposed referring the matter to the Organization of American States , the USSR vetoed the proposal . Guatemala continued to press for a Security Council investigation , a proposal that received the support of Britain and France . On 24 June the U.S. vetoed the proposal , exercising its veto against its allies for the first time in United Nations history . The U.S. accompanied this with threats to the foreign offices of both countries that the U.S. would stop supporting their other initiatives . United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld called the U.S. position " the most serious blow so far aimed at the [ United Nations ] . " A fact @-@ finding mission was set up by the Inter @-@ American Peace Committee ; the United States used its influence to delay the entry of the committee until the coup was complete and the military dictatorship installed .
= = = Árbenz ' resignation = = =
Árbenz was initially confident that his army would quickly dispatch the rebel force . The victory of a small garrison of 30 soldiers over the 180 strong rebel force outside Zacapa strengthened his belief . By 21 June , Guatemalan soldiers had gathered at Zacapa under the command of Colonel Víctor M. León , who was believed to be loyal to Árbenz . León reported to Árbenz that the counter @-@ attack would be delayed due to logistical reasons , but stated that this was not reason to worry , and that Castillo Armas would be defeated very soon . Other members of the government were not so certain . Army Chief of Staff Parinello inspected the troops at Zacapa on 23 June , and returned to the capital believing that the army would not fight . Afraid of a U.S. intervention in Castillo Armas ' favor , he did not tell Árbenz of his suspicions . The leaders of the communist party also began to have their suspicions . Alvarado Monzón , the acting secretary general of the PGT , sent a member of the central committee to Zacapa to investigate . He returned on 25 June , reporting that the army was highly demoralized , and would not fight . Monzón reported this to Árbenz , who quickly sent another investigator . He , too , returned the same report ; additionally , he brought a message back to Árbenz from the officers at Zacapa , asking Árbenz to resign . The officers believed that given U.S. support for the rebels , defeat was inevitable , and Árbenz was to blame for it . He stated that if Árbenz did not resign , the army was likely to strike a deal with Castillo Armas , and march on the capital with him .
During this period , Castillo Armas had begun to intensify his aerial attacks , with the extra planes that Eisenhower had approved . They had limited material success ; many of their bombs were surplus material from World War II , and failed to explode . Nonetheless , they had a significant psychological impact . On 25 June , the same day that he received the army 's ultimatum , Árbenz learned that Castillo Armas had scored what later proved to be his only military victory , defeating the Guatemalan garrison at Chiquimula . Historian Piero Gleijeses has stated that if it were not for U.S. support for the rebellion , the officer corps of the Guatemalan army would have remained loyal to Árbenz because , although they were not uniformly his supporters , they were more wary of Castillo Armas , and also had strong nationalist views . As it was , they believed that the U.S. would intervene militarily , leading to a battle they could not win .
On the night of 25 June , Árbenz called a meeting of the senior leaders of the government , the political parties , and the labor unions . Colonel Díaz was also present . The President told them that the army at Zacapa had abandoned the government , and that the civilian population needed to be armed in order to defend the country . Díaz raised no objections , and the unions pledged several thousand troops between them . When the troops were mustered the next day , only a few hundred showed up . The civilian population of the capital had fought alongside the Guatemalan Revolution twice before ; during the popular uprising of 1944 , and again during the attempted coup of 1949 . On both those occasions some of the army had fought alongside the citizenry ; intimidated by the United States , the army refused to fight on this occasion , and the union members were reluctant to fight both the invasion and their own military . Seeing this , Díaz reneged on his support of the president , and began plotting to overthrow Árbenz with the assistance of other senior army officers . They informed Peurifoy of this plan , asking him to stop the hostilities in return for Árbenz ' resignation . Peurifoy promised to arrange a truce , and the plotters went to Árbenz and informed him of their decision . Árbenz , utterly exhausted and seeking to preserve at least a measure of the democratic reforms that he had brought , agreed without demur . After informing his cabinet of his decision , he left the presidential palace at 8 pm on 27 June 1954 , having taped a resignation speech that was broadcast an hour later . In it , he stated that he was resigning in order to eliminate the " pretext for the invasion , " and that he wished to preserve the gains of the October Revolution . He walked to the nearby Mexican Embassy , seeking political asylum . Two months later he was granted safe conduct out of the country , and flew to exile in Mexico .
= = = Military governments = = =
Immediately after the President announced his resignation , Díaz announced on the radio that he was taking over the presidency , and that the army would continue to fight against the invasion of Castillo Armas . Two days later Peurifoy told Díaz that he had to resign because , in the words of the CIA officer who spoke to Díaz , he was " not convenient for American foreign policy . " Peurifoy castigated Díaz for allowing Árbenz to criticize the United States in his resignation speech ; meanwhile , a U.S.-trained pilot dropped a bomb on the army 's main powder magazine , in order to intimidate the colonel . Díaz initially attempted to placate Peurifoy by forming a three @-@ person junta , which he led ; Peurifoy continued to insist that Díaz resign , and he was overthrown by a rapid bloodless coup led by Elfego Hernán Monzón Aguirre , a more pliable army colonel . Díaz later stated that Peurifoy had presented him with a list of names , and demanded that all of them be shot by the next day , because they were communists ; Díaz had refused , turning Peurifoy further against him . On 17 June , the army leaders at Zacapa had begun to negotiate with Castillo Armas . They signed a pact , known as the Pacto de Las Tunas , three days later , which placed the army at Zacapa under Castillo Armas , in return for a general amnesty . The army returned to its barracks a few days later , " despondent , with a terrible sense of defeat . "
Although Monzón was staunchly anti @-@ communist and repeatedly spoke of his loyalty to the U.S. , he was unwilling to hand over power to Castillo Armas . The fall of Díaz had led Peurifoy to believe that the CIA should make way and let the U.S. State Department play the lead role in negotiating with the new government of Guatemala . The State Department asked Óscar Osorio , the dictator of El Salvador , to invite all players to talk in San Salvador . Osorio agreed , and Monzón and Castillo Armas arrived in the Salvadoran capital on 30 June . Peurifoy initially remained in Guatemala City , to avoid the appearance of a heavy U.S. role ; he was forced to travel to San Salvador when the negotiations came close to breaking down on the first day . In the words of Dulles , Peurifoy 's role was to " crack some heads together . " Neither Monzón nor Castillo Armas could have remained in power without U.S. support , and thus Peurifoy was able to force an agreement , which was announced at 4 : 45 am on 2 July . Under the agreement , Castillo Armas and his subordinate Major Enrique Trinidad Oliva joined the three person junta headed by Monzón , with Monzón remaining president . On 7 July Colonels Dubois and Cruz Salazar , Monzón 's supporters on the junta , resigned , according to the secret agreement they had made without Monzón 's knowledge . Outnumbered , Monzón also resigned , allowing Castillo Armas to be unanimously elected president of the junta . The two colonels were paid 100 @,@ 000 U.S. dollars apiece for their cooperation . The U.S. promptly recognized the new government on 13 July . Elections were held in early October , from which all political parties were barred from participating . Castillo Armas was the only candidate ; he won the election with 99 % of the vote , completing his transition into power .
= = = Reactions = = =
The Guatemalan coup d 'état was reviled internationally , with the French and British press , Le Monde and The Times , attacking the United States ' coup as a " modern form of economic colonialism " . In Latin America , public and official opinions expressed much political criticism of the U.S. , and Guatemala became symbolic to many of armed resistance to the perceived U.S. hegemony over Latin America . British Prime Minister Clement Attlee called it " a plain act of aggression . " The Secretary General of the United Nations , Dag Hammarskjöld ( 1953 – 61 ) , said that the paramilitary invasion with which the U.S. deposed the elected government of Guatemala was a geopolitical action that violated the human rights stipulations of the UN Charter . Even the usually pro – U.S. newspapers of West Germany condemned the Guatemalan coup d 'état . Kate Doyle , the Director of the Mexico Project of the National Security Archives , said that the 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état was the definitive deathblow to democracy in the Republic of Guatemala . The coup had broad support among politicians in the United States . Historian Piero Gleijeses writes that the foreign policy of both major U.S. political parties had consisted of an intransigent assertion of U.S. hegemony over Central America , making it predisposed to seeing a communist threat where none existed . Thus Eisenhower 's continuation of the Monroe Doctrine had continued bipartisan support . The coup met with strong negative reactions in Latin America ; a wave of anti @-@ United States protests followed the overthrow of Árbenz . These sentiments persisted for several decades afterwards ; historians have pointed to the coup as a reason for the hostile reception given to U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon when he visited Latin America four years later . A State Department study found that negative public reactions to the coup had occurred in eleven Latin American countries , including a few that were otherwise pro @-@ American .
= = Operation PBHISTORY = =
Operation PBHISTORY was an effort by the CIA to analyze documents from the Árbenz government to justify the 1954 coup after the fact . Due to the quick overthrow of the Árbenz government , the CIA believed that the government would not have been able to destroy any incriminating documents , and that these could be analyzed to demonstrate Árbenz ' supposed ties to the Soviet Union . The CIA also believed that it could better understand the workings of Latin American communist parties , on which subject the CIA had very little real information . A final motivation was that international responses to the coup had been very negative , even among allies of the U.S. , and the CIA wished to counteract the anti @-@ U.S. sentiment . The operation began on 4 July 1954 with the arrival of four CIA agents in Guatemala City , led by a specialist in the structure of communist parties . Targets included Árbenz ' personal belongings , police documents , and the headquarters of the Guatemalan Party of Labour . Although the initial search failed to find any links to the Soviet Union , the CIA decided to extend the operation , and on 4 August a much larger team was deployed , with members from many government departments , including the state department and the U.S. information agency . The task force was given the cover name " Social Research Group . " In order to avoid confrontation with Guatemalan nationalists , the CIA opted to leave the documents in Guatemalan possession , instead funding the creation of a Guatemalan intelligence agency that would try to dismantle the communist organizations . The Comite ' de Defensa Nacional Contra el Comunismo ( National Committee for Defense against Communism ) was created on 20 July , and granted a great deal of power over military and police functions . The personnel of the new agency were also put to work analyzing the same documents .
The document processing phase of the operation was terminated on 28 September 1954 , having examined 500 @,@ 000 documents . There was tension between the different U.S. government agencies about using the information ; the CIA wished to use it to subvert communists , whereas USIA wished to use it for propaganda . The CIA 's leadership of the operation allowed it to retain control over any documents deemed necessary for clandestine operations . A consequence of PBHISTORY was the opening of a CIA file on Ernesto Che Guevara . In the subsequent decade , the documents gathered were used by the authors of several books , most frequently with covert CIA assistance , which described the Guatemalan Revolution and the 1954 coup in terms favorable to the CIA . Despite the efforts of the CIA , both international and academic reaction to U.S. policy remained highly negative . Even books partially funded by the CIA were somewhat critical of the role played by the CIA . PBHISTORY failed in its chief objective ; finding convincing evidence that Guatemalan communists had been instruments of the Soviet Union , and found scant evidence of any connection to Moscow whatsoever . The Soviet description of the coup , that the U.S.A. had crushed a democratic revolution to protect the United Fruit Company 's control over the Guatemalan economy , became much more widely accepted .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Political legacy = = =
The 1954 coup had a large political fallout both inside and outside Guatemala . The relatively easy overthrow of Árbenz , coming soon after the similar overthrow of the democratically elected Iranian Prime Minister in 1953 , made the CIA overconfident in its abilities , which led to the Bay of Pigs disaster in 1961 . Among the civilians living in Guatemala City during the coup was a twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old Ernesto Che Guevara . After a couple of abortive attempts to fight on the side of the government , Guevara took shelter at the embassy of Argentina , before eventually being granted safe passage to Mexico , where he would join the Cuban Revolution . His experience of the Guatemalan coup was a large factor in convincing him " of the necessity for armed struggle ... against imperialism " , and would inform his successful military strategy during the Cuban Revolution . Árbenz ' experience during the Guatemalan coup also helped Fidel Castro 's Cuban regime in thwarting the CIA invasion . Throughout the years of the Guatemalan Revolution , both United States policy makers and the U.S. media had tended to believe the theory of a communist threat . When Árbenz had announced evidence of U.S. complicity in the Salama incident , it had been dismissed , and virtually the entire U.S. press portrayed Castillo Armas invasion as a dramatic victory against communism . The press in Latin America were less restrained in their criticism of the U.S. , and the coup resulted in lasting anti @-@ United States sentiment in the region .
Within Guatemala , Castillo Armas worried that he lacked popular support , and thus tried to eliminate all opposition . He promptly arrested several thousand opposition leaders , branding them communists , repealed the constitution of 1945 , and granted himself virtually unbridled power . Concentration camps were built to hold the prisoners when the jails overflowed . Acting on the advice of Dulles , Castillo Armas also detained a number of citizens trying to flee the country . He also created a National Committee of Defense Against Communism , with sweeping powers of arrest , detention , and deportation . Over the next few years , the committee investigated nearly 70 @,@ 000 people . Many were imprisoned , executed , or " disappeared " , frequently without trial . He outlawed all political parties , labor unions , and peasant organizations . Castillo Armas ' dependence on the officer corps and the merceneries who had put him in power led to widespread corruption , and the Eisenhower administration was soon subsidizing the Guatemalan government with many millions of U.S. dollars . Castillo Armas also reversed the agrarian reforms of Árbenz , leading the U.S. embassy to comment that it was a " long step backwards " from the previous policy . The United Fruit Company also did not profit from the coup ; despite regaining most of its privileges , its profits continued to decline , and it was eventually merged with another company to save itself from bankruptcy . Despite the influence which some of the local Catholic Church leaders had in the coup , anti @-@ Catholic restrictions which had been enforced under previous governments in Guatemala would resume by the 1960s , as many anti @-@ communist governments felt the Church had too much sympathy towards socialist parties .
= = = Civil War in Guatemala = = =
The rolling @-@ back of the progressive policies of the civilian governments resulted in a series of leftist insurgencies in the countryside , beginning in 1960 . This triggered the thirty @-@ six @-@ year Guatemalan Civil War , between the U.S.-backed military government of Guatemala and the leftist insurgencies , which frequently had a large degree of popular support . The largest of these movements was led by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor , which at its largest point had 270 @,@ 000 members . The civil war ran from 1960 to 1996 . By the end of it 200 @,@ 000 civilians were dead . During the civil war , atrocities against civilians were committed by both sides ; 93 % of these violations were committed by the United States @-@ backed military , which included a genocidal scorched @-@ earth campaign against the indigenous Maya population in the 1980s . The violence was particularly brutal during the presidencies of Ríos Montt and Lucas García . Numerous other human rights violations were committed , including massacres of civilian populations , rape , aerial bombardment , and forced disappearances , leading Gleijeses to write that Guatemala was " ruled by a culture of fear , " and that it held the " macabre record for human rights violations in Latin America . " These violations were partially the result of a particularly brutal counter @-@ insurgency strategy adopted by the government . The civil war came to an end in 1996 , with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government of Guatemala , which included an amnesty for all the fighters , both among the military and the guerrillas .
= = = Apologies = = =
In March 1999 , US President Bill Clinton apologized to the Guatemalan government for the atrocities committed by the US @-@ backed dictatorships .
In October 2011 , the government of Guatemala formally apologized to Juan Jacobo Árbenz , the son of the deposed President , Jacobo Árbenz . At the same time , the textbooks used in the public school system were revised to portray Árbenz in a positive light , depicting him as a Guatemalan patriot . A highway was also renamed in his honor . The Árbenz family continue to request an apology from the government of the United States for having overthrown the government of Guatemala in 1954 .
= William the Carpenter =
William the Carpenter ( fl . 1087 – 1102 ) , viscount of Melun , was a French nobleman who participated in the Reconquista in Spain and on the First Crusade . He was notorious for defecting from the army both in Spain and on the crusade , but he was also known for his strength in battle , whence he earned his nickname " the Carpenter . " He returned to the Holy Land after the crusade , and nothing further is known of his life or death .
= = Life = =
= = = Succession = = =
His specific origins are unclear ; according to the seventeenth @-@ century genealogist Père Anselme , he was the son of Ursio I , viscount of Melun , a town about 50 kilometres outside Paris in the Brie region of the French Vexin , which was later known as the Île @-@ de @-@ France . Anselme believed William succeeded his father in 1084 , and was later succeeded by his own son , Ursio II . However , in the nineteenth century , Adolphe Duchalais showed that Anselme misread the charters he was using ; all that is known for certain is that Ursio was viscount in 1085 and William was viscount in 1094 . There is no definite record of an Ursio II , and after William there is no viscount known until Adam , who married the daughter of the previous , unnamed viscount in 1138 . William was presumably related to Ursio but his specific relationship to him and the other viscounts is unknown .
According to twelfth @-@ century chronicler Robert the Monk , William was " of royal stock " and was related to Hugh I , Count of Vermandois and Hugh 's brother King Philip I of France .
= = = Military exploits = = =
According to twelfth @-@ century monk Guibert of Nogent , William was " powerful in words , but less so in action ... a man who set out to do things too great for him . " William was a member of the French contingent which marched into Spain in 1087 to assist Alfonso VI of Castile with the siege of Tudela against the Almoravids . He may have been one of the leaders , along with Eudes I , Duke of Burgundy , who was the nephew of Alfonso 's wife Constance . The French army never made it to Tudela and withdrew with little success . Guibert says that William " retreated like a wretch , leaving countless men stranded by his flight . " William 's actions in Spain may have been the inspiration for the character of Ganelon in the Chanson de Roland , which was possibly written in the early twelfth @-@ century , based on similar events that had occurred during the reign of Charlemagne centuries earlier .
In France , Guibert says he engaged in petty warfare against other nobles and " criminal looting " of the countryside , in contravention of the Peace and Truce of God . In 1096 he joined the First Crusade , and " took from his poor neighbors the little that they had to provide himself shamefully with provisions for the journey . " He participated in the attacks on Jews at Mainz , led by Emich of Flonheim . Emich 's army later battled against the Hungarians , during which William " beheaded the chief of the Hungarian army , who was a member of the [ King Coloman 's ] counsel , a distinguished man with dazzling snow @-@ white hair . " After the dispersal of Emich 's army following this battle , William and the other French leaders joined the army of his relative Hugh of Vermandois . Hugh 's army marched south into Italy , and at Bari , Hugh sent William across the sea to Dyrrhachium as an ambassador to the Byzantine governor of the city . William then travelled to Constantinople with Hugh , and he was among the men who came to meet Godfrey of Bouillon when Godfrey arrived at the city later in the year .
No further mention of William is made until the Siege of Antioch in 1098 . The crusaders had successfully taken the city , but were then besieged themselves by a large Muslim army led by Kerbogha of Mosul . The crusaders suffered from lack of supplies , and there were many desertions ; William fled Antioch in January 1098 , along with the French monk Peter the Hermit , who had led his own army to Constantinople before the main crusaders arrived there . William was probably a member of Bohemond of Taranto 's army at this point , because Bohemond sent his nephew Tancred to find them , and they were brought back to Bohemond 's camp . Robert the Monk assumes that William fled because " he had never before experienced such suffering from hunger . " William " spent the whole of the night ... in Bohemond 's tent , lying on the ground like a piece of rubbish . " Bohemond rebuked him as a " wretched disgrace to the whole Frankish army " , and mentioned his desertion of the French army in Spain in 1087 . The other leaders asked Bohemond to spare him and William suffered no further punishment . However , William was so ashamed that he deserted the army again .
Albert of Aachen says William 's second desertion occurred in June 1098 , along with William of Grand @-@ Mesnil , a relative of Bohemond . On the road away from Antioch , they joined Stephen of Blois , another leader of the crusade who had also fled the siege . They travelled back towards Constantinople , but on the way met Emperor Alexius I Comnenus , who was advancing to Antioch with a relief army . They convinced him of the futility of the crusader siege and the emperor turned back to Constantinople .
William apparently returned to the Holy Land in the Crusade of 1101 . The First Crusade had successfully conquered Jerusalem , and those who had returned home before completing the journey were often shamed into going on crusade a second time ; some of them , like Stephen of Blois , were killed on their second journey . William , however , survived to participate in the politics of the newfound Kingdom of Jerusalem ; he was among the men who petitioned King Baldwin I to restore Daimbert of Pisa as Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem . He was also present at Baldwin I 's siege of Ascalon in 1102 . William may have settled in the north , in the crusader Principality of Antioch as a vassal of Bohemond , because he appears as a witness in a charter from Antioch in 1101 .
= = Nickname = =
William 's actions at the Siege of Antioch are known from the Gesta Francorum , an anonymous chronicle written by an Italo @-@ Norman eyewitness . The Gesta was very popular in Europe after the crusade , but was considered crudely written by more refined readers . It was later rewritten and expanded by more educated writers , including the French monks Robert and Guibert , both of whom were eager to add information about French crusaders like William . According to Robert , William " acquired the name of ' Carpenter ' because nobody wanted to take him on in battle — -there was no breastplate , helmet or shield which could withstand the shattering impact of his lance or sword . " Guibert says that he " was called the Carpenter , not because he was a craftsman in wood , but because he prevailed in battle like a carpenter , by cutting men down " , and has Bohemond ask : " what kind of Carpenter did we have , who , like a construction @-@ worker with a pick @-@ axe , hacked away , with lances and swords , at the backs of the Gentiles ? " Christopher Tyerman interprets this as William 's " skills as a battlefield butcher " . Edward Gibbon , apparently misunderstanding Guibert , thought the nickname came " from the weighty strokes of his axe " .
= I 'll Make a Man Out of You =
" I 'll Make a Man out of You " is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan ( 1998 ) . Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan : An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong , who provides the character 's speaking voice . The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan , Eddie Murphy as Mushu , and Harvey Fierstein , Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao , Chien @-@ Po and Ling , respectively .
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was written to replace the song " We 'll Make a Man of You " after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) . Prior to Mulan , Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old . Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice . An up @-@ tempo military @-@ style song , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young , inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth . The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan , who relies on intelligence , ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades .
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics , some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song , while praising Osmond 's performance . Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules , while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O 'Neil in the film G. I. Jane ( 1997 ) . The song has since appeared on several " best of " Disney songs lists , including those of Total Film and the New York Post . Discussed by film critics , film historians , academic journalists and feminists , the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages — namely Mandarin , Cantonese and Spanish — by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro , respectively .
= = Background = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel , who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because , according to co @-@ director Tony Bancroft , " Disney was trying to find different songwriters that ... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs . " While Zippel , a Broadway lyricist , was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , at the time Wilder , a pop singer and record producer , was best known for his hit single " Break My Stride " . Bancroft believes that , although the songwriters " had two different sensibilities ... I think the [ y ] blend worked well together , especially on [ ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' ] " .
Originally , songwriter Stephen Schwartz , who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan , but he was replaced by Zippel " at the last moment . " Schwartz had written a song called " We 'll Make a Man of You " for " when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier " . The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) . According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz : From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond , Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously , but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney .
Before Mulan , American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role of Hercules in Hercules , a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that is voice sounded " too old " and " too deep " for the character . Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely . A few months later , Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have " very similar voices . " In one scene , Osmond 's character , Shang , is hit in the stomach while singing " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " . In order to sound as realistic as possible , Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song .
= = Context and use in Mulan = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage , which has also been identified as the film 's " boot camp sequence . " The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army . Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot , Shang promises to turn his team of " rag @-@ tag recruits " into men . The musical number is used to " compress dramatic time or narrate " in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used . The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it , each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds . According to the book Into the Closet : Cross @-@ Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan , Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses " an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance . " By the end of the scene , all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed . In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called " a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie , " Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " reprises in the background .
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy , inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers , in spite of her gender . According to the book Literacy , Play and Globalization : Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances , the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as " an obstacle to overcome . " Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works , " The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films , " and that the scene " show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her " inexperience . As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia : New Perspectives on Film for English , the irony of the scene lies within the fact that " Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men . " The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang , while its second " coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole . " Additionally , while the earlier , all @-@ female musical number " Honor to Us All " " functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender , " " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " " juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product , " according to Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability . The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's " Mulan " believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits , namely " discipline ... tranquility , celerity , strength and fearlessness , " while Shang , according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power : How a Girl Saved Camelot , and why it Matters , " views [ femininity ] as comparable to weakness . " In her article Disney 's " Mulan " — the " True " Deconstructed Heroine ? , Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering , ostracism and abjection .
Critics have drawn similarities between the " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O 'Neil in the film G. I. Jane ( 1997 ) . In the book Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict " the active male body as spectacle , " Mulan 's is less " straight @-@ forward " due to the character 's gender . Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that " Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane , but Mulan oneups that film 's hour @-@ long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single , rousing musical number . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of G major , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has been identified as a " heroic power ballad " and anthem that features an upbeat , " thumping " rhythm . The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a " rhythmic military song . " Beginning with " a military @-@ style drum " introduction , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " , which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad " Reflection " on the film 's soundtrack album , " breaks up the slower pace of the songs , " according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song " A Girl Worth Fighting For " , the " ironically titled " " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " " play [ s ] off Mulan 's secret " because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl , as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix . Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability , received the song as a counterpart to the all @-@ female musical number " Honor to Us All " . Going into the last verse , the song 's key shifts up to A ♭ major and later towards the end , " the backing track falls into silence and [ Osmond 's ] vocals come to the fore . " Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave , from D3 to F4 . Beginning with two verses , followed by a bridge , a refrain , a final verse and repeated choruses , the song is a total of three minutes and twenty @-@ one seconds in length .
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's " rambunctious peak . " According to Victoria Flanagan , author of Into the Closet : Gender and Cross @-@ dressing in Children 's Fiction : Cross @-@ Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is " a playful parody of conventional masculinity . " The lyric " I 'll make a man out of you " is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang . According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , the song 's lyrics " initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity , " with its first verse beginning , " Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons ? " Its chorus reads , " You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon " which , according to Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , " essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed , strength and power of the natural world , and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery . " According to Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works , these lyrics " add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess " by suggesting that one who has " acquired fiery strength " is also " untamed as the moon 's dark side . " The song has been noted by the New York Post for its " slew of one @-@ liners from supporting characters . " According to The Phoenix , Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with " grit . " Meanwhile , the singer is backed up by a macho @-@ sounding choir repeatedly chanting " Be a man ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics . Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote , " there hasn 't been a single chorus in all of post @-@ Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain . " Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " as " a stirring , testosterone filled piece , " describing the scene as " amusing . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " has a comparable infectious punch , " concluding , " it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness . " Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's " voices sound eerily similar . " Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery , describing the singer 's performance as " solid . " Lloyd Paseman of The Register @-@ Guard called " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " a favorite of his . While exploring " The History of Movie Training Montages " , Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined , " Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids . " Giblin continued
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Glenlivet brand is the biggest selling single malt whisky in the United States and the second biggest selling single malt brand globally .
Today , the distillery is owned by the French alcoholic beverages company Pernod Ricard and they oversee the distillery 's production of 5 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 proof litres per annum . The majority of this – enough for 6 million bottles – is sold as The Glenlivet single malt , with the remainder being used in Pernod Ricard 's blended whisky brands .
= = Production = =
The distillery draws water from Josie 's Well and other springs a short distance from the distillery . The malt comes from Crisp Maltings , Portgordon . Glenlivet 's stills are lantern shaped with long , narrow necks , all of which helps to produce a light tasting spirit .
The distillery has 4 wash stills each with a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 litres and 4 spirit stills with a capacity of 10 @,@ 000 litres .
Spirit from the distillery is then matured in oak casks formerly used to mature bourbon , as is normal throughout the industry , with some products being finished in casks previously used to store sherry and port .
Glenlivet is categorised as a Speyside distillery . The Glenlivet range consists of 12 Years , 15 Years , 16 Years Nàdurra , 18 Years , 21 years , and 25 years , with a number of limited edition whiskies such as the Cellar Collection . Glenlivet also produces a range for the travel retail and duty @-@ free shop markets , which differs slightly from the normal range .
The main product range from the distillery is The Glenlivet range of single malt scotch whisky , but whisky from the distillery is also used in the production of Pernod Ricard 's other brands , including Chivas Regal and Royal Salute whisky brands .
Bottling of The Glenlivet took place at a Chivas Brothers bottling plant at Newbridge just outside Edinburgh , but that plant was sold at the end of 2009 with bottling to be transferred to other Chivas Brothers plants .
In 2008 , The Glenlivet announced expansion plans for the distillery to keep up with increased demand . This includes the installation of a new mash tun , new stills and new wash backs .
= = History = =
Illicit distilleries were commonplace throughout the Speyside area from medieval times but were largely made redundant with the passing of the Excise Act in 1823 . It was under this legislation that legal distilleries could be formed , subject to holding a license . Alexander Gordon , 4th Duke of Gordon , was allegedly instrumental in the passing of this legislation . Although there is no historical record of his involvement in the issue , his tenant , George Smith , who was operating an illicit distillery at the time , became the first person in Glenlivet to apply for and receive a license to legally produce spirit . This would prove to be an unpopular decision ; every other distiller was operating illegally at the time and hoping the new Excise Act would be repealed , something which would not happen if some distillers accepted the new law . Threats were made against George Smith , so George Gordon provided Smith with two pistols to be used to ensure both his own safety and that of the distillery . In 1824 , The Glenlivet distillery was established at Upper Drumin by George and his youngest son John Gordon Smith .
George Smith established a second distillery during 1849 , named the Cairngorm @-@ Delnabo Distillery but by 1855 or 1856 , both distilleries were running at full capacity , and were unable to meet rising demand . The operation of two separate sites was also proving difficult and expensive , so plans were formed around the same time to build a new , larger distillery further down the hill at Minmore . Construction of this new distillery was underway when the old Upper Drumin distillery was destroyed by fire during 1858 . Construction of the new Minmore distillery was sped up and salvageable equipment from the Upper Drumin distillery was transferred to the new Mimmore distillery . The Delnabo distillery was closed at the same time and the best parts of the equipment were also transferred to the Minmore plant . Production commenced at the new plant during 1859 and it was around the same time the legal entity of George & J.G. Smith , Ltd. was formed .
George Smith died in 1871 and his son John Gordon Smith inherited the distillery . The quality of the product from their distillery had resulted in the other distilleries in the area renaming their products to " Glenlivet " and by the time of George 's death , several distillers were doing so . J.G. Smith decided to take legal action and tried to claim ownership on The Glenlivet name , this legal action was only partially successful - the verdict forced other distillers in the area to stop calling their whisky Glenlivet and gave J.G. Smith and the blender Andrew Usher sole permission to use the brand , but permitted other distilleries to hyphenate their distillery name with the " Glenlivet " name , which resulted in new distillery names such as The Glen Moray @-@ Glenlivet Distillery , a distillery which is situated nearby .
The distillery remained open throughout the Great Depression , an event which affected many other distilleries ; it wasn 't until the Second World War that the distillery was mothballed for the first time , by Government decree . In the aftermath of World War Two , Britain was heavily indebted and needed to export large quantities of goods to earn foreign revenue ( mainly United States dollars ) . Distilling was an ideal industry with whisky much in demand overseas . Distilling restrictions were rapidly lifted and output from the distillery was at pre @-@ war levels by 1947 , despite ongoing barley , fuel , and manpower limitations . Bread rationing was retained until 1948 in order to ensure supplies of grain for the distilleries .
Glenlivet Distillery ( George & J.G. Smith , Ltd . ) merged with the Glen Grant Distillery ( J. & J. Grant Glen Grant , Ltd . ) in 1953 to form The Glenlivet and Glen Grant Distillers , Ltd .. The company would go on to merge with Hill Thomson & Co . , Ltd. and Longmorn @-@ Glenlivet Distilleries , Ltd. in 1970 before changing their name to Glenlivet Distillers Ltd in 1972 . The company was then purchased by Canadian drinks and media company Seagram in 1977 . Seagram 's alcohol production interests were acquired by Pernod Ricard and Diageo during 2000 , with ownership of Glenlivet Distillers passing to Pernod Ricard . Glen Grant Distillery was sold to Campari Group in 2005 .
The Glenlivet is the best selling malt whisky in the United States , and the fourth best selling in the UK with a 7 % market share . The Glenlivet is the world 's second best selling single malt whisky , and current global sales total 6 million bottles per annum .
= = Extension = =
A new extension with an additional mashtun , eight washbacks and 6 stills was opened by the Prince of Wales on 5 June 2010 . The capacity of the distillery has been increased by 75 %
= = Products = =
Core Range
The Glenlivet 12 Year Old
The Glenlivet 15 Year Old French Oak Reserve
The Glenlivet Nàdurra 16 Year Old
The Glenlivet 18 Year Old
The Glenlivet Archive 21 Year Old
The Glenlivet XXV 25 Year Old
Limited Releases - Cellar Collection
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1972 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1959 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1964 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1967
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection French Oak Finish 1983
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection American Oak Finish 30 Year Old
Travel Retail
These bottlings are only available through the travel retail market , such as airports and ferries .
The Glenlivet 12 Year Old First Fill
The Glenlivet 15 Year Old
Other products
Glenlivet 70yo 1940 / 2010 ( 45 @.@ 9 % , Gordon & MacPhail , Generations , sherry butt , C # 339 , 100 Bts . )
Glenlivet Alpha
= = Awards and reviews = =
Glenlivet 's offerings have frequently been reviewed at spirit ratings competitions , generally garnering relatively high praise . The Glenlivet 18yr is perhaps the most highly decorated of the offerings , winning five double golds from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2005 and 2012 and yielding only slightly less impressive scores from the Beverage Testing Institute and Wine Enthusiast . The 18yr Nadurra earned a double gold medal at the 2010 San Francisco World Spirits Competition and a score of 94 ( out of 100 ) in the same year from the Beverage Testing Institute . Other notable results include :
The Glenlivet 12yr Single Malt : Four silver medals and a gold between 2005 and 2010 at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 15yr French Oak Reserve Single Malt : gold medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 16yr Nàdurra Single Malt : silver medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 21yr Single Malt : two double golds , one gold , and one silver medal from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2007 and 2010 and scores of 94 and 93 from the Beverage Testing Institute between 2009 and 2010 .
The Glenlivet XXV ( 25yr ) Single Malt : silver medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition and a score of 95 from the Beverage Testing Institute in 2010 .
= Jesus College Boat Club ( Oxford ) =
Jesus College Boat Club ( commonly abbreviated to JCBC ) is a rowing club for members of Jesus College , Oxford , one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford . The club was formed in 1835 , but rowing at the college predates the club 's foundation : a boat from the college was involved in the earliest recorded races between college crews at Oxford in 1815 , when it competed against Brasenose College . In the early years of rowing at Oxford , Jesus was one of the few colleges that participated in races . Neither the men 's nor the women 's 1st VIIIs have earned the title of " Head of the River " , which is gained by winning Eights Week — the main inter @-@ college rowing competition at Oxford .
A number of college members have rowed for the university against Cambridge University in the Boat Race and the Women 's Boat Race . Barney Williams , a Canadian rower who studied at the college , won a silver medal in rowing at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and participated in the Boat Race in 2005 and 2006 . Other students who rowed while at the college have achieved success in other fields , including John Sankey , who became Lord Chancellor , Alwyn Williams , who became Bishop of Durham , and Maurice Jones , who became Principal of St David 's College , Lampeter . Another college rower , James Page , was appointed Secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association and coached both the Oxford and Cambridge University boat clubs .
The college boathouse , which is shared with the boat club of Keble College , is in Christ Church Meadow , on the Isis ( as the River Thames is called in Oxford ) . It dates from 1964 and replaced a moored barge used by spectators and crew @-@ members . The last college barge had been purchased from one of the Livery Companies of the City of London in 1911 . It is now a floating restaurant further down the Thames at Richmond , and for some years was painted in the college colours of green and white .
= = History = =
The early records of the club have been lost , but there are references to a Jesus College boat in material that survives from the early 19th century . There are references to " pleasure boating " at Oxford in letters and poems written in the late 18th century , but races between crews from different colleges did not start until the early 19th century . Rowing in eights ( boats with eight oarsmen , each pulling one oar , and steered by a coxswain ) began at Eton , where there is a record of the school owning three eights by 1811 , and then progressed to Oxford . The first record of an inter @-@ college race , between eights from Jesus College and Brasenose College , dates from 1815 . These may have been the only two colleges who had boats racing at that time , and the Brasenose boat was usually victorious . There were few rowers , and races between fours ( boats with four oarsmen and a coxswain ) tended to attract more interest than races between eights . Students would row to the inn at Sandford @-@ on @-@ Thames , a few miles south of Oxford , and race each other on the way back . The races would start at Iffley Lock and finish at King 's Barge , off Christ Church Meadow . Flags hoisted on the barge would indicate the finishing order of the crews . Crews would set off one behind the other , the trailing boat ( s ) trying to catch , or " bump " , the boat ahead . The bumped boat and the bumping boat would then drop out and the bumping boat would start the next day 's race ahead of the bumped boat . The aim was to become the lead boat , known as Head of the River . For identification , crews wore college colours and emblazoned the rudder of the boat with the college coat of arms . Crews from Jesus College painted leeks ( an emblem of Wales ) on their oars for further distinction . In early races , some rowers wore high hats while others , including the Jesus crews , wore Tam o 'shanters in college colours ( green with a white band for Jesus ) ; crews from Jesus College wore these until at least 1847 .
In 1822 , crews from Jesus and Brasenose raced each other to become Head of the River . One Brasenose rower apparently " caught a crab " , slowing the boat . The Brasenose boat was bumped by the Jesus boat , but rowed on regardless and claimed that it was still Head of the River . Jesus and Brasenose men competed over which college 's flag should be hoisted to denote the winning boat . One of the Brasenose crew ended the dispute by saying " Quot homines tot sententiae , different men have different opinions , some like leeks and some like onions " , referring to the emblem on the Jesus oars , and it was agreed to row the race again . The Brasenose crew won the rematch . The incident has been said to be shown in an 1822 picture , the earliest depiction of an eights race at Oxford , painted by I. T. Serres ( Marine Painter to George IV ) . However , the print was published on 1 March 1822 and it would have taken several months to prepare and engrave . It also shows a summer scene . Both of these points suggest that the print depicts either an imaginary scene or an unrecorded event from 1821 .
Races gradually became more formalised , and regulations were introduced prohibiting colleges from using professional rowers or members of other colleges . A race for the colleges ' second boats ( Torpids ) was introduced in 1826 , and eventually boats with less than eight oars were excluded from the races . During the late 1820s and early 1830s , Jesus did not take part in races , but the college was mentioned as having a second boat by 1836 . The formal foundation of the club dates from 1835 , and official records of inter @-@ college races begin in 1837 . The Jesus College 1st VIII started the competition that year in second position , behind the Christ Church 1st VIII , but after being bumped on successive nights by Exeter , Balliol and Queen 's colleges , Jesus took no further part in that year 's competition . In 1838 , the Jesus College boat rowed in last place on one evening , but did not participate in the races again until 1844 . The club 's fortunes varied in the years thereafter . In 1859 , the eight achieved an unusual " overbump " ( catching the crew that had started three places ahead of them , after the boat immediately ahead of it had bumped the boat it was chasing ) and so went up three positions in one race . However , the college boat did not compete in 1860 and it finished in last place in 1864 . From 1864 onwards , said Ernest Hardy ( in his 1899 history of the college ) , " the boating record of the College has not been good " – the college did not take part in the races in many years , and it seldom improved its position by more than one or two places when it did participate . The college resumed regular participation in the races in 1882 ; although it was in last place in 1889 , the college improved its position , and went up by nine places between 1894 and 1896 . Hardy also commented that the 1896 Jesus College boat had a reputation of being one of the faster boats in the university . The crew entered for the Ladies ' Challenge Plate at the Henley Regatta , but lost to Eton , the eventual winners .
By 1930 , the college 1st VIII had reached its highest position on the river for thirty years . In 1947 , the college chaplain Leslie Cross presented a new set of oars to the club . He retired that year , and the college magazine , noting that Cross had been a particularly generous supporter of the club , stated that the oars had already been used to good purpose . The 1st VIII progressed further in the 1950s , making five bumps in 1951 and four in 1952 to reach the first division , with a high point of seventh in 1957 . It later returned to the second division , before re @-@ entering the first division in 1970 . Its highest position in recent years was seventh in the first division in 2000 ; it has been back in the second division since 2004 , and finished eighth in the second division in 2011 .
Women were first admitted to Jesus College in 1974 ; the college was one of the first five men 's colleges to do so . The women 's 1st VIII was Head of the River in Torpids between 1980 and 1983 . In 1993 , the women 's 1st VIII won their " blades " in the first divisions of both Torpids and Eights Week , an achievement that led to the crew being described in the Jesus College Record as vying " not just for the College team of the decade , but perhaps for the team of the last three decades " , in any sport . The same crew also won the Novices ' Trophy at the Wallingford Regatta in the same year . The women 's 1st VIII has not maintained its position since then . After some years in the third division , it ended the 2011 Eights Week in twelfth place in the second division , winning blades in the process .
= = Club structure and finance = =
All members of the college who have coxed or rowed in a JCBC boat are Ordinary Members of the Boat Club , a status that they retain until one month after leaving the college . The club is run by a committee , consisting of a President , the Men 's and Women 's Captains of Boats , Men 's and Women 's Vice @-@ Captains of Boats , Captain of Coxes , Treasurer , Secretary , Boathouse Safety Officer , Kit Officer , and two Social Secretaries . Members of the committee hold office for one year , starting on Sunday of the sixth week of Trinity Term – the day after the last day of Eights Week . The Senior Member of the club is Peter Mirfield , a Fellow and Tutor in Law at the college .
The college uses a proportion of student fees to fund social and sporting activity . The allocation for sport , including rowing , is overseen by the Committee of Amalgamated Clubs , which has representatives from the Junior and Middle Common Rooms ( for undergraduates and postgraduates ) as well as from the college 's sport clubs .
Old Members of the college who rowed when they were students can join the Cadwallader Club . The club , which was revitalised in 1974 and organises an annual dinner for members , also receives contributions for the Cadwallader Trust ; this has been a registered charity since December 1982 and supports rowing at the college both with capital expenditure and training costs . In the year ending 5 April 2008 , the trust 's expenditure was £ 19 @,@ 001 . Members of the Cadwallader Club have helped to provide new boats and blades for the men 's and the women 's 1st VIIIs , and on the Saturday of Eights Week 2008 , the trust presented the boat club with a new coxed four , named Cadwallader . Cadwallader Club members are also non @-@ voting members of the boat club .
= = Rowers = =
D. W. Griffith , the stroke of the Jesus College boat , was present at the inaugural meeting of the Oxford University Boat Club on 23 April 1839 . However , Jesus College oarsmen played an infrequent part in university rowing in the 19th century . No Jesus College student served on the OUBC committee between 1839 and 1899 , the last year for which Sherwood gives records . Two students from the college ( W. S. Thompson and E. W. Davies ( cox ) ) were part of the losing Oxford crew in the second Oxford – Cambridge boat race in 1836 . Between 1858 and 1899 , seven others trialled , unsuccessfully , for places in the Oxford University crew . Since then , college representation in the Boat Race has been more frequent : M. L. Thomas and D. R. Glynne Jones ( 1952 ) and M.L. Thomas ( President , 1953 ) ; Boris Mavra ( 1992 , 1993 and 1995 ) ; the Canadian 2004 Olympic rowing silver medallist Barney Williams ( 2005 and 2006 ) ; and Brodie Buckland ( 2007 ) . Justin Hutchinson rowed for Oxford 's reserve crew , known as Isis , in the 2002 and 2003 Boat Races , as did Tim Farquharson , an undergraduate studying Engineering Science , in 2009 . Various women have won their " Blue " for competing in the Women 's Boat Race against Cambridge : Anna Bean and Ann Bevitt ( 1989 ) ; Louise Sanford ( 1997 ) ; and Claire Weaver ( 1998 ) .
Some prominent individuals rowed while they were students at the college . The historian Albert Pollard was Captain of Boats in 1890 , having rowed in the boat that was last on the river in 1889 . Alwyn Williams ( later Bishop of Durham ) , who was a student from 1906 to 1911 , was captain of the Boat Club , as was James Page ( " Freddie " ) , who went on to become secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association from 1952 to 1972 and a rowing coach for both Oxford and Cambridge Boat Clubs . Maurice Jones ( later Principal of St David 's College , Lampeter ) was a cox , as were Gordon Roe ( later Bishop of Huntingdon ) and the chemist Frank Greenaway . John Sankey ( later Lord Chancellor ) rowed in a Torpid boat that went down four places , whilst the boat in which the baritone David Ffrangcon Davies rowed went up five places in Torpids and four in Eights Week . Angus Buchanan , who won the Victoria Cross in 1916 during the First World War , rowed in a college four in 1919 , despite having been blinded in 1917 . Anton Muttukumaru ( later Commander of the Ceylon Army ) rowed at bow in a college four .
= = College barges = =
Colleges began to keep barges moored on the side of the river on Christ Church Meadow from 1839 ; these would be used for crews to change , for spectators to watch the races and for social functions . Jesus shared a barge with New , St John 's and Pembroke after 1857 . In 1911 , Jesus purchased their own barge from Salters , at a cost of £ 940.14s.8d ( approximately £ 86 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) . It had previously been owned by one of the Livery Companies of the City of London and had been used in the days when the Lord Mayor 's Show took place on the River Thames in London rather than through the streets . After sinking in 1955 , it was salvaged and restored . In 1964 , the college replaced the barge with a boathouse , which is shared with the boat club of Keble College ) . The barge was moved to Maidenhead where it was later restored . It returned to Oxford in 1987 , but was badly damaged by fire in January 1988 . After further restoration , it was moved to Richmond @-@ upon @-@ Thames , where it is moored alongside Richmond Bridge and used as a restaurant . The barge was decorated for some years in the college colours of green and white , with a Welsh red dragon on the prow ; by 2009 , however , it had been repainted with blue instead of green .
= Stark Raving Dad =
" Stark Raving Dad " is the first episode of the third season of American animated television series The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 19 , 1991 . In the episode , main character Homer Simpson is mistaken for a " free @-@ thinking anarchist " and sent to a mental institution , where he shares a room with a large white man named Leon Kompowsky who pretends to be American pop star Michael Jackson . Meanwhile , because he normally forgets her birthday , Bart promises his sister Lisa that he will get her the best present ever .
Al Jean and Mike Reiss wrote the episode while Rich Moore served as director . Michael Jackson guest @-@ starred in the episode as the speaking voice of Leon Kompowsky . For contractual reasons , he was credited as John Jay Smith in the closing credits , and his role in the episode was not officially confirmed until later . Jackson was a fan of the show and called creator Matt Groening one night offering to do a guest spot . Jackson pitched several story ideas for the episode and wrote the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " that is featured in the plot . He also stipulated that he would provide Kompowsky 's speaking voice , but his singing voice would be performed by a sound @-@ alike ( Kipp Lennon ) because he wanted to play a joke on his brothers . The episode contains references to many aspects of Jackson 's career , with Kompowsky singing portions of the songs " Billie Jean " and " Ben " .
" Stark Raving Dad " received generally positive reviews from critics , particularly for the writing and Jackson 's performance . A sequel to the episode was later written , in which Kompowsky was to be voiced by Prince rather than Jackson , but it was never produced . During the January 30 , 1992 , rerun of the episode , a short alternate opening aired before the credits ; the opening was in response to a speech made by President George Bush three days earlier , in which he said Americans needed to be " a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons " .
= = Plot = =
Lisa wakes up Bart to remind him that her birthday is nearing , and that he forgets it every year . Bart promises to get her a present this year . Meanwhile , Homer discovers that all of his white shirts have turned pink because Bart put his red hat in with the laundry . Homer has no choice but to wear a pink shirt to work and as a result , his co @-@ workers poke fun at him . Mr. Burns suspects him of being a " free @-@ thinking anarchist " . Homer is sent home with a 20 @-@ question psychiatric quiz that he has to fill in so that Dr. Marvin Monroe can assess his sanity . Homer is too lazy to finish the quiz on his own and lets Bart fill it in . When Dr. Monroe sees the results , he determines that Homer is insane . Homer is sent to a mental institution , and is put in a cell with a large white man who seems to believe he is Michael Jackson ( referred to as " the big white guy who thinks he 's the little black guy " ) , and who introduces himself as such . Apparently , somehow never having heard of Michael Jackson , Homer believes him and quickly befriends him .
Marge , upon hearing what has happened , comes to the institution and is able to convince Homer 's doctors that he is not insane . Homer bids farewell to Michael , who reveals that he is only in the mental institution voluntarily . Homer decides to let him stay in the family home . He calls and tells Bart that he is bringing Michael to stay for a few days . Against Homer and Michael 's wishes , Bart tells his friend Milhouse and soon all of Springfield turns up outside of the Simpson family 's home to see Michael . The level of excitement is deflated when Homer introduces Michael and they realize he is an impostor . The townspeople become angry at Bart and leave . At the same time , Lisa comes out of the house and is upset with Bart because he has yet again failed to acknowledge her birthday , because of his excitement over Michael Jackson 's arrival .
After overhearing Lisa write in a letter that she is disowning Bart as a brother , the faux Michael convinces Bart to let him help . Together they write and perform a song for Lisa 's birthday called " Happy Birthday Lisa " . Lisa is thrilled and hugs her brother , saying that he has given her the best present ever . Afterwards , Michael reveals that his real name is Leon Kompowsky , a bricklayer from Paterson , New Jersey . He explains that he had been very angry for most of his life , but found some peace in talking in Jackson 's voice because it made everyone around him happy . Leon bids farewell to the Simpsons and walks off down the road , singing Lisa 's birthday song to himself in his normal voice .
= = Production = =
" Stark Raving Dad " was written specifically for Michael Jackson , a fan of the show , who had called Groening one night and offered to do a guest spot . The offer was accepted and a script was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , based on an idea pitched by James L. Brooks . Creator Matt Groening and co @-@ executive producer Sam Simon also contributed significantly to the writing of the episode . In an early version of the script , Homer decided to take his alcoholic friend Barney Gumble in for rehab , but while there Homer began acting crazily so the doctors assumed he was the one to be committed . It was later changed to Homer being hospitalized for wearing a pink shirt , an idea pitched by Brooks . Michael Jackson pitched several story ideas for the episode , such as Bart telling everyone in town that Michael Jackson was coming to his house . He also requested that there be a scene in which he and Bart wrote a song together and asked that a joke about Prince be changed to one about Elvis Presley .
According to Jean , Jackson would not commit to the episode until after a read @-@ through of the script was done . The read was held at Jackson 's manager Sandy Gallin 's house , and Dan Castellaneta ( who provides the voice for Homer ) was 30 minutes late . Jean recalls that " no one said a word , we just sat there waiting " . Following the read , Jackson stipulated his conditions : he would record his speaking parts but not receive credit , and his singing voice would be performed by a sound @-@ alike . Leon Kompowsky 's singing parts were performed by Kipp Lennon , because Jackson wanted to play a joke on his brothers and fool them into thinking the impersonator was him . Lennon recorded his lines at the same time as Jackson , who found the impersonations humorous . Jackson showed up for the recording session alone and did not use the special trailer that was set up for him . According to Jean , Jackson did record versions of the singing parts , and while there have been rumors that those parts were the ones used in the final episode , The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma has stated the Lennon versions were used . Kompowsky 's normal speaking voice , which is heard at the end of the episode , was recorded by cast member Hank Azaria . The episode originally was supposed to end with Kompowsky singing a portion of " Man in the Mirror " in his Michael Jackson voice as he walked down the road , but it was changed to him singing the beginning of " Happy Birthday Lisa " .
" Stark Raving Dad " was the final episode in the season two production run , but aired as the premiere of season three , over a year after it was completed . Michael Jackson was credited with pseudonym John Jay Smith in the closing credits . At the time , the producers of the show were legally prevented from confirming that Jackson guest starred , although many media sources assumed it was really him . Similarly , in season two , actor Dustin Hoffman had guest starred in the episode " Lisa 's Substitute " under the name " Sam Etic " . After " Stark Raving Dad " , the producers decided that if a celebrity wished to guest star on the show , they had to be willing to be credited under their real name .
Jackson was a fan of Bart , and in addition to doing a guest spot on the show , he wanted to give Bart a number one single . He therefore co @-@ wrote the song " Do the Bartman " , which was released as a single around the same time that the episode was produced . Jackson could not take credit for his work on the song due to contractual reasons . Jackson also wrote the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " , which was later included in the album Songs in the Key of Springfield . A version of the song was reportedly scheduled to be included on a bonus disk in the October 2001 special edition of Jackson 's 1991 album Dangerous . However , the bonus disk was eventually dropped from the release . Jackson died on June 25 , 2009 , and the Fox network re @-@ aired the episode on July 5 as a tribute to him . The producers had intended to air the episode on June 28 , 2009 , three days after Jackson 's death , but could not resolve issues with syndication rights in time . The music video for " Do the Bartman " was aired on that date instead . The producers screened the episode first , and the only change made , which was unrelated to Jackson , was the blurring of a phone number .
This was the first episode to broadcast in Dolby Surround .
= = = Alternate opening = = =
The January 30 , 1992 rerun of the episode featured a brief alternate opening , which was written in response to a comment made by the President of the United States , George Bush , three days earlier . The show had previously had a " feud " with the President 's wife Barbara Bush when , in the October 1 , 1990 edition of People , she called The Simpsons " the dumbest thing [ she ] had ever seen " . The writers decided to respond by privately sending a polite letter to Bush in which they posed as Marge Simpson . Bush immediately sent a reply in which she apologized . Later , on January 27 , 1992 , George Bush made a speech during his re @-@ election campaign which included the statement " we are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . "
The writers decided that they wanted to respond quickly like Barbara Bush had to them . However , each episode of The Simpsons takes more than six months to produce , so it is difficult for the show to comment on current events . The writers therefore decided to add a brief response to the next broadcast of The Simpsons , which was a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " on January 30 . Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , was quickly called in so she could record a line .
The broadcast included a new tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek opening . The scene begins in the Simpsons ' living room where the family is watching Bush 's speech . When Bush says " to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons " , Bart replies , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too . " The opening is featured on the season four DVD boxset .
= = Unproduced sequel = =
A year after the episode aired , the writers decided to make a sequel where Leon Kompowsky returns , this time acting like the musician Prince . The script was written by freelance writers and polished by Conan O 'Brien . According to Reiss , the plot of the episode saw Kompowsky / Prince manage to get everyone in the town to " loosen up , become more flamboyant and become more sexually open " .
The script was sent to Prince who agreed to voice the character and sent back a page of notes about what he would be wearing in various scenes . The writers were confused when the notes did not correspond to the script and they discovered that Prince was referring to a script that had been written by someone else . Prince disliked the Simpsons writers ' script and demanded the other one be made into an episode , but the writers refused . The episode eventually fell through and never made it past written form . It became one of the few completed scripts never to be produced .
= = Cultural references = =
Like all episodes of The Simpsons , " Stark Raving Dad " features a variety of references to popular culture . As Bart fills out the 20 @-@ question psychiatry quiz , Homer watches America 's Funniest Home Videos where the three nominated clips are all violent . Many of the scenes in the mental institution are references to the film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . Several of the characters at the institution are based on those in the film , such as Chief . Floyd from the film Rain Man also appears at the mental home . When Marge calls the institution , a muzak version of " Crazy " , sung by Patsy Cline , can be heard over the phone . In the shot of the crowd that awaits Michael Jackson 's arrival outside of the Simpson family 's home , a man is holding a " John 3 : 16 " sign in reference to Rollen Stewart , who was famous for holding a similar sign at sporting events .
Many aspects of Jackson 's career are referenced in the episode . Kompowsky mentions several things which made Jackson famous , including Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever , " Beat It " , and " Thriller " . He also sings portions of the songs " Billie Jean " and " Ben " and performs the moonwalk . When Homer starts mumbling in his sleep , Kompowsky tells his stuffed animal : " Bubbles , it 's going to be a long night . " Bubbles is the name of Jackson 's chimpanzee . Kompowsky also says he was upset when " his " 1979 album Off the Wall only received one Grammy Award nomination ; the writers had read that the real Jackson was genuinely upset .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox network , " Stark Raving Dad " acquired a 13 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating and 23 percent share of the audience . It was viewed in approximately 12 @.@ 8 million homes , finishing the week ranked 33rd . The episode finished second in its time slot behind the season premiere of The Cosby Show , which ranked eighth for the week with a 19 @.@ 7 rating and 31 percent share . The Simpsons was the second highest rated show on Fox the week it aired , behind Married ... with Children .
The episode has been generally well received , being praised by many critics for its writing . In a 2009 review for Slate , Josh Levin wrote that " The greatness of ' Stark Raving Dad ' has a lot more to do with The Simpsons ' writing staff than with Jackson 's voice @-@ over talents . The show 's scripters came up with a plot device far more ingenious than simply dropping the singer into Springfield . " Monica Collins of the Boston Herald also enjoyed the episode . On the day it first aired , she wrote that " This episode is vintage Simpsons , crammed with divinely vulgar visual oddities . And Michael Jackson , of course , is just so weird anyway that he fits right in . " Mark Lorando of The Times @-@ Picayune commented that " throwaway lines on The Simpsons are funnier than the big punchlines on most so @-@ called comedy series ; [ this episode ] has layers of humor , satirical touches that enrich the story lines , " singling out jokes like the America 's Funniest Home Video parody . " The laughs are literally non @-@ stop , and Jackson 's unmistakable vocal presence [ ... ] adds a thousand watts of star power . " In 2011 , Television Blend 's Eric Eisenberg named " Stark Raving Dad " the best episode of the entire series . He praised it for being heartful and stated that what " prevents the episode from seeming artificial or manipulative is that the writing in the episode earns the earnest moments " , and further elaborates that while " strong emotions might be the hallmark of ' Stark Raving Dad , ' it would be a sincere mistake to ignore how funny it is . " He concluded that the episode " is perfectly constructed , is filled with both deep belly laughs and tears , and is simply the greatest episode of The Simpsons "
In a DVD audio commentary , writer Mike Reiss said he felt that Michael Jackson is " not a terrific actor [ ... ] but he did fine . He was really nice , he was a great sport . " In 2006 , Jackson was named the fifth @-@ best Simpsons guest star by IGN . Tom Ganjamie of Best Week Ever called Jackson 's guest appearance the " cleverest [ ... ] ever on The Simpsons " . Writing for IGN , Robert Canning said in a 2009 review that " Stark Raving Dad " is a " solid , funny and touching episode " and described Jackson 's performance as " heartfelt yet self @-@ parodying " . In a 2011 article , Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named Michael Jackson his second favorite musical guest on The Simpsons out of a list of ten .
In 2003 , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that the episode was a good start to season three , but it " gets sappy on more than a few occasions , and it lacks the acerbic bite of the series ' best shows . Nonetheless , it tosses out some good laughs , and the guest appearance by Jackson — under a pseudonym — works well ; Michael shows an ability to mock himself that still surprises me . " In a 2004 review for Digitally Obsessed , Nate Meyers wrote that " there are many funny gags in this episode , especially in the first act when Homer gets a tour of the [ mental ] hospital . Some clever references are made to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , but the second half of the episode is not especially funny . The jokes seem forced and there is too much of an effort to sentimentalize the relationship between Bart and Lisa , causing the show to lose its narrative drive . " In 2007 , Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star listed " Stark Raving Dad " as one of the three worst episodes of The Simpsons .
In a 2009 article for TV Squad , Mike Moody said the episode 's " sweetest moment " is at the end when Kompowsky and Bart perform the birthday song for Lisa . Likewise , writer Al Jean listed that scene as one of his five favorite moments from The Simpsons in 2003 . The reaction to the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " was mixed . Ben Rayner called it a " crap tune " , and Chris Selley of Maclean 's magazine wrote that " Stark Raving Dad " is " an unbearably sappy episode , and that birthday song for Lisa is just ... bad . " Dave Walker of The Times @-@ Picayune , however , listed the episode as one of Jackson 's " many memorable TV moments " and called the song " unforgettable " .
= Pancreatic cancer =
Pancreatic cancer arises when cells in the pancreas , a glandular organ behind the stomach , begin to multiply out of control and form a mass . These cancerous cells have the ability to invade other parts of the body . There are a number of types of pancreatic cancer . The most common , pancreatic adenocarcinoma , accounts for about 85 % of cases , and the term " pancreatic cancer " is sometimes used to refer only to that type . These adenocarcinomas start within the part of the pancreas which makes digestive enzymes . Several other types of cancer , which collectively represent the majority of the non @-@ adenocarcinomas , can also arise from these cells . 1 @-@ 2 % of cases of pancreatic cancer are neuroendocrine tumors , which arise from the hormone @-@ producing cells of the pancreas . These are generally less aggressive than pancreatic adenocarcinoma .
Signs and symptoms of the most common form of pancreatic cancer may include yellow skin , abdominal or back pain , unexplained weight loss , light @-@ colored stools , dark urine and loss of appetite . There are usually no symptoms in the disease 's early stages , and symptoms that are specific enough to suggest pancreatic cancer typically do not develop until the disease has reached an advanced stage . By the time of diagnosis , pancreatic cancer has often spread to other parts of the body .
Pancreatic cancer rarely occurs before the age of 40 , and more than half of cases of pancreatic adenocarcinoma occur in those over 70 . Risk factors for pancreatic cancer include tobacco smoking , obesity , diabetes , and certain rare genetic conditions . About 25 % of cases are linked to smoking , and 5 – 10 % are linked to inherited genes . Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed by a combination of medical imaging techniques such as ultrasound or computed tomography , blood tests , and examination of tissue samples ( biopsy ) . The disease is divided into stages , from early ( stage I ) to late ( stage IV ) . Screening the general population has not been found to be effective .
The risk of developing pancreatic cancer is lower among non @-@ smokers , and people who maintain a healthy weight and limit their consumption of red or processed meat . A smoker 's chance of developing the disease decreases if they stop smoking , and almost returns to that of the rest of the population after 20 years . Pancreatic cancer can be treated with surgery , radiotherapy , chemotherapy , palliative care , or a combination of these . Treatment options are partly based on the cancer stage . Surgery is the only treatment that can cure pancreatic adenocarcinoma , and may also be done to improve quality of life without the potential for cure . Pain management and medications to improve digestion are sometimes needed . Early palliative care is recommended even for those receiving treatment that aims for a cure .
In 2012 , pancreatic cancers of all types were the seventh most common cause of cancer deaths , resulting in 330 @,@ 000 deaths globally . Pancreatic cancer is the fifth most common cause of death from cancer in the United Kingdom , and the fourth most common in the United States . The disease occurs most often in the developed world , where about 70 % of the new cases in 2012 originated . Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has a very poor prognosis : after diagnosis , 25 % of people survive one year and 5 % live for five years . For cancers diagnosed early , the five @-@ year survival rate rises to about 20 % . Neuroendocrine cancers have better outcomes ; at five years from diagnosis , 65 % of those diagnosed are living , though survival varies considerably depending on the type of tumor .
= = Types = =
The many types of pancreatic cancer can be divided into two general groups . The vast majority of cases ( about 99 % ) occur in the part of the pancreas which produces digestive enzymes , known as the exocrine component . There are several sub @-@ types of exocrine pancreatic cancers , but their diagnosis and treatment have much in common . The small minority of cancers that arise in the hormone @-@ producing ( endocrine ) tissue of the pancreas have different clinical characteristics . Both groups occur mainly ( but not exclusively ) in people over 40 , and are slightly more common in men , but some rare sub @-@ types mainly occur in women or children .
= = = Exocrine cancers = = =
The exocrine group is dominated by pancreatic adenocarcinoma ( variations of this name may add " invasive " and " ductal " ) , which is by far the most common type , representing about 85 % of all pancreatic cancers . Nearly all these start in the ducts of the pancreas , and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is often abbreviated as PDAC . This is despite the fact that the tissue from which it arises – the pancreatic ductal epithelium – represents less than 10 % of the pancreas by cell volume . This cancer originates in the ducts that carry secretions ( such as enzymes and bicarbonate ) away from the pancreas . About 60 – 70 % of adenocarcinomas occur in the ' head ' of the pancreas .
The next most common type , acinar cell carcinoma of the pancreas , arises in the clusters of cells that produce these enzymes , and represents 5 % of exocrine pancreas cancers . Like the ' functioning ' endocrine cancers described below , acinar cell carcinomas may cause over @-@ production of certain molecules , in this case digestive enzymes , which may cause symptoms such as skin rashes and joint pain .
Cystadenocarcinomas account for 1 % of pancreatic cancers , and they have a better prognosis than the other exocrine types .
Pancreatoblastoma is a rare form , mostly occurring in childhood , and with a relatively good prognosis . Other exocrine cancers include adenosquamous carcinomas , signet ring cell carcinomas , hepatoid carcinomas , colloid carcinomas , undifferentiated carcinomas , and undifferentiated carcinomas with osteoclast @-@ like giant cells . Solid pseudopapillary tumor is a rare low @-@ grade neoplasm that mainly affects younger women , and generally has a very good prognosis .
Pancreatic mucinous cystic neoplasms are a broad group of pancreas tumors that have varying malignant potential . They are being detected at a greatly increased rate as CT scans become more powerful and common , and discussion continues as how best to assess and treat them , given that many are benign .
= = = Neuroendocrine = = =
The small minority of tumors that arise elsewhere in the pancreas are mainly pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors ( PanNETs ) . Neuroendocrine tumors ( NETs ) are a diverse group of benign or malignant tumors that arise from the body 's neuroendocrine cells , which are responsible for integrating the nervous and endocrine systems . NETs can start in most organs of the body , including the pancreas , where the various malignant types are all considered to be rare . PanNETs are grouped into ' functioning ' and ' non @-@ functioning ' types , depending on the degree to which they produce hormones . The functioning types secrete hormones such as insulin , gastrin , and glucagon into the bloodstream , often in large quantities , giving rise to serious symptoms such as low blood sugar , but also favoring relatively early detection . The most common functioning PanNETs are insulinomas and gastrinomas , named after the hormones they secrete . The non @-@ functioning types do not secrete hormones in a sufficient quantity to give rise to overt clinical symptoms . For this reason , non @-@ functioning PanNETs are often diagnosed only after the cancer has spread to other parts of the body .
As with other neuroendocrine tumors , the history of the terminology and classification of PanNETs is complex . PanNETs are sometimes called " islet cell cancers " , even though it is now known that they do not actually arise from islet cells as previously thought .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Since pancreatic cancer usually does not cause recognizable symptoms in its early stages , the disease is typically not diagnosed until it has spread beyond the pancreas itself . This is one of the main reasons for the generally poor survival rates . Exceptions to this are the functioning PanNETs , where over @-@ production of various active hormones can give rise to symptoms ( which depend on the type of hormone ) .
Bearing in mind that the disease is rarely diagnosed before the age of 40 , common symptoms of pancreatic adenocarcinoma occurring before diagnosis include :
Pain in the upper abdomen or back , often spreading from around the stomach to the back . The location of the pain can indicate the part of the pancreas where a tumor is located . The pain may be worse at night and may increase over time to become severe and unremitting . It may be slightly relieved by bending forward . In the UK , about half of new cases of pancreatic cancer are diagnosed following a visit to a hospital emergency department for pain or jaundice . In up to two @-@ thirds of people abdominal pain is the main symptom , for 46 % of the total accompanied by jaundice , with 13 % having jaundice without pain .
Jaundice , a yellow tint to the whites of the eyes or skin , with or without pain , and possibly in combination with darkened urine . This results when a cancer in the head of the pancreas obstructs the common bile duct as it runs through the pancreas .
Unexplained weight loss , either from loss of appetite , or loss of exocrine function resulting in poor digestion .
The tumor may compress neighboring organs , disrupting digestive processes and making it difficult for the stomach to empty , which may cause nausea and a feeling of fullness . The undigested fat leads to foul @-@ smelling , fatty feces that are difficult to flush away . Constipation is common .
At least 50 % of people with pancreatic adenocarcinoma have diabetes at the time of diagnosis . While long @-@ standing diabetes is a known risk factor for pancreatic cancer ( see Risk factors ) , the cancer can itself cause diabetes , in which case recent onset of diabetes could be considered an early sign of the disease . People over 50 who develop diabetes have eight times the usual risk of developing pancreatic adenocarcinoma within three years , after which the relative risk declines .
= = = Other findings = = =
Trousseau 's syndrome , in which blood clots form spontaneously in the portal blood vessels , the deep veins of the extremities , or the superficial veins anywhere on the body , may be associated with pancreatic cancer , and is found in about 10 % of cases .
Clinical depression has been reported in association with pancreatic cancer in some 10 – 20 % of cases , and can be a hindrance to optimal management . The depression sometimes appears before the diagnosis of cancer , suggesting that it may be brought on by the biology of the disease .
Other common manifestations of the disease include : weakness and tiring easily ; dry mouth ; sleep problems ; and a palpable abdominal mass . "
= = = Symptoms of spread ( metastasis ) = = =
The spread of pancreatic cancer to other organs ( metastasis ) may also cause symptoms . Typically , pancreatic adenocarcinoma first spreads to nearby lymph nodes , and later to the liver or to the peritoneal cavity , large intestine or lungs . It is uncommon for it to spread to the bones or brain .
Cancers in the pancreas may also be secondary cancers that have spread from other parts of the body . This is uncommon , found in only about 2 % of cases of pancreatic cancer . Kidney cancer is by far the most common cancer to spread to the pancreas , followed by colorectal cancer , and then cancers of the skin , breast , and lung . Surgery may be performed on the pancreas in such cases , whether in hope of a cure or to alleviate symptoms .
= = Risk factors = =
Risk factors for pancreatic adenocarcinoma include :
Age , gender , and ethnicity ; the risk of developing pancreatic cancer increases with age . Most cases occur after age 65 , while cases before age 40 are uncommon . The disease is slightly more common in men than women , and in the United States is over 1 @.@ 5 times more common in African Americans , though incidence in Africa is low .
Cigarette smoking is the best @-@ established avoidable risk factor for pancreatic cancer , approximately doubling risk among long @-@ term smokers , the risk increasing with the number of cigarettes smoked and the years of smoking . The risk declines slowly after smoking cessation , taking some 20 years to return to almost that of non @-@ smokers .
Obesity ; a BMI greater than 35 increases relative risk by about half .
Family history ; 5 – 10 % of pancreatic cancer cases have an inherited component , where people have a family history of pancreatic cancer . The risk escalates greatly if more than one first @-@ degree relative had the disease , and more modestly if they developed it before the age of 50 . Most
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to return to his team in Cardiff . Before departing , Jack speculates about his immortality and reminisces about his youth on the Boeshane Peninsula , an implicit suggestion that he may one day become the mysterious " Face of Boe " ( a recurring character voiced by Struan Rodger ) .
In Torchwood 's second series ( 2008 ) , Jack returns with a lighter attitude , and finds his team have continued working in his absence . They are also more insistent to learn of his past , especially after meeting his former partner , the unscrupulous Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) . The episode " Adam " explores Jack 's childhood in the Boeshane Peninsula , revealing through flashback sequences how his father Franklin ( Demetri Goritsas ) died and young Jack ( Jack Montgomery ) lost his younger brother Gray ( Ethan Brooke ) during an alien invasion . Flashbacks in the series ' penultimate episode " Fragments " depict Jack 's capture by Torchwood in the late 19th century . Initially their prisoner , Jack is coerced into becoming a freelance agent for the organization , and eventually becomes leader of Torchwood Three at midnight on 1 January 2000 . The series finale features the return of Captain John and Jack 's brother Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , who , after a lifetime of torture by aliens , want revenge on Jack . While Jack manages to repair his friendship with Captain John to some degree , he is forced to place his brother in cryogenic stasis after Gray kills his teammates Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) and Owen ( Burn Gorman ) . Jack subsequently appears alongside the casts of Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures in the two @-@ part crossover finale of the 2008 Doctor Who series , " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " . Jack is summoned along with other former companions of the Doctor to assist him in defeating the mad scientist Davros ( Julian Bleach ) and his creation , the Daleks . Jack parts company from the Doctor once again , having helped save the universe from destruction .
Torchwood 's third series ( 2009 ) is a five @-@ part serial entitled Children of Earth . Aliens known as the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 announce they are coming to Earth . Civil servant John Frobisher ( Peter Capaldi ) orders the destruction of Torchwood to cover a conspiracy ; in 1965 , the British government had authorized Jack to sacrifice twelve children to the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , which is shown in flashbacks . Jack is blown apart in an explosion , but painfully reconstitutes from an incomplete pile of body parts ; Gwen and Ianto escape and later rescue Jack from a concrete grave . Jack 's daughter Alice ( Lucy Cohu ) and grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) are taken into custody by the assassins . The 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 demand ten percent of the world 's children . Although he handed over twelve children in 1965 , Jack refuses to give up any this time around . The 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 release a fatal virus ; Ianto dies in Jack 's arms . To create the signal that will destroy the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , Jack sacrifices Steven . Six months later , having lost his lover , his grandson and his daughter , he bids farewell to Gwen and is transported aboard an alien ship to leave Earth for parts unknown . In the closing scenes of 2010 Doctor Who special The End of Time , the critically injured Doctor gives each companion a farewell before his impending regeneration . Finding Jack in an exotic alien bar , he leaves him a note containing the name of Titanic crew member Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) , sitting on Jack 's left side ; the two proceed to flirt .
The fourth series , Miracle Day ( 2011 ) , an American co @-@ production , sees Jack return to Earth to investigate a phenomenon where humans can no longer die ; Jack discovers that he has become mortal . Investigating their connection to the so @-@ called " miracle " , CIA agent Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) renditions Jack and Gwen to America , but joins the team along with CIA colleague Esther Drummond ( Alexa Havins ) after conspirators within the CIA betray them . Jack 's investigations into the miracle repeatedly turn up dead @-@ ends , indicating a decades @-@ old conspiracy to manipulate the global economy , as well as political institutions , for unknown purposes . Flashbacks in " Immortal Sins " depict Jack 's relationship with Italian thief Angelo Colasanto ( Daniele Favilli ) in late 1920s New York City , ending in heartbreak after Jack is killed , bled and tortured repeatedly by the local community . In the present day , Angelo 's granddaughter Olivia ( Nana Visitor ) explains that the descendants of three local businessmen who wished to purchase Jack 's powers — " the Three Families " — are responsible for the miracle , using Jack 's blood in conjunction with what they call " the Blessing " . In " The Gathering " , the team ultimately track down the Families and the Blessing , which is revealed to be an antipodal geological formation connected to the Earth 's morphic field running from Shanghai and Buenos Aires ; the team divide , attempting to reach both access points . To end the miracle , in " The Blood Line " , Jack has Gwen kill him so that his mortal blood can reset the human morphic field ; Gwen kills him with a bullet through the chest , while Rex — who transfused himself with Jack 's blood to keep it safe — allows the Blessing to drain him too , in Buenos Aires . Rex survives , and with the morphic field restored , Jack resurrects . At Esther 's funeral however , they discover that Rex has acquired self @-@ healing abilities just like Jack 's .
= = = Literature = = =
Jack features in the BBC Books " New Series Adventures " Doctor Who novels The Deviant Strain , The Stealers of Dreams , and Only Human . These novels take place between episodes of the 2005 series of Doctor Who . In The Stealers of Dreams , Jack refers to the Face of Boe as a famous figure in his home era ; the producers of the series had not conceptualized the possibility of a Jack and Boe connection until mid @-@ way into the production of the 2007 series .
The first wave of BBC Books Torchwood novels , Another Life , Border Princes , and Slow Decay ( published January 2007 ) , are set between episodes of the first series of Torchwood . The novels Trace Memory , The Twilight Streets , and Something in the Water ( published March 2008 ) , are set during the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood . The Twilight Streets suggests Jack was a freelance Torchwood agent in the 1940s , who disagreed with their methods but was persuaded by the love of an ex @-@ boyfriend , Greg . The novel also explained that during the events of the Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " ( which was set in Cardiff ) , Jack placed a lockdown on Torchwood activity so as not to create a paradox involving his past self . Trace Memory similarly depicts Jack as a freelance Torchwood agent , living and working in the late 1960s . Pack Animals , SkyPoint , and Almost Perfect ( October 2008 ) , are made up of more second series adventures , apart from Almost Perfect which is set after Series Two finale " Exit Wounds " . Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead , and The House that Jack Built ( May 2009 ) , similarly are set between the second and third series of the show . The House that Jack Built focuses partly on Jack 's life in 1906 . Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift , and Consequences ( October 2009 ) , are likewise set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth .
First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Jack also appears . One such comic , written in 2009 by John Barrowman and sister Carole E. Barrowman , " Captain Jack and the Selkie " , expands on Captain Jack 's characterisation . Barrowman comments that " We ’ d already agreed to tell a story that showed a side of Jack and a part of his history that hadn ’ t been explored too much in other media . I wanted to give fans something original about Jack . " Torchwood Magazine also ran with the ten @-@ part Rift War ! storyline from April to December 2008 . The first Torchwood comic " Jetsam " was later collected along with Rift War ! in a graphic novel .
The Torchwood Archives , published after the second series in 2008 , is a companion book written by Gary Russell which gives an " insider 's look " into the life of Jack and the Torchwood team . The book collects and re @-@ publishes ancillary material which appeared on the Torchwood website in the first two seasons , and provides new material such as rough dates for things like Jack 's marriage as relayed by the book 's fictional narrator . The book is composed of fictitious archive notes , personnel forms , photographs , newspaper clippings and staff memos , and offers revelations about the character which would later be confirmed by the television series . For example , Archives first mention Jack 's lover Lucia Moretti , who is mentioned in Children of Earth . In a similar vein to The Torchwood Archives but from a real @-@ world perspective , Gary Russell 's The Torchwood Encyclopedia ( 2009 ) expands on " every fact and figure " for Jack and the Torchwood world .
= = = Online media = = =
During the first series of Torchwood , the Torchwood website , located at torchwood.org.uk , recounted some adventures by Captain Jack through an alternate reality game made up of electronic literature in the form of fictional intercepted blogs , newspaper cutouts and confidential letters and IM conversations between members of the Torchwood Three crew . Written by James Goss , the first series ' website sheds some light on Jack 's backstory in the years he worked for Torchwood . For the second series in 2008 , a second interactive Torchwood online game was devised , scripted by series writer Phil Ford , and as with the 2006 website contained some information on Jack 's unseen adventures . The BBC America Torchwood also has a ' Captain 's Blog ' section which relays Jack 's accounts of the events of each episode . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature for the first two series in hardback form , including the Captain 's Blog section of the BBC America website .
During Series Four of Doctor Who , the BBC 's website also included a section called " Captain Jack 's Monster Files " featuring weekly webcast videos narrated by John Barrowman in character as Captain Jack giving " top secret " facts collected by Torchwood about Doctor Who monsters , such as the Slitheen . A Christmas special 2008 Monster File features Barrowman in new footage as Jack , as does the Cybermen edition added following the airing of " The Next Doctor " on Christmas Day . For Dr Fiona Hobden , the Monster Files ' mock @-@ documentary format give an " additional twist " to the interplay between history and fiction . Because Captain Jack narrates , " the story unfolds in the tradition of contemporary historical documentary , the docudrama " ; in the Monster File for " The Fires of Pompeii " , Harkness ' commentary moves the ' reality ' of the episode away from the explosion of Vesuvius and the human experience , and to the story itself . From Series Five onwards , the Monster Files are instead presented by River Song ( Alex Kingston ) .
Jack also appears in the web @-@ based motion comic series Torchwood : Web of Lies ( 2011 ) , which ties into Miracle Day . The story depicts a series two @-@ set adventure where Jack is kidnapped by unknown assailants and pursued by Gwen . Investigations by a woman named Holly ( voice of Eliza Dushku ) establish that Jack was kidnapped by the Three Families so they could acquire entire vats of his blood , which she destroys .
= = = Audio drama = = =
In addition to the paperback novels , Jack also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first four being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster and narrated by Eve Myles , released September 2008 , and The Sin Eaters written by Brian Minchin and narrated by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd , released September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Jack and his team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths . Between 1 and 3 July , Radio 4 aired three further audio dramas in The Afternoon Play slot , bridging the gap between Series 2 and 3 . " Golden Age " introduced Jack 's ex @-@ lover Duchess Eleanor ( Jasmine Hyde ) , the leader of Torchwood India , which Jack closed down in 1924 . " The Dead Line " features another ex @-@ girlfriend of Jack 's , Stella Courtney ( Doña Croll ) .
2011 audio drama series The Lost Files was released to tie in with Miracle Day . " The Devil and Miss Carew " and " Submission " are set in the same period as the previous audio dramas . " House of the Dead " , however , reveals itself in its final act to be set six months after Ianto 's death ; Jack visited the House of the Dead to make contact with Ianto , who is unaware that he is dead . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff spacetime rift forever with Jack 's device .
In 2015 , BBC Worldwide granted Big Finish Productions the licence to produce a series Torchwood audio plays , beginning with The Conspiracy in September 2015 and a series of five more monthly releases from January 2016 . John Barrowman is signed to reprise his role as Jack , who has a central role in The Conspiracy as the leader of the Torchwood team .
= = Characterisation = =
= = = Concept and creation = = =
In naming the character , executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies drew inspiration from the Marvel Comics character Agatha Harkness , a character whose surname Davies had previously used in naming lead characters in Century Falls and The Grand . Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . Jack 's original appearances in Doctor Who were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero , and John Barrowman consciously minded this in his portrayal of the character . Following on that arc , the character 's debut episode would leave his morality as ambiguous , publicity materials asking , " Is he a force for good or ill ? "
Actor John Barrowman himself was a key factor in the conception of Captain Jack . Barrowman says that at the time of his initial casting , Davies and co @-@ executive producer , Julie Gardner had explained to him that they " basically wrote the character around [ John ] " . Davies had singled out Barrowman for the part . On meeting him , Barrowman tried out the character using his native Scottish accent , his normal American accent , and an English accent ; Davies decided it " made it bigger if it was an American accent " . Barrowman recounts Davies as having been searching for an actor with a " matinée idol quality " , telling him that " the only one in the whole of Britain who could do it was you " . A number of television critics have compared Barrowman 's performances as Captain Jack to those of Hollywood actor Tom Cruise .
The character 's introduction served to posit him as a secondary hero and a rival to the series protagonist , the Doctor , simultaneously paralleling the Doctor 's detached alien nature with Jack 's humanity and " heart " . John Barrowman describes the character in his initial appearance as " an intergalactic conman " and also a " rogue Time Agent " which he defines as " part of a kind of space CIA " and alludes to the moral ambiguity of having " done something in his past " and not knowing " whether it is good or bad because his memory has been erased " . Writer Stephen James Walker notes similarities have been found between Jack and Angel ( David Boreanaz ) , the heroic vampire from America 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel ; Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal pointed out that " Back alley fights , knowledge of the paranormal and an unwanted task of defending the helpless are only a few of the correlations between the two characters . " Jack has also been compared to the title character of America 's Xena : Warrior Princess , which featured lesbian subtext between Xena ( Lucy Lawless ) and her close friend Gabrielle ( Renee O 'Connor ) . Polina Skibinskaya , writing for AfterElton.com , an American gay men 's website , notes both are " complex characters " haunted by their past misdeeds . Furthermore , like Xena , Jack is " a gay basher ’ s worst nightmare : a queer weapon @-@ wielding , ass @-@ kicking superhero gleefully chewing his way through awesome fight scenes " . One academic article refers to Jack as " an indestructible Captain Scarlet figure " . In a comparative contrast , where the Doctor is a pacifist , Jack is more inclined to see violent means to reach similar ends . The BBC News website refers to Jack 's role within Doctor Who as " [ continuing ] what began with Ian Chesterton and continued later with Harry Sullivan " . Whereas in the classic series the female " companions " were sometimes exploited and sexualised for the entertainment of predominantly male audiences , the producers could reverse this dynamic with Jack , citing an equal need amongst modern audiences to " look at good looking men " . John Barrowman linked the larger number of women watching the show as a key factor in this .
Jack is bisexual , and is the first televised Doctor Who character to be openly anything other than heterosexual . In Jack 's first appearance , the Doctor suggests that Jack 's orientation is more common in the 51st century , when humankind will deal with multiple alien species and becomes more sexually flexible . Within Doctor Who 's narrative , Jack 's sexual orientation is not specifically labelled as that could " make it an issue " . On creating Jack , Davies comments " I thought : ' It 's time you introduce bisexuals properly into mainstream television , ' " with a focus on making Jack fun and swashbuckling as opposed to negative and angsty . Davies also expresses that he didn 't make the character bisexual " from any principle " , but rather because " it would be interesting from a narrative point of view . " The bisexuality @-@ related labels " pansexual " and " omnisexual " are also frequently applied to the character . Writer Steven Moffat suggests that questions of sexual orientation do not even enter into Jack 's mind ; Moffat also comments " It felt right that the James Bond of the future would bed anyone . " Within Torchwood , the character refers to sexual orientation classifications as " quaint " . In an interview with the Chicago Tribune , John Barrowman explained that " [ He ] ’ s bisexual , but in the realm of the show , we call him omnisexual , because on the show , [ the characters ] also have sex with aliens who take human form , and sex with male @-@ male , women @-@ women , all sorts of combinations . " The term is also used once , in @-@ universe , in the novel The House that Jack Built , when Ianto comments to a woman 's remark about Jack , " He prefers the term ' omnisexual ' . "
= = = Costume = = =
While in his first several Doctor Who appearances , Jack did not have a set costume , Torchwood established a continual look for Jack which recalled that of his first Doctor Who appearance . The design has been described as " an iconic piece of sci @-@ fi culture " . A writer for Wired attributes much of Jack 's appeal to the coat : " I think it has lots to do with that coat he always wears . Coats are cool , just like fezzes and bow ties and Stetsons . The only difference is that Captain Jack doesn 't ever tell you his coat is cool . It just is . " In fact , in her essay " Fashioning Masculinity and Desire " , Sarah Gilligan attributes Torchwood 's popularity — as well as that of the character — to the costume . She credits the greatcoat with helping to fashion the character 's masculinity , and argues that Jack 's costume creates its own discourse " through which costume drama and Post Heritage cinema 's escapism flows " .
During Jack 's initial appearances in Doctor Who , Russell T Davies held a " half @-@ hearted " theory that Jack would dress specific to the time period he was in , to contrast the Doctor who dresses the same wherever and whenever he goes . He is introduced wearing a greatcoat in World War II @-@ set episodes , but changes to modern day jeans in contemporary episode " Boom Town " and black leather in futuristic episodes . Davies admits that this was a " bit of a lame idea " and decided that Jack " never looked better than when he was in his World War II outfit " . From the pilot of Torchwood onwards , Harkness once again wears period military clothes from the second World War , including braces and an officer 's wool greatcoat in every appearance . Costume designer Ray Holman commented in a Torchwood Magazine interview that " We always wanted to keep the World War Two hero look for him , so all his outfits have a 1940s flavour . " Because the character was expected to " be running around a lot " , Holman redesigned his RAF Group Captain 's greatcoat from Doctor Who to make it more fluid and less " weighty " . Jack 's other costumes are " loosely wartime based " , such as the trousers are " getting more and more styled to suit his figure " . Holman explains that there are actually five Captain Jack coats used on the show . The " hero version " is used for most scenes , while there is also a wetcoat made with pre @-@ shrunk fabric , running coat which is slightly shorter to prevent heels getting caught , and two " stunt coats " that had been " hero coats " in the first series . " Davies feels the military uniform reinforces the idea that the character " likes his Captain Jack Harkness identity " . Julie Gardner describes the coat as " epic and classic and dramatic " , while director Brian Kelly believes it gives Jack " a sweep and a presence " .
For Miracle Day , Davies commissioned new costume designer Shawna Trpcic ( previously costume designer for Angel , Firefly and Dollhouse ) to create a new greatcoat design . This was partially motivated by Los Angeles ' warmer climate ; shooting in Wales had necessitated Barrowman be fit in much warmer clothing . The new coat is custom made by Italian designers , and is actually cashmere @-@ blend wool where the previous one had been cotton . Trpcic says that she " just wanted to modernise it , give it a more modern fit , but leave the drape and keep it cape @-@ like " . Trpcic felt prepared for the job of redesigning the coat because of her prior work on Firefly , tailoring for Nathan Fillion 's Captain Malcolm Reynolds : " I 'm kind of used to iconic captain 's coats and the importance of staying loyal to what the fans expect and to what we need " . Journalist Maureen Ryan commented that the new coat is " greatly improved " and the redesign " gives the coat the kind of movement and swagger Jack brings with him on every adventure " .
= = = Development = = =
The character is described as both " lethally charming ... good looking and utterly captivating " , as well as " flirtatious , cunning , clever and a bit of an action man " . Within Doctor Who , Jack 's personality is relatively light @-@ hearted , although this changes in Torchwood 's first series , where he becomes a darker character . In Torchwood 's first series , Jack has been shaped by his ongoing search for the Doctor and also by his role as a leader , in which he is predominantly more aloof . In Torchwood , he would occasionally inquire or muse about the afterlife and religion , sympathising with a man 's desire to die . Returning in Doctor Who Series Three , Jack indicates he now maintains a less suicidal outlook than before . In the second series of Torchwood , Jack became a much more light @-@ hearted character once again , after appearances in Doctor Who where he was reunited with the Doctor . In the third series of Torchwood , the audience sees some of Jack 's " darker side " , as well as " the secrets that Jack has , the pressures , drama and the trauma he 's carrying on his shoulders " .
Lynnette Porter comments on Jack 's relation to scholar FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan 's theses on ' the hero ' in fiction . Because Jack is immortal and always comes back from the dead , Porter argues that Jack cannot literally fulfil the " physical death aspect " of Raglan 's criteria for a hero . However , Jack instead has several symbolic deaths . For instance , in the last scene of Children of Earth . Porter observes that camera angles emphasise Jack 's profile as solitary man atop a hill in Cardiff , departing . This scene of " going away for good " against the backdrop of the city he has long protected , hints at the death of the Captain Jack persona ; in Porter 's words , " the immortal captain " dies " at the top of a hill in Wales at the conclusion of the " epic " miniseries " , " epic " traditionally being the genre of heroism . The American political blog Daily Kos states Jack " can certainly be characterised as a Byronic hero , a tragic figure with a streak of melancholy , heroic yet misunderstood , bold yet rash . Most importantly , his sexuality is one single aspect of a much more complex , flawed character . " G. Todd Davis examines the ways in which Jack conforms to the Byronic hero character trope . Physically , he identifies Jack as dark @-@ haired and strikingly handsome , with masculine physique ; he is intelligent and aware of it , to the point of a superiority complex ; he demands unquestioning loyalty , has guilty secrets in his past , and is self @-@ sacrificing . For this , Davis lists Jack alongside Milton 's Satan from Paradise Lost , Shelley 's Prometheus , and also Angel from Buffy , amongst others .
As a show , Torchwood is highly intertextual . The consequence of this is that many sides of Jack are shown across various media . One commentator feels that this emphasises Jack 's pivotal place in the development and change of modern science fiction heroes . The character 's unexpected popularity with a multitude of audiences , would later shape his appearances both as a traditional " action hero " and as a positive role model for younger viewers . Barrowman also remarks that " The beauty of Captain Jack , and one of the reasons why I think , as an actor , I 've landed on my feet , is that he 's popular with one audience in Torchwood and with another in Doctor Who . "
= = = = Moral ambiguity = = = =
In several instances in Torchwood , Jack displays no qualms about killing a person of any species , which within Doctor Who , allows Jack 's character to act in ways the lead character cannot . Barrowman remarks , " He 'll do things the Doctor won 't do ... [ such as ] fight . Jack will kill . And the Doctor , in a way , knows that , so he lets Jack do it . I 'd say Jack 's the companion @-@ hero . " A flashback in the third series of Torchwood shows Captain Jack sacrificing twelve children to aliens in order to save millions of lives . Davies feels that the third series of Torchwood is a " tale of retribution and perhaps redemption " for Captain Jack , who experiences " maximum damage " when his lover Ianto is killed . Davies chose to have Ianto die so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his grandson in order to destroy the same aliens .
When reuniting with the Doctor in the 2007 series of Doctor Who , he is verbally warned " don 't you dare " when pointing a gun , and scolded when contemplating snapping the Master 's neck . Witnessing the murder of his colleague Owen in Torchwood , Jack shoots his killer in the forehead , killing him in an act of swift revenge . Whilst the Doctor scolds Jack for joining the Torchwood Institute ( an organisation he perceives as xenophobic and aggressive ) , Jack maintains that he reformed the Institute in the Doctor 's image ; Jack himself had initially been critical of the moral failings of a 19th @-@ century Torchwood . Actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd describes the 19th century Torchwood as " quite ruthless and quite evil " and " on the other side " from Jack and the Doctor . Through Jack , whose perspective is widened by his experiences in other planets and times , the organisation was able to grow less jingoistic . One academic article , which compares Torchwood to the American drama series 24 , opines that Jack 's attitudes make the show 's ethos largely antithetical to that of 24 . Because Jack explores the " complexity of negotiating differing worldviews , cultural values , beliefs , and moral codes " through a framework established by the Doctor , to " value life , support democratic principles and egalitarianism , and protect those who cannot protect themselves " , consequently " The world of Torchwood is depicted , not as the dichotomous " us " ( or United States ) and " other " of Jack Bauer 's 24 , but as the omnipolitical , omnisexual , omnicultural world of Jack Harkness . " Porter finds , however , that like Bauer , Jack saves the world using similarly morally grey means when he tortures Beth the sleeper agent , in " Sleeper " , in order to avert an interplanetary attack .
Although science fiction heroes have , Porter argues , " grown greyer over time " , Jack represents as of Children of Earth a culmination of this trend , resulting in a full " devolution / deconstruction of the traditional hero " . In Children of Earth , Jack has to sacrifice his own grandson to save the world . Barrowman was concerned that the storyline could have made the character unpopular . He believes however that Jack was given the tough decision on how to save humanity ; the actor says " when I read all of the stuff he had to do , I had to look at it from the point of view of ' I 'm Jack Harkness and I 'm right ' . " For Lynnette Porter , Jack 's actions in the serial make him " a benchmark for [ morally ] grey heroes " ; some audiences may even view him , in light of his actions , as " villainous or downright monstrous . " Although Jack ultimately saves the majority of the world 's children and finds a way to foil the monstrous 456 , the situation in which he is placed forces him to make a morally difficult ( and to some viewers , reprehensible ) decision . Such , Porter argues , is the mark of a grey hero . Davies stated in an interview with SFX that he " loved " the uproarious reaction to Jack 's actions , defending the character in saying " He saved every single child in the world ! If you would fail to do that then you ’ re the monster , frankly . It ’ s this extraordinary treatment that only science fiction heroes get . " When Jack is departing Earth , the music playing is titled " Redemption " , signifying that his departure is also perhaps his redeeming act in the serial .
= = = = Face of Boe = = = =
Russell T Davies referred to a scene in " Last of the Time Lords " as promoting a theory that Jack may one day become recurring character " the Face of Boe " ( a large , mysterious disembodied head in a glass case ) as a consequence of his immortality and slow aging . The Face first appeared in 2005 episode " The End of the World " , appearing fully three times and maintaining a presence through to the end of the 2007 series . Barrowman described himself and David Tennant as being " so excited " to the extent where they " jumped up screaming " when they read Jack 's line regarding the Face of Boe , remarking " It was probably the most excitable moment we had during the shooting of that series . " The Face of Boe had originally been a throwaway line in a script for " The End of the World " ; because creating the character seemed expensive , the Face of Boe was nearly discarded and replaced . However , special effects designer Neil Gorton loved the idea and pushed to make sure the character lived . Davies loved Gorton 's design and to his surprise , the character was written into future episodes and became pivotal in the third series . In a spin @-@ off novel , The Stealer of Dreams ( 2005 ) , Captain Jack makes a reference to the Face of Boe as a famous figure . Davies conceived the idea that the two characters might be connected midway through the production of the 2007 series .
Barrowman states that when fans ask him if Jack is really the Face of Boe , he tells them he believes he is and states that he and Davies hold it to be true " in [ their ] little world " ; the link is " unconfirmed " within the text of the show . As to how Jack becomes the Face , Barrowman feels the answer doesn 't matter as it is intentionally mysterious . Barrowman likes the characters being connected because it means in spite of how the Doctor initially treats Jack , " Boe becomes his confidante and the one the Doctor returns to for advice and information " which he feels is a " wonderful twist of events " . However , Davies doesn 't like making whether Jack really is the Face of Boe explicit , stating " the moment it became very true or very false , the joke dies " . He has refused the publication of spin @-@ off novels and comic books that have tried to definitively link the two .
In relationship to Miracle Day , where Jack becomes mortal , critics approached Barrowman and Davies about the implications of such a move for Jack 's potential future as the Face of Boe . Barrowman stated that the open @-@ ended rules of the science fiction genre meant that Jack could still become the Face of Boe even after Miracle Day . By contrast , Davies was keen to emphasise that the possibility of Jack becoming the Face of Boe remained " conjecture " , and that the possibility remained that Jack would not survive Miracle Day , adding " You know how I love killing people off . "
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Ianto = = = =
In a Doctor Who Magazine interview , Barrowman described Jack 's love for Ianto as " lustful " , and explained " I don 't think he 'd settle down with Ianto . He might do , but he 'd let Ianto know that he [ Jack ] has to play around on the side " . The Torchwood Series Two premiere sees Jack ask Ianto out on a date , after finding out Gwen is engaged . John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd opined in an interview at Comic @-@ Con to fan questions that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him . John Barrowman said in an interview that Ianto " brings out the " human " in [ Jack ] " and " brings out more ... empathy because he ’ s actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody ... [ which ] makes him warm to other people ... [ and ] makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto ’ s always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . " However , Stephen James Walker feels that Jack 's relationship with Ianto is one @-@ sided ; Ianto seems to feel the relationship is " serious and committed " , but while dancing with Gwen in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " , and considers it " obvious Jack only has eyes and thoughts for Gwen " . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Ianto confides in Gwen that he knows that to Jack he is " just a shag " , though discloses that the relationship means more to him . In the same novel , however , he also refers to himself in front of Jack as his " boyfriend " . When Ianto expounds these same insecurities to Jack in the radio play " The Dead Line " ( just prior to Children of Earth ) , however , Jack insists " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . Not to me . "
Just as Jack and Ianto 's relationship is developing , Ianto dies , in Children of Earth ( 2009 ) . While some fans felt " cheated " at not seeing the relationship develop further , Davies explains his intention was to heighten the tragedy by it also being a loss of potential , stating " You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . " For dramatic purposes within the story , Davies explains that Ianto 's death was necessary so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his own grandson . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the lack of resolution for the love story is " part of the tragedy " . Lynnette Porter feels that Ianto 's demise is intended as a watershed moment where Jack loses his effectiveness as a hero . At least for a time , a grieving Jack loses his focus and gives up ; within a few months , Jack flees Earth and his role as the expected hero . Some fans were displeased by Ianto 's death scene and the end of the relationship , and some even accused one the writers of " deliberately egging on the shippers ' " . Subsequent to Ianto 's death , in The End of Time ( 2010 ) , the Doctor sets up Jack with a new romantic interest , Alonso Frame ( Tovey ) . Fans of Ianto , who felt cheated by the character 's death , disliked this development . GayNZ.com compared the situation to Buffy fans ' reaction to Willow 's relationship with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Buffy 's seventh season , following Tara 's death in the show 's sixth .
Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Cardiff spacetime rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .
= = = = Gwen = = = =
Barrowman states in a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette that Gwen brings a " little bit of soul " back to Jack , following her recruitment . In a 2007 interview , Eve Myles , who plays Gwen , describes the relationship between Jack and Gwen as a " palpable love " and opines that " with Jack and Gwen , it ’ s the real thing and they ’ re going to make you wait for that . " The first two series suggest the possibility of romantic and sexual tension behind Jack and Gwen 's working relationship , with Stephen James Walker drawing on the firing range sequence in series one episode " Ghost Machine " as a key example , as well as the scene where Jack discovers that Gwen has become engaged to Rhys in " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " , the series two opener . AfterElton.com 's Locksley Hall conjectures that Jack is attracted to Gwen because of " her warmth , her sense of justice , her very ordinariness and lack of glamour " , whilst Eve Myles explains Gwen 's attraction to Jack by stating : " the most monogamous woman in the world would probably go for him – it 'd be hard not to " . Valerie Estelle Frankel describes Jack as a " compelling trickster " , who acts out Gwen 's private desires with his " outrageous flirting " . She suggests that Jack ( unlike Rhys ) is not mature enough to occupy the role of " steady prince " for Gwen , whilst Barrowman feels that if Jack were to settle down with her , " he 'd have to commit completely " ; this is why he does not act on his feelings , because though Gwen would let him flirt with other people , he could " never afford to do anything more " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd , who played Ianto , feels that for Jack , " there ’ s two different sorts of love going on there " , and that Jack feels for Gwen and Ianto in different ways , although both have helped him become less emotionally isolated . Lynnette Porter feels that part of the reason Jack leaves Earth at the conclusion of Children of Earth is Gwen 's idealisation of Jack , which is so intense that he cannot stand to look at her in the wake of Ianto 's death . Gwen hopes that she is reason enough for Jack to stay on Earth , but Jack is ready to give up any hero worship because he feels unworthy .
A press release for Torchwood Series Four states that Jack is brought back to Earth because of his " unstated love " for Gwen , who in turn still feels for Jack and misses the exciting life she once led beside him . Whilst Miracle Day lead writer Russell T Davies states in response to a question posed by AfterElton that he " hates " the idea of romantic tension between Gwen and Jack , executive producer Julie Gardner answers by stating " They love each other . Of course they do . " Myles believes that in series four , Gwen and Jack have a " love @-@ hate @-@ love relationship " resembling in different ways a sibling relationship , a marital relationship and also " the strongest friendship " . Episode seven of Miracle Day features a scene where Jack threatens Gwen with violence after she states she would have him killed to save her daughter . Writer Jane Espenson explains that the two characters have different needs and that this means they inevitably " clash like steel blades " . Simon Brew of Den of Geek praises the dynamic between Gwen and Jack in series four , describing them as " a terrific double act " and states that " Torchwood is at , or near , its best when the two of them are working in tandem " .
= = = = Other = = = =
Discussing whether his character could ever find " The One " , John Barrowman asserts that Jack " likes everybody , and his love for each person is different " . Barrowman believes that Jack does harbour romantic feelings toward the Doctor , but " would never take that beyond infatuation " and " would never let the Doctor know " . Barrowman claims that Jack also " fancies " fellow companion Martha Jones , admiring her " tenacity " and willingness to " spat with him " , and describes Jack 's love for Toshiko and Owen as " fatherly " , stating " He was guiding them . That 's why it was so devastating for him to lose them . " The second series of Torchwood also introduced Jack 's ex @-@ lover , Captain John . Head writer Chris Chibnall introduced John to act as a " proper nemesis , somebody to really test [ Jack ] , to push him , and to reveal something about Jack 's character " . In the use of Captain John as a literary foil , Chibnall comments " you see the way Jack could have gone , and probably did , for a little while " which underlines how " Jack , in his experiences with the Doctor and Torchwood , made a very conscious decision to move away from that behaviour . "
In their academic publication , Queer TV , Glyn Davis and Gary Needham discuss Jack 's role within Torchwood as a post @-@ gay , romantic hero . Noting Torchwood 's central gay themes , they comment that " it is through the character of Captain Jack that Torchwood is able to mine its queerness . " Discussing Jack 's brief romance with his namesake , the real Captain Jack ( Matt Rippy ) , academic critics have noted that " The Captain Jacks both share the same name and are quite similar in physical appearance , thus literalising the homo @-@ ness of the situation . Through the time @-@ travel device this points to a narcissistic self @-@ fascination , the old cliché that homosexuality is the love for sameness . " Other relationships which have been described or alluded to ( both in the television series and other media ) include ex @-@ girlfriends Estelle Cole , Duchess Eleanor , Stella Courtney , and Lucia Moretti , ex @-@ boyfriends and Angelo Colasanto , as well as an unnamed ex @-@ wife .
Describing the patterns of his relationships throughout the series , Davis and Needham draw the conclusion that " while Captain Jack desires both men and women , his long @-@ term love affairs and onscreen kisses are mostly with men in the past and present . " Davies himself laments that this one of the pitfalls of writing a bisexual character , commenting " The trap you fall into with bisexual men is only having them sleep with men . " Commenting on the show 's postmodern attitude towards bisexuality , or in what Russell T Davies calls " omnisexuality " , they continue to remark that " His character brushes against definitions of queer sexuality in that he resists any sort of classification based on sexual orientation . " They also comment on the subtexts of particular episodes , such as gay time @-@ travel romance episode " Captain Jack Harkness " , and within that the relevance of time @-@ travelling Jack Harkness to tackle the question of forbidden gay attraction in what is post @-@ Brokeback television . In Understanding TV Texts by Phil Wickham , Wickham opines that Captain Jack explicitly " brings to the fore " with his " brazen bisexuality " , " something we have to come to expect [ from Russell T Davies ] as viewers of his work " . Fans expressed fear that an Americanized fourth series of the show would mean the show would no longer portray Jack 's bisexuality , but Davies assured interviewers that Jack 's interests in both men and women would be honoured .
= = Critical reception and impact = =
Following the character 's initial introduction in the revived series 1 of Doctor Who , the character became incredibly popular with fans , to the extent that Russell T Davies and Julie Gardner created a spin @-@ off series , Torchwood , primarily centred around the character . The Times described the undeniable success of the character as having propelled actor John Barrowman to " National Treasure status " . For his role as Captain Jack , John Barrowman was nominated for Best Actor at the 2007 BAFTA Cymru Awards , and again for Children of Earth at the 2010 TV Choice Awards , against Eleventh Doctor actor Matt Smith . Harkness was also listed number nine in TV Squad 's " Ten Most mysterious characters on television " , behind the Tenth Doctor , who was listed number three . John Barrowman , who is himself gay , has ranked in the Independent on Sunday Pink List , a list of the most influential gay people in Britain , in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 with the Independent commenting that " Proof of his popularity came with the continued runaway success of his bisexual Captain Jack Harkness on Russell T Davies 's Torchwood " . Part of Jack 's mystique was his sex appeal , swashbuckling heroism and sexual appetite . In anticipation of the character 's return to Doctor Who in series 3 after a successful run in the first series of Torchwood , mainstream media hailed his return .
Captain Jack has gone on to become a recognisable figure in the British public consciousness , and has attracted some parody . These parodies frequently echo criticisms both of the character and of Barrowman 's portrayal . The character of Jack Harkness has been parodied several times on the satirical impressionist television show Dead Ringers . Played by Jon Culshaw , the show pokes fun at his bisexuality and apparent campness , as well his melodramatic personality in Torchwood . In one sketch , he walks bizarrely towards the camera , kissing a policeman as he passes him . In another sketch , he can be seen having a threesome with two Cybermen , a race of cyborgs from Doctor Who . Satirical technology columnist Verity Stob wrote a parody of Torchwood Season One in the style of Dylan Thomas 's radio play Under Milk Wood , called Under Torch Wood . This parody described Captain Jack as " the insomniac bicon ; snug as a hobbit , pretty as a choirboy , immortal as carbon dioxide , wooden as a horse . " Barrowman 's ubiquity , however , has even provoked criticism of the character . Jim Shelley of the Daily Mirror , in his review of Children of Earth , said " Unlike David Tennant 's Doctor , Barrowman 's endless appearances on friendly drivel like Tonight 's the Night , The Kids Are All Right and Any Dream Will Do , is so over @-@ exposed , ' Captain Jack ' is about as intriguing or alien as a Weetabix and twice as irritating . Unlike Tennant , as an actor he is just not good enough . " Television journalist Charlie Brooker , in his Screenwipe review of 2009 criticised Barrowman , with focus on his acting . " Harkness is of course a man of mystery . You can 't tell what he 's thinking just by looking at his face ... no matter how hard Barrowman tries . "
The character 's recognisability extends outside the UK . In a Halloween episode of the 2008 series of American drama Knight Rider , character Billy Morgan ( Paul Campbell ) dresses up as Captain Jack , whom he refers to as " the time @-@ travelling bisexual " . Jack represents a new character archetype , which other writers have begun to draw from . For example , comic book writer Peter David reflects that in writing Marvel Comics character Shatterstar , he " to some degree ... key [ s ] his personality off Captain Jack Harkness " insofar as he is " swashbuckling , enthusiastic and sexually curious about anything with a pulse " . In 2009 , Barrowman 's variety show Tonight 's the Night broadcast a specially written humorous Doctor Who scene scripted by Russell T Davies . In the scene , Barrowman appears initially as Captain Jack confronting an alien on board the TARDIS who claims to be the Doctor . However , David Tennant appears as himself and John Barrowman is revealed as playing Captain Jack in the TARDIS set . Action figures have also been created in the actor 's likeness , which Barrowman says was a " longtime dream " .
In the media , Jack is described as both the " first openly gay companion " and as a " hunky bisexual " . Jack 's notability is largely due to his mainstream representation of a bisexual man in science fiction television , for whom sexual identity is " matter @-@ of @-@ fact " , and not an issue . The ordinariness with which Jack 's orientation is regarded within Doctor Who embodies part of a political statement about changing societal views of homosexuality . The distinct flexibility of Jack 's sexuality contributed directly towards the character 's popularity and public interest . The overtness of Jack 's sexuality broke new grounds , the labels " pansexual " and " omnisexual " being applied to the character on occasion . In " The Parting of the Ways " , Jack kissed both Rose and the Doctor on the lips , the latter being the first same @-@ sex kiss in the history of the program . Despite the boldness of the first lesbian , gay or bisexual character in the series ' run , there has been very little uproar about the character , although there was some controversy at the time of Jack 's introduction . Speculating , Barrowman tries to link Jack 's popularity with this portrayal , noting " I think audiences just get Jack because he 's honest ... to finally see a character who doesn 't care who he flirts with , I think is a bit refreshing . "
The presence of the character in prime time television sparked discussion of the nature of bisexuality in a number of outlets where normally it is dismissed or overlooked . Channel4.com cites Jack as a positive role model for gay and bisexual teenagers , where little had been present for this audience in years gone by and subsequently leading to a greater culture of tolerance . Dr Meg John Barker writes for the Journal of Bisexuality that although " the b word does not actually get used during the show " , Jack is one of the first positive and clearly bisexual characters on British television . She does point out however that Jack retains some elements of bisexual stereotyping , particularly in his " flamboyant " promiscuity . Jack has also been cited in America to contrast the portrayals of non @-@ heterosexual characters in mainstream television in the US and the UK . Gary Scott Thompson , producer of the 2008 revival of Knight Rider , said , " If I could use Jack in Torchwood as a role model — I would absolutely use him as a role model — I love his conflictedness about ... everybody " .
Readers of AfterElton.com voted Jack the tenth best gay or bisexual television character of all time , the poll itself ultimately being won by Brian Kinney , a character from the North American version of Queer as Folk which was developed by Ron Cowen and Daniel Lipman from the British series created by Russell T Davies . The website praised Jack — one of only two bisexual characters on the list of 25 — for being having both " tough " and " tender " sides to his personality , as seen in the Torchwood episode " Captain Jack Harkness " . Amongst science fiction characters , Jack also topped another AfterElton rundown of top characters , beating Hellblazer 's John Constantine for the top spot , commenting upon Jack 's representation of a " ' post @-@ gay ' approach to sexual themes " and awarding him a full 10 / 10 for cultural significance . For the AfterElton 2008 Visibility Awards , Jack won the award for Favourite TV Character . The website commented that " unlike virtually every other TV sci @-@ fi character , lead or supporting , Captain Jack is also openly bisexual . Ironically , this " small " change served to help make the science fiction genre , long the ultimate bastion of straight men , accessible not just to GLBT people , but also straight women , who also enjoy the show ’ s alternate take on sexuality . " The third award won for Torchwood , after Favourite TV Drama and Character , was won by Jack and Ianto for Best Couple , for which the editor commented " Torchwood is revolutionary not just because the producers dare to put openly bisexual ( or in Jack ’ s case " omnisexual " ) characters in the formerly sacrosanct setting of sci @-@ fi ; it ’ s also that it presents these bisexual characters in such an amazingly matter @-@ of @-@ fact way . There ’ s no apologi [ s ] ing , no minimi [ s ] ing , and no morali [ s ] ing — just good , old @-@ fashioned romance and adventure . "
= Poznań 1956 protests =
The Poznań 1956 protests , also known as the Poznań 1956 uprising or Poznań June ( Polish : Poznański Czerwiec ) , were the first of several massive protests against the government of the People 's Republic of Poland . Demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions began on June 28 , 1956 at Poznań 's Cegielski Factories and were met with violent repression .
A crowd of approximately 100 @,@ 000 gathered in the city center near the local Ministry of Public Security building . About 400 tanks and 10 @,@ 000 soldiers of the People 's Army of Poland and the Internal Security Corps under Polish @-@ Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians .
The death toll was placed between 57 and over a hundred people , including a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Romek Strzałkowski . Hundreds of people sustained injuries . The Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the installation of a less Soviet @-@ controlled government in Poland in October .
= = Background = =
After Joseph Stalin 's death , the process of destalinization prompted debates about fundamental issues throughout the entire Eastern Bloc . Nikita Khrushchev 's speech On the Personality Cult and its Consequences had wide implications outside the Soviet Union and in other communist countries . In Poland , in addition to the criticism of the cult of personality , popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of ' local , national socialism ' instead of following the Soviet model down to every little detail ; such views were seen in discussion and critique by many Polish United Workers ' Party members of Stalin 's execution of older Polish communists from Communist Party of Poland during the Great Purge .
Anti @-@ communist resistance in Poland was also bolstered , and a group of opposition leaders and cultural figures founded the Klub Krzywego Koła ( Skewed Wheel Club ) in Warsaw . It promoted discussions about Polish independence , questioned the efficiency of the state controlled economy , and government disdain and even persecution of veterans of the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Armia Krajowa resistance during World War II . While the intelligentsia expressed their dissatisfaction with discussions and publications ( bibuła ) , workers took to the streets . The living conditions in Poland did not improve , contrary to government propaganda , and workers increasingly found that they had little power compared to bureaucracy of the Party ( nomenklatura ) .
The city of Poznań was one of the largest urban and industrial centers of the People 's Republic of Poland . Tensions were growing there , particularly since autumn of 1955 . Workers in the largest factory in the city , Joseph Stalin 's ( or ' Cegielski 's ) Metal Industries , were complaining about higher taxes for most productive workers ( udarnik ) , which affected several thousands of workers . Local directors were unable to make any significant decisions due to micromanagement by the higher officials ; over several months , petitions , letters and delegations were sent to the Polish Ministry of Machine Industry and Central Committee of Polish United Workers ' Party , to no avail .
Finally , a delegation of about 27 workers was sent to Warsaw around June 23 . On the night of June 26 , the delegation returned to Poznań , confident that some of their demands had been considered in a favourable light . The Minister of Machine Industry met with the workers next morning and withdrew several promises that their delegation was given in Warsaw .
= = Strikes = =
A spontaneous strike started at 6 : 00 am at the multifactory complex of Joseph Stalin 's ( or ' Cegielski 's ) Metal Industries . Around 80 % of its workers , most of whom had lost bonus pay in June as the government suddenly raised the required work quota , took to the streets demanding pay compensation and some freedom concessions , marching towards the city centre . Workers at other plants , institutions and students joined the procession .
Between 9 : 00 am and 11 : 00 am , about 100 @,@ 000 people gathered on the Adam Mickiewicz Square in front of the Imperial Castle in Poznań , surrounded by buildings occupied by the city and Party authorities and police headquarters . The demonstrators demanded lower food prices , wage increases and the revocation of some recent changes in the law that had eroded workers ' conditions . They further requested a visit from Polish Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz , as the local government declared that they had no authority to solve the problems . Some police officers also joined the crowd .
After 10 : 00 am the situation rapidly deteriorated when provocateurs came into action , claiming that members of the negotiating delegation had been arrested . The local units of the regular police ( Milicja Obywatelska ) were unable to contain the crowd and the situation turned into a violent uprising as the crowds stormed the prison at Młyńska Street , where some protesters believed the members of the delegation to have been imprisoned ; hundreds of prisoners were released around 10 : 50 am . At 11 : 30 am , the arms depot at the prison building was seized and the firearms were distributed among the demonstrators .
The crowd ransacked the Communist Party 's local headquarters and then at around 11 : 00 am attacked the office of the Ministry of Public Security on Kochanowskiego Street , but were repulsed when the first shots were fired from its windows into the crowd . From then until 6 : 00 pm , they seized or besieged many government buildings and institutions in and around Poznań , including the district courthouse and the prosecutor 's office , radio jamming station in Dąbrowskiego Street , police stations in Junikowo , Wilda , Swarzędz , Puszczykowo and Mosina . The prison camp in Mrowino and the military school at the Poznań University of Technology were seized and weapons were taken . The police documents at local police station , procurature and court were destroyed .
In the meantime , at about 11 : 00 am , 16 tanks , 2 armored personnel carriers and 30 cars had been sent from the Officer School of Armored and Mechanized Formations , a Poznań garrison , to protect the designated buildings , but no shots were exchanged between them and the insurgents . These soldiers engaged in friendly conversation with the protesters ; some reports state that two tanks were seized and some troops disarmed . Then the Soviet General Konstantin Rokossovsky , the Minister of National Defense , who was then in command of all armed forces in Poland , decided to take personal control , and the situation changed dramatically .
Rokossovsky sent his deputy , the Polish @-@ Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky and a group of lower Soviet officers , with orders to put down the protest in a manner consistent with Russian standards , intending to end the demonstrations as soon as possible to prevent an occurrence similar to the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany , when a similar protest , not quelled in time , spread to many other regions . The Russian officers arrived at 2 : 00 pm at Ławica Airport and took command . Poplavsky did not bother to use local regulars from Poznań garrisons , instead taking other troops from Silesian Military District and recalling special troops from the Biedrusko military base north of Poznań . The troops were told that the protesters were led and organized by " German provocateurs " who were attempting to darken Poland 's image during the ongoing Poznań International Fair .
Between 4 : 00 pm and 5 : 00 am the following day , the Polish 10th Armored Division , Polish 19th Armored Division , Polish 4th Infantry Division and Polish 5th Infantry Division , totaling about 10 @,@ 300 troops and the Internal Security Corps under the command of Poplavsky entered Poznań . A two @-@ hour long procession of tanks , armored cars , field guns , and lorries full of troops went through the city and surrounded it . At 9 : 00 pm a wave of detentions began . The detainees were taken to Ławica airport , where they were subjected to brutal interrogation ; 746 persons were detained until August 8 . The protests continued until June 30 , when the troops finally pacified the city , after exchanging fire with some violent demonstrators . At 7 : 30 am on June 29 the Prime Minister arrived and infamously declared on the local radio station that " any provocateur or lunatic who raises his hand against the people 's government may be sure that this hand will be chopped off . "
The number of casualties is currently a subject of academic dispute . The historian Łukasz Jastrząb from the Institute of National Remembrance ( IPN ) estimates it to be 57 dead and about 600 wounded ( including eight on the side of the government ) , noting that larger estimates , such as that by another IPN scholar , Stanisław Jankowiak , who places the figure at slightly over 100 , are not fully supported by available data . Estimates of a similar range , such as the " over 70 deaths " , can be found in media reports .
= = Aftermath = =
About 25 people were arrested in the first few days , including 196 workers ; several hundred others were arrested in the following weeks . Stanisław Hejmowski , the lawyer who defended them , was later repressed for his statement that the government 's actions had led to the death of innocent civilians . The government failed in its attempts to coerce the detainees into stating that they were provoked by foreign ( Western ) secret services ; nonetheless this became the official line of the government for years to come .
Soon the ideologues realized that they had lost the support of the Soviet Union , and the regime turned to conciliation by announced wage rises and other reforms . Realizing the need for a change in leadership , the Polish communists chose a new leader , Władysław Gomułka , who was considered a moderate ; this transition is known as Polish October ( or " Gomułka Thaw " ) . In spite of this , the communist authorities censored all information on the Poznań events for a quarter of a century .
Historians were denied source materials for research , and the campaign was effective in eliminating any mention of the events of June 1956 from publicly available sources . Persecution of the most active participants would be carried out for many years . The memory of the events was preserved by the participants and members of opposition . After the Gdańsk Agreement in 1980 , the Independent Self @-@ governing Trade Union " Solidarity " as one of its first actions decided to raise a monument in the memory of the Poznań June 1956 events .
Many historians consider the Poznań 1956 protests to be an important milestone in modern history of Poland , and one of the events that precipitated the fall of communism in Poland . Nonetheless it should be noted that the protests of 1956 were not motivated by anti @-@ communist ideology ; the workers ' demands were mostly of an economic nature , centering around better work conditions rather than any political objectives . The workers sang " The Internationale " and their banners read " We demand bread . " It was the government 's consistent failure to fulfil the first demand which eventually led to the demands for political change , but even during the history of Solidarity few demanded wide political reforms .
= = = Commemoration = = =
On June 21 , 2006 , to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the events , the Polish parliament Sejm declared June 28 to be a national holiday in Poland ; the Day of Remembrance of the Poznań June 1956 .
= Potential superpowers =
This page is a summary of published academics ' opinions . Please remember that opinions are only allowed in Wikipedia if they are held by writers in reliable sources . While it is possible that an editor is more knowledgeable and correct than any given academic , Wikipedia is not the place for personal opinions .
A potential superpower is a state or a political and economic entity that is speculated to be , or is in the process of becoming , a superpower at some point during the 21st century . Presently , only the United States fulfills the criteria to be considered a superpower .
Predictions about potential superpower have been made in the past , but they have not been perfect . States most commonly mentioned as being potential superpowers , are China , India , the European Union , Russia and Brazil . Collectively , these potential superpowers , as well as the United States , comprise 68 @.@ 0 % of global nominal GDP , 62 @.@ 4 % of global GDP ( PPP ) , more than one third of the total land area and more than 50 % of the world 's population .
= = Past predictions = =
Predictions made in the past have not been perfect . For example , in the 1980s , many political and economic
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in recent years , and certain EU member states ' high quality of life ( especially when measured in terms such as hours worked per week , health care , social services ) .
John McCormick believes that the EU has already achieved superpower status , based on the size and global reach of its economy and on its global political influence . He argues that the nature of power has changed since the Cold War @-@ driven definition of superpower was developed , and that military power is no longer essential to great power ; he argues that control of the means of production is more important than control of the means of destruction , and contrasts the threatening hard power of the United States with the opportunities offered by the soft power wielded by the European Union .
Parag Khanna believes that " Europe is overtaking its rivals to become the world 's most successful empire . " Khanna writes that South America , East Asia , and other regions prefer to emulate " The European Dream " rather than the American variant . This could possibly be seen in the African Union and UNASUR . Notably , the EU as a whole has some of the world 's largest and most influential languages being official within its borders .
Andrew Reding also takes the future EU enlargement into account . An eventual future accession of the rest of Europe , the whole of Russia , and Turkey , would not only boost its economy , but it would also increase the EU 's population to about 800 million , which he considers almost equal to that of India or China . The EU is qualitatively different from India and China since it is enormously more prosperous and technologically advanced . Turkish PM Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said in 2005 : " In 10 or 15 years , the EU will be a place where civilizations meet . It will be a superpower with the inclusion of Turkey . "
Robert J. Guttman wrote in 2001 that the very definition of the term superpower has changed , and in the 21st century it does not only refer to states with military power , but also to groups such as the European Union , with strong market economics , young , highly educated workers savvy in high technology , and a global vision . Friis Arne Petersen , the Danish ambassador to the US , has expressed similar views but has conceded that the EU is a " special kind of superpower " , one that has yet to establish a unified military force that exerts itself even close to the same level as many of its individual members .
Additionally , it is argued by commentators that full political integration is not required for the European Union to wield international influence : that its apparent weaknesses constitute its real strengths ( as of its low @-@ profile diplomacy and the emphasis on the rule of law ) and that the EU represents a new and potentially more successful type of international actor than traditional ones ; however , it is uncertain if the effectiveness of such an influence would be equal to that of a more politically integrated union of states such as the United States .
Barry Buzan notes that the EU 's potential superpower status depends on its " stateness " . It is unclear though how much state @-@ like quality is needed for the EU to be described as a superpower . Buzan states that the EU is unlikely to remain a potential superpower for a long time because although it has material wealth , its " political weakness and its erratic and difficult course of internal political development , particularly as regards a common foreign and defence policy " constrains it from being a superpower .
Alexander Stubb , the Finnish foreign minister , has said that he thinks the EU is both a superpower and not a superpower . While the EU is a superpower in the sense that it is the largest political union , single market and aid donor in the world , it is not a superpower in the defense or foreign policy spheres . Like Barry Buzan , Alexander Stubb thinks that the major factor constraining the EU 's rise to superpower status is its lack of statehood in the international system ; other factors are its lack of internal drive to project power worldwide , and continued preference for the sovereign nation @-@ state among some Europeans . To counterbalance these , he urged the EU leaders to approve and ratify the Lisbon Treaty ( which they did in 2009 ) , create an EU foreign ministry ( EEAS , established in 2010 ) , develop a common EU defense , hold one collective seat at the United Nations Security Council and G8 , and address what he described as the " sour mood " toward the EU prevalent in some European countries today .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Some do not believe that the EU will achieve superpower status . " The EU is not and never will be a superpower , " according to the former UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs David Miliband . Lacking a unified foreign policy and with an inability to project military power worldwide , the EU lacks " the substance of superpowers " , who by definition have " first of all military reach [ and ] possess the capacity to arrive quickly anywhere with troops that can impose their government 's will . " EU parliamentarian Ilka Schroeder argues that the high degree of involvement in conflicts such as the Israeli – Palestinian conflict are used by the EU largely to compensate for European inability to project military power internationally , particularly in contrast to the USA .
The Economist 's Robert Lane Greene notes that the lack of a strong European military only exacerbates the lack of unified EU foreign policy and discounts any EU arguments towards superpower status , noting especially that the EU 's creation of a global response force rivaling the superpower 's ( United States of America ) is " unthinkable . " " The biggest barrier to European superpowerdom is that European elites refuse to bring their postmodern fantasies about the illegitimacy of military ' hard power ' into line with the way the rest of the world interprets reality , " according to Soeren Kern of the Strategic Studies Group .
Britain 's Michael Howard has warned against the " worry " that many Europeans are pushing for greater EU integration to counterbalance the United States , while Europe 's total reliance on soft ( non @-@ military ) power is in part because of its lack of a " shared identity . " While to some the European Union should be a " model power " unafraid of using military force and backing free trade , its military shortcomings argue against superpower status .
American Thinker 's Soeren Kern questions if " Europe really destined to become a global superpower ? " Kern continues that " A growing body of research says no . Indeed , overwhelming evidence supports the view that contemporary Europe is beset by a mix of problems that is so complex , that apart from dramatic changes in public policy , Europe is headed toward certain decline , not ascendancy . "
George Osborne , the British Chancellor of the Exchequer , has also pointed out the economic crisis of the European Union . Osborne said , " The biggest economic risk facing Europe doesn 't come from those who want reform and re @-@ negotiation . It comes from a failure to reform and renegotiate . It is the status quo which condemns the people of Europe to an ongoing economic crisis and continuing decline . " Osborne also said that the EU is facing growing competition with global economic powers like China , India and the US , and the European Union should " reform or decline . "
= = India = =
The Republic of India has seen considerable coverage of its potential of becoming a superpower , both in the media and among academics . In 2006 , Newsweek and the International Herald Tribune joined several academics in discussing India 's potential of becoming a superpower .
Anil Gupta is almost certain that India will become a superpower in the 21st century . As an example , he states that due to India 's functional institutions of democracy and its relatively corruption @-@ free society , it will emerge as a desirable , entrepreneurial and resource and energy @-@ efficient superpower in the near future . He predicts that by 2015 India will overtake China to be the fastest growing economy in the world and emerge as a full @-@ fledged economic superpower by 2025 . In addition to that , he states , India has the potential to serve as a leading example of how to combine rapid economic growth with fairness towards and inclusion of those at the bottom rungs of the ladder and of efficient resource utilization , especially in energy . India became world 's fastest growing economy in 2015 and will continue to do so in 2016 .
Economists and Researchers at Harvard University have projected India ’ s 7 % projected annual growth rate through 2024 would continue to put it ahead of China , making India the fastest growing economy in the world .
Robyn Meredith points out that the average incomes of European and Americans are higher than Chinese and Indians , and hundreds of millions of Chinese as well as Indians live in poverty , she also suggested that economic growth of these nations has been most the important factor in reducing global poverty of the last two decades , as per the World Bank report . Amy Chua adds to this , that India is still faces many problems such as " pervasive rural poverty , entrenched corruption , and high inequality just to name a few " . However , she notes that India has made tremendous strides to fix this , stating that some of India 's achievements , such as working to dismantle the centuries @-@ old caste system and maintaining the world 's largest diverse democracy , are historically unprecedented .
Fareed Zakaria pointing out that India 's young population coupled with the second @-@ largest English @-@ speaking population in the world could give India an advantage over China . He also believes that while other industrial countries will face a youth gap , India will have lots of young people , or in other words , workers , and by 2050 , its per capita income will rise by twenty times its current level . According to Zakaria , another strength that India has is that its democratic government has lasted for 60 years , stating that a democracy can provide for long @-@ term stability , that has given India a name .
Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr . , founder and president of the Economic Strategy Institute and former counselor to the Secretary of Commerce in the Reagan administration , has predicted that " It is going to be India 's century . India is going to be the biggest economy in the world . It is going to be the biggest superpower of the 21st century . "
According to the report named " Indian Century : Defining India 's Place in a Rapidly Changing Global Economy " by IBM Institute for Business Value , India is predicted to be among the world ’ s highest @-@ growth nations over the coming years .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Parag Khanna wrote in 2008 that he believes that India is not , nor will it become a superpower for the foreseeable future , lagging decades behind China in both development and strategic appetite . Instead , he believes India will be a key swing state along with Russia . He says that India is " big but not important " , has a highly successful professional class , while millions of its citizens still live in poverty . He also writes that it matters that China borders a dozen more countries than India and is not hemmed in by a vast ocean and the world 's tallest mountains . However , in a recent article written by Khanna , he says that India , along with China , will grow ever stronger , while other powers , like Europe , muddle along .
Lant Pritchett , reviewing the book In Spite of the Gods : The Strange Rise of Modern India , writes that , while India has had impressive growth and has some world @-@ class institutions , several other indicators are puzzlingly poor . The malnutrition and the coverage of immunization programs are at levels similar or worse than in much sub @-@ Saharan African nations . In the Demographic and Health Surveys , India 's child malnutrition was the worst of the 42 nations with comparable and recent data . Adult literacy is 61 % . In one study , 26 % of teachers were absent from work and 1 / 3 of those showing up did not teach . 40 % of health care workers were absent from work . Caste politics in India remains an important force . Pritchett argues that a very large population , a very long statistical " tail " of high quality students , and some very good higher education institutions gives a misleading impression of Indian education . Indian students placed forty @-@ first and thirty @-@ seventh in a study comparing students in the two Indian states Odisha and Rajasthan to the forty @-@ six nations in the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study .
Manjari Chatterjee Miller , assistant professor of international relations at Boston University , argues that India is a " would @-@ be " great power but " resists its own rise " . Three factors contribute to this stagnation , she argues . First , New Delhi 's foreign policy decisions are highly individualistic . " This autonomy , in turn , means that New Delhi does very little collective thinking about its long @-@ term foreign policy goals , since most of the strategic planning that takes place within the government happens on an individual level . " Second , a dearth of think tanks helps insulate Indian foreign policymakers from outside influences . " U.S. foreign policymakers , by contrast , can expect strategic guidance from a broad spectrum of organizations that supplement the long @-@ term planning that happens within the government itself . " Third , many of India 's political elites believe that the country 's inevitable rise is a Western construct that has placed unrealistic expectations on India 's economic growth forecasts and its international commitments . By contrast , Miller notes that Chinese political leaders pay very close attention to the international hype surrounding their country 's growing stature . Miller concludes that " India 's inability to develop top @-@ down , long @-@ term strategies means that it cannot systematically consider the implications of its growing power . So long as this remains the case , the country will not play the role in global affairs that many expect . "
= = Russia = =
The Russian Federation has been suggested as a potential candidate for resuming superpower status in the 21st century . Russia has seen some discussion regarding its potential of re @-@ emerging as a superpower , while others have made the assertion that it is already a superpower . In 2009 , Hugo Chavez , late President of Venezuela whose government was noted to have enjoyed warm relations with the Kremlin , stated that " Russia is a superpower " , citing waning American influence in global affairs , and suggested the ruble be elevated to a global currency . Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called Russia an important superpower , praising its effectiveness as an ally of Israel and foe of Iran . In his 2005 publication entitled Russia in the 21st Century : The Prodigal Superpower , Steven Rosefielde , a professor of economics at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , predicted that Russia would emerge as a superpower before 2010 and augur another arms race . However , Rosefielde noted that such an end would come with tremendous sacrifice to global security and the Russian people 's freedom .
In 2014 , Stephen Kinzer of The Boston Globe compared Russia 's actions with its own neighboring territories , to those of " any other superpower " , taking Ukraine and Crimea as examples . A mixed opinion has been offered by Matthew Fleischer of the Los Angeles Times : he contends that Russia will not become a superpower unless climate change eats away at the permafrost that covers , as of March 2014 , two @-@ thirds of the country 's landmass . The absence of this permafrost would reveal immense stores of oil , natural gas , and precious minerals , as well as potential farmland , which would allow Russia to " become the world 's bread basket — and control the planet 's food supply . "
Russian news agency RIA Novosti called Russia a " superpower " after its actions in Syria , and after the formation of a coalition to fight ISIS in Syria and Iraq , Benny Avni of the New York Post called Russia the " world 's new sole superpower " .
= = = Contrary views = = =
During the annual state of the nation address at the Moscow Kremlin in December 2013 , Russian president Vladimir Putin denied any Russian aspiration to be a superpower . He was quoted saying : " We do not aspire to be called some kind of superpower , understanding that as a claim to world or regional hegemony . We do not infringe on anyone 's interests , we do not force our patronage on anyone , or try to teach anyone how to live . "
Forbes writer Jonathan Adelman has summarized the arguments against Russia 's superpower potential thus : " While Russia may have grabbed the headlines for hosting the forthcoming Olympics and Edward Snowden , it 's no super power . Russia has a trade profile of a Third World country , a GNP the size of Canada , which is less than 15 percent of the United States GDP , no soft power , Silicon Valley , Hollywood , Wall Street or highly rated universities . "
Several analysts commented on the fact that Russia showed signs of an aging and shrinking population . Fred Weir said that this severely constricts and limits Russia 's potential to re @-@ emerge as a central world power . Former political journalist Peter Brown wrote that Russia " would like to reclaim the superpower status it held for nearly 40 years after World War II , " but in the 21st century " may lack the combination of economic and military power " to do so . He said that " Russia won 't be a superpower anytime soon , " citing Russia 's shrinking population , high levels of poverty and poor public health . In 2011 , British historian and professor Niall Ferguson also highlighted the negative effects of Russia 's declining population , and suggested that Russia is on its way to " global irrelevance " . Russia has , however , shown a slight population growth since 2012 , partly due to immigration . The number of Chinese in the Russia 's Far East has been growing . Russia 's demographic problems continued in 2015 .
Nathan Smith of the National Business Review has said that despite Russia having potential , it did not win the new " Cold War " in the 1980s , and other factors such as American influence over Crimea make superpower status inaccurate .
= End of the Century =
End of the Century is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones , released on February 4 , 1980 , through Sire Records . The album was the band 's first produced by Phil Spector , though he had offered the band his assistance earlier in their career . With Spector fully producing the album , it was the first release that excluded original member Tommy Ramone , who in 1978 left the band but produced their previous album Road to Ruin . Spector used more advanced standards of engineering , such as high @-@ quality overdubbing and echo chambers . These methods caused conflict between the band and Spector , since much of the recording used techniques that opposed those the Ramones had previously used . Spector emphasized the production value as well , working with a budget of around $ 200 @,@ 000 .
The songs on End of the Century were written primarily to expand the band 's fan @-@ base , straying from the band 's original punk genre and steering toward a more pop oriented sound . The lyrics on the album deal with various different things , ranging from drug addictions to the band 's lifestyle while touring . The album also features a cover of The Ronettes ' piece " Baby , I Love You , " as well as successors to previous Ramones songs " Judy Is a Punk " and " Havana Affair . "
It received generally positive reviews from critics , though many reviewers deemed it to be less enjoyable compared to the band 's previous releases . Despite this , the album is the highest charting Ramones album of all time , reaching number 44 on the US Billboard 200 chart , and number 14 on the UK Albums Chart . End of the Century spawned the singles " Baby , I Love You " and " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? . "
The album 's title is taken from a couplet repeated in the first track " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? " : " It 's the end , the end of the seventies / It 's the end , the end of the century . "
= = Recording and production = =
In February 1977 after attending a Ramones concert in Los Angeles , music producer Phil Spector offered to assist in making Rocket to Russia . The band declined his offer , feeling as though the album would not be the same without Tommy Ramone and Tony Bongiovi producing the album . While the band refused his initial offer , they later asked Spector to help with the album because of their lack of popularity and sales . End of the Century would be the first album released without former drummer and producer Tommy . Spector had become famous through his work with The Ronettes , The Righteous Brothers , Ike and Tina Turner , The Beatles and John Lennon , among others . With these releases , Spector defined what would become known as the " Wall of Sound , " which is dense , layered , and reverberant sound that came across well on AM radio and jukeboxes . These standards are created through instruments performing identical parts in unison , using high @-@ quality overdubbing and echo chambers to aid in the production value . The producer was convinced that the Ramones had talent with lyrics and musical structure , so he intended to promote the band through more advanced methods of sound output .
Recording sessions for the album began on May 1 , 1979 at Gold Star Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles . Gold Star Studios had become famous through its history with artists like Eddie Cochran and the Beach Boys . At the Ramones ' request , Ed Stasium helped with the album 's engineering . During the studio work , Spector 's recording methods were different from those the Ramones were accustomed to from their four previous studio albums . The band recorded their earlier compositions in the shortest time possible for the lowest feasible budget , with a relatively low production value . With End of the Century , the band experienced Spector 's infamous perfectionism , and a budget of $ 200 @,@ 000 to fully record and produce the album . This is significant because the band 's debut album cost $ 6 @,@ 400 total , and their second album cost $ 10 @,@ 000 . End of the Century is the most expensive album in the Ramones ' career .
= = = Conflict = = =
This alternative method of recording caused conflicts to arise during sessions . Bassist Dee Dee Ramone wrote of Spector 's obsessive recording techniques : " Phil would sit in the control room and would listen through the headphones to Marky hit one note on the drum , hour after hour , after hour , after hour . " During the recording of " Rock ' n ' Roll High School , " Johnny was forced by Spector to repeat his part hundreds of times over the course of several hours . Sire Records owner Seymour Stein relates : " To Johnny , this must have been like the Chinese water torture . "
Early in the sessions , Spector reportedly held the Ramones hostage at gunpoint . According to Dee Dee , when Spector took Joey away for a three @-@ hour private meeting somewhere in his mansion where the album was to be recorded , Dee Dee went looking for them . " The next thing I knew Phil appeared at the top of the staircase , shouting and waving a pistol . "
He leveled his gun at my heart and then motioned for me and the rest of the band to get back in the piano room ... He only holstered his pistol when he felt secure that his bodyguards could take over . Then he sat down at his black concert piano and made us listen to him play and sing " Baby , I Love You " until well after 4 : 30 in the morning .
However , in 2008 drummer Marky Ramone stated that no guns were ever pointed at anybody
" There were no guns pointed at anybody , " he said . " They [ guns ] were there but he had a license to carry . He never held us hostage . We could have left at any time "
Dee Dee claimed to have left the sessions without recording anything . " We had been working for at least fourteen or fifteen hours a day for thirteen days straight and we still hadn 't recorded one note of music , " he wrote in his autobiography . After supposedly hearing that Johnny had returned to New York , Dee Dee wrote that he and drummer Marky Ramone booked a flight and returned home as well . " To this day , I still have no idea how they made the album End of the Century , or who actually played bass on it . " Dee Dee 's account contradicts much of the band 's collective account from the 1982 Trouser Press interview , where the band stated that the only track that Johnny , Dee Dee and Marky did not play on was the cover version of " Baby , I Love You , " as the band , save for Joey , had gone home after cutting basic tracks for the rest of the album .
= = Compositions = =
End of the Century was described by the band as an album written solely to gain popularity , resulting in more of a pop punk sound . Joey failed to contribute to the best of his abilities on the album , and recalled : " I think that some of the worst crap I ever wrote went on the album . That was me at my worst . " Johnny also felt that the album was far from the band 's prime .
" End of the Century was just watered @-@ down Ramones . It 's not real Ramones . ' Baby , I Love You ' — I didn 't play on that at all . What am I gonna do — play along with an orchestra ? There 's no point . End of the Century was trying to get a hit on each song , instead of trying to get a hit on one or two of the songs on the album and trying to make the rest as raunchy as you can . They ain 't gonna play the other ten songs , anyway . "
The album opens with " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? , " a throwback to the rock music of the 1950s to late 1960s . The lyrics name several famous musicians of this era , including Jerry Lee Lewis , John Lennon , and T. Rex , and also cite The Ed Sullivan Show . Many instruments that were previously rarely — if ever — used in punk rock were featured in the song 's score , including the saxophone and electric organ . The lyrics , written by Dee Dee , depict his childhood in Germany where he would secretly listen to rock radio stations at night .
Johnny 's part is not heard on the next track , " I 'm Affected , " as reported by Johnny himself . Joey admitted that he did not favor the song , recalling : " I couldn 't believe how awful it sounded . It was horrible . " " Danny Says , " the third track , was a lyrical depiction of what the band constantly went through while touring--soundchecks , autograph sessions , interviews , etc . The title " Danny Says " refers to the band 's tour manager Danny Fields giving the members instructions , schedules , and demands . According to Joey , the ballad was inspired by Lou Reed , who had released the songs " Candy Says " and " Caroline Says . " Joey 's brother Mickey Leigh called the song a " masterpiece " and said it " remains one of the most captivatingly beautiful songs I 've ever heard . "
Dee Dee wrote the next piece , " Chinese Rock , " in 1976 , and Johnny Thunders later revised it . Dee Dee wrote the piece in response to Lou Reed 's " Heroin , " and attempted to concoct better lyrics on the same subject of drug use and heroin addiction . After Johnny vetoed the song , it was recorded by Thunder 's band The Heartbreakers before the Ramones , though the bands use slightly different words . The lyrics deal with the daily life of a heroin addict , and the term " Chinese Rock " is a euphemism for the drug . " The Return of Jackie and Judy " is a continuation to one of the band 's earlier songs , " Judy is a Punk , " which was released on their debut album Ramones . There were numerous studio guests involved in the song 's recording , including Spector 's bodyguard , Dan and David Kessel ( sons of jazz guitarist Barney Kessel ) , and California disc jockey Rodney Bingenheimer .
Side B begins with " Baby , I Love You . " Johnny constantly claims in his book Commando that he hated the song and the band didn 't even play on it , only Joey and some studio musicians . Joey exclaimed that he " hated " the song , despite it obtaining a level of popularity in Europe . The song is a cover version of the original by The Ronettes , and contained a string section arrangement that Leigh deemed " gooey " and that it " sounded right out of Redbone 's ' Come and Get Your Love . ' " He also confessed that the song " almost made [ him ] embarrassed . " " Rock ' n ' Roll High School " originally appeared on the soundtrack to Rock ' n ' Roll High School , a film directed by Allan Arkush . The movie depicts a story line in which the Ramones are obsessed over by female high school student Riff Randell along with other pupils attending the school . The album concludes with " High Risk Insurance , " which is a reaction to politics of that era .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The album received generally positive reviews from critics , yet not as favorable for many of the band 's previous records . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor for AllMusic , noted that the Ramones desired mainstream success much more and were recording music in such a fashion as to expand their fan @-@ base . Another AllMusic editor , T. Donald Guarisco , noted that the " entire album is pretty controversial in the world of Ramones fandom . " Music critic Robert Christgau called the album " sad , " noting that his favorite songs were " I 'm Affected , " " Baby , I Love You , " and " Danny Says . " He also pointed out that Spector 's production failed to make much of a difference upon the band 's overall sound , saying " his guitar overdubs are worse than his orchestrations , and they 're not uncute . "
Kurt Loder , reviewing the album for Rolling Stone , called it " Phil Spector 's finest and most mature effort in years , " and said that his production created a " rich and vibrant and surging with power " setting . He noted that the Ramones are still " spotlighted , " rather than their producer . Author Richard Williams exclaimed that to " old fans the Ramones ' version of ' Baby , I Love You ' went too far , desecrating the memory of the original despite Joey 's evident devotion to the task of emulating Ronnie 's lead vocal . " Williams also said that " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio " and " Chinese Rock " maintained the principles of the Ramones ' in their earlier days .
= = = Commercial = = =
End of the Century is the Ramones ' highest peaking album on the US Billboard 200 , as well as their most successful on the UK Albums Chart and the Swedish chart Sverigetopplistan . The album became the first — and only — Ramones ' album to chart on Norway 's VG @-@ lista chart and New Zealand 's Recorded Music NZ . It was also the band 's first album to chart on the Netherlands ' MegaCharts , with their 1987 album Halfway to Sanity being their only other release to chart their as well .
Two singles were spawned from End of the Century : " Baby , I Love You " and " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? , " released respectively . The first single charted on Belgium 's Ultratop chart as well as the UK . " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? " which debuted at 54 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly = = =
= = = Year @-@ end = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ramones , except where indicated .
= = Personnel = =
Ramones
Joey Ramone – lead vocals
Johnny Ramone – guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – bass , backing vocals
Marky Ramone – drums
Additional musicians
Dan Kessel - guitar
David Kessel - guitar
Barry Goldberg - piano , organ
Steve Douglas - saxophone
Jim Keltner - drums
Production
Phil Spector - producer
Ed Stasium - musical director
Larry Levine - engineer
Boris Menart - engineer
= David Irving =
David John Cawdell Irving ( born 24 March 1938 ) is an English Holocaust denier and author who has written on the military and political history of World War II , with a focus on Nazi Germany . His works include The Destruction of Dresden ( 1963 ) , Hitler 's War ( 1977 ) , Churchill 's War ( 1987 ) , and Goebbels : Mastermind of the Third Reich ( 1996 ) . Though Irving 's revisionist views of World War II were never taken seriously by mainstream historians , he was once recognized for his knowledge of Nazi Germany and his ability to unearth new historical documents . Irving marginalized himself in 1988 when , based on his reading of the pseudoscientific Leuchter report , he began to espouse Holocaust denial .
Irving 's reputation as a historian was discredited when , in the course of an unsuccessful libel case he filed against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books , he was shown to have deliberately misrepresented historical evidence to promote Holocaust denial . The English court found that Irving was an active Holocaust denier , antisemite , and racist , who " for his own ideological reasons persistently and deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence " . In addition , the court found that Irving 's books had distorted the history of Adolf Hitler 's role in the Holocaust to depict Hitler in a favourable light .
= = Early life = =
Irving and his twin brother were born in Hutton , near Brentwood , Essex , England . His father , John James Cawdell Irving ( 1898 – 1967 ) , was a career naval officer and commander in the Royal Navy , and his mother , Beryl Irving ( née Newington ) , an illustrator and writer of children 's books . Irving 's twin brother Nicholas Irving has said that " David used to run toward bombed out houses shouting ' Heil Hitler ! ' " , a statement which Irving denies .
During the Second World War , Irving 's father was an officer aboard the light cruiser HMS Edinburgh . On 30 April 1942 , while escorting Convoy QP 11 in the Barents Sea , the ship was badly damaged by the German submarine U @-@ 456 . Two days later she was attacked by surface craft , and now beyond recovery was abandoned and scuttled by a torpedo from HMS Foresight . Irving 's father survived , but severed all links with his wife and their children after the incident .
Irving described his childhood in an interview with the American writer Ron Rosenbaum as : " Unlike the Americans , we English suffered great deprivations ... we went through childhood with no toys . We had no kind of childhood at all . We were living on an island that was crowded with other people 's armies " . According to his twin , Nicholas , Irving has also been a provocateur and prankster since his youth .
Irving went on to claim to Rosenbaum that his negationist views about World War II dated to his childhood , particularly due to his objections to the way Adolf Hitler was portrayed in the British media during the war . Irving asserted that his " sceptical " views about the Third Reich were rooted in his doubts about the cartoonist caricatures of Hitler and the other Nazi leaders published in the British wartime press .
= = Student years = =
After completing A levels at Brentwood School , Irving briefly studied physics at Imperial College London . However , he never graduated , due to financial limitations . While there , he wrote for the Imperial College 's student newspaper , Felix , and in 1959 served as editor of the University of London Carnival Committee 's journal , Carnival Times .
Irving later studied for two years toward a degree in political economy at University College London , However , he again had to drop out due to lack of funds . During this period at university , he participated in a debate on Commonwealth immigration , seconding British Union of Fascists founder Oswald Mosley , and was heckled .
= = = Carnival Times controversy = = =
Irving 's time as editor of the Carnival Times , a student rag mag , became controversial when he added a " secret supplement " to the magazine . This supplement contained an article in which he called Hitler the " greatest unifying force Europe has known since Charlemagne " . Although Irving deflected criticism by characterising the Carnival Times as " satirical " , he also stated that " the formation of a European Union is interpreted as building a group of superior peoples , and the Jews have always viewed with suspicion the emergence of any ' master @-@ race ' ( other than their own , of course ) " . Opponents also viewed a cartoon included in the supplement as racist , and criticised another article in which Irving wrote that the British press was owned by Jews .
Volunteers were later recruited to remove and destroy the supplements before the magazine 's distribution . Irving has said that the criticism is " probably justifiable " and has described his motivation in producing the controversial secret issue of Carnival Times as being to prevent the Carnival from making a profit that would be passed on to a South African group which he considered a " subversive organisation " .
= = The Destruction of Dresden = =
Some time after serving in 1959 as editor of the University of London Carnival Committee 's journal , Irving left for West Germany , where he worked as a steelworker in a Thyssen AG steel works in the Ruhr area , and learned the German language . He then moved to Spain , where he worked as a clerk at an air base . During his time in Spain , Irving married his first wife , a Spanish woman with whom he had five children .
In 1962 , he wrote a series of 37 articles on the Allied bombing campaign , Wie Deutschlands Städte starben ( How Germany 's Cities Died ) , for the German boulevard journal Neue Illustrierte . These were the basis for his first book , The Destruction of Dresden ( 1963 ) , in which he examined the Allied bombing of Dresden in February 1945 . By the 1960s , a debate about the morality of the carpet bombing of German cities and civilian population had already begun , especially in the United Kingdom . There was consequently considerable interest in Irving 's book , which was illustrated with graphic pictures , and it became an international best @-@ seller .
In the first edition , Irving 's estimates for deaths in Dresden were between 100 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 – notably higher than most previously published figures . These figures became authoritative and widely accepted in many standard reference works . In later editions of the book over the next three decades , he gradually adjusted the figure downwards to 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 . According to the
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Irving translated the Memoirs of Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel in 1965 ( edited by Walter Görlitz ) ; and in 1967 published Accident : The Death of General Sikorski . In the latter book , Irving claimed that the plane crash which killed Polish government in exile leader General Władysław Sikorski in 1943 was really an assassination ordered by Winston Churchill , so as to enable Churchill to betray Poland to the Soviet Union . Irving 's book inspired the highly controversial 1967 play Soldiers by his friend , the German playwright Rolf Hochhuth , where Hochhuth depicts Churchill ordering the " assassination " of General Sikorski .
Also in 1967 , Irving published two more works : The Virus House , an account of the German nuclear energy project for which Irving conducted many interviews , and The Destruction of Convoy PQ @-@ 17 , in which he blamed the British escort group commander , Commander Jack Broome for the catastrophic losses of the Convoy PQ @-@ 17 . Amid much publicity , Broome sued Irving for libel in October 1968 , and in February 1970 , after 17 days of deliberation before London 's High Court , Broome won . Irving was forced to pay £ 40 @,@ 000 in damages , and the book was withdrawn from circulation .
After PQ @-@ 17 , Irving largely shifted to writing biographies . In 1968 , he published Breach of Security , an account of German reading of messages to and from the British Embassy in Berlin before 1939 with an introduction by the British historian D.C. Watt . As a result of Irving 's success with Dresden , members of Germany 's extreme right wing assisted him in contacting surviving members of Hitler 's inner circle . In an interview with the American journalist Ron Rosenbaum , Irving claimed to have developed sympathies towards them . Many ageing former mid- and high @-@ ranked Nazis saw a potential friend in Irving and donated diaries and other material . Irving described his historical work to Rosenbaum as an act of " stone @-@ cleaning " of Hitler , in which he cleared off the " slime " that he felt had been unjustly applied to Hitler 's reputation .
In 1969 , during a visit to Germany , Irving met Robert Kempner , one of the American prosecutors at Nuremberg . Irving asked Kempner if the " official record of the Nuremberg Trials was falsified " , and told him that he was planning to go to Washington , D.C. to compare the sound recordings of Luftwaffe Field @-@ Marshal Erhard Milch 's March 1946 evidence with the subsequently published texts to find proof that evidence given at Nuremberg was " tampered with and manipulated " . Upon his return to the United States , Kempner wrote to J. Edgar Hoover , the director of the FBI , that Irving expressed many " anti @-@ American and anti @-@ Jewish statements " .
In 1971 , he translated the memoirs of General Reinhard Gehlen , and in 1973 published The Rise and Fall of the Luftwaffe , a biography of Field Marshal Milch . He spent the remainder of the 1970s working on Hitler 's War and the War Path , his two @-@ part biography of Adolf Hitler ; The Trail of the Fox , a biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ; and a series in the Sunday Express describing the Royal Air Force 's famous Dam Busters raid . In 1975 , in his introduction to Hitler und seine Feldherren , the German edition of Hitler 's War , Irving attacked the diary of Anne Frank as a forgery , claiming falsely that a New York court had ruled that the diary was really the work of an American scriptwriter Meyer Levin " in collaboration with the girl 's father " .
The description of Irving as a historian , rather than a historical author , is controversial , with some publications continuing to refer to him as a " historian " or " disgraced historian " , while others insist he is not a historian , and have adopted alternatives such as " author " or " historic writer " . The military historian John Keegan has praised Irving for his " extraordinary ability to describe and analyse Hitler 's conduct of military operations , which was his main occupation during the Second World War " . Donald Cameron Watt , Emeritus Professor of Modern History at the London School of Economics , wrote that he admires some of Irving 's work as a historian , though he rejects his conclusions about the Holocaust . At the libel proceedings against Irving , Watt declined Irving 's request to testify , appearing only after a subpoena was ordered . He testified that Irving had written a " very , very effective piece of historical scholarship " in the 1960s , which was unrelated to his controversial work ; he also suggested that Irving was " not in the top class " of military historians .
= = Revisionism = =
= = = Hitler 's War = = =
In 1977 Irving published Hitler 's War , the first of his two @-@ part biography of Adolf Hitler . Irving 's intention in Hitler 's War was to clean away the " years of grime and discoloration from the facade of a silent and forbidding monument " to reveal the real Hitler , whose reputation Irving claimed had been slandered by historians . In Hitler 's War , Irving tried to " view the situation as far as possible through Hitler 's eyes , from behind his desk " . He portrayed Hitler as a rational , intelligent politician , whose only goal was to increase Germany 's prosperity and influence on the continent , and who was constantly let down by incompetent and / or treasonous subordinates . Irving 's book faulted the Allied leaders , most notably Winston Churchill , for the eventual escalation of war , and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a " preventive war " forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack . He also claimed that Hitler had no knowledge of the Holocaust ; while not denying its occurrence , Irving claimed that Heinrich Himmler and his deputy Reinhard Heydrich were its originators and architects . Irving made much of the lack of any written order from Hitler ordering the Holocaust , and for decades afterward offered to pay £ 1000 to anyone who could find such an order .
Critical reaction to Hitler 's War was generally negative . Reviewers took issue with Irving 's factual claims as well as his conclusions . For example , American historian Charles Sydnor noted numerous errors in Hitler 's War , such as Irving 's unreferenced statement that the Jews who fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 were well supplied with weapons from Germany 's allies . Sydnor pointed out that Hitler had received an SS report in November 1942 which contained a mention of 363 @,@ 211 Russian Jews executed by the Einsatzgruppen between August – November 1942 . Sydnor remarked that Irving 's statement that the Einsatzgruppen were in charge in the death camps seems to indicate that he was not familiar with the history of the Holocaust , as the Einsatzgruppen were in fact mobile death squads who had nothing to do with the death camps .
= = = Irving 's work of the late 1970s and early 1980s = = =
Just months after the initial release of Hitler 's War , Irving published The Trail of the Fox , a biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel . In it , Irving attacked the members of the 20 July Plot to assassinate Hitler , branding them " traitors " , " cowards " , and " manipulators " , and uncritically presented Hitler and his government 's subsequent revenge against the plotters , of which Rommel was also a victim . In particular , Irving accused Rommel 's friend and Chief of Staff General Hans Speidel of framing Rommel in the attempted coup . The British historian David Pryce @-@ Jones in a book review of The Trail of the Fox in the edition of 12 November 1977 of The New York Times Book Review accused Irving of taking everything Hitler had to say at face value .
In 1978 , Irving released The War Path , the companion volume to Hitler 's War which covered events leading up to the war and which was written from a similar point of view . Again , professional historians such as D.C. Watt noted numerous inaccuracies and misrepresentations . Despite the criticism , the book sold well , as did all of Irving 's books to that date . The financial success of his books enabled Irving to buy a home in the prestigious Mayfair district of London , own a Rolls @-@ Royce car , and to enjoy a very affluent lifestyle . In addition , Irving , despite being married , became increasingly open about his affairs with other women , all of which were detailed in his self @-@ published diary . Irving 's affairs were to cause his first marriage to end in divorce in 1981 . In 1982 , Irving began a relationship with a Danish model , Bente Hogh . Hogh and Irving live together , and are the parents of a daughter born in 1984 .
In the 1980s Irving started researching and writing about topics other than Nazi Germany , but with less success . He began his research on his three @-@ part biography of Winston Churchill . After publication Irving 's work on Churchill received at least one bad review from Professor David Cannadine ( then of the University of London ) :
It has received almost no attention from historians or reviewers ... It is easy to see why . ... full of excesses , inconsistencies and omissions ... seems completely unaware of recent work done on the subject ... It is not merely that the arguments in this book are so perversely tendentious and irresponsibly sensationalist . It is also that it is written in a tone which is at best casually journalistic and at worst quite exceptionally offensive . The text is littered with errors from beginning to end .
In 1981 , he published two books . The first was The War Between the Generals , in which Irving offered an account of the Allied High Command on the Western Front in 1944 – 45 , detailing the heated conflicts Irving alleges occurred between the various generals of the various countries and presenting rumours about their private lives . The second book was Uprising ! , about the 1956 revolt in Hungary , which Irving characterised as " primarily an anti @-@ Jewish uprising " , supposedly because the Communist regime was itself controlled by Jews . Irving 's depiction of Hungary 's Communist regime as a Jewish dictatorship oppressing Gentiles sparked charges of antisemitism . In addition , there were complaints that Irving had grossly exaggerated the number of people of Jewish origin in the Communist regime and had ignored the fact that Hungarian Communists who did have a Jewish background like Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő had totally repudiated Judaism and sometimes expressed antisemitic attitudes themselves . Critics such as Neal Ascherson and Kai Bird took issue with some of Irving 's language that seemed to evoke antisemitic imagery , such as his remark that Rákosi possessed " the tact of a kosher butcher " .
= = = Hitler Diaries = = =
In 1983 , Stern , a weekly German news magazine , purchased for 9 million marks the Hitler Diaries of 61 volumes and published excerpts from them . Irving played the major role in uncovering the Hitler Diaries as a hoax . In October 1982 Irving purchased , from the same source as Stern 's 1983 purchase , 800 pages of documents relating to Hitler , only to discover that many of the documents were forgeries . Irving was amongst the first to identify the diaries as forgeries , and to draw media attention . He went so far as to crash the press conference held by Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper at the Hamburg offices of Stern magazine on 25 April 1983 to denounce the diaries as a forgery and Trevor @-@ Roper for endorsing the diaries as genuine . Irving 's performance at the Stern press conference where he violently harangued Trevor @-@ Roper until ejected by security led him to be featured prominently on the news ; the next day , Irving appeared on the Today television show as a featured guest . Irving had concluded that the alleged Hitler diaries were a forgery because they had come from the same dealer in Nazi memorabilia from whom Irving had purchased his collection in 1982 . At the press conference in Hamburg , Irving announced , " I know the collection from which these diaries come . It is an old collection , full of forgeries . I have some here " . Irving was proud to have detected and announced the hoax material and of the " trail of chaos " he had created at the Hamburg press conference and the attendant publicity it had brought him , and took pride in his humiliation of Trevor @-@ Roper , whom Irving strongly disliked for his sloppy work ( not detecting the hoax ) and criticism of Irving 's methods and conclusions . Irving also noted internal inconsistencies in the supposed Hitler diaries , such as a diary entry for July 20 , 1944 , which would have been unlikely given that Hitler 's right hand had been badly burned by the bomb planted in his headquarters by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg earlier that day .
A week later on 2 May , Irving asserted that many of the diary documents appear to be genuine ; at the same press conference , Irving took the opportunity to promote his translation of the memoirs of Hitler 's physician Dr. Theodor Morell . Robert Harris , in his book Selling Hitler , suggested that an additional reason for Irving 's change of mind over the authenticity of the alleged Hitler diaries was that the fake diaries contain no reference to the Holocaust , thereby buttressing Irving 's claim in Hitler 's War that Hitler had no knowledge of it . Subsequently Irving conformed when the diaries were declared as a forgery by consensus . At a press conference held to withdraw his endorsement of the diaries , Irving proudly claimed that he was the first to call them a forgery , to which a reporter replied that he was also the last to call them genuine .
= = = Other books = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Irving had not had a successful book in years , and was behind schedule in writing the first volume of his Churchill series , the research for which had strained his finances . He finished the manuscript in 1985 , but the book was not published until 1987 , when it was released as Churchill 's War , Volume I.
In 1989 , Irving published his biography of Hermann Göring .
= = Holocaust denial = =
= = = Movement towards Holocaust denial = = =
Over the years , Irving 's stance on the Holocaust changed significantly . From 1988 , he started to espouse Holocaust denial openly ; he had previously not denied the Holocaust outright and for this reason , many Holocaust deniers were ambivalent about him . They admired Irving for the pro @-@ Nazi slant in his work and the fact that he possessed a degree of mainstream credibility that they lacked , but were annoyed that he did not openly deny the Holocaust . In 1980 , Lucy Dawidowicz noted that although Hitler 's War was strongly sympathetic to the Third Reich , because Irving argued that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust as opposed to denying the Holocaust , that his book was not part of the " anti @-@ Semitic canon " . In 1980 , Irving received an invitation to speak at a Holocaust @-@ denial conference , which he refused under the grounds that his appearance there would damage his reputation . In a letter , Irving stated his reasons for his refusal as : " This is pure Realpolitik on my part . I am already dangerously exposed , and I cannot take the chance of being caught in Flak meant for others ! " Though Irving refused at this time to appear at conferences sponsored by the Holocaust @-@ denying Institute for Historical Review ( IHR ) , he did grant the institute the right to distribute his books in the United States . Robert Jan van Pelt suggests that the major reason for Irving wishing to keep his distance from Holocaust deniers in the early 1980s was his desire to found his own political party called Focus .
In a footnote in the first edition of Hitler 's War , Irving writes , " I cannot accept the view … [ that ] there exists no document signed by Hitler , Himmler or Heydrich speaking of the extermination of the Jews " . In 1982 , Irving made an attempt to unify all of the various neo @-@ Nazi groups in Britain into one party called Focus , in which he would play a leading role . Irving described himself as a " moderate fascist " and spoke of plans to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . The effort failed due to fiscal problems . Irving told the Oxford Mail of having " links at a low level " with the British National Front . Irving described The Spotlight , the main journal of the Liberty Lobby , as " an excellent fortnightly paper " . At the same time , Irving put a copy of Hitler 's " Prophecy Speech " of 30 January 1939 , promising the " annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe " if " Jewish financiers " started another world war , onto his wall .
Following the failure of Focus , in September 1983 , Irving for the first time attended a conference of the IHR . Van Pelt has argued that , with the failure of Irving 's political career , he felt freer to associate with Holocaust deniers . At the conference , Irving did not deny the Holocaust , but did appear happy to share the stage with Robert Faurisson and Judge Wilhelm Stäglich , and claimed to be impressed with the allegations of Friedrich Berg that mass murder using diesel gas fumes at the Operation Reinhard death camps was impossible . At that conference , Irving repeated his claims that Hitler was ignorant of the Holocaust because he was " so busy being a soldier " . In a speech at that conference , Irving stated : " Isn 't it right for Tel Aviv to claim now that David Irving is talking nonsense and of course Adolf Hitler must have known about what was going in Auschwitz and Treblinka , and then in the same breath to claim that , of course our beloved Mr. Begin didn 't know what was going on in Sabra and Chatilla " . During the same speech , Irving proclaimed Hitler to be the " biggest friend the Jews had in the Third Reich " . In the same speech , Irving stated that he operated in such a way as to bring himself maximum publicity . Irving stated that : " I have at home ... a filing cabinet full of documents which I don 't issue all at once . I keep them : I issue them a bit at a time . When I think my name hasn 't been in the newspapers for several weeks , well , then I ring them up and I phone them and I say : ' What about this one , then ? ' "
A major theme of Irving 's writings since the 1980s was his belief that it had been a great blunder on the part of Britain to declare war on Germany in 1939 , and that ever since then and as a result of that decision , Britain had slipped into an unstoppable decline . Irving also took the view that Hitler often tried to help the Jews of Europe . In a June 1992 interview with the Daily Telegraph , Irving claimed to have heard from Hitler 's naval adjutant that the Führer had told him that he could not marry because Germany was " his bride " . Irving then claimed to have asked the naval adjutant when Hitler made that remark , and upon hearing that the date was 24 March 1938 , Irving stated in response " Herr Admiral , at that moment I was being born " . Irving used this alleged incident to argue that there was some sort of mystical connection between himself and Hitler .
In a 1986 speech in Australia Irving argued that photographs of Holocaust survivors and dead taken in early 1945 by Allied soldiers were proof that the Allies were responsible for the Holocaust , not the Germans . Irving claimed that the Holocaust was not the work of Nazi leaders , but rather of " nameless criminals " , and claimed that " these men [ who killed the Jews ] acted on their own impulse , their own initiative , within the general atmosphere of brutality created by the Second World War , in which of course Allied bombings played a part . " In another 1986 speech , this time in Atlanta , Irving claimed that " historians have a blindness when it comes to the Holocaust because like Tay @-@ Sachs disease it is a Jewish disease which causes blindness " .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Irving associated himself with the IHR , began giving lectures to groups such as the far @-@ right German Deutsche Volksunion ( DVU ) , and publicly denied that the Nazis systematically exterminated Jews in gas chambers during World War II . Irving was a frequent speaker for the DVU in the 1980s and the early 1990s , but the relationship ended in 1993 apparently because of concerns by the DVU that Irving 's espousal of Holocaust denial might lead to the DVU being banned .
In 1986 , Irving visited Toronto , where he was met at the airport by Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel . According to Zündel , Irving " ... thought I was ' Revisionist @-@ Neo @-@ Nazi @-@ Rambo @-@ Kook ! ' " , and asked Zündel to stay away from him . Zündel and his supporters obliged Irving by staying away from his lecture tour , which consequently attracted little media attention , and was considered by Irving to be a failure . Afterwards , Zündel sent Irving a long letter in which he offered to draw publicity to Irving , and so ensure that his future speaking tours would be a success . As a result , Irving and Zündel became friends , and Irving agreed in late 1987 to testify for Zündel at his second trial for denying the Holocaust . In addition , the publication in 1987 of the book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg 1917 – 1945 by Ernst Nolte , in which Nolte strongly implied that maybe Holocaust deniers were on to something , encouraged Irving to become more open in associating with Zündel .
= = = Zündel trial = = =
In January 1988 , Irving travelled to Toronto , Ontario , to assist Douglas Christie , the defence lawyer for Ernst Zündel at his second trial for denying the Holocaust . Working closely with Robert Faurisson , who was also assisting the defence , Irving contacted Warden Bill Armontrout of the Missouri State Penitentiary who recommended that Irving and Faurisson get into touch with Fred A. Leuchter , a self @-@ described execution expert living in Boston . Irving and Faurission then flew to Boston to meet with Leuchter , who agreed to lend his alleged technical expertise on the behalf of Zündel 's defence . Irving argued that an alleged expert on gassings like Leuchter could prove that the Holocaust was a " myth " . After work on the second Zündel trial , Irving declared that based on his exposure to Zündel 's and Leuchter 's theories that he was now conducting a " one @-@ man intifada " against the idea that there had been a Holocaust . Subsequently , Irving claimed to the American journalist D.D. Guttenplan in a 1999 interview that Zündel had convinced him that the Holocaust had not occurred .
In the 1988 Zündel trial , Irving repeated and defended his claim from Hitler 's War that until October 1943 Hitler knew nothing about the actual implementation of the Final Solution . He also expressed his evolving belief that the Final Solution involved " atrocities " , not systematic murder : " I don 't think there was any overall Reich policy to kill the Jews . If there was , they would have been killed and there would not be now so many millions of survivors . And believe me , I am glad for every survivor that there was . " On 22 – 26 April 1988 , Irving testified for Zündel , endorsing Richard Harwood 's book Did Six Million Really Die ? as " over ninety percent ... factually accurate " .
As to what evidence further led Irving to believe that the Holocaust never occurred , he cited The Leuchter report by Fred A. Leuchter , which claimed there was no evidence for the existence of homicidal gas chambers at the Auschwitz concentration camp . Irving said in a 1999 documentary about Leuchter : " The big point [ of the Leuchter report ] : there is no significant residue of cyanide in the brickwork . That 's what converted me . When I read that in the report in the courtroom in Toronto , I became a hard @-@ core disbeliever " . In addition , Irving was influenced to embrace Holocaust denial by the American historian Arno J. Mayer 's 1988 book Why Did the Heavens Not Darken ? , which did not deny the Holocaust , but claimed that most of those who died at Auschwitz were killed by disease ; Irving saw in Mayer 's book an apparent confirmation of Leuchter 's and Zündel 's theories about no mass murder at Auschwitz .
After the trial , Irving published Leuchter 's report as Auschwitz The End of the Line : The Leuchter Report in the United Kingdom in 1989 and wrote its foreword . Leuchter 's book had been first published in Canada by Zündel 's Samisdat Publishers in 1988 as The Leuchter Report : The End of a Myth : An Engineering Report on the Alleged Execution Gas Chambers at Auschwitz , Birkenau and Majdenek . In his foreword to the British edition of Leuchter 's book , Irving wrote that " Nobody likes to be swindled , still less where considerable sums of money are involved " . The alleged swindle was the reparations money totalling 3 billion DM paid by the Federal Republic of Germany to Israel between 1952 – 1966 for the Holocaust . Irving described the reparations as being " essentially in atonement for the ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz " , which Irving called a " myth " that would " not die easily " . In his foreword , Irving praised the " scrupulous methods " and " integrity " of Leuchter .
For publishing and writing the foreword to Auschwitz The End of the Line , on 20 June 1989 Irving together with Leuchter was condemned in an Early Day Motion of the House of Commons as " Hitler 's heirs " . The motion went on to describe Irving as a " Nazi propagandist and longtime Hitler apologist " and Auschwitz The End of the Line as a " fascist publication " . In the Motion , the House stated that they were " appalled by [ the Holocaust denial of ] Nazi propagandist and long @-@ time Hitler apologist David Irving " . In response to the House of Commons motion , Irving in a press statement challenged the MPs who voted to condemn him that : " I will enter the ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz and you and your friends may lob in Zyklon B in accordance with the well known procedures and conditions . I guarantee that you won 't be satisfied with the results ! " .
In a pamphlet Irving published in London on 23 June 1989 Irving made the " epochal announcement " that there was no mass murder in the gas chambers at the Auschwitz death camp . Irving labelled the gas chambers at Auschwitz a " hoax " , and writing in the third person declared that he " has placed himself [ Irving ] at the head of a growing band of historians , worldwide , who are now sceptical of the claim that at Auschwitz and other camps were ' factories of death ' , in which millions of innocent people were systematically gassed to death " . Boasting of his role in criticising the Hitler diaries as a forgery in 1983 , Irving wrote " now he [ Irving ] is saying the same thing about the infamous ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz , Treblinka and Majdanek . They did not exist – ever – except perhaps as the brainchild of Britain 's brilliant wartime Psychological Warfare Executive " . Finally , Irving claimed " the survivors of Auschwitz are themselves testimony to the absence of an extermination programme " . Echoing the criticism of the House of Commons , on 14 May 1990 a leader in The Times described Irving as a " man for whom Hitler is something of a hero and almost everything of an innocent and for whom Auschwitz is a Jewish deception " .
= = = Holocaust denial lecture circuit = = =
In the early 1990s , Irving was a frequent visitor to Germany , where he spoke at neo @-@ Nazi rallies . The chief themes of Irving 's German speeches were that the Allies and Axis states were equally culpable for war crimes , that the decision of Neville Chamberlain to declare war on Germany in 1939 , and that of Winston Churchill to continue the war in 1940 , had been great mistakes that set Britain on a path of decline , and the Holocaust was just a " propaganda exercise " . In June 1990 , Irving went to the former East German states on a well @-@ publicized tour entitled " An Englishman Fights for the Honour of the Germans , " on which he accused the Allies of having used " forged documents " to " humiliate " the German people . Irving 's self @-@ proclaimed mission was to guide " promising young men " in Germany in the " right direction " ( Irving has often stated his belief that women exist for a " certain task , which is producing us [ men ] " , and should be " subservient to men " ; leading , in Lipstadt 's view , to a lack of interest on Irving 's part in guiding young German women in the " right direction " ) . German nationalists found Irving , as a non @-@ German Holocaust denier , to be particularly credible .
In January 1990 , Irving gave a speech in Moers where he asserted that only 30 @,@ 000 people died at Auschwitz between 1940 – 45 , all of natural causes , which was equal — so he claimed — to the typical death toll from one Bomber Command raid on German cities . Irving claimed that there were no gas chambers at the death camp , stating that the existing remains were " mock @-@ ups built by the Poles " . On 21 April 1990 Irving repeated the same speech in Munich , which led to his conviction for Holocaust denial in Munich on 11 July 1991 . The court fined Irving DM 7 @,@ 000 . Irving appealed the judgement , and received a fine of DM 10 @,@ 000 for repeating the same remarks in the courtroom on 5 May 1992 . During his appeal in 1992 , Irving called upon those present in the Munich courtroom to " fight a battle for the German people and put an end to the blood lie of the Holocaust which has been told against this country for fifty years " . Irving went on to call the Auschwitz death camp a " tourist attraction " whose origins Irving claimed went back to an " ingenious plan " devised by the British Psychological Warfare Executive in 1942 to spread anti @-@ German propaganda that it was the policy of the German state to be " using ' gas chambers ' to kill millions of Jews and other undesirables " . During the same speech , Irving denounced the judge as a " senile , alcoholic cretin " . Following his conviction for Holocaust denial , Irving was banned from visiting Germany .
Expanding upon his thesis in Hitler 's War about the lack of a written Führer order for the Holocaust , Irving argued in the 1990s that the absence of such an order meant that there was no Holocaust . In a speech delivered in Toronto in November 1990 Irving claimed that Holocaust survivors had manufactured memories of their suffering because " there 's money involved and they can get a good compensation cash payment out of it " . In that speech , Irving used the metaphor of a cruise ship named Holocaust , which Irving claimed had " ... luxury wall to wall fitted carpets and a crew of thousands … marine terminals established in now virtually every capital in the world , disguised as Holocaust memorial museums " . Irving went on to assert that the " ship " was due for rough sailing because recently the Soviet government had allowed historians access to " the index cards of all the people who passed through the gates of Auschwitz " , and claimed that this would lead to " a lot of people [ who ] are not claiming to be Auschwitz survivors anymore " ( Irving 's statement about the index cards was incorrect ; what the Soviet government had made available in 1990 were the death books of Auschwitz , recording the weekly death tolls ) . Irving claimed on the basis of what he called the index books that , " Because the experts can look at a tattoo and say ' Oh yes , 181 , 219 that means you entered Auschwitz in March 1943 " and he warned Auschwitz survivors " If you want to go and have a tattoo put on your arm , as a lot of them do , I am afraid to say , and claim subsequently that you were in Auschwitz , you have to make sure a ) that it fits in with the month you said you went to Auschwitz and b ) it is not a number which anyone used before " .
On 17 January 1991 Irving told a reporter from the Jewish Chronicle that " The Jews are very foolish not to abandon the gas chamber theory while they still have time " . Irving went to say that he believed anti @-@ Semitism will increase all over the world because " the Jews have exploited people with the gas chamber legend " and that " In ten years , Israel will cease to exist and the Jews will have to return to Europe " . In his 1991 revised edition of Hitler 's War he had removed all references to death camps and the Holocaust . In a speech given in Hamburg in 1991 , Irving stated that in two years time " this myth of mass murders of Jews in the death factories of Auschwitz , Majdanek and Treblinka ... which in fact never took place " will be disproved ( Auschwitz , Majdanek , and Treblinka were all well known extermination camps ) . Two days later , Irving repeated the same speech in Halle before a group of neo @-@ Nazis , and praised Rudolf Hess as " that great German martyr , Rudolf Hess " . At another 1991 speech , this time in Canada , Irving called the Holocaust a " hoax " , and again predicted that by 1993 the " hoax " would have been " exposed " . In that speech , Irving declared , " Gradually the word is getting around Germany . Two years from now too , the German historians will accept that we are right . They will accept that for fifty years they have believed a lie " . During that speech given in October 1991 , Irving expressed his contempt and hatred for Holocaust survivors by proclaiming that :
Ridicule alone isn 't enough , you 've got to be tasteless about it . You 've got to say things like ' More women died on the back seat of Edward Kennedy 's car at Chappaquiddick than in the gas chambers at Auschwitz . ' Now you think that 's tasteless , what about this ? I 'm forming an association especially dedicated to all these liars , the ones who try and kid people that they were in these concentration camps , it 's called the Auschwitz Survivors , Survivors of the Holocaust and Other Liars , ' ASSHOLs ' . Can 't get more tasteless than that , but you 've got to be tasteless because these people deserve our contempt .
In another 1991 speech , this time in Regina Irving called the Holocaust " a major fraud ... There were no gas chambers . They were fakes and frauds " .
In November 1992 , Irving was to be a featured speaker at a world anti @-@ Zionist congress in Stockholm that was cancelled by the Swedish government . Also scheduled to attend were fellow Holocaust @-@ deniers Robert Faurisson and Fred A. Leuchter , and Louis Farrakhan , together with representatives of the militant Palestinian group Hamas , the Lebanese militant Shiite group Hezbollah , and the right @-@ wing Russian antisemitic group Pamyat . In a 1993 speech , Irving claimed that had been only 100 @,@ 000 Jewish deaths at Auschwitz , " but not from gas chambers . They died from epidemics " . Irving went on to claim that most of the Jewish deaths during World War II had been caused by Allied bombing . Irving claimed that " The concentration camp inmates arrived in Berlin or Leipzig or in Dresden just in time for the RAF bombers to set fire to those cities . Nobody knows how many Jews died in those air raids " . In a 1994 speech , Irving lamented that his predictions of 1991 had failed to occur , and complained of the persistence of belief in the " rotting corpse " of the " profitable legend " of the Holocaust . In another 1994 speech , Irving claimed that there was no German policy of genocide of Jews , and that only 600 @,@ 000 Jews died in concentration camps in World War II , all due to either Allied bombing or disease . At the same time , Irving started to appear more frequently at the annual conferences hosted by the IHR . In a 1995 speech , Irving claimed that the Holocaust was a myth invented by a " world @-@ wide Jewish cabal " to serve their own ends . Irving also spoke on other topics at the IHR gatherings . A frequent theme was the claim that Winston Churchill had advance knowledge of the Japanese plans to attack Pearl Harbor , and refused to warn the Americans to bring the United States into World War II .
At the same time , Irving maintained an ambivalent attitude to Holocaust denial depending on his audience . In a 1993 letter , Irving lashed out against his former friend Zündel , writing that : " In April 1988 I unhesitatingly agreed to aid your defence as a witness in Toronto . I would not make the same mistake again . As a penalty for having defended you then , and for having continued to aid you since , my life has come under a gradually mounting attack : I find myself the worldwide victim of mass demonstrations , violence , vituperation and persecution " ( emphasis in the original ) . Irving went on to claim his life had been wonderful until Zündel had got him involved in the Holocaust denial movement ; van Pelt argues that Irving was just trying to shift responsibility for his actions in his letter . In an interview with Australian radio in July 1995 , Irving claimed that at least four million Jews died in World War II , though he argued that this was due to terrible sanitary conditions inside the concentration camps as opposed to a deliberate policy of genocide in the death camps . Irving 's statement led to a very public spat with his former ally Faurisson , who insisted that no Jews were killed in the Holocaust . In 1995 , Irving stated in another speech that " I have to take off my hat to my adversaries and the strategies they have employed — the marketing of the very word Holocaust : I half expected to see a little TM after it " . Likewise , depending on his audience , Irving during the 1990s has either used the absence of a written Führerbefehl ( Führer order ) for the " Final Solution " to argue that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust , or that the absence of a written order meant there was no Holocaust .
= = Racism and antisemitism = =
Irving has expressed racist and antisemitic sentiments , both publicly and privately . Irving has often expressed his belief in the theory of a sinister Jewish conspiracy ruling the world , and that the belief in the reality of Holocaust was manufactured as part of the same alleged conspiracy . Irving used the label " traditional enemies of the truth " to describe Jews , and in a 1963 article about a speech by Sir Oswald Mosley wrote that the " Yellow Star did not make a showing " . In 1992 , Irving stated that " ... the Jews are very foolish not to abandon the gas chamber theory while they still have time " and claimed he " foresees a new wave of antisemitism " the world over due to Jewish " exploitation of the Holocaust myth " . During an interview with the American writer Ron Rosenbaum , Irving stated his belief that Jews were his " traditional enemy " . In one interview cited in the libel lawsuit , Irving also stated that he would be " willing to put [ his ] signature " to the " fact " that " a great deal of control over the world is exercised by Jews " .
Several of these statements were cited by the judge 's decision in Irving 's lawsuit against Penguin Books and Deborah Lipstadt , leading the judge to conclude that Irving " had on many occasions spoken in terms which are plainly racist . " One example brought was his diary entry for 17 September 1994 , in which Irving wrote about a ditty he composed for his young daughter " when halfbreed children are wheeled past " :
I am a Baby Aryan
Not Jewish or Sectarian
I have no plans to marry anApe or Rastafarian .
Christopher Hitchens wrote that Irving sang the rhyme to Hitchens ' wife , Carol Blue , and daughter , Antonia , in the elevator following drinks in the family 's Washington apartment .
= = Persona non grata = =
After Irving denied the Holocaust in two 1989 speeches given in Austria , the Austrian government issued an arrest warrant for him and barred him from entering the country . In early 1992 a German court found him guilty of Holocaust denial under the Auschwitzlüge section of the law against Volksverhetzung ( a failed appeal by Irving would see the fine rise from 10 @,@ 000 DM to 30 @,@ 000 DM ) , and he was subsequently barred from entering Germany . Other governments followed suit , including Italy and Canada , where he was arrested in November 1992 and deported back to the United Kingdom . In an administrative hearing surrounding those events , he was found by the hearing office to have engaged in a " total fabrication " in telling a story of an exit from and return to Canada which would , for technical reasons , have made the original deportation order invalid . He was also barred from entering Australia in 1992 , a ban he made five unsuccessful attempts to overturn .
In 1992 , Irving signed a contract with Macmillan for a biography of Joseph Goebbels entitled Goebbels : Mastermind of the Third Reich . Following charges that Irving had selectively " edited " a recently discovered complete edition of Goebbels 's diaries in Moscow , Macmillan cancelled the book deal . The decision by the Sunday Times ( who had bought the rights to serialised extracts from the diaries before Macmillan published them ) in July 1992 to hire Irving as a translator of Goebbels 's diary was criticised by historian Peter Pulzer , who argued that Irving , because of his views about the Third Reich , was not the best man for the job . Andrew Neil , the editor of the Sunday Times , called Irving " reprehensible " , but defended hiring Irving because he was only a " transcribing technician " , which others criticised as a poor description of translation work .
On 27 April 1993 Irving was ordered to attend court to be examined on charges relating to the Loi Gayssot in France , making it an offence to question the existence or size of the category of crimes against humanity . The law does not extend to extradition , and Irving refused to travel to France . Then , in February 1994 , Irving spent 10 days of a three @-@ month sentence in London 's Pentonville prison for contempt of court following a legal wrangling over publishing rights .
In 1995 , St. Martin 's Press of New York City agreed to publish the Goebbels biography ; but after protests , they cancelled the contract , leaving Irving in a situation in which , according to D. D. Guttenplan , he was desperate for financial help , publicity , and the need to re @-@ establish his reputation as a historian . The book was eventually self @-@ published .
= = = Libel suit = = =
On 5 September 1996 , Irving filed a libel suit against Deborah Lipstadt and her British publisher Penguin Books for publishing a British edition of Lipstadt 's book , Denying the Holocaust , which had first been published in the United States in 1993 . In her book , Denying the Holocaust , Lipstadt called Irving a Holocaust denier , falsifier , and bigot , and said that he manipulated and distorted real documents .
Lipstadt hired the British solicitor Anthony Julius to present her case , while Penguin Books hired Kevin Bays and Mark Bateman , libel specialist from media firm Davenport Lyons . They briefed the libel barrister Richard Rampton QC and Penguin also briefed junior barrister Heather Rogers . The defendants ( with Penguin 's insurers paying the fee ) also retained Professor Richard J. Evans , historian and Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University , as an expert witness . Also working as expert witnesses were the American Holocaust historian Christopher Browning , the German historian Peter Longerich and the Dutch architectural expert Robert Jan van Pelt . The latter wrote a report attesting to the fact that the death camps were designed , built and used for the purpose of mass murder , while Browning testified for the reality of the Holocaust . Evans ' report was the most comprehensive , in @-@ depth examination of Irving 's work :
Not one of [ Irving 's ] books , speeches or articles , not one paragraph , not one sentence in any of them , can be taken on trust as an accurate representation of its historical subject . All of them are completely worthless as history , because Irving cannot be trusted anywhere , in any of them , to give a reliable account of what he is talking or writing about . ... if we mean by historian someone who is concerned to discover the truth about the past , and to give as accurate a representation of it as possible , then Irving is not a historian .
The BBC quoted Evans further : -
Irving , ( ... ) had deliberately distorted and wilfully mistranslated documents , consciously used discredited testimony and falsified historical statistics . ( ... ) Irving has fallen so far short of the standards of scholarship customary amongst historians that he does not deserve to be called a historian at all . "
Not only did Irving lose the case , but in light of the evidence presented at the trial a number of his works that had previously escaped serious scrutiny were brought to public attention . He was also liable to pay all of Penguin 's costs of the trial , estimated to be as much as £ 2 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) though it remains uncertain how much of these liabilities he will ultimately pay for . When he did not meet these , Davenport Lyons moved to make him bankrupt on behalf of their client . He was forced into bankruptcy in 2002 and lost his home , though he has been able to travel around the world despite his financial losses .
= = = Life after libel suit = = =
Early in September 2004 , Michael Cullen , the deputy prime minister of New Zealand , announced that Irving would not be permitted to visit the country , where he had been invited by the National Press Club to give a series of lectures under the heading " The Problems of Writing about World War II in a Free Society " . The National Press Club defended its invitation of Irving , saying that it amounted not to an endorsement of his views , but rather an opportunity to question him . A government spokeswoman said that " people who have been deported from another country are refused entry " to New Zealand . Irving rejected the ban and attempted to board a Qantas flight for New Zealand from Los Angeles on 17 September 2004 . He was not allowed on board .
On 11 November 2005 , the Austrian police in the southern state of Styria , acting under the 1989 warrant , arrested Irving . Irving pleaded guilty to the charge of " trivialising , grossly playing down and denying the Holocaust " and was sentenced to three years ' imprisonment in accordance with the law prohibiting National Socialist activities ( officially Verbotsgesetz , " Prohibition Statute " ) . After he was arrested , Irving claimed in his plea that he changed his opinions on the Holocaust , " I said that then based on my knowledge at the time , but by 1991 when I came across the Eichmann papers , I wasn 't saying that anymore and I wouldn 't say that now . The Nazis did murder millions of Jews . " Irving sat motionless as judge Peter Liebetreu asked him if he had understood the sentence , to which he replied " I 'm not sure I do " before being bundled out of the court by Austrian police . Later , Irving declared himself shocked by the severity of the sentence . He had reportedly already purchased a plane ticket home to London .
In December 2006 , Irving was released from prison , and banned from ever returning to Austria . Upon Irving 's arrival in the UK he reaffirmed his position , stating that he felt " no need any longer to show remorse " for his Holocaust views . On 18 May 2007 , he was expelled from the 52nd Warsaw International Book Fair in Poland because books he took there were deemed by the organizers as promoting Nazism and antisemitism , which is in violation of Polish law .
Since then , Irving has continued to work as a freelance writer , despite his troubled public image . He was drawn into the controversy surrounding Bishop Richard Williamson , who in a televised interview recorded in Germany in November 2008 denied the Holocaust took place , only to see Williamson convicted for incitement in April 2010 after refusing to pay a fine of 12 @,@ 000 euros . Irving subsequently found himself beset by protesters on a book tour of the United States . Irving has actively toured the United States . Irving has also given lectures and tours in the UK and Europe ; one tour to Poland in September 2010 which led to particular criticism included the Treblinka death camp as an itinerary stop . During his 2008 tour of the US Deborah Lipstadt stated that Irving 's audience was mainly limited to like @-@ minded people .
Irving and Nick Griffin ( then the British National Party leader ) were invited to speak at a forum on free speech at the Oxford Union on 26 November 2007 , along with Anne Atkins and Evan Harris . The debate took place after Oxford Union members voted in favour of it , but was disrupted by protesters . As of 2013 , Irving was lecturing to small audiences at venues disclosed only to attendants on various topics including alleged Jewish conspiracies and alleged holocaust denial ; more recently , lecture topics included the life and death of Heinrich Himmler , or the saturation bombings during World War II .
Irving established a website selling Nazi memorabilia in 2009 . The items are offered by other people , with Irving receiving a commission from each sale for authenticating them . Irving stated in 2009 that the website was the only way he could make money after being bankrupted in 2002 . Items sold through the website include Hitler 's walking stick and a lock of the dictator 's hair . Irving has also investigated the authenticity of bones purported to be from Hitler and Eva Braun .
= = = David Irving controversy in 2008 / 2009 = = =
In October 2008 a controversy erupted in Norway over the invitation of David Irving to speak at the 2009 Norwegian Festival of Literature . Several of Norway 's most distinguished authors protested against the invitation . The leader of the board for the festival , Jesper Holte , defended the invitation by stating that " Our agenda is to invite a liar and a falsifier of history to a festival about truth . And confront him with this . Irving has been invited to discuss his concept of truth in light of his activity as a writer of historical books and the many accusations he has been exposed to as a consequence of this . " Although Irving is introduced in the festival 's webpages as " historian and writer " the board chair leader defended the more aggressive language being used to characterize Irving in connection with the controversy that had arisen . Lars Saabye Christensen and Roy Jacobsen were two authors who had threatened to boycott the festival on account of Irving 's invitation and Anne B. Ragde stated that Sigrid Undset would have turned around in her grave . As the festival has as its subsidiary name " Sigrid Undset Days " , a representative of Undset 's family had requested that the name of the Nobel laureate be removed in connection with the festival . Also the Norwegian free speech organization Fritt Ord was critical towards letting Irving speak at the festival and had requested that its logo be removed from the festival . In addition Edvard Hoem announced that he would not attend the 2009 festival with Irving taking part . Per Edgar Kokkvold , leader of the Norwegian Press Confederation advocated cancelling Irving 's invitation .
Days after the controversy had started , the invitation was rescinded . This led to the resignation of Stig Sæterbakken from his position as content director as he was the person who had invited Irving to the event . The head of the Norwegian Festival of Literature , Randi Skeie , deplored what had taken place , stating " Everything is fine as long as everyone agrees , but things get more difficult when one doesn 't like the views being put forward . " Sæterbakken characterized his colleagues as " damned cowards " arguing that they were walking in lockstep .
According to editor @-@ in @-@ chief Sven Egil Omdal of Stavanger Aftenblad the opposition to Irving 's participation at the festival appeared as a concerted effort and Omdal suggested campaign journalism from two of Norway 's largest newspapers , Dagbladet and Aftenposten and Norway 's public service broadcaster NRK .
David Irving commented that he had not been told that the festival was going to present him as a liar , and that he was preparing a lecture about the real history of what took place in Norway during World War II , contrary to what official historians have presented . Irving stated that he had thought the Norwegian people to be made of tougher stuff .
Only days after the cancellation David Irving announced that he would go to Lillehammer during the literature festival and deliver his 2 @-@ hour lecture from a hotel room . He did not come .
= = Reception by historians = =
Irving , once highly regarded for his expert knowledge of German military archives , was a controversial figure from the start . His interpretations of the war were widely regarded as unduly favourable to the German side . At first this was seen as personal opinion , unpopular but consistent with full respectability as a historian . By 1988 , however , Irving had begun to reject the status of the Holocaust as a systematic and deliberate genocide ; and he soon became the main proponent of Holocaust denial . This , along with his association with far @-@ right circles , dented his standing as a historian . A marked change in Irving 's reputation can be seen in the surveys of the historiography of the Third Reich produced by Ian Kershaw . In the first edition of Kershaw 's book The Nazi Dictatorship in 1985 , Irving was called a " maverick " historian working outside the mainstream of the historical profession . By the time of the fourth edition of The Nazi Dictatorship in 2000 , Irving was described only as a historical writer who had in the 1970s engaged in " provocations " intended to provide an " exculpation of Hitler 's role in the Final Solution " . Other critical responses to his work tend to follow this chronological pattern .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Translations = = =
The Memoirs of Field @-@ Marshal Keitel ( 1965 )
The Memoirs of General Gehlen ( 1972 )
= = = Monographs = = =
The Night the Dams Burst ( 1973 )
Von Guernica bis Vietnam ( in German only ) ( 1982 )
Die deutsche Ostgrenze ( in German only ) ( 1990 )
Banged Up ( 2008 )
= = = Collected articles in German = = =
Und Deutschlands Städte starben nicht ( 1963 )
Nürnberg : Die letzte Schlacht ( 1979 )
Wie krank war Hitler wirklich ? ( 1980 )
= USS Orizaba ( ID @-@ 1536 ) =
USS Orizaba ( ID @-@ 1536 / AP @-@ 24 ) was a transport ship for the United States Navy in both World War I and World War II . She was the sister ship of Siboney but the two were not part of a ship class . In her varied career , she was also known as USAT Orizaba in service for the United States Army , as SS Orizaba in interwar civilian service for the Ward Line , and as Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) as an auxiliary in the Brazilian Navy after World War II .
Orizaba made 15 transatlantic voyages for the Navy carrying troops to and from Europe in World War I with the second shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time of all Navy transports . The ship was turned over to the War Department in 1919 for use as Army transport USAT Orizaba . After her World War I service ended , Orizaba reverted to the Ward Line , her previous owners . The ship was briefly engaged in transatlantic service to Spain and then engaged in New York – Cuba – Mexico service until 1939 , when the ship was chartered to United States Lines . While Orizaba was in her Ward Line service , American poet Hart Crane leapt to his death from the rear deck of the liner off Florida in April 1932 .
In World War II the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and again assigned to the War Department as USAT Orizaba . After completing one voyage as an Army transport , the ship was transferred to the US Navy , where she was re @-@ commissioned as USS Orizaba ( AP @-@ 24 ) . The ship made several transatlantic runs , was damaged in an air attack in the Allied invasion of Sicily , and made trips to South America . The transport also served in the Pacific Theatre , making several transpacific voyages , and one to the Aleutians .
In June 1945 , Orizaba was transferred under Lend @-@ Lease to the Brazilian Navy where she served as Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) . In August 1945 , Duque de Caxis carried parts of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force from Naples back to Rio de Janeiro . The ship was badly damaged by a fire in 1947 , but was repaired and remained in service . Permanently transferred to Brazil in 1953 , Duque de Caxias was decommissioned in 1959 and scrapped in 1963 .
= = World War I = =
Orizaba — named after the town of Orizaba , Veracruz , Mexico — was laid down for the Ward Line by William Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Company of Philadelphia and launched in February 1917 . In mid @-@ 1917 the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) commandeered and received title to all private shipbuilding projects in progress , including the still @-@ incomplete Orizaba and her sister ship Siboney . Plans for both ships were modified for troop @-@ carrying duties . Upon Orizaba ’ s completion , the USSB delivered her to the US Navy for transport duty on 11 April 1918 , and she was commissioned as USS Orizaba on 27 May .
Assigned to the Atlantic Transport Service , Orizaba carried over 15 @,@ 000 troops in six convoy trips to France before the end of World War I. In one such voyage , Orizaba ’ s executive officer , ordnance expert William Price Williamson , worked closely with Commander Richard Drace White — Orizaba ’ s commanding officer , himself an ordnance expert — to develop a workable depth charge launcher which would provide the transport with a measure of protection from enemy submarines . Williamson set about modifying a Lyle gun into a depth charge launcher , and successfully tested it on 16 August 1918 . While attempting another test with an increased propellant charge the following day , a defective fuse exploded the depth charge prematurely , killing Williamson and three other sailors . White , four other officers , and twenty @-@ two enlisted men were also wounded in the blast .
Four days later on 21 August at 08 : 30 , Orizaba , traveling with Siboney , spotted a submarine in the act of submerging . Orizaba attempted to ram the sub and dropped depth charges , but there was no indication that the attack was successful .
In December 1918 , she was temporarily assigned to assist the French government in repatriating French , Belgian , and Italian prisoners of war . Detached from that duty on 10 January 1919 , she joined the Cruiser and Transport Force at Brest , and in nine voyages returned over 31 @,@ 700 troops to the United States . After the completion of transport duty service in the summer of 1919 , she decommissioned on 4 September and was turned over to the Army for further transport service as USAT Orizaba . The boat served in that capacity until returned to the Ward Line in 1920 .
According to the Statistical Department of the US Navy , Orizaba had the second @-@ shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time out of 37 US Navy transports used in World War I. The ship completed 15 round trips with an average turn @-@ around time of just over 30 days per trip , while the overall Navy average was 39 @.@ 8 days .
= = Post @-@ war civilian service = =
After both were reacquired by the Ward Line , Orizaba and Siboney were placed in transatlantic service on New York – Cuba – Spain routes in 1920 , with Orizaba calling at Corunna , Santander , and Bilbao in Spain . The two ships accommodated 306 first @-@ class , 60 second @-@ class , and 64 third @-@ class passengers , with each ship making several trips on the route , but a lack of
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to Norfolk in January 1943 , she plied the eastern seaboard for a month , then took up transatlantic duties again . Until July she traversed the ocean to Oran , Algeria , carrying troops over and prisoners of war back to New York .
On 5 July she left Oran in Task Force ( TF ) 81 . The next day , she rendezvoused with TF 85 and on 9 July stood off Gela , Sicily , disembarking troops into landing craft . On 11 July , she sustained slight damage in an enemy air attack and retired to Algeria with casualties and prisoners on board the next day . She returned to Sicily at the end of the month to discharge troops and cargo at Palermo and then , on the night of 1 August , weighed anchor and stood out for home .
Arriving at New York on 22 August 1943 , she underwent an overhaul , then took on runs to Brazil and the Caribbean . At the end of the year she left the east coast , passed through the Panama Canal , and sailed on to the Southwestern Pacific . After calls at Samoa , Nouméa , Brisbane , and Milne Bay , she returned to the west coast in March 1944 , only to leave again for another Central Pacific run . Back at San Francisco in June , she underwent repairs ; completed a run to the Marshalls and Marianas ; and then sailed north to the Aleutians . Completing her northern run at Seattle , Washington on 1 December , she carried men and supplies to Hawaii , then returned to San Francisco , later sailing to New Guinea , the Philippines , and Ulithi to add men and materiel to forces gathering for the Battle of Okinawa .
From Ulithi , Orizaba sailed east , passed through the Panama Canal again , and , as the battle for Okinawa raged , arrived at Tampa , Florida . Decommissioning on 23 April , she underwent an overhaul and on 16 July 1945 she was transferred to Brazil under the terms of Lend @-@ Lease . The ship was permanently transferred to Brazil in June 1953 and struck from the US Naval Vessel Register on 20 July of that same year . Orizaba received one battle star for her US Navy service in World War II . As of 2008 , no other US Navy ship has been named Orizaba .
= = Brazilian Navy service = =
Assuming control of the vessel at Tampa on 16 July 1945 , the Brazilian Navy renamed the veteran transport Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) , the second ship of that navy named in honor of Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias , the patron of the Brazilian Army .
Duque de Caxias headed to Naples and on 28 August 1945 left there with elements of the returning Brazilian Expeditionary Force . The ship arrived at Rio de Janeiro for the first time on 17 September 1945 . The ship then loaded American military stores from US bases in Brazil and sailed for New York , arriving on 10 November 1945 , with plans to repatriate wounded Brazilian soldiers who had been recuperating in the US .
On 31 July 1947 , a day after sailing from Rio de Janeiro for Europe , oil spilled on the ship ’ s boilers , causing an engine @-@ room fire that quickly spread through the first class cabins and killed 27 . The ship was towed from its position off Cabo Frio into Rio de Janeiro on 1 August 1947 . The ship had been carrying 1 @,@ 060 passengers bound for Lisbon , Naples , and Marseille , along with 500 crew members , and had been scheduled to carry Italian refugees on its return voyage .
In 1953 , Duque de Caxias was converted into a training ship , and in August of that year began a European and Mediterranean training cruise , which included a 12 @-@ day visit to New York in March 1954 as part of its homeward leg . The ship visited the United States again in December 1955 , with midshipmen aboard touring the United States Naval Academy and honored at a cocktail by the Brazilian Ambassador , Joao Carlos Muniz , at the Brazilian Embassy in Washington , D.C. In October the following year , Duque de Caxias called at Philadelphia , and the new Brazilian Ambassador Ernani do Amaral Peixoto — also an Admiral in the Brazilian Navy — and his wife sponsored a tea dance in honor of Captain Antonio Andrade , other officers of the ship , and the midshipmen aboard the ship ; Peixoto had traveled to Philadelphia to greet Andrade , a former naval attaché at the embassy . The ship was decommissioned 13 April 1959 , and finally scrapped in 1963 .
= Toothcomb =
A toothcomb ( also tooth comb or dental comb ) is a dental structure found in some mammals , comprising a group of front teeth arranged in a manner that facilitates grooming , similar to a hair comb . The toothcomb occurs in lemuriform primates ( which includes lemurs and lorisoids ) , treeshrews , colugos , hyraxes , and some African antelopes . The structures evolved independently in different types of mammals through convergent evolution and vary both in dental composition and structure . In most mammals the comb is formed by a group of teeth with fine spaces between them . The toothcombs in most mammals include incisors only , while in lemuriform primates they include incisors and canine teeth that tilt forward at the front of the lower jaw , followed by a canine @-@ shaped first premolar . The toothcombs of colugos and hyraxes take a different form with the individual incisors being serrated , providing multiple tines per tooth .
The toothcomb is usually used for grooming . While licking the fur clean , the animal will run the toothcomb through the fur to comb it . Fine grooves or striations are usually cut into the teeth during grooming by the hair and may be seen on the sides of the teeth when viewed through a scanning electron microscope . The toothcomb is kept clean by either the tongue or , in the case of lemuriforms , the sublingua , a specialized " under @-@ tongue " . The toothcomb can have other functions , such as food procurement and bark gouging . Within lemuriforms , fork @-@ marked lemurs and indriids have more robust toothcombs to support these secondary functions . In some lemurs , such as the aye @-@ aye , the toothcomb has been lost completely and replaced with other specialized dentition .
In lemuriform primates , the toothcomb has been used by scientists in the interpretation of the evolution of lemurs and their kin . They are thought to have evolved from early adapiform primates around the Eocene or earlier . One popular hypothesis is that they evolved from European adapids , but the fossil record suggests that they evolved from an older lineage that migrated to Africa during the Paleocene ( 66 to 55 mya ) and might have evolved from early cercamoniines from Asia . Fossil primates such as Djebelemur , ' Anchomomys ' milleri , and Plesiopithecus may have been their closest relatives . The lack of a distinct toothcomb in the fossil record prior to 40 mya has created a conflict with molecular clock studies that suggest an older divergence between lemurs and lorisoids , and the existence of a ghost lineage of lemuriform primates in Africa .
= = Homologous and analogous structures = =
The toothcomb , a special morphological arrangement of teeth in the anterior lower jaw , is best known in extant strepsirrhine primates , which include lemurs and lorisoid primates ( collectively known as lemuriforms ) . This homologous structure is a diagnostic character that helps define this clade ( related group ) of primates . An analogous trait is found in the bald uakari ( Cacajao calvus ) , a type of New World monkey .
Toothcombs can also be found in colugos and treeshrews , both close relatives of primates ; however , the structures are different and these are considered to examples of convergent evolution . Likewise , small- or medium @-@ sized African antelopes , such as the impala ( Aepyceros melampus ) , have a similar structure sometimes referred to as the " lateral dental grooming apparatus " . Living and extinct hyraxes ( hyracoids ) also exhibit a toothcomb , although the number of tines in the comb vary throughout the fossil record .
Dating to the Eocene epoch over 50 mya , Chriacus and Thryptacodon — two types of arctocyonids ( primitive placental mammals ) — also possessed an independently evolved toothcomb .
= = Anatomical structure = =
The toothcomb of most lemuriforms includes six finely spaced teeth , four incisors and two canine teeth that are procumbent ( tilt forward ) in the front of the mouth . The procumbent lower canine teeth are the same shape as the incisors located between them , but they are more robust and curve upward and inward , more so than the incisors . In the permanent dentition , the canines erupt after the incisors . The crowns of the incisors are also angled in the direction of the forward tilt , and the crowns of both the incisors and canines are elongated and compressed side @-@ to @-@ side . The apical ridge , following along the front edges of the toothcomb teeth , is V @-@ shaped in most lemuriforms , tapering off from the midline . As a result of this dental reconfiguration , the upper and lower incisors do not contact one another , and often the upper incisors are reduced or lost completely .
The French anatomist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville first identified the two lateral teeth of the lemuriform toothcomb as canines in 1840 . Canine teeth are normally used to pierce or grasp objects . With modified lower canine teeth , the first lower premolars following the toothcomb are usually shaped like typical canine teeth ( caniniform ) and assume their function . These premolars are commonly confused with canines . Normally the true canines in the lower jaw sit in front of the upper canines , and in toothcombed primates , the caniniform premolars rest behind it .
The lemuriform toothcomb is kept clean by the sublingua or " under @-@ tongue " , a specialized muscular structure that acts like a toothbrush to remove hair and other debris . The sublingua can extend below the end of the tongue and is tipped with keratinized , serrated points that rake between the front teeth .
Among lemurs , the toothcomb is variable in structure . Among indriids ( Indriidae ) , the toothcomb is less procumbent and consists of four teeth instead of six . The indriid toothcomb is more robust and wider , with shorter incisors , wider spaces between the teeth ( interdental spaces ) , and a broader apical ridge . It is unclear whether this four @-@ toothed toothcomb consists of two pairs of incisors or one pair of incisors and one pair of canines . In fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) the toothcomb is more compressed , with significantly reduced interdental spaces . All six teeth are longer , straighter , and form a more continuous apical ridge . In the recently extinct monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) and sloth lemurs ( Palaeopropithecidae ) , the toothcomb was lost and the incisors and canines resumed a typical configuration in the front of the mouth . The aye @-@ aye also lost its toothcomb , replacing it with continually growing ( hypselodont ) front teeth , similar to the incisors of rodents .
In colugos , the toothcomb has a completely different structure . Instead of individual incisors and canine teeth being finely spaced to act like the teeth of a comb , the biting edge of the four incisors have become serrated with as many as 15 tines each , while the canine acts more like a molar . These serrated incisors are kept clean using the front of the tongue , which is serrated to match the serrations of the incisors . Similarly , the hyracoid toothcomb consists of incisors with multiple tines , called " pectinations " . In contrast to the colugos , the size and shape of the tines are more uniform .
The toothcomb of treeshrews is like the lemuriform toothcomb in that it uses interdental spaces to form the comb tines , but only two of its three pairs of lower incisors are included in the toothcomb and the canines are also excluded . The lateral two incisors in the toothcomb are generally larger . In the extinct arctocyonids , all six lower incisors were part of the toothcomb . In African antelopes , the toothcomb is strikingly similar to that of lemuriforms in that it consists of two pairs of incisors and a pair of canines .
= = Functions = =
As a homologous structure in lemuriforms , the toothcomb serves variable biological roles , despite its superficially stereotypic shape and appearance . It is primarily used as a toiletry device or grooming comb . Additionally , some species use their toothcomb for food procurement or to gouge tree bark .
= = = Grooming = = =
The primary function of the toothcomb , grooming , was first noted by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1829 , who pointed out that the ring @-@ tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) had lower incisors that " sont de véritables peignes " ( " are real combs " ) . More than 100 years later , the grooming function was questioned since it was difficult to observe and the interdental spaces were thought to be too small for fur . Observations later showed the teeth were used for that purpose and that immediately after grooming , hair may be found trapped in the teeth , but is removed by the sublingua later .
In 1981 , scanning electron microscopy revealed fine grooves or striations on the teeth in lemuriform toothcombs . These grooves were only found on the sides of the teeth on the concave surfaces between the sides , as well on the back ridge of the teeth . Between 10 and 20 µm wide , these grooves indicate that hair moved repeatedly across the teeth . Inside these grooves were even finer grooves , less than 1 µm , created by abrasion with the cuticular layer of the hair .
Among non @-@ primates , the extinct Chriacus exhibits microscopic groves on its toothcomb , but the Philippine colugo ( Cynocephalus volans ) does not . The toothcomb of the colugos is generally considered to function as a toothcomb , but due to the lack of striations on the teeth and no documented observations of toothcomb use during oral grooming , its use seems to be limited to food procurement .
In African antelopes , the lateral dental grooming apparatus does not appear to be used during grazing or browsing . Instead , it is used during grooming when the head sweeps upward in a distinctive motion . It is thought to comb the fur and remove ectoparasites .
= = = Olfaction in lemuriforms = = =
In lemuriform primates , the toothcomb may also play a secondary role in olfaction , which may account for the size reduction of the poorly studied upper incisors . The toothcomb may provide pressure to stimulate glandular secretions which are then spread through the fur . Furthermore , the size reduction of the upper incisors may create a gap between the teeth ( interincisal diastema ) that connects the philtrum ( a cleft in the middle of the wet nose , or rhinarium ) to the vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth . This would allow pheromones to be more easily transferred to the vomeronasal organ .
= = = Food procurement and other uses = = =
Mouse lemurs ( Microcebus ) , sifakas ( Propithecus ) , and the indri ( Indri ) use their toothcombs to scoop up fruit pulp . Other small lemuriforms , such as fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) , the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus ) , and galagos ( particularly the genera Galago and Euoticus ) use their toothcombs to tooth @-@ scrape plant exudates , such as gum and sap . In fork @-@ marked lemurs , the toothcomb is specially adapted to minimize food trapment since the interdental spaces are greatly reduced . The herbivorous colugos in the genus Cynocephalus may also use their toothcomb for food procurement .
Indriids such as the sifakas use their toothcombs to gouge bark or dead wood ( bark @-@ prising ) , which is done prior to scent @-@ marking with the gland on their chest . The more robust structure of their toothcomb is thought to help it withstand the compressive forces experienced during regular bark @-@ prising .
= = Evolution in lemuriforms = =
The origins of the lemuriform toothcomb and the clade it characterizes have been the center of considerable debate for more than a century . In 1920 , British palaeoanthropologist Wilfrid Le Gros Clark proposed that the toothcomb found in treeshrews ( which he believed were primates ) was an early version of the dental structure found in lemuriforms . Because he viewed the fossil lorisoids from the Miocene as not having fully developed the modern lemuriform toothcomb , he implied that lemurs and lorisoids had evolved the trait independently . This view was later overturned , and the monophyletic relationship between lemurs and lorisoids is now accepted .
The ancestral condition of the anterior dentition on the lower jaw , based on Eocene primate fossils , suggests that earliest primates had lacked a differentiated toothcomb . Most fossil strepsirrhines lacked the stereotypic lemuriform toothcomb . Collectively , early strepsirrhine primates are known as adapiforms . Adapiforms are considered to be a paraphyletic group ( containing many but not all of the descendants of the last common ancestor of the group 's members ) because the lemuriforms are assumed to have evolved from one of several groups of adapiforms . In terms of ecology , the evolution of the toothcomb is assumed to have required a folivorous ( leaf @-@ eating ) diet among the ancestral adapiform population , since that would select for reduced incisors , which would serve as an exaptation ( a trait with adaptive value for something other than what it was originally selected for ) , which could then be used for personal or social grooming . However , the inclusion of the canines into the toothcomb must have required exceptional conditions , since large lemuriforms have secondarily modified caniniform premolars to substitute for the loss .
A popular hypothesis about the origins of the lemuriform clade is that they evolved from European adapiforms known as adapids . In some adapids , the crests of the lower incisors and canines align to form functional cropping unit , and the American paleontologist Philip D. Gingerich has suggested this foreshadowed the development of the lemuriform toothcomb . However , no lemuriform toothcomb has been found in the fossil record of the Eocene , and the European adapid lower jaws from that time did not resemble the derived state seen in lemuriforms .
Lemuriforms are currently thought to have evolved in Africa , and the earliest known strepsirrhine primates from Africa are azibiids from the early Eocene , which likely descended from a very early colonization of the Afro @-@ Arabian land mass in the Paleocene ( 66 to 55 mya ) . Stem lemuriforms , including Djebelemur and ' Anchomomys ' milleri , have been found in Africa and date from 50 to 48 mya and were very distinct from European adapiforms . However , they lack a toothcomb . These stem lemuriforms suggest an early common ancestry with cercamoniines from outside of Europe . Based on large , procumbent lower teeth , Plesiopithecus , a fossil primate found in late Eocene deposits at the Fayum Depression in Egypt , is thought to be most closely related to lemuriforms . Together , Djebelemur , ‘ Anchomomys ’ milleri , and Plesiopithecus are considered to be sister taxa ( the closest relatives ) of lemuriform primates .
= = = Dating inconsistencies = = =
Although stem lemuriforms like Djebelemur may have been contemporaneous with related toothcombed primates around 50 to 48 mya , the sparse African fossil record suggests toothcomb differentiation occurred around 52 to 40 mya according to the French paleoanthropologist Marc Godinot . This would conflict with the molecular clock estimates by evolutionary anthropologist Anne Yoder and others , which predict lemur – lorisoid divergence dating between 61 and 90 @.@ 8 mya .
In 2001 , the discovery of Bugtilemur , a fossil primate from Pakistan dating to the Oligocene and initially thought to be a cheirogaleid lemur , further challenged the theory of lemur origins ; however , it was later shown to be a type of adapiform primate and not a lemur .
The minimum paleontological estimate for the divergence of lemurs and lorisoids nearly doubled when additional discoveries were made in northern Egypt during the 2000s of a stem galagid ( Saharagalago ) and a stem or crown lorisoid ( Karanisia ) dating to 37 and 40 mya respectively . Karanisia is the oldest fossil primate to exhibit a distinct lemuriform toothcomb . This , as well as studies of other African adapiforms like ‘ Anchomomys ’ milleri , suggests a more ancient ghost lineage for lemuriforms in Africa .
= = = Original function of the lemuriform toothcomb = = =
The selective pressure that shaped the original lemuriform toothcomb has been a topic of considerable debate since the 1970s . Evidence can be seen as supporting a grooming function , food procurement function , or both . In the early 1900s , there was less debate . Grooming was seen as the primary function since primates lack the claws needed to adequately comb the fur , although prosimian primates ( strepsirrhines and tarsiers ) possess at least one grooming claw on each foot to compensate . Grooming — in the form of fur @-@ combing — is generally considered the primary function and original role of the lemuriform toothcomb , and subsequent changes in morphology across multiple lineages have altered its function and obscured its original function .
The hypothesis that the toothcomb evolved for food procurement was based on observations of recent lemuriform taxa , such as cheirogaleid lemurs ( particularly fork @-@ marked lemurs and the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ) and galagos , which demonstrate tooth @-@ scraping of plant exudates , as well as sifakas , which practice bark @-@ prising . Each of these were considered " primitive " forms among the living strepsirrhines , suggesting the first lemuriforms exhibited similar behaviors . Also , strong selective pressure from feeding ecology placed on the anterior dentition was emphasized , based on the specialized upper anterior dentition seen in the recently extinct koala lemurs ( Megaladapis ) . If feeding ecology could have such profound effects on the shape of the anterior dentition , then convergent evolution might explain the similarities seen between the compressed lower incisors of the lemuriform toothcomb and the exudate feeding adaptations in the genus Callithrix ( a type of marmoset ) .
In contrast , the grooming hypothesis emphasized that all lemuriforms use their toothcombs for grooming , and long , thin teeth are poorly suited for the mechanical stress of gouging and exudate feeding . Also the interdental spaces seen in most lemuriforms favor fur combing and would also promote bacterial growth and tooth decay if used for exudate feeding . Supporting this , reduced interdental spacing is found in exudate feeding lemuriforms . Furthermore , the canine included in the toothcomb provides additional interdental spacing for fur combing . Even the behavior of young lemuriforms suggests that grooming plays a more important role in the use of the toothcomb than food procurement .
= Mike Vernon ( ice hockey ) =
Michael " Mike " Vernon ( born February 24 , 1963 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender . He played 19 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Calgary Flames , Detroit Red Wings , San Jose Sharks and Florida Panthers . He is a two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , with the Flames in 1989 and the Red Wings in 1997 . He appeared in five NHL All @-@ Star games , was named a second team All @-@ Star in 1989 , shared the William M. Jennings Trophy in 1996 and was named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as most valuable player of the playoffs in 1997 . Vernon won over 300 games in his NHL career .
Vernon was a standout goaltender in junior for the Calgary Wranglers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He was named both goaltender of the year and most valuable player in 1982 and 1983 . He was loaned to the Portland Winterhawks for the 1983 Memorial Cup and was named the top goaltender of the tournament in leading Portland to the championship .
Selected by the Flames in the second round , 56th overall in the 1981 NHL Entry Draft , Vernon began his professional career in 1982 and ended it 20 years later , also in Calgary . The Flames retired his number 30 in 2007 and he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 . Vernon represented Canada internationally on two occasions , winning a bronze medal at the 1983 World Junior Championship and silver at the 1991 World Championship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
A native of Calgary , Vernon played his junior hockey in his hometown . First for the Calgary Canucks of the Alberta Junior Hockey League in 1979 – 80 , and then the Calgary Wranglers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He appeared in 59 games in his first WHL season , 1980 – 81 , posting a 33 – 17 – 1 record before leading the team to the WHL finals where the Wranglers lost the best @-@ of @-@ seven championship to the Victoria Cougars , 4 games to 3 . He attracted the attention of the Calgary Flames , who selected him with their third round pick , 56th overall , at the 1981 NHL Entry Draft .
Vernon returned to the Wranglers for the 1981 – 82 season where he posted a 22 – 14 – 3 record with three shutouts . He was named a WHL all @-@ star at goal , and was the recipient of the Del Wilson Trophy as top goaltender and named WHL most valuable player . Though the Wranglers were eliminated in the playoffs , junior rules of the time allowed the league champion to add an extra goaltender on loan for the Memorial Cup tournament . Vernon accepted an invitation to join the Portland Winter Hawks for the 1982 tournament where the team finished fourth in the four team event . Vernon made his professional debut following the tournament , appearing in one playoff game for the Central Hockey League 's Oklahoma City Stars .
He spent a third season with the Wranglers in 1982 – 83 , however injuries during the season to Reggie Lemelin and Don Edwards forced the Flames to recall him to the NHL . Vernon made his NHL debut on December 12 , 1982 , against the Detroit Red Wings . A poor effort by the Flames resulted in Vernon surrendering six goals in the first two periods before being pulled in a 7 – 3 loss . Vernon appeared in one additional game , also a loss , before returning to the WHL where he repeated as the league 's top goaltender and most valuable player . Vernon also played with the Canadian team at the 1982 World Junior Championship , winning two games in three appearances and helping Canada win the bronze medal .
Vernon again joined the Winter Hawks , for the 1983 Memorial Cup , but not without controversy . The WHL champion Lethbridge Broncos first requested he join their team for the tournament , but he was unwilling to play under the team 's coach and refused . The Broncos were upset by Vernon 's refusal , calling it " garbage " that he was allowed to join the rival Winter Hawks , who were hosting the tournament , after turning them down . Winning all three games he started , Vernon led Portland to the championship . He was named recipient of the Hap Emms Memorial Trophy as the most valuable goaltender of the tournament while the Winter Hawks became the first American team to win the Memorial Cup .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Turning professional in 1982 – 83 , Vernon spent most of the season with the CHL 's Colorado Flames where he was named to the league 's second all @-@ star team after posting a 30 – 13 – 2 record in 46 games . He returned to the Flames in 1983 @-@ 84 but had a loss so he returned to the CHL . Considered at that point to be Calgary 's goaltender of the future , he moved up to the Moncton Golden Flames of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for 1984 – 85 . The season was a disappointment for Vernon as he struggled throughout the year . He won only 10 of 41 starts and posted a goals against average ( GAA ) of 3 @.@ 94 . Vernon began the 1985 – 86 season as the fourth goaltender on the Flames ' depth chart behind Lemelin , Marc D 'Amour and Rick Kosti . He split the first half of the season between Moncton in the AHL and the Salt Lake Golden Eagles of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) .
In the midst of what was ultimately a franchise record losing streak , wishing to rest Lemelin and facing a minor injury to backup Marc D 'Amour , the Flames brought Vernon up to play an exhibition game against Soviet club Dynamo Moscow during the 1986 Super Series . Vernon was outstanding in goal , leading the Flames to a 4 – 3 victory . Following a 9 – 1 loss to the Hartford Whalers that was Calgary 's 11th consecutive defeat , Vernon was given his first regular season start on January 9 , 1986 , against the Vancouver Canucks . He led the team to a 5 – 4 overtime victory to end the streak . It was also Vernon 's first NHL win . He recorded his first career shutout , also against Vancouver , on February 26 in a 4 – 0 win during a stretch where Vernon went two months without losing in which he started .
Three of Vernon 's nine regular season wins came against the Winnipeg Jets , Calgary 's first round opponent in the 1986 Stanley Cup Playoffs . Though he had only 21 @-@ games of NHL experience , Vernon was named the starter for the series . He led the Flames to a three @-@ game sweep of Winnipeg , followed by seven @-@ game series victories over the Oilers and St. Louis Blues to lead the Flames into the Stanley Cup Final where the Flames ultimately fell to the Montreal Canadiens and their rookie goaltender Patrick Roy in five games .
Vernon solidified his position as the Flames ' starting goaltender in 1986 – 87 , finishing third in the NHL with 30 wins . His 39 wins the following season was second in the league , one behind Grant Fuhr . He played in the 1988 All @-@ Star Game , his first of four consecutive appearances in the event , and helped the Flames win the Presidents Trophy as the top team in the regular season . The Flames were upset by the Oilers in the playoffs , however .
The 1988 – 89 season was one of Vernon 's finest . He led all NHL goaltenders in wins with 37 and was second with a 2 @.@ 65 GAA . He was named to the second All @-@ Star Team and helped Calgary post the best record in the League . He finished second to Roy in voting for the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender . The Flames entered the 1989 playoffs as heavy favourites to defeat Vancouver in the opening round , but the Canucks forced Calgary to a seventh and deciding game in the series . The game went to overtime , during which Vernon was forced to make a spectacular glove save on a Stan Smyl breakaway . That save came to be a defining moment of Vernon 's career , and was later called " the save that won the Cup " . The Flames defeated Vancouver when Joel Otto scored the winner , then went on to defeat the Los Angeles Kings , Chicago Blackhawks and Montreal Canadiens to win Calgary 's first Stanley Cup championship .
Vernon remained among the NHL leaders in wins the following seasons , finishing 6th in 1989 – 90 with 23 and 2nd in 1990 – 91 with 31 . He was voted to the starting lineup for both the 1990 and 1991 All @-@ Star Games via fan balloting . He served as the backup goaltender for Team Canada at the 1991 World Championship , and though he lost both games he appeared in , Vernon and the Canadians won the silver medal . Despite his success with the Flames , Vernon was often criticized for letting in weak goals , and was routinely booed by the fans in Calgary when he did so . Some fans chose to direct insults towards his family in the stands , causing his parents to stop attending games . Discussing his relationship with Flames fans later in his career , Vernon remarked : " You 've got to have a pretty thick skin to play goal . Fans at hockey games get very emotional . They 're very passionate . They don 't enjoy watching their team give up goals . "
He also battled through recurring back problems that occasionally forced him out of the lineup . Playing through it all , Vernon became the 38th goaltender in league history to win 200 games , reaching the milestone on November 14 , 1992 , against the Tampa Bay Lightning . He played in his fifth All @-@ Star Game in 1992 – 93 , and was named to play his sixth the following season but had to withdraw due to a knee injury . After nearly ten seasons with Vernon as Calgary 's starting goaltender , the Flames felt it was time to hand the starting goaltender duties to Trevor Kidd . On June 29 , 1994 , they traded Vernon to the Detroit Red Wings in exchange for defenceman Steve Chiasson . The Red Wings had been pursuing a deal for Vernon since the previous season .
= = = Detroit , San Jose and Florida = = =
Detroit anticipated that the veteran Vernon would help develop their young goaltender Chris Osgood . As Detroit 's top goaltender in 1994 – 95 , Vernon posted a 19 – 6 – 4 record and helped the Red Wings win the Presidents Trophy as the top regular season team . The Red Wings reached the 1995 Stanley Cup Final – their first appearance in the championship series since 1966 – but were swept in four games by the New Jersey Devils . Vernon and the Red Wings struggled to agree on a new contract following the season . Their dispute went to arbitration after Vernon and his agent accepted an offer of a two @-@ year , US $ 5 @.@ 45 million contract that the team claimed to have withdrawn . The arbitrator sided with the Red Wings , making Vernon an unrestricted free agent . The two sides ultimately agreed on a two @-@ year contract , of which the financial terms were not released .
While Osgood began to establish his position as the Red Wings ' starter in 1995 – 96 , Vernon won 21 games against only 7 regulation losses as the Red Wings set an NHL record with 62 victories in the regular season . Vernon and Osgood shared the William M. Jennings Trophy as the goaltending duo on the team with the fewest goals against . Vernon was the backup goaltender to Osgood during the 1996 – 97 season , but became the 13th player in NHL history to win 300 games . He reached the milestone on March 26 , 1997 , against the Colorado Avalanche in a game in which he also fought Colorado goaltender Patrick Roy .
Head coach Scotty Bowman turned to the veteran Vernon as the team 's starter in the 1997 Stanley Cup Playoffs after Osgood struggled late in the regular season . He recorded a 16 – 4 record with a 1.76GAA in the post @-@ season , and was named the Conn Smythe Trophy winner as the most valuable player of the playoffs as Detroit won its first Stanley Cup championship in 42 years . Placed in a position where the Red Wings had to trade a goaltender due to the waiver draft , Detroit chose to trade Vernon to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for two draft picks on August 18 , 1997 .
Vernon played two full seasons with the Sharks , winning 30 games in 1997 – 98 and leading the team to the post @-@ season in both 1998 and 1999 . However , he was supplanted by Steve Shields as the Sharks 's top goaltender early in the 1999 – 2000 season and on December 30 , 1999 , was traded to the Florida Panthers along with a draft pick in exchange for Radek Dvorak . Vernon appeared in 34 games with the Panthers , winning 18 , and led them to the playoffs for the first time in three seasons . Following the season , he was claimed by the Minnesota Wild in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft on June 23 , 2000 , but was immediately traded to the Calgary Flames in exchange for Dan Cavanaugh and an eighth round selection in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft .
= = = Return to Calgary = = =
Returning to the franchise he began his career with , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Vernon was expected to split goaltending duties with Fred Brathwaite . He played in 41 games in 2000 – 01 , winning 12 games , losing 23 and posting a 3 @.@ 23 GAA . He appeared in 18 games in 2001 – 02 , and though his GAA improved to 2 @.@ 76 , he won only two . Vernon left the game following the season , announcing his retirement on September 13 , 2002 . Vernon retired seventh all time in regular season wins with 385 , fourth among goalies in playoff appearances at 138 and fifth in playoff wins with 77 . He played in four Stanley Cup finals , winning two championships .
He held virtually every Flames franchise goaltending record upon his retirement . His regular season records : games played ( 526 ) , wins ( 262 ) and minutes played ( 29 @,@ 650 ) have all subsequently been broken by Miikka Kiprusoff , but he remains the team leader in playoff games played ( 81 ) and wins ( 43 ) . The Flames honoured Vernon on February 6 , 2007 , retiring his # 30 jersey . He was the second player in franchise history , after Lanny McDonald to have his number retired . He was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 . Vernon returned to the ice 2011 to play in the alumni game at the Heritage Classic outdoor game .
Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender Glenn Hall considered Vernon one of the best goaltenders of his era : " I always thought Grant Fuhr was the best goalie of his time . But I always thought Vernie was very close . " Vernon said that playing against the likes of Fuhr and Roy led him to improve at his position . He was a stand @-@ up goaltender early in his career , but learned to adopt aspects of the butterfly style after watching them play . Standing only 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall , he relied on speed and reflexes to be a successful goaltender in the NHL .
= = Personal life = =
Vernon was born February 24 , 1963 , in Calgary . His father Martin worked in construction and was president of the South Calgary community hockey organization where young Mike played his youth hockey . Vernon attended Central Memorial High School and Henry Wise Wood Senior High School . He was always a goaltender , often joining his father for practices by the age of 4 and always focusing on the goaltenders . He considered his mother , Lorraine , his first coach and claimed his introduction to goaltending came from his family : " I had three brothers and when it came time to play hockey , they always said the same thing : ' Get Mikey , he ’ ll play net . ' "
Vernon and his wife Jane were married three days after his 1994 trade to Detroit . The couple have four children . Daughter Amelia and three sons : Matthew , John and William . The couple live in Calgary , but maintain a home in Invermere , British Columbia . Following his hockey career , Vernon has become involved in Real estate development in the Windermere region near Invermere . He was also an investor in the Bear Mountain resort near Victoria , British Columbia .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Early Netherlandish painting =
Early Netherlandish painting refers to the work of artists , sometimes known as the Flemish Primitives , active in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th @-@ century Northern Renaissance ; especially in the flourishing cities of Bruges , Ghent , Tournai and Brussels . Their work follows the International Gothic style and begins approximately with Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck in the early 1420s . It lasts at least until the death of Gerard David in 1523 , although many scholars extend it to the start of the Dutch Revolt in 1566 or 1568 ( Max J. Friedländer 's acclaimed surveys run through Pieter Bruegel the Elder ) . Early Netherlandish painting coincides with the Early and High Italian Renaissance but is seen as an independent artistic culture , separate from the Renaissance humanism that characterised developments in Italy . Because these painters represent the culmination of the northern European medieval artistic heritage and the incorporation of Renaissance ideals , they are sometimes categorised as belonging to both the Early Renaissance and Late Gothic .
The major Netherlandish painters include Campin , van Eyck , Rogier van der Weyden , Dieric Bouts , Petrus Christus , Hans Memling , Hugo van der Goes and Hieronymus Bosch . These artists made significant advances in natural representation and illusionism , and their work typically features complex iconography . Their subjects are usually religious scenes or small portraits , with narrative painting or mythological subjects being relatively rare . Landscape is often richly described but relegated as a background detail before the early 16th century . The painted works are generally oil on panel , either as single works or more complex portable or fixed altarpieces in the form of diptychs , triptychs or polyptychs . The period is also noted for its sculpture , tapestries , illuminated manuscripts , stained glass and carved retables .
The first generations of artists were active during the height of Burgundian influence in Europe , when the Low Countries became the political and economic centre of Northern Europe , noted for its crafts and luxury goods . Assisted by the workshop system , panels and a variety of crafts were sold to foreign princes or merchants through private engagement or market stalls . A majority were destroyed during waves of iconoclasm in the 16th and 17th centuries ; today only a few thousand examples survive . Early northern art in general was not well regarded from the early 17th to the mid @-@ 19th century and the painters and their works were not well documented until the mid @-@ 19th century . Art historians spent almost another century determining attributions , studying iconography , and establishing bare outlines of even the major artists ' lives . Attribution of some of the most significant works is still debated .
Scholarship of Early Netherlandish painting was one of the main activities of 19th and 20th @-@ century art history , and was a major focus of two of the most important art historians of the 20th century : Max J. Friedländer ( From Van Eyck to Breugel and Early Netherlandish Painting ) and Erwin Panofsky ( Early Netherlandish Painting ) .
= = Terminology and scope = =
The term " Early Netherlandish art " applies broadly to painters active during the 15th and 16th centuries in the northern European areas controlled by the Dukes of Burgundy and later the Habsburg dynasty . These artists became an early driving force behind the Northern Renaissance and the move away from the Gothic style . In this political and art @-@ historical context , the north follows the Burgundian lands which straddled areas that encompass parts of modern France , Germany , Belgium and the Netherlands .
The Netherlandish artists have been known by a variety of terms . " Late Gothic " is an early designation which emphasises continuity with the art of the Middle Ages . In the early 20th century the artists were variously referred to in English as the " Ghent @-@ Bruges school " or the " Old Netherlandish school " . " Flemish Primitives " is a traditional art @-@ historical term borrowed from the French that became popular after 1902 and remains in use today , especially in Dutch and German . In this context , " primitive " does not refer to a perceived lack of sophistication , but rather identifies the artists as originators of a new tradition in painting . Erwin Panofsky preferred the term ars nova ( " new art " ) , which linked the movement with innovative composers of music such as Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois , who were favoured by the Burgundian court over artists attached to the lavish French court . When the Burgundian dukes established centres of power in the Netherlands , they brought with them a more cosmopolitan outlook . According to Otto Pächt a simultaneous shift in art began sometime between 1406 and 1420 when a " revolution took place in painting " ; a " new beauty " in art emerged , one that depicted the visible rather than the metaphysical world .
In the 19th century the Early Netherlandish artists were classified by nationality , with Jan van Eyck identified as German and van der Weyden ( born Roger de la Pasture ) as French . Scholars were at times preoccupied as to whether the school 's genesis was in France or Germany . These arguments and distinctions dissipated after World War I , and following the leads of Friedländer , Panofsky , and Pächt , English @-@ language scholars now almost universally describe the period as " Early Netherlandish painting " , although many art historians view the Flemish term as more correct .
In the 14th century , as Gothic art gave way to the International Gothic era , a number of schools developed in northern Europe . Early Netherlandish art originated in French courtly art , and is especially tied to the tradition and conventions of illuminated manuscripts . Modern art historians see the era as beginning with 14th @-@ century manuscript illuminators . They were followed by panel painters such as Melchior Broederlam and Robert Campin , the latter generally considered the first Early Netherlandish master , under whom van der Weyden served his apprenticeship . Illumination reached a peak in the region in the decades after 1400 , mainly due to the patronage of Burgundian and House of Valois @-@ Anjou dukes such as Philip the Bold , Louis I of Anjou and Jean , Duke of Berry . This patronage continued in the low countries with the Burgundian dukes , Philip the Good and his son Charles the Bold . The demand for illuminated manuscripts declined towards the end of the century , perhaps because of the costly production process in comparison to panel painting . Yet illumination remained popular at the luxury end of the market , and prints , both engravings and woodcuts , found a new mass market , especially those by artists such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer .
Following van Eyck 's innovations , the first generation of Netherlandish painters emphasised light and shadow , elements usually absent from 14th @-@ century illuminated manuscripts . Biblical scenes were depicted with more naturalism , which made their content more accessible to viewers , while individual portraits became more evocative and alive . Johan Huizinga said that art of the era was meant to be fully integrated with daily routine , to " fill with beauty " the devotional life in a world closely tied to the liturgy and sacraments . After about 1500 a number of factors turned against the pervasive Northern style , not least the rise of Italian art , whose commercial appeal began to rival Netherlandish art by 1510 , and overtook it some ten years later . Two events symbolically and historically reflect this shift : the transporting of a marble Madonna and Child by Michelangelo to Bruges in 1506 , and the arrival of Raphael 's tapestry cartoons to Brussels in 1517 , which were widely seen while in the city . Although the influence of Italian art was soon widespread across the north , it in turn had drawn on the 15th @-@ century northern painters , with Michelangelo 's Madonna based on a type developed by Hans Memling .
Netherlandish painting ends in the narrowest sense with the death of Gerard David in 1523 . A number of mid- and late @-@ 16th @-@ century artists maintained many of the conventions , and they are frequently but not always associated with the school . The style of these painters is often dramatically at odds with that of the first generation of artists . In the early 16th century artists began to explore illusionistic depictions of three dimensions . The painting of the early @-@ 16th century can be seen as leading directly from the artistic innovations and iconography of the previous century , with some painters , following the traditional and established formats and symbolism of the previous century , continuing to produce copies of previously painted works . Others came under the influence of Renaissance humanism , turning towards secular narrative cycles , as biblical imagery was blended with mythological themes . A full break from the mid @-@ 15th @-@ century style and subject matter was not seen until the development of Northern Mannerism around 1590 . There was considerable overlap , and the early- to mid @-@ 16th @-@ century innovations can be tied to the Mannerist style , including naturalistic secular portraiture , the depiction of ordinary ( as opposed to courtly ) life , and the development of elaborate landscapes and cityscapes that were more than background views .
= = Chronology = =
The origins of the Early Netherlandish school lie in the miniature paintings of the late Gothic period . This was first seen in manuscript illumination , which after 1380 conveyed new levels of realism , perspective and skill in rendering colour , peaking with the Limbourg brothers and the Netherlandish artist known as Hand G , to whom the most significant leaves of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours are usually attributed . Although his identity has not been definitively established , Hand G , who contributed c . 1420 , is thought to have been either Jan van Eyck or his brother Hubert . According to Georges Hulin de Loo , Hand G 's contributions to the Turin @-@ Milan Hours " constitute the most marvelous group of paintings that have ever decorated any book , and , for their period , the most astounding work known to the history of art . "
Jan van Eyck 's use of oil as a medium was a significant development , allowing artists far greater manipulation of paint . The 16th @-@ century art historian Giorgio Vasari claimed van Eyck invented the use of oil paint ; a claim that , while exaggerated , indicates the extent to which van Eyck helped disseminate the technique . Van Eyck employed a new level of virtuosity , mainly from taking advantage of the fact that oil dries so slowly ; this gave him more time and more scope for blending and mixing layers of different pigments , and his technique was quickly adopted and refined by both Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden . These three artists are considered the first rank and most influential of the early generation of Early Netherlandish painters . Their influence was felt across northern Europe , from Bohemia and Poland in the east to Austria and Swabia in the south .
A number of artists traditionally associated with the movement had origins that were neither Dutch nor Flemish in the modern sense . Van der Weyden was born Roger de la Pasture in Tournai . The German Hans Memling and the Estonian Michael Sittow both worked in the Netherlands in a fully Netherlandish style . Simon Marmion is often regarded as an Early Netherlandish painter because he came from Amiens , an area intermittently ruled by the Burgundian court between 1435 and 1471 . The Burgundian duchy was at its peak influence , and the innovations made by the Netherlandish painters were soon recognised across the continent . By the time of van Eyck 's death , his paintings were sought by wealthy patrons across Europe . Copies of his works were widely circulated , a fact that greatly contributed to the spread of the Netherlandish style to central and southern Europe . Central European art was then under the dual influence of innovations from Italy and from the north . Often the exchange of ideas between the Low Countries and Italy led to patronage from nobility such as Matthias Corvinus , King of Hungary , who commissioned manuscripts from both traditions .
The first generation were literate , well educated and mostly from middle @-@ class backgrounds . Van Eyck and van der Weyden were both highly placed in the Burgundian court , with van Eyck in particular assuming roles for which an ability to read Latin was necessary ; inscriptions found on his panels indicate that he had a good knowledge of both Latin and Greek . A number of artists were financially successful and much sought @-@ after in the Low Countries and by patrons across Europe . Many artists , including David and Bouts , could afford to donate large works to the churches , monasteries and convents of their choosing . Van Eyck was a valet de chambre at the Burgundian court and had easy access to Philip the Good . Van der Weyden was a prudent investor in stocks and property ; Bouts was commercially minded and married the heiress Catherine " Mettengelde " ( " with the money " ) . Vrancke van der Stockt invested in land .
The Early Netherlandish masters ' influence reached artists such as Stefan Lochner and the painter known as the Master of the Life of the Virgin , both of whom , working in mid @-@ 15th @-@ century Cologne , drew inspiration from imported works by van der Weyden and Bouts . New and distinctive painterly cultures sprang up ; Ulm , Nuremberg , Vienna and Munich were the most important artistic centres in the Holy Roman Empire at the start of the 16th century . There was a rise in demand for printmaking ( using woodcuts or copperplate engraving ) and other innovations borrowed from France and southern Italy . Some 16th @-@ century painters borrowed heavily from the previous century 's techniques and styles . Even progressive artists such as Jan Gossaert made copies , such as his reworking of van Eyck 's Madonna in the Church . Gerard David linked the styles of Bruges and Antwerp , often travelling between the cities . He moved to Antwerp in 1505 , when Quentin Matsys was the head of the local painters ' guild , and the two became friends .
By the 16th century the iconographic innovations and painterly techniques developed by van Eyck had become standard throughout northern Europe . Albrecht Dürer emulated van Eyck 's precision . Painters enjoyed a new level of respect and status ; patrons no longer simply commissioned works but courted the artists , sponsoring their travel and exposing them to new and wide @-@ ranging influences . Hieronymus Bosch , active in the late 15th and early 16th centuries , remains one of the most important and popular of the Netherlandish painters . He was anomalous in that he largely forewent realistic depictions of nature , human existence and perspective , while his work is almost entirely free of Italian influences . His better @-@ known works are instead characterised by fantastical elements that tend towards the hallucinatory , drawing to some extent from the vision of hell in van Eyck 's Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych . Bosch followed his own muse , tending instead towards moralism and pessimism . His paintings , especially the triptychs , are among the most significant and accomplished of the late Netherlandish period
The Reformation brought changes in outlook and artistic expression as secular and landscape imagery overtook biblical scenes . Sacred imagery was shown in a didactic and moralistic manner , with religious figures becoming marginalized and relegated to the background . Pieter Bruegel the Elder , one of the few who followed Bosch 's style , is an important bridge between the Early Netherlandish artists and their successors . His work retains many 15th @-@ century conventions , but his perspective and subjects are distinctly modern . Sweeping landscapes came to the fore in paintings that were provisionally religious or mythological , and his genre scenes were complex , with overtones of religious skepticism and even hints of nationalism .
= = Technique and material = =
Campin , van Eyck and van der Weyden established naturalism as the dominant style in 15th @-@ century northern European painting . These artists sought to show the world as it actually was , and to depict people in a way that made them look more human , with a greater complexity of emotions than had been previously seen . This first generation of Early Netherlandish artists were interested in the accurate reproduction of objects ( according to Panofsky they painted " gold that looked like gold " ) , paying close attention to natural phenomena such as light , shadow and reflection . They moved beyond the flat perspective and outlined figuration of earlier painting in favour of three @-@ dimensional pictorial spaces . The position of viewers and how they might relate to the scene became important for the first time ; in the Arnolfini Portrait , Van Eyck arranges the scene as if the viewer has just entered the room containing the two figures . Advancements in technique allowed far richer , more luminous and closely detailed representations of people , landscapes , interiors and objects .
Although , the use of oil as a binding agent can be traced to the 12th century , innovations in its handling and manipulation define the era . Egg tempera was the dominant medium until the 1430s , and while it produces both bright and light colours , it dries quickly and is a difficult medium in which to achieve naturalistic textures or deep shadows . Oil allows smooth , translucent surfaces and can be applied in a range of thicknesses , from fine lines to thick broad strokes . It dries slowly and is easily manipulated while still wet . These characteristics allowed more time to add subtle detail and enable wet @-@ on @-@ wet techniques . Smooth transitions of colour are possible because portions of the intermediary layers of paint can be wiped or removed as the paint dries . Oil enables differentiation among degrees of reflective light , from shadow to bright beams , and minute depictions of light effects through the use of transparent glazes . This new freedom in controlling light effects gave rise to more precise and realistic depictions of surface textures ; van Eyck and van der Weyden typically show light falling on surfaces such as jewellery , wooden floors , textiles and household objects .
The paintings were most often painted on wood , but sometimes on the less expensive canvas . The wood was usually oak , often imported from the Baltic region , with the preference for radially cut boards which are less likely to warp . Typically the sap was removed and the board well @-@ seasoned before use . Wood supports allow for dendrochronological dating , and the particular use of Baltic oak gives clues as to the artist 's location . The panels generally show very high degrees of craftsmanship . Lorne Campbell notes that most are " beautifully made and finished objects . It can be extremely difficult to find the joins . " Many paintings ' frames were altered , repainted or gilded in the 18th and early 19th centuries when it was common practice to break apart hinged Netherlandish pieces so they could be sold as genre pieces . Many surviving panels are painted on both sides or with the reverse bearing family emblems , crests or ancillary outline sketches . In the case of single panels , the markings on the reverse are often wholly unrelated to the obverse and may be later additions , or as Campbell speculates , " done for the artist 's amusement " . Painting each side of a panel was practical since it prevented the wood from warping . Usually the frames of hinged works were constructed before the individual panels were worked on .
Glue binder was often used as an inexpensive alternative to oil . Many works using this medium were produced but few survive today because of the delicateness of the linen cloth and the solubility of the hide glue from which the binder was derived . Well known and relatively well preserved – though substantially damaged – examples include Matsys ' Virgin and Child with Saints Barbara and Catherine ( c . 1415 – 25 ) and Bouts ' Entombment ( c . 1440 – 55 ) . The paint was generally applied with brushes or sometimes with thin sticks or brush handles . The artists often softened the contours of shadows with their fingers , at times to blot or reduce the glaze .
= = Guilds and workshops = =
The most usual way in the 15th century for a patron to commission a piece was to visit a master 's workshop
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throughout the game is to collect four super programs with which the " LifeVirus " may be constructed . The LifeVirus is a nearly indestructible virus capable of wiping out the Net and all associated devices . The protagonists infiltrate the WWW , but MegaMan.EXE becomes disabled . Chaud arrives and gives Lan a batch file from Dr. Hikari to restore his Navi . After receiving the file " Hub.bat " , Lan questions his father about the name . It is revealed the MegaMan.EXE is actually a unique Navi made by Lan 's father . When Lan 's twin brother , Hub , died at a young age , Dr. Hikari transferred Hub 's consciousness into the NetNavi MegaMan.EXE. This created a special physical and virtual bond between the two brothers . In the end , Lan and MegaMan.EXE manage to defeat Wily , destroy the LifeVirus , and restore peace to ACDC .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the previous action @-@ platformer entries of the Mega Man franchise , Mega Man Battle Network is a real @-@ time tactical RPG . To progress through the game the player must alternately navigate the outside world as Lan Hikari and the Net as MegaMan.EXE , each containing certain tasks that must be completed to allow advancement in the other . Controlling Lan , the player may travel around the world map , interact with non @-@ player characters , check email , purchase items , initiate Net missions , or speak with MegaMan.EXE through his PET . In contrast with traditional Mega Man entries in which battle and movement through the levels happen in the same setting , Battle Network 's combat occurs only through by battling computer viruses within the Net . This cyber world is represented by a series of branching pathways and nodes , where MegaMan.EXE can travel to both new and previously visited locations , find and purchase items , and fight viruses . Battles do not generally appear on the field screen of the Net but are usually set as random encounters . The battlefield itself is made up of 18 tiles divided into two groups of nine , one group being space in which MegaMan.EXE may freely move and the other group being space inhabited by enemies . Akin to other Mega Man games , MegaMan.EXE possesses an arm cannon called the " Mega Buster " . The player can transition among the nine provided tiles and fire the Mega Buster at enemies from across the screen . The objective of each battle is to delete all the viruses by reducing their hit points ( HP ) to zero . If MegaMan.EXE 's own health depletes , a game over occurs . Certain power @-@ up programs can be found that upgrade MegaMan.EXE 's HP , defense , or Mega Buster power .
The Mega Buster is quite weak on its own , so in order to delete viruses more efficiently , the player must access special abilities called " Battle Chips " . These are minor programs that contain data that the Navi can utilize to perform more powerful attacks , summon other Navis for help , or execute supportive actions such as restoring HP or destroying tiles on the enemies ' side of the battlefield . Battle Chips are uploaded to MegaMan.EXE by Lan 's PET in a process called " Customization . " Each turn in battle presents the player with five random chips from which to choose , though the player is limited to chips of the same variety or chips with the same alphabetic code . Once the " Battle Gauge " ( or " Custom Gauge " ) at the top of the screen fills during battle , another random set of chips can be chosen from a general pool called the " folder " . At any given time , the player may only have exactly 30 chips in the folder from which the Customization process may draw . The player is only allowed to carry up to ten of the same kind of chip and up to five Navi @-@ summon chips in the folder . However , a player may possess any number of other chips in inactive reserve , called the " sack " , which may be moved to the active folder outside of battle . Every chip and enemy is aligned to one of five elements : Neutral , Fire , Water , Electric , and Wood . If MegaMan.EXE hits an enemy with an attack aligned to an element they are weak against , the attack will do double damage .
Battle Network features a very limited multiplayer option . Up to two players may connect with each other using a Game Link Cable and then give or trade Battle Chips . Players may also engage in battles with one another . The " test battle " mode has no stakes whereas the " real battle " mode allows the winning player to take a battle chip from the loser .
= = Development and release = =
Mega Man Battle Network was developed by Capcom Production Studio 2 amidst the success of Nintendo 's portable RPG franchise Pokémon . Rather than extend upon the traditional action @-@ platform formula for the Mega Man series as they had done with the 3D Mega Man Legends , Capcom followed Nintendo 's example on the latter 's then @-@ newest handheld console , the GBA . While creating Battle Network , director Masahiro Yasuma found difficulty in blending action attributes with " the kind of fun you get from a Pokémon game " in order to make it enjoyable , new , and fresh . Yasuma recalled that production was further challenged because no effective precursor of its type had been made before . Producer Keiji Inafune stated that the development team wanted to add a " real world " feel to the Mega Man series by placing the protagonist of Battle Network in a location where the internet is prevalent . With the release of the portable GBA , the team felt that they should target modern gamers , specifically children , as an audience for the new series . The developers thought such a theme would be both successful and relevant because these younger gamers grew up with and utilized such technology on a daily basis . To ensure the game 's popularity , Capcom marketed Battle Network alongside an afternoon anime adaptation , emphasized head @-@ to @-@ head matches between players , and provided fans with exclusive content via special events .
Inafune credited himself for redesigning the protagonist Mega Man as MegaMan.EXE for the Battle Network series , though he recounted the character designers were reluctant to hand over the responsibility to him and even altered his illustrations afterwards . The character 's initial concept art went through a large number of changes before it was finalized to a much simpler design , so that even very young fans could easily draw it . Yuji Ishihara acted as a primary character artist for the game . Each of the game 's boss characters was designed so that their bodies would exude a certain motif ; for example , StoneMan.EXE was meant to look like a huge castle made from stone masonry . Some bosses resembled their original Mega Man series counterparts while others were a large departure from these more humanoid appearances . Ishihara explained that the artists chose size and shape variety among the characters to " provide a little bit of surprise and excitement " to fans familiar with their classic forms . The musical score for Battle Network was composed by Akari Kaida , who would later work on the fifth installment of the series . All 22 musical tracks for Mega Man Battle Network were included on the Rockman EXE 1 ~ 3 Game Music Collection , released in Japan by Suleputer on December 18 , 2002 .
The Japanese version of Battle Network was first announced in August 2000 as one of four games set to be released for the recently unveiled GBA . A demo of the game was promoted at Nintendo Space World that month , where it was displayed on only two out of the 140 playable consoles . The game was displayed on five kiosks at the Tokyo Game Show the following month . According to series planners Masakazu Eguchi and Masahiro Yasuma , this beta build of the game involved the player fighting a malevolent WoodMan.EXE within the school 's electronic blackboard . Battle Network was officially released in Japan as a GBA launch title on March 21 , 2001 . A television advertisement of the game featured the song " Neo Venus " by Japanese rock band Janne Da Arc . The English localization of Battle Network was announced on May 17 , 2001 , just prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo . The game was released in North America and Europe on October 31 and November 30 respectively . Ubisoft published Mega Man Battle Network in PAL regions as part of a seven @-@ GBA game licensing agreement with Capcom . < Its first sequel , Mega Man Battle Network 2 , was announced before the Japan World Hobby Fair in June 2001 . Attendees to the fair were able to download chip data for the character Bass.EXE into their original Battle Network cartridges .
As stated , in an inside @-@ Games Interview , by the game developers , the game was initially conceptualized with the intention of being a horror game .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mega Man Battle Network has been generally well @-@ received , holding aggregates score of 80 % on GameRankings and 79 out of 100 on Metacritic . The graphics of Battle Network were overall favored by reviewers . IGN 's Craig Harris , GameSpy contributor James Fudge , and Kristian Brogger of Game Informer were all impressed by the game 's crisp , colorful style and futuristic locales . As far as the sound was concerned , Justin Speer of GameSpot opined that the music appropriately matched the rich visuals . Brogger otherwise accepted the sound as " enough [ ... ] to get by " , but that nothing would be missed if it were turned off . Harris comparably stated that " the standard Japanese tunage could have been given a bit more variety " . The reviewers gave mixed opinions of the game 's storyline . Though Brogger called it " engrossing " , Harris recognized the plot as the game 's one major fault , describing it as " kiddy " and disliking the consistent use of computer terminology for character names . Speer similarly summarized , " If there 's something that might hold you back from enjoying the game , it 's the lighthearted and somewhat goofy story . However , the game doesn 't take itself too seriously , so neither should you . "
The battle system of Battle Network was a positive stand @-@ out aspect for many critics . In his Battle Network series decade retrospective , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish felt the first game suffered from terrible plotting , unbalanced play design , and unattractive and annoying environment navigation . Still , Parish perceived the game 's combat mechanics to be its sole reason for success , marrying the original Mega Man action qualities with an RPG structure and requiring " a combination of sharp thinking and quick reflexes " on the player 's part . Speer found battle within the game to rightfully capture the spirit of Mega Man as its " most original and compelling feature " . Harris likewise regarded the battle interface to be well @-@ designed , a refreshing change from traditional Japanese RPGs , what gives the game its charm , and a very appreciative addition to the game 's limited multiplayer mode . Fudge summarized the combat as " very easy to learn , but difficult to master -- and yet very satisfying " . He admitted that the random encounters can occasionally be overwhelming . Brogger considered the gameplay both deep and simple to pick up on , but thought the menu system to be " clunky " at times and its battles to be repetitive .
Mega Man Battle Network entered Japanese sales charts at number 12 , selling approximately 43 @,@ 048 units during its first week . A total of 224 @,@ 837 units were sold in Japan during 2001 , with the game being listed by Dengeki Online as the 50th best @-@ selling video game in the region for that year . The success of Mega Man Battle Network led to several sequels and spin @-@ offs on other consoles , mobile phones , and arcade ; an anime series ; and numerous pieces of merchandise . A successor series called Mega Man Star Force began in 2006 after the Capcom decided to stop developing new Battle Network titles . Rockman EXE Operate Shooting Star , a remake of the first Battle Network game for the Nintendo DS , was released in 2009 and integrated elements from the Star Force series .
= Pokémon Black and White =
Pokémon Black Version and Pokémon White Version ( ポケットモンスターブラック & ホワイト , Poketto Monsutā Burakku & Howaito , " Pocket Monsters : Black & White " ) are role @-@ playing games developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . They are the first installments in the fifth generation of the Pokémon series of role @-@ playing games . First released in Japan on September 18 , 2010 , they were later released in Europe on March 4 , 2011 , in North America on March 6 , 2011 , and Australia on March 10 , 2011 .
Similar to previous installments of the series , the two games follow the journey of a young Pokémon trainer through the region of Unova , as they train Pokémon used to compete against other trainers , while thwarting the schemes of the criminal organization Team Plasma . Black and White introduced 156 new Pokémon to the franchise , 5 more than the previous record holder Red and Blue , as well as many new features , including a seasonal cycle , rotation battles , fully animated Pokémon sprites and triple battles . Both titles are independent of each other , but feature largely the same plot , and while both can be played separately , trading Pokémon between both of the games is necessary in order to complete the games ' Pokédex .
Upon their release , Black and White received positive reviews ; critics praised the advancements in gameplay , as well as several of the new Pokémon introduced . Reviewers , however , were divided on some of the character designs , and some critics felt that the games did not innovate as much as expected . Nevertheless , the games were commercial successes ; prior to the games ' Japanese release , Black and White sold one million consumer pre @-@ orders and sold five million copies as of January 2011 , making it one of the best selling DS games to date . As of March 2015 , the games ' combined sales have reached 15 @.@ 60 million , putting the titles amongst the best selling games for the Nintendo DS , but still being outsold by their predecessors , Diamond and Pearl . Sequels to Pokémon Black and White , named Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 , were released in Japan for the Nintendo DS in June 2012 , with October releases in North America , Europe , and Australia .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon Black and White are role @-@ playing video games with adventure elements , presented in a third @-@ person , overhead perspective . There are three basic screens : an overworld , in which the player navigates the main character ; a battle screen ; and the menu , in which the player configures their party , items , or gameplay settings . The player controls a Pokémon Trainer who begins the game with a single Pokémon and is able to capture more using Poké Balls . Like all other Trainers , the player can carry up to six Pokémon at one time . However , the game also includes a network of PCs to store hundreds of Pokémon . PCs are found in certain buildings — namely , " Pokémon Centers " , where the player heals their Pokémon with low health .
Most Pokémon evolve into other forms when certain conditions are met , such as when they reach a certain level — levels range from 1 to 100 — or have a certain item used on them . They can learn up to four moves , including attacking moves , healing moves , and moves that inflict status conditions on the opponent . They have six stats that affect battle performance : maximum HP ( hit points ) , Attack , Defense , Special Attack , Special Defense , and Speed . Attack and Special Attack are distinguished from Defense and Special Defense by the types of moves being considered : generally , moves involving physical exertion are physical , while moves involving supernatural or elemental powers are special . Moves are classed as one of eighteen types , ( Normal , Water , Grass , Fire , Electric , Ghost , Bug , Fighting , Ice , Steel , Rock , Fairy , Poison , Psychic , Dark , Dragon , Ground , and Flying ) ; Pokémon can have one or two types . Generally , most of a Pokémon 's moves correspond to its typing . A Pokémon 's type makes it vulnerable or resistant to others ; for example , Fire @-@ type Pokémon are weak to Water @-@ type moves , while Grass @-@ type moves do little damage to them and Electric @-@ type moves do normal damage .
When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by another Trainer to a battle , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based battle screen where the Pokémon fight . During battle , the player may fight , use an item , switch the active Pokémon , or flee . However , the player cannot flee a battle against another Trainer or against certain wild Pokémon that are stronger than the player 's . When a Pokémon 's HP is reduced to zero , it faints until it is revived . If an opposing Pokémon faints , all of the player 's Pokémon who participated in defeating it receive experience points . After accumulating enough experience points , a Pokémon may level up , increasing its stats . Many Pokémon evolve into other forms , usually by reaching certain levels . At the " Day Care " location , the player can breed two of their Pokémon — usually , a male and a female — to create Eggs that hatch into baby Pokémon at level 1 .
The world of Pokémon Black and White , known as Unova , consists of a number of cities and towns connected by " Routes " . Random encounters may take place in tall grass along routes or in bodies of water . The player occasionally battles Trainers in cities and towns , as well as along routes . In addition , eight of the game 's cities and towns are homes to " Gym Leaders " , powerful Trainers specializing in certain types of Pokémon ; beating a Gym Leader gives the player a " Badge " . All eight Badges are needed to unlock the Pokémon League , where the player faces off against the " Elite Four " and , finally , the Champion . Across Unova , items can be found on the ground or purchased from " Poké Marts " . For example , Hyper Potions restore HP , Antidotes cure poisoning , and Revives revitalize fainted Pokémon . TMs ( Technical Machines ) teach moves to Pokémon , and HMs ( Hidden Machines ) are a special class of TMs for important moves that allow the player to traverse the environment . The " Surf " HM move , as one example , is used to cross bodies of water .
= = = New features = = =
The graphics have been improved from Diamond and Pearl . The dialog boxes of previous games have been changed to speech balloons that appear over other characters ' heads , allowing more than one character to speak at once . Japanese players can have kanji appear on screen , rather than only hiragana and katakana . During battles , the sprites of the Pokémon are fully animated and the camera changes position to highlight specific parts of the battle . In addition to continuing the day and night cycle introduced in Gold and Silver , Black and White introduces a seasonal cycle , with the seasons advancing every month rather than being linked to the calendar . Outside areas appear differently depending on the season , such as changing of leaves in autumn or snow on the ground in winter . Certain areas are only accessible during certain seasons , and different Pokémon can be found in the wild in winter where others are encountered in the other seasons . The Pokémon Deerling and Sawsbuck change their physical appearance to match the seasons .
There are two new battle mechanics : Triple Battles and Rotation Battles . In Triple Battles , both teams must send out three Pokémon in a row at once ; Pokémon on the left or right side can only attack the opponent 's Pokémon on the same side or in the center . Changing position takes up one turn . In Rotation Battles , each side sends out three Pokémon at once , but they are arranged in a circle that can be rotated at will . Black has more Rotation Battles than Triple Battles , and the opposite is true in White . Another introduction is Combination Moves : a starter Pokémon can be taught one of three moves , and using them together in Double or Triple battles produces more powerful attacks . In the wild , walking through different @-@ colored tall grass can trigger Double Battles against wild Pokémon rather than only Single Battles as usual .
Occasionally , the player can find rustling patches of grass and rippling water , where they can encounter either a rare Pokémon , a Pokémon more common in the opposite game version , or the highest evolutionary form of a Pokémon whose lower forms can normally be found in the area . This is the only way to capture Pokémon such as Audino , Emolga , and Alomomola . Also , dust clouds in caves and the shadows of flying Pokémon on certain bridges can be entered to either find a rare item or encounter Drilbur , Excadrill , Ducklett , or Swanna , none of which can be found in the wild otherwise . Occasionally , when throwing a Poké Ball , the capture rate is highly increased , triggered by a random event . There are also new side @-@ games and sidequests : the player can compete in Pokémon Musicals , a side @-@ game similar to the Pokémon Contests of previous games ; the Battle Subway , similar to the Battle Towers and Battle Frontiers of previous games ; and on the Royal Unova , a cruise ship that the player can ride and fight Trainers aboard to win otherwise rare items .
= = = Connectivity to other devices = = =
The C @-@ Gear ( Cギア , Shī Gia ) replaces the Pokétech from Diamond and Pearl on the Nintendo DS 's bottom screen . It controls the game 's wireless capabilities , including infrared ( IR ) communication for battling and trading , wireless communications in the Xtranceiver video chat access to the Entralink to transfer content from the Pokémon Dream World , using the Wi @-@ Fi to sync with the Pokémon Global Link servers , and the new " Pass By mode " which allows the game to communicate with other copies through infrared while the DS is asleep . The Feeling Check ( フィーリングチェック , Fīringu Chekku ) function tests the compatibility between two players and awards them items accordingly . In the " Pass By " feature , the player answers various survey questions and receives one of several items depending on how many other players they have connected with . In the " Random Matchup " feature , the player can battle others randomly . When playing against others online or in IR battles , a new mechanic called the Wonder Launcher allows healing items to be used in battle .
Two features were added to transfer Pokémon from older DS Pokémon games to Black and White . For normal transfer , the Poké Transfer feature is available after completion of the main storyline . Unlike the " Pal Park " feature from previous games , the Poké Transfer is a mini @-@ game in which after six Pokémon are transferred , the player uses the touch screen to launch Poké Balls at the transferred Pokémon to catch them within a time limit . Another feature called the Relocator is used to transfer the Pokémon given away in promotions for the film Pokémon : Zoroark : Master of Illusions so the player can obtain the rare Pokémon Zorua and Zoroark . Unlike the Poké Transfer , this is available before the main game is completed .
Unique to Black and White is the Pokémon Dream World , which is dependent on the official Pokémon Global Link website . Here , the player can befriend Pokémon that are not normally obtainable in @-@ game and that have unique abilities . This occurs after syncing the game back with the Dream World , similarly to the Pokéwalker from HeartGold and SoulSilver . The player can maintain a house in the Dream World that other players can visit as well as grow berries . In addition to allowing access to Pokémon acquired in the Dream World , the Entralink also enables players to interact with each other and play side @-@ games . These side @-@ games award points that can be traded for temporary powers such as increasing experience , improving capture rate , or lowering prices of items in Poké Marts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Black and White are set in the Unova region , a continental mass located far away from the previous regions , Kanto , Johto , Hoenn and Sinnoh . Unlike the previous regions which were based on real locations in Japan , Unova is modeled after New York City , an idea developed by game director Junichi Masuda when he visited the city for the launch of Diamond and Pearl . One particular example of this is Castelia City , which serves as the region 's central metropolis and had such inspirations as its " Brooklyn Bridge @-@ style suspension bridge " and its " huge skyscrapers " . Masuda also wanted to convey a " feeling of communities " in Castelia 's streets . Unova is host to large urban areas , a harbor , an airport , an amusement park , several bridges , and several mountain ranges . In addition to a diversity of new landscapes , the Unova region is also home to a diversity of people who vary in skin tone and occupation . The region 's Japanese name " Isshu " ( イッシュ ) is derived from the Japanese words tashu ( 多種 ? , meaning " many kinds " ) and isshu ( 一種 ? , meaning " one kind " ) ; the many kinds of people and Pokémon seen up close look like only one kind of life from afar .
= = = Story = = =
Like previous Pokémon games , Black and White both follow a linear storyline ; the main events occur in a fixed order . The protagonist of Pokémon Black and White is a teenager who sets out on a journey through Unova to become the Pokémon master . At the beginning of the games , the player chooses either Snivy , Tepig , or Oshawott as their starter Pokémon as a gift from Professor Juniper . The protagonist 's friends , Cheren and Bianca , are also rival Pokémon Trainers who occasionally battle the player , Cheren will choose the Pokémon with a type advantage against yours , while Bianca will choose the Pokémon with a type disadvantage . The player 's primary goal is to obtain the eight Gym Badges of Unova and ultimately challenge the Elite Four of the Pokémon League , and its Champion , to win the game .
In addition to the standard gameplay , the player will also have to defeat the games ' main antagonist force , Team Plasma , a Knights Templar @-@ esque group who believe Pokémon are being enslaved by humans and work to " liberate " them . Team Plasma is led by " N " , a young man who was brought up alongside Pokémon and sees them as friends rather than tools for sport . Throughout the game , the player has some encounters with N , who claims that by capturing one of the legendary Dragon Pokémon of Unova and defeating the Pokémon Champion Alder , he will be recognized as Unova 's hero and will be able to convince the humans to part with their Pokémon . Depending on the game version , N will capture the Deep Black Pokémon Zekrom in Black or the Vast White Pokémon Reshiram in White .
After the player defeats the Elite Four and enters the Champion 's chamber , he or she finds that N has defeated Alder and has become the newest Pokémon Champion . Soon after , he summons a large castle that surrounds the Pokémon League , challenging the player to find him to take part in one final battle . When the player finally reaches him , Reshiram in Black or Zekrom in White appears before the player , and the player must capture the legendary Pokémon before challenging N. After his defeat , N laments the possibility that his ideals are mistaken , as Ghetsis intrudes and angrily reveals that his true intentions were to use N to ensure that he would be the only human left with control over Pokémon and use them to rule the world . In his rage , Ghetsis challenges the player to battle . After Ghetsis 's defeat , he is arrested , allowing Alder to resume his position as the Pokémon Champion of the Unova region . N then thanks the player for helping realize his mistake about the nature of the relationship between people and their Pokémon before leaving the castle on his captured Dragon Pokémon to a far @-@ off land .
After Team Plasma 's defeat , Looker arrives in Unova and tasks the player with finding the remaining Sages of Team Plasma , so they can be brought to justice . The player can also challenge the Elite Four once again , and challenge Alder , ultimately becoming the Unova region 's new Pokémon Champion . The player also gains access to the eastern portion of Unova , which contains Pokémon from the previous games in the series , as well as access to an area unique to each game version : the ultra @-@ metropolitan Black City , home to powerful Pokémon trainers ; and the White Forest , home to humans and Pokémon living in harmony . Cynthia , a former Champion of the Sinnoh region , is also found in this area of the game and can be challenged . A non @-@ player character named after Shigeki Morimoto , a Game Freak programmer , creature designer , and the director of the HeartGold and SoulSilver games , can also be found and battled in the game .
= = Development = =
On January 29 , 2010 , the Pokémon Company announced that a new game was in development for the Nintendo DS to be released later that year . Director Junichi Masuda stated that several aspects of the series were being revamped for the new generation . On April 9 , 2010 , the Japanese website updated with the titles of the versions as Pokémon Black and White , and announced a Q3 2010 release date . The games feature an improved visual style from other Pokémon games , with an increased use of 3D computer graphics than any other of the handheld series . It also has a special feature that allows the user to upload their saved game to the Internet , allowing them to do certain things on an official website .
On August 3 , 2010 , Masuda announced on his blog that the Black and White game versions will initially only contain brand @-@ new Pokémon to evoke a feeling of it being a brand @-@ new game , like when the original Pokémon games were first released . In all of the games following the first generation , there were a series of new Pokémon introduced interspersed with Pokémon from the previous generations . For example , Pikachu was introduced in Red and Green , and was obtainable in Blue , Yellow , and all subsequent main series games ; however , Pikachu will not be obtainable in Black and White from the start of the game . It was later confirmed that Black and White are region locked on the Nintendo DSi and 3DS .
Game director and composer Junichi Masuda stated that to keep the games fresh , he looks at every previous element to decide what to adapt to the new game , stating " people may not like what they like in the past , trend wise " . He explained the new battle styles , stating that while triple battles take more strategy , rotation battles take more luck to win . Masuda stated that their goal when making the games was to make it fun for new players , but they also wanted to get players who have not played the series in a while to come back . He said that it was hard to find that balance to satisfy both kinds of players . For the new players , there is good explanation in how to play , while for old players , they incorporated the C @-@ Gear , which makes the ability to trade and battle easier . When asked about the decision to introduce over 150 new species of Pokémon , Masuda stated that they did this so old players would not be able to know what is a good Pokémon to use , and it would level the playing ground for new players .
= = = Music = = =
Nintendo DS Pokémon Black · White Super Music Collection ( ニンテンドーDS ポケットモンスター ブラック ・ ホワイト スーパーミュージックコレクション , Nintendō Dī Esu Poketto Monsutā Burakku · Howaito Sūpā Myūjikku Korekushon ) is a four @-@ disc soundtrack featuring the games ' music scored by Masuda , Go Ichinose , Shota Kageyama , Hitomi Sato , Morikazu Aoki , Minako Adachi , and Satoshi Nohara . The soundtrack was released on October 20 , 2010 , in Japan . Ichinose was in charge of directing all Pokémon voices for the game while Minako Adachi produced all sound effects .
= = Promotion and release = =
Pokémon Black and White were released in Japan on September 18 , 2010 , in Europe on March 4 , 2011 , and in North America on March 6 , 2011 . The Australian release was on March 10 , 2011 .
= = = Japanese release = = =
A silhouette of a new Pokémon was shown by Junichi Masuda on the February 7 , 2010 episode of Pokémon Sunday , stated to be in the film for the summer and to be identified in a future episode on February 21 . This new Pokémon would also be featured in the March 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic available on February 15 , and is the start of the fifth generation of the Pokémon franchise . Since then , the Pokémon has been named " Zoroark " , and it evolves from a Pokémon named " Zorua " . Both were featured in the film Pocket Monsters Diamond & Pearl The Movie : Phantom Ruler : Zoroark . For pre @-@ order ticket holders , an alternate @-@ colored Raikou , Entei , or Suicune was available for transfer to their Diamond , Pearl , Platinum , HeartGold , or SoulSilver games . At the theater , players would be able to download a Celebi to the same games . Both of these Pokémon would activate special events in Black and White involving Zoroark and Zorua , respectively .
On April 18 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday showed game footage of a player character walking around in a 3D environment and a single screenshot depicting a battle between the player 's Zoroark and an enemy Zorua . Host Shoko Nakagawa made note of how the player 's Zoroark 's sprite was a full body sprite as viewed from behind , when in the past all such sprites only showed a smaller portion of the player 's Pokémon 's body . On May 9 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday revealed silhouettes of the three Pokémon available to choose from at the beginning of the games , which were later revealed to be the Grass Snake Pokémon Tsutarja , the Fire Pig Pokémon Pokabu , and the Sea Otter Pokémon Mijumaru . Other information revealed is that the game takes place in the Isshu Region which includes the Hiun City metropolis . On May 16 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday showed game battle footage , illustrating the new in @-@ battle animations and dynamic camera positioning ; also described were Zoroark 's Illusion ability and the special Zoroark acquired by the movie ticket pre @-@ order gift Pokémon .
On May 28 , 2010 , both the official Japanese and English Pokémon websites revealed names and designs of the two major Legendary Pokémon of these games , who also serve as the game version mascots : the White Yang Pokémon Reshiram for Pokémon Black and the Black Yin Pokémon Zekrom for Pokémon White . The July 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic revealed the C @-@ Gear wireless interactivity features , the ability to upload game data to the internet and the player 's computer , several brand @-@ new Pokémon , new Pokémon moves , Reshiram and Zekrom 's Pokémon types , details on the Celebi / Zorua event , and a new character : Professor Araragi , the first female Pokémon professor to appear in the video games . The June 27 , 2010 , episode of Pokémon Sunday , made the announcement of the release date as September 18 , 2010 , and a yet @-@ to @-@ be named character . The June 28 episode of Oha Suta , showed a trailer , which included its release date , new gameplay footage , several new characters , more new Pokémon , and a three @-@ on @-@ three battle system . The August 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic elaborated upon many new game mechanics : the three @-@ on @-@ three system , the online Global Link system , an online Dream World that can allow for access to other Pokémon , access to an area that uses the Wi @-@ Fi called the Hilink ( similar to the Underground ) , a special feature called the Live Caster for video chat on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS , kanji support , aesthetic differences between the two versions of the game , areas exclusive to the game versions , new characters , new moves , new abilities , and new Pokémon .
The July 25 , 2010 , episode of Pokémon Sunday introduced the new phantom Pokémon Victini , which initially appeared in a trailer for the 2011 Pokémon film that was shown with screenings of Phantom Ruler : Zoroark . It is noted to be Pokémon No. 000 in Isshu 's regional Pokédex , and is only accessible by downloading a special item from Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , DS Stations , and Nintendo Zones ( such as those found in Japanese McDonald 's restaurants ) to a game save . This was initially available for a month following the games ' release date . Another promotional Pokémon given out after the games ' release is a Kumasyun , a Pokémon that is difficult to find in the games unless it is during the games ' winter season .
On the day of the Japanese release , Nintendo of America sent cease and desist letters to two English language Pokémon fansites , PokéBeach and Serebii , after they published screenshots and various other media from the newly released games . Nintendo claimed the posting of the media was infringing copyright and noted their intention to shut down the websites under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act unless the media was removed . The screenshots were subsequently taken down from both websites . Luke Plunkett of video game blog Kotaku initially speculated that Nintendo of America issued the cease and desist letters over the belief that the images were illegally obtained via a ROM image ; however , Jon Sahagian of PokéBeach stated the images in question had been obtained from the Japanese forum 2channel . Charlie Scibetta , Nintendo of America 's senior director of corporate communications , later stated that it was the choice of images that were of concern to the company . In a statement to Kotaku , he said , " Nintendo supports and appreciates the efforts that Pokémon fans go through to create fan sites . In most cases there is no issue with the content that is posted , but on this occasion we had to contact a select few websites to ask them to take down confidential images . "
= = = International release = = =
The foreign promotion for the games began on November 22 , 2010 , when the official website for the North American , European , and Australian markets was updated , including the localized names of the starter Pokémon ( Snivy , Tepig , and Oshawott in English , Dutch , Italian , Brazilian Portuguese , and Spanish markets ) and the setting ( Unova Region ) . Floats of version mascots Reshiram and Zekrom accompanied the Pikachu balloon during the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 25 , 2010 , the following Thursday .
On December 27 , 2010 , the official websites for the international releases updated once more , revealing the English names for many of the first Pokémon revealed during the promotion for the Japanese release . In addition , the English names for the game location Hiun City and the character Professor Araragi were revealed to be Castelia City and Professor Juniper , respectively .
Starting on January 3 and lasting until January 9 , 2011 , in the United States , players of Diamond , Pearl , Platinum , HeartGold , and SoulSilver were able to visit GameStop stores to download the special shiny Raikou that was previously given out for Phantom Ruler : Zoroark pre @-@ order ticket holders in Japan . Similar downloads would be available for the shiny Entei ( January 17 to 23 ) and shiny Suicune ( January 31 to February 6 ) . All three of these Pokémon still enabled the event for Zoroark in the North American Black and White versions . These three Pokémon were later distributed via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection for European , Australian , and North American markets ( for a second time ) starting February 7 to 13 with Raikou , again , with subsequent staggered releases for Entei and Suicune throughout February .
The Celebi event was run in North America and distributed through GameStop stores from February 21 to March 6 , 2011 , or it could be acquired from the tour promoting the Black and White games that began on February 5 , 2011 . In France and Spain , this same Celebi was available through various retailers from February 1 through March 3 , 2011 . Italian players could get this Celebi from specific video game retailers from January 21 through March 3 .
The event to distribute the item to allow players to capture Victini was also be run following the games ' release internationally . North American players were able to download the item from Nintendo WFC from March 6 to April 10 , 2011 . European players were able to get the item from March 4 to April 22 . Australian players were able to download it from March 10 to April 28 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Pokémon Black and White have received largely positive reviews by critics , having an aggregate score of 87 % on Metacritic , indicating generally favorable reviews . Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly awarded the game a perfect 40 / 40 score , becoming the 15th game to receive such a distinction , as well as obtaining the highest score ever given to a Pokémon video game by the publication . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez remarked that " Pokémon Black and White do a great job building upon already solid features and taking them to the next level . " VideoGamer.com 's Jamin Smith criticized the games for not innovating as much as some people would have liked , but stated that " rest assured in the knowledge that Black and White are damn fine games ; the best the series has to offer . " Official Nintendo Magazine referred to them as " A beautiful refinement of a great series [ ... ] the best Pokémon ever . " Nintendo Power expressed that " the Pokémon series 's latest pair of adventures is as addictive as ever . " Edge acknowledged that " where next for Pokémon Black and White don 't suggest any answers , but they do remind us why we 'd care in the first place . "
IGN gave the games a 9 / 10 , a higher rating than any of the other Nintendo DS Pokémon games . The review praised the games for renewing interest in the series , though criticized some of the new Pokémon designs , explaining that " aside from a weaker lineup of monsters ( largely an aesthetic complaint ) , this is the best Pokémon has to offer on every level , renewing my waning interest in monster battling " . Jeremy Parish of Retronauts criticized Black and White , commenting that he grew tired of it shortly after starting and feeling like it was too similar to all previous Pokémon games . He further went on to say that EVs and IVs , invisible mechanics in the game , are not necessarily beneficial . By contrast , he noted that it would be great to new players . He also compared it to the Pokémon Mystery Dungeon games and Final Fantasy XIII , arguing that they all share the common element of being bad before they get good . Fellow Retronauts contributor Justin Haywald criticized the games ' release on the DS , which had received two main Pokémon series games published before them . GamesRadar editor Carolyn Gudmundson stated " It may not break the Pokemon mold , but Black / White offers enough new content coupled with the series ' classic , deep battle mechanics to make it endlessly playable . If you could only play one game for the rest of your life , this would be a wise choice . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In August 2010 , one month before the games ' release in Japan , Pokémon Black and White gained a total of 1 @.@ 08 million pre @-@ orders , becoming the fastest game on the Nintendo DS to break the one million mark . In the first two days on sale , it sold more than 2 @.@ 6 million copies , becoming the biggest launch in the series history in Japan . By November 3 , the games had sold over 4 @.@ 3 million copies in Japan . As of January 9 , 2011 , the games became the fastest DS titles to sell five million copies .
Upon release its in the UK , White and Black took the # 1 and # 2 spots respectively in the UK overall sales charts , with White becoming the second fastest @-@ selling DS game ever in the UK after Professor Layton and Pandora 's Box , selling 13 @,@ 000 more copies than Black . Combined , their sales became Nintendo 's third biggest ever launch in the UK , behind Wii Fit and Mario Kart Wii , and the biggest opening weekend ever for a pair of Pokémon titles .
In the US , Black and White sold more than 1 @.@ 08 million copies on day one , breaking the previous day @-@ one record held by predecessors Diamond and Pearl of 780 @,@ 000 copies . According to the NPD Group , Nintendo sold 1 @.@ 3 million units of White and 1 @.@ 1 million units of Black in March 2011 , making them the # 1 and # 2 top selling games in the US for the month . In April 2011 , Nintendo 's financial earnings report confirmed that Pokémon Black and White had sold 11 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , making them the highest selling DS games for Nintendo in the 2010 @-@ 11 financial year , and third overall , behind only the Wii games , Wii Sports and Wii Sports Resort . As of March 2015 , the games ' combined sales have reached 15 @.@ 60 million .
= Infinity Blade =
Infinity Blade is a fighting game with role @-@ playing elements developed by Chair Entertainment and Epic Games and released through the Apple App Store on December 9 , 2010 . It is the first iOS video game to run on the Unreal Engine . In the game , the unnamed player character fights a series of one @-@ on @-@ one battles in a derelict castle to face the immortal God King . When in battle , players swipe the screen to attack and parry , and tap the screen to dodge and block enemy attacks . Upon victory or defeat , the player restarts the game as the character 's descendant with the same items and experience level .
The game was developed by a team of twelve people , who took two months to make a playable demo and three more to finish the game . Infinity Blade was intended to demonstrate the new iOS version of the Unreal Engine , and to combine the swordplay of Karateka and Prince of Persia with the loneliness of Shadow of the Colossus . The game received four free expansions that added new equipment , endings , and game modes .
Infinity Blade was the fastest @-@ grossing app in the history of iOS upon its release . It made US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in its first four days , and over US $ 23 million by the end of 2011 . It was well received by gaming critics . Reviews heavily praised the graphics and compared the mobile game favorably to console games . Critics also praised the swipe @-@ based combat system , but split opinions on the cyclical gameplay as either addictive or repetitive . Chair later released an arcade port and two iOS sequels : Infinity Blade II and Infinity Blade III . Author Brandon Sanderson also wrote two novellas set between the games : Infinity Blade : Awakening and Infinity Blade : Redemption .
= = Gameplay = =
In the primary portion of Infinity Blade , the player @-@ character travels a largely linear path through a ruined castle and fights one @-@ on @-@ one battles with oversized enemies . The path through the castle is a series of discrete locations where the player can pan the camera around the stationary player @-@ character to view a fully three @-@ dimensional area . The player taps locations highlighted onscreen to trigger either a short cutscene as the player @-@ character moves to the next location , or a sword battle with an enemy . During combat , the player controls the character 's sword by swiping a finger across the screen . Players can touch icons at the bottom of the screen to dodge attacks by ducking right or left , or to block attacks with a shield , which has a limited number of uses during a single battle . Players may also parry incoming attacks with an intercepting sword move that , for example , parries an attack from the left with a swipe to the left . Each of these three counters can leave the enemy vulnerable to counterattack for a short period , but incorrect counters result in damage to the player @-@ character , as reflected in the health bar . When players fail in battle en route to the God King , the game resets to the location preceding the previous battle . Enemies can perform attacks that cannot be parried or blocked — such as a shield bash — that must be dodged . Players use two special abilities via icons atop the screen : the Super Attack temporarily stuns the opponent , and magic heals or attacks as indicated by drawing a given symbol . Both require time to recharge after use . When attacking , the player can swipe in any direction , and can do specific attack combinations to deal extra damage .
In addition to combat , there is also a mild role @-@ playing component . An experience point system levels up the player @-@ character and their equipment ( weapons , armor , shields , helms , and magic rings ) . Equipment pieces have special properties and a predetermined amount of experience points required to master them . Mastering a piece of equipment increases its sale value but decreases the player 's experience gain by 20 % . Upon leveling up or mastering a piece of equipment , players gain attribute points that can be allotted towards four character attributes : health , attack , shield power , or magic . Each point can only be allocated once and is a permanent upgrade to the character . Players can purchase new equipment using in @-@ game money from sacks and treasure chests found throughout the castle , defeated enemies , and sales of unused equipment . In @-@ game money can be purchased with real money within the game .
The game follows a cyclical narrative structure in which the player @-@ character and his descendants individually explore a castle in a quest to battle the primary antagonist , the immortal God King . In the game 's introduction , the player @-@ character has just finished this quest , but is slain by the God King . The player then assumes the role of the dead character 's descendant as he starts his own journey at the beginning of the castle . This cycle , called a bloodline , continues after the player finally faces the God King and either dies , wins , or chooses to join the God King instead of fighting . Enemy difficulty increases with each bloodline cycle . Another bloodline ending is unlocked after purchasing the Infinite Blade item : the sword is placed into a pedestal in the castle 's underground dungeons and three doors open . After then defeating each of the three " Deathless " — immortal beings like the God King — of increasing difficulty found within , a final fourth door opens and the player faces a mechanized warrior guarding the high @-@ tech chamber where the God King is reborn whenever he is killed . Upon defeating the mechanized warrior , the chamber is revealed to be controlled by an ancestor of the playable character , who chose to serve the God King . After fighting the ancestor , the player @-@ character is told that the Infinity Blade has the ability
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possibility within the Sable Island population , due to the small number of horses . In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012 , the Sable Island horse was found to be the least genetically diverse of the 24 horse populations studied , which included horse and pony breeds as well as feral populations from North America and Europe . A 2014 study by Parks Canada stated that the horses were under threat from their low numbers , excessive inbreeding and extreme weather due to global warming .
In 2008 , the Nova Scotia Legislature declared the Sable Island Horse as one of the provincial symbols , making them the official horse of Nova Scotia . In 2011 , the Canadian government created the Sable Island National Park Reserve , which allows further protection of the island and horses . Aside from the island , Sable Island Horses live only at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park in Shubenacadie , Nova Scotia . It maintains descendants of Sable Island Ponies removed from the island in the 1950s by the Canadian Department of Transport .
= Jacqui McQueen =
Jacqueline Bernadette " Jacqui " McQueen ( previously Malota and Ashworth ) is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Claire Cooper . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 26 September 2006 and was introduced by series producer Bryan Kirkwood as part of the McQueen family . Cooper has stated that whilst Lucy Allan produced the serial she was not used and Jacqui had " lost her identity " . In 2010 when Paul Marquess took over the role , he recognised she was an under used character split her apart from her on @-@ screen family , subsequently increasing her role within the show . Jacqui has been portrayed as a " tough ex @-@ con " and is extremely feisty , she often takes on the matriarch role within her family . She is also described as loyal and is one of a few characters to remain faithful within a relationship in the serial itself .
Many of Jacqui 's early storylines revolved around her life of crime , marrying illegal immigrant Aleksander Malota to pay off debts and her wayward relationship with Tony Hutchinson , which became popular with viewers . One of her most prominent early plots involved her desire to have her own child after a miscarriage left her unable to , this resulted in failed adoption , various surrogate mother stories involving her family and eventually led to the breakdown of her relationship with Tony . Jacqui 's later storylines involved her relationship with racist Des Townsend , covering up Calvin Valentine 's murder , being blackmailed and held at knife point for sex and a " surprise relationship " with Rhys Ashworth which also become very popular with audiences . In 2011 Jacqui made a rape accusation against Gilly Roach , whether Gilly is guilty or innocent was decided by a jury composed of viewers . The storyline subsequently resulted in Gilly being found not guilty . Various critics have praised the character because of her " feisty and tough persona " . Others have criticised her " chav " dress sense and accused her of being a " trollop " . Cooper has received various award nominations for her portrayal . It was later announced that Cooper had quit Hollyoaks and Jacqui departed Hollyoaks on 26 April 2013 .
= = Casting = =
In May 2010 , Cooper felt that she had been sidelined by former producer Lucy Allan and that Jacqui had lost her identity . New executive producer Paul Marquess also felt that Cooper had been under used . He decided to split Jacqui away from the rest of the McQueens , his reason for which being that there was so much " talent " in terms of acting within the family , he felt Cooper or Jacqui didn 't need that " support system " . He increased her role in storylines . This made Cooper delighted , of the changes she stated : " he seemed to like what I did and he 's worked on it and developed it . Paul has really taken me under his wing , he 's worked me so hard and he 's given me opportunities that I could only have dreamt of . " Speaking of her approach to playing Jacqui , Cooper has said : " I try to tame Claire back because I 'm a really emotional , sensitive person and very different from Jacqui , so I do work hard and I feel very privileged . "
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Jacqui has been described as a feisty character who is tough and hard . Holy Soap refer to her as a " tough ex @-@ con " . Jacqui often takes on the matriarch role . Jacqui deals with the sisters in a different way and can get different responses from the sisters . Cooper describes her as always being there to pick up the pieces for her family . She also states that Jacqui is very loyal and the most loyal character out of the McQueen family . Speaking of Jacqui 's time away from forefront plots Cooper has said : " I think that Jacqui 's one of those characters who , if she isn 't on screen for a while , it takes the audience time to warm to her again . But when they do , they find her funny , they find her interesting and I try to give them as much as I can . "
Jacqui has never had an affair in the serial , of her morality Cooper states : " It 's all about family for Jacqui and she 's never cheated on any of her sisters . She 's got morals and this isn 't good enough . " Cooper has also spoke of her confusion of the audiences perception that Jacqui is " a bitch " when she has strong morals . Cooper has said she is proud of Jacqui 's wardrobe because it is not glam . She brands her as the complete opposite of the " honey image " the serial sometimes becomes associated with . Describing how she plays Jacqui she states : " It 's great playing Jacqui because I can just be completely grotesque and over the top , snarling and grunting . "
BBC America describe Jacqui as being the toughest of the McQueen sisters and comment on her thieving ways stating : " She began the McQueens ' shoplifting tradition , teaching her younger siblings how to steal while their mother was at work and basically putting stolen goods in Michaela 's hands from birth . "
= = = Relationship with Tony Hutchinson = = =
Jacqui 's relationship with Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) was often strained by her desire for children . Her sister Tina McQueen ( Leah Hackett ) agrees to be a surrogate mother for her child . The storyline was included to help house many lies and secrets that had previously been built up prior , including Tony 's affair with Mercedes McQueen ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) and Tina 's affair with Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) , of which Kirkwood stated there was " there 's so much ammunition in store " , which would eventually devastate Jacqui . Kirkwood also devised the plot to show of Coopers skills in playing tragedy , of this he commented : " It 'll also give Claire Cooper and Nick Pickard another opportunity to show off their acting talents . Tony and Jacqui are one of those couples that we can have fun with - but also will blow the audience away when dealing with tragedy . "
In a later storyline Tony announces his intentions to marry Cindy Hutchinson ( Stephanie Waring ) , prompting Jacqui to try to talk Tony out of it . Cooper has stated that she believes that her character is meant to be with Tony because " he is the love of Jacqui 's life " and that hearing their engagement makes Jacqui feel like she " has a knife in her back . " Cooper also hopes one day that the pair will reunite stating : " Jacqui needs to move on right now , but ultimately I 'd prefer the story to come full circle and lead back to Tony . " Cooper also revealed that at the time she was often approached by fans asking her when the couple would reconcile . Pickard has also stated he didn 't think Cindy was right for him and that he believed Jacqui to be the love of Tony 's life .
= = = Relationship with Rhys Ashworth = = =
In 2010 , Jacqui embarked on a " surprise " relationship with Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) . Moss first hinted at their romance months prior stating : " I think Rhys is going to fall in love again . It 's a character already in the village . It 's quite surprising . It 's a character who 's been here for a while . " The relationship proved popular with viewers ; during an interview with Digital Spy , Cooper spoke of her original lack of optimism towards the pairing , stating : " When the relationship first started , we didn 't know how they were going to gel and how it was going to work , because people were such fans of Jacqui and Tony . Some people still ask me if those two are going to get back together , but people are really taken with Rhys and Jacqui . " Cooper believes it 's her own working relationship with Moss that helps make the pairing a success stating : " It 's a nice collaboration and we try to make it funny , emotional , hard @-@ hitting , three @-@ dimensional and as interesting for the audience as possible . " She also adopted a " couple name " for the pair titled " Ja @-@ Rhys " .
Jacqui and Rhys were given the biggest storyline on spring 2011 in the serial , of this Marquess stated : " They have got the biggest story for the first half of 2011 . I think it may be one of the biggest stories in Hollyoaks history . It 's very , very serious and I think it will really divide the audience . It will really test them and their relationship to the nth degree , and we 'll see whether they can recover from it . "
= = = King of Hearts = = =
In September 2010 , it was announced that actor Darren Day had been cast as new character Danny Houston , described as a gangster who would " spell trouble for Jacqui " . Danny takes a shine to Jacqui and they share a couple of dates ; during an interview Day brands Danny 's attraction to Danny being down to her feisty manner adding : " Jacqui stands up to him , and even though he 's not used to it , I think he likes it . He 's quite intrigued by the fact that she 's so feisty and he likes that edginess about her . "
It was later revealed that a special late night episode had been commissioned which would feature Jacqui . The storyline was described as " sinister " and would involve Danny and returnee Kathleen McQueen ( Alison Burrows ) , as they rig a game of poker with dramatic consequences . Of her involvement in the episode Cooper stated : " I was really chuffed and felt very flattered and privileged to be given the opportunity to do so much . "
On @-@ screen the storyline involves Kathleen blackmailing the McQueens for money , threatening to reveal their roles in Calvin 's murder . Kathleen is described as Jacqui 's " worst enemy " , of this Cooper stated : " She hates her with a passion - her worst enemy ever has been dragged back ! It 's funny and comedic at times , but then it can get deadly serious . " Although she knows the risks of crossing Danny , she tries to fix the poker game ; of this Cooper comments that " It 's pure desperation " on Jacqui 's behalf . When Danny exposes her , he threatens her with Rhys ' life , stating if she does not sleep with him , he will kill Rhys . In a turn of events Jacqui turns him down . Cooper defends Jacqui 's actions stating that she is a " bright girl " and adding " She doesn 't want to sleep with him and also she knows he 's not going to drop Rhys in front of so many people . So when he says it , she considers her options , weighs them up . "
Jacqui faces more horror from Danny when she is threatened at knife point to strip for him , scared for her life she complies . Speaking of Jacqui 's sudden change of heart , Cooper states : " He pulls out a knife . That changes the situation - the dynamic changes immediately . He could do something really horrible to her - it 's not necessarily about killing someone , he could slash her face or anything . In a situation like that , your mind plays tricks as you wonder what someone could do to you . " Cooper has spoken of her feelings of responsibility to portray it correctly and stated " I wanted to show how horrendous it was for Jacqui . She wonders whether she could die like this - all to protect her family … "
= = = Sexual assault = = =
In December 2010 , Channel 4 released a press statement which revealed Jacqui and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) would drunkenly cheat on Rhys together , after she finds out Rhys has slept with Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) and that the night 's events would " change their lives forever " . It was later announced that the storyline would see Jacqui accusing Gilly of raping her . The storyline received much coverage in various tabloid newspapers who also branded it as a " shock plot " for the serial . None of the cast members involved in the storyline knew if Jacqui had actually been raped , of this Cooper states : ' They 're telling the same story but are looking at it from different angles . Just who to believe is a very grey area . It will split the village and the viewers . We don 't know what happened that night , We 've just been told that our characters each think they 're telling the truth . [ Anthony ] and I have talked about it a lot . I even read his scripts to try to work it out . The outcome will be a surprise for both of us.'
The storyline began to play out on @-@ screen in February 2011 , describing how it starts to develop and the effects it has on Gilly a spokesperson for the serial told Inside Soap : " Jacqui loves Rhys , so she 's really hurt when she finds out about his infidelity . Then she runs into Gilly who 's also got relationship problems , . The drink starts to flow , and one thing leads to another ... Gilly consumed with guilt over sleeping with his best friend 's girlfriend , it doesn 't help that Jacqui leaves Gilly 's place while he 's asleep - and runs into Rhys . But after Gilly wakes up , he knows he has to tell his mate what he 's done . When Gilly confesses , Rhys is both furious and hurt , and lashes out violently . [ ... ] Once he 's confronted Gilly , he demands an explanation from Jacqui - and is stunned when she tells him she was actually raped , it 's absolutely devastating . " The storyline later takes another turn when Gilly confronts Jacqui in the village with everyone watching , leading everyone to doubt if he did commit the act or not .
It was later revealed that the details were left unclear because Lime Pictures had decided to leave the outcome of the rape trial into viewers . Viewers have been given the chance to apply for the fictional jury , consisting of a cross section of society , including non @-@ Hollyoaks viewers . They will be shown evidence from the case and then decide whether Gilly is guilty or innocent . Chief executive of Lime Pictures , Carolyn Reynolds stated : " We wanted to open up the thorny issue of how hard it is to be a juror and whether the court room the best place to resolve some of these questions about rape . " The storyline was developed with the " St Mary 's Sexual Assault Referral Centre " and other charities . DCI Ben Snuggs , leader of Don 't Cross the Line campaign , explaining : " This storyline represents an issue that we see all too often , involving whether consent is clear on the part of both parties involved in sexual activity , and particularly when alcohol and drugs are involved . " Gilly was found not guilty , leaving Jacqui devastated .
Gilly later confessed to the rape , as he recalled that Jacqui had not only not consented , but had removed any perceived consent . Gilly left the village and did not go to the police .
= = = Departure = = =
On 21 February 2013 , it was revealed that Cooper had quit the show and her final scenes would air in April . Cooper said that she had the " most incredible and unforgettable " time and Jacqui had been a " fascinating part to play " . She also wanted to explore new roles and concluded that " it 's been one hell of a ride for Miss McQueen and an inspirational one for me . " A spokesperson added that Jacqui 's departure will occur after her involvement with Trudy Ryan ( Danniella Westbrook ) . Cooper filmed her final scenes on 26 February 2013 .
= = Storylines = =
Jacqui arrives home on a tag after being released from prison and hoards money for gangsta Davey but Carmel McQueen ( Gemma Merna ) steals the money to buy breast implants . Mercedes McQueen ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) finds the money to repay Davey but there is still not enough so Jacqui promises to do him a favour one day and he leaves , happy .
Jacqui meets divorcee Tony and an attraction igniting , they have sex . Tony goes away on holiday and starts a relationship with Jacqui on his return . Jacqui violates her prison tag after staying at Tony 's house overnight so she is sent back to prison . Sadly , Tony is forced to dump her because he cannot handle the pressure . Jacqui befriends Becca Dean ( Ali Bastian ) but Becca is killed by another prisoner and Jacqui is devastated . Jacqui decides to make something of herself , not wanting to waste her life and is reunited with Tony and Davey returns with the favour . He forces Jacqui to marry Aleksander Malota ( Jon Lolis ) . Jacqui and Aleksander manage to convince an immigration officer that their romance is genuine and they are married but Jacqui continues her affair with Tony secretly . The family uncover the truth about the marriage when Carmel and Alek 's affair is revealed . Jacqui admits she married Alek to pay off her debt to Davey and is seeing Tony . Myra McQueen ( Nicole Barber @-@ Lane ) is furious and orders Jacqui , Alek and Carmel to leave the house . Jacqui announces her pregnancy ; Tony initially doesn 't want the child , fearing that it may die like his previous child and their dreams are shattered when Jacqui miscarries and is left unable to have children of her own . Tony attacks Alek violently as he blames Alek as he cannot grieve for his baby publicly . Tony announces to the people in The Dog that the baby was his , not Alek 's and Jacqui asks Alek to return to Albania so she can live her life and he agrees . Carmel is shocked to discover Alek is leaving , leaving Carmel devastated . Depressed , Jacqui returns to her old habit of shop lifting , so Neville Ashworth ( Jim Millea ) gets her locked up for the night .
Jacqui accuses Myra of being a bad mother and suggests it would have been better if Myra had aborted her . Jacqui and Tony reconcile again . Jacqui plans to adopt because of her criminal record . Tony discovers he has a secret child called Harry . Jacqui forces Tony to make a choice : Harry or her . Tony chooses Harry and she ends their relationship and leaves . An intoxicated Tony and Mercedes betray Jacqui by sleeping together . Jacqui fails to resist Tony again and they restart their on @-@ off relationship . She then changes her surname back to McQueen from Malota and Mercedes reveals that she is pregnant and Jacqui asks Mercedes to let her and Tony raise the baby , unaware it 's Tony 's baby but Mercedes has an abortion , infuriating Jacqui so Myra offers to be her surrogate but she refuses . Tina sees how desperate her sister is for a child and offers to be the surrogate , leaving Jacqui and Tony ecstatic about having a future child . At Tina 's scan , Tina 's pregnancy paternity results uncover Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) is the baby 's father , not her boyfriend and Jacqui convinces her to keep quiet . Niall Rafferty ( Barry Sloane ) attacks Tina upon discovering she is considering adoption . Tina gives birth to a boy , Max McQueen ( Brayden Haynes @-@ Mawdsley ) naming him after Max Cunningham ( Matt Littler ) and then has to have an emergency hysterectomy . Tina then decides to keep Max . Niall holds all the McQueens ' hostage in a church and when Myra arrives , she soon learns that Niall is her son . Niall says Myra has to choose two children to die and Jacqui tells Mercedes that she cannot watch her die so Mercedes reveals her night of passion with Tony . Myra comes to a tough decision and chooses Jacqui and Carmel to die . Jacqui is devastated and Niall detonates the explosives and blows up the church and Tina dies . Jacqui confronts Mercedes and Tony , only to learn that the baby Mercedes aborted , was in fact Tony 's . This pushes her over the edge . She takes Max from Michaela and refuses to forgive Tony , Mercedes or Myra . Jacqui begins to spend Tony 's money and does anything to hurt him , even by sleeping with Mark Gascoyne ( Craig Russell ) . Jacqui and Tony separate and she realises she needs to forgive Myra . Jacqui 's cousin Theresa McQueen ( Jorgie Porter ) arrives and has sex with Tony . Jacqui attacks Tony and reports him to the police , but Theresa later retracts her statement .
Russ becomes angry with Jacqui for trying to stop him from seeing Max . Russ later runs off with Max abroad . Carmel confesses to Jacqui that she let Russ walk away with Max . Jacqui is angry and goes to see Tony , who agrees to pay for a private investigator to help find Max . Jacqui leaves for France in order to find Max , but is unsuccessful . She starts a relationship with Des Townsend ( Kris Deedigan ) but confesses her love to Tony days before his wedding , Tony rejects her . A photographer publishes naked pictures of her after a drunken photoshoot . Jacqui and Des ' relationship is strained by Jacqui 's naked pictures leaking , her lies and stealing from the school canteen .
Mercedes tells Jacqui she is having an affair with Calvin . Jacqui confronts him and steals a gun from Lauren Valentine ( Dominique Jackson ) . Theresa finds the gun and shoots Calvin . Jacqui decides to cover for Theresa . Jacqui tries to frame Gaz Bennett ( Joel Goonan ) , but Kyle Ryder ( Neil Toon ) is later charged with the murder . Shortly after Des proposes to her , Jacqui discovers that he was a racist from Michaela 's boyfriend Zak Ramsey ( Kent Riley ) . Consequently , for Des , Jacqui declines his proposal and he leaves the village after being arrested alongside his sister Rose .
Jacqui , along with Rhys then gets a new job at Chez Chez , a new bar that is owned by Cheryl and her brother Brendan Brady ( Emmett J Scanlan ) . Jacqui and Rhys unknowingly meet on an internet dating website and fall for each other . Horrified when they find out , they kiss . Jacqui 's cousin Bart McQueen ( Jonny Clarke ) moves into the McQueen household and causes a rift when he steals money from her . This causes Jacqui to move in with Rhys . Jacqui meets gangster Danny and they begin dating despite her feelings for Rhys . She cheats on Danny with Rhys , leaving Danny furious . Jacqui tells Rhys they need to keep their affair secret . However she ends their relationship as Jacqui catches Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) and Rhys having sex . Revengefully , Jacqui gets intoxicated and beds Gilly . She later tells Rhys that Gilly has sexually assaulted her , reports him to the police and he is charged .
Jacqui 's father William Alexander ( Richard Graham ) arrives in the village and asks for a kidney transplant . Jacqui refuses and before learning that Theresa is also her half sister . He leaves shamed when they discover the kidney is needed for his other daughter Emily Alexander ( Elizabeth Henstridge ) . William returns for the trial and she opens up to him . At the trial , Gilly and Jacqui remember the same events very differently . The jury find Gilly not guilty . Rhys tells Jacqui that he believes her and they agree to get married . However realising she is not over her ordeal Jacqui goes to stay with her dad in Spain . Upon her return she agrees to donate a kidney to Emily . When they are not a correct match , Emily tells her they were only interested in her kidney . Jacqui and Rhys marry but their relationship is problematic because Jacqui does not want to be intimate . Jacqui cannot readjust to life in the village . She gets a job working in The Dog . After more arguments Rhys suggests they spend time apart . Jacqui then goes missing , but is later found safe . She goes to see a counsellor and she and Rhys begin to rebuild their relationship .
Rhys and Jacqui find a dog which they keep and call Terry to help Jacqui get over her ordeal . Jacqui and Rhys finally consummate their marriage . Jacqui appears to be getting on with her life when Gilly returns to the village . When Rhys is continually aggressive towards Gilly , Jacqui moves back in with the McQueen 's . Jacqui moves back in with Rhys and they decide to move away from the village . Gilly admits that he raped Jacqui before he leaves the village . Jacqui and Rhys get a lodger Ally Gorman ( Daniel O 'Connor ) to help with the bills and she later clashes with Mercedes after she kisses Rhys .
Jacqui meets homeless teenager Phoebe Jackson ( Mandip Gill ) and invites her to move in to her flat . At Tony and Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) ' s wedding , a bus crashes in to the venue . Rhys becomes trapped under the debris and apologises to Jacqui as he dies in her arms . Jacqui returns home to discover Rhys had planned to leave her and had left a note , detailing his plans to leave her and his affair with a mystery woman . Jacqui becomes suspicious that Cindy was having an affair with Rhys . Jacqui confronts Cindy who is with Bart 's pregnant girlfriend Sinead O 'Connor . She accuses Cindy only for Sinead to confess to having sex with Rhys . Jacqui confronts Sinead and realises Rhys is the father of her baby . She allows Sinead to keep the baby 's paternity a secret when Bart proposes to her . On Christmas Day at the McQueens , which Tony and Cindy have both been invited to , Jacqui discovers items belonging to Rhys in the closet , including his mobile phone , which her family had been hiding from her . She recharges Rhys ' phone and discovers that it was Cindy he was having an affair with . A disgusted Jacqui attacks Cindy with a Santa statue , Cindy recovers in hospital and is persuaded by Tony to keep quiet about attack and say she slipped on the ice . Jacqui drags Cindy from Hospital to Rhys ' grave and warns her to stay away .
Jacqui and Tony get back together until Cindy tells Jacqui that Tony knew about her affair with Rhys leading to Jacqui breaking up with Tony again . Jacqui 's former cellmate Trudy Ryan ( Danniella Westbrook ) arrives and starts causing trouble for Jacqui . Jacqui and Theresa become cleaners for Trudy when they need money but Trudy starts framing Jacqui for theft , planting stolen phones in her bag and paying a security guard to ' rape ' Jacqui - With Trudy ' coming to her rescue ' Just in time and makes a remark about what would have happened if she had actually been raped , to which Jacqui replies " I have " . So Trudy then sits down with Jacqui and tells her she had also been raped by a friend . Both Trudy and Jacqui go back to Jacqui 's and have a heart to heart . Though when Trudy leaves the McQueens ' house after drinking with Jacqui , she smiles wickedly , implying that Trudy has lied . Phoebe also ends up being poisoned by dangerous Vodka of Trudy 's . Jacqui and Tony finally get back together at Chez Chez 's fancy dress party .
When Mercedes gets held to ransom by Clare Devine ( Gemma Bissix ) and wants £ 200 @,@ 000 Jacqui decides she must do whatever she can to help save her . She decides to sell a man , Trevor , an empty van supposing to have vodka in while she gets nana McQueen to sell the actual vodka for £ 50 @,@ 000 but this plan backfires when Phoebe decides to go with her – and find five illegal immigrants in the van . Jacqui lets them free but then has her life threatened by Trevor . Jacqui gets detained by police but it 's Trudy they 're after so Jacqui pretends to be her . But then Trudy gets arrested for human trafficking and leaves the village . With Trevor still after her , Jacqui realises she is no longer safe in Hollyoaks and must leave . But when she finds a stash of money in the loft at Trudy 's office and Trevor walks in , Jacqui is visibly scared . As he advances she manages to knock him to the floor but isn 't quick enough as he gets up and grabs her but Tony comes to the rescue by smashing a monitor over his head . As Jacqui and Tony escape with the money , She kicks an unconscious Trevor and legs it . As she says an emotional goodbye to Phoebe , she has a chat with John Paul and leaves the bag at the stairs for the family to find . As Tony finds Jacqui and tells her he has got Diane O 'Connor ( Alexandra Fletcher ) pregnant Jacqui gets upset and tells Tony It 's not going to be with her and makes him stick by Diane but Tony proposes to Jacqui who turns him down and gets in the taxi leaving Tony devastated .
On 26 April 2013 , Mercedes goes to find Jacqui in Alicante where the two had visited when they were younger . Mercedes finds Jacqui working as a barmaid . At first Jacqui is not happy to see her but the two sit down and have a conversation . Mercedes admits that at first the kidnapping was a scam to get back at Paul Browning ( Joe Thompson ) for supposedly cheating on her and apologizes to Jacqui . At first Jacqui is furious at Mercedes for this and yells at her causing them both to start crying . After insulting Mercedes Jacqui forgives her and tells her that she love her . Jacqui is last seen relaxing by the pool on a sun lounger drinking a cocktail with Mercedes whilst they talk and say their final goodbyes .
In November and December 2014 , Jacqui couldn 't attend Carmel 's funeral , and John @-@ Paul and Ste wedding along with Michaela . In July 2015 , Jacqui decides to not attend her adoptive daughter Phoebe 's funeral , because she is unable to get a flight from Spain and was too upset . However , Jacqui sends flowers .
= = Reception = =
Cooper was nominated for Best Actress at the 2007 Inside Soap Awards and the following year The McQueen 's won the " Best Family " award . She was then nominated for " Best Actress " at the 2010 ceremony . At the 2011 National Television Awards , she received a nomination for " Best Serial Drama Performance " and " Best Actress " at the 2011 British Soap Awards . She was again nominated in the category of " Serial Drama Performance " at the 2012 National Television Awards . On Digital Spy 's 2012 end of year reader poll , Cooper was nominated for " Best Female Soap Actor " and came third with 13 @.@ 7 % of the vote . Virgin Media criticised the character 's dress sense , stating that even though none of the family have style , that Jacqui has the most ' criminal wardrobe ' out of them due to her taste for thigh high boots , skin tight dresses and huge gold earrings . Co @-@ star Kieron Richardson branded Cooper the unsung hero of the cast claiming she deserves more recognition for her work and stated his favourite character is Jacqui . Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap describe Jacqui 's most memorable moment as : " Dealing with Tina 's decision not to give up baby Max , only for her to be killed by long @-@ lost brother Niall . "
Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury responded negatively to Jacqui 's Promiscuity in 2010 by stating : " I DON 'T like to bandy names about but ... that Jacqui McQueen is a right trollop . " Rhiannon Vivian of the Sunday Mirror describe Jacqui as a " hard @-@ bitten " character . Men 's lifestyle magazine FHM brand Jacqui a " notoriously sexy bad @-@ girl " . On a separate occasion Olly Richards of the magazine stated : " In the soap she always looks a bit hard and like she could definitely beat us up . " Josie Ensor of WalesOnline spoke about Cooper stating : " feisty jailbird character Jacqui has made her infamous on and off screen . " Colin Robertson of newspaper The Sun also agreed with the " feisty brunette " tag . Kris Green of Digital Spy branded Cooper as one of his favourite Hollyoaks actresses due to her portrayal of Jacqui . Dawn Collinson of the Liverpool Echo refers to Jacqui as a " brassy character " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail said that Phoebe appeared to be melting Jacqui 's heart which was " something not normally possible without resorting to use of a blowtorch " . Cooper 's portrayal of Jacqui during the Enjoy The Ride storyline was well received by critics . Inside Soap journalist Sarah said Cooper was one of the " standout performances " and called Cooper one of her " all @-@ time favourite Hollyoaks stars " . All About Soap 's Kerry Barrett said Cooper is " fabulous as always " while her colleague Carena Crawford said " it was Jacqui who made our hearts break as she stayed by her beloved Rhys ’ s side as he died " explaining that Cooper was " absolutely fantastic " during the scenes .
= Jesus Freak ( song ) =
" Jesus Freak " is a song by the American contemporary Christian music group DC Talk . Released on August 1 , 1995 , it was the lead radio single from ( and lends its name to ) the group 's fourth album . The song was written and produced by Toby McKeehan and Mark Heimermann . Lyrically , the song is about standing up for the belief in Jesus Christ in the midst of persecution . It received largely positive reviews from music critics , including some mainstream music reviewers , and was played on some non @-@ Christian stations . It earned DC Talk three GMA Dove Awards .
= = Origin and lyrics = =
After the success of DC Talk 's third album , Free at Last ( 1992 ) , which was based primarily on hip @-@ hop and pop oriented song writing , the trio decided to innovate their style . Michael Tait , one of the members of DC Talk , said , " I was totally into rock and roll at the time [ ... ] I really wanted to make a rock record . " The band decided to focus on more rock @-@ oriented music , with touches of rap and pop interwoven into the mix . Tait later explained , " We wanted to write songs that would hopefully touch a generation . " DC Talk member Toby McKeehan , writer of the song 's lyrics , wrote the song to be a bold declaration of love for Jesus Christ , even in the midst of persecution . In order to bring the hard @-@ hitting reality of their message to the mainstream , DC Talk combined the raw lyrics with guitar @-@ driven grunge @-@ rock . McKeehan took the song 's title from the derogatory 1970s term " Jesus freak " and turned it on its head ; he noted that when he was looking up the word " freak " in the dictionary , he saw an entry that said " ardent enthusiast " . Since the song and album 's release , many of the group 's fans have donned products with the term " Jesus Freak " .
The first time the band performed the song live , McKeehan only had about a verse written . He later recalled , " We had not yet recorded it for our album , but we had a demo with one verse written . We thought it would be safe to try it [ in South Africa ] . We could not believe the immediate response it got . "
= = Composition = =
" Jesus Freak " begins with acoustic strumming of the main riff written in the key of E minor , followed by guitar distortion as the vocals enter . During this transition , the song moves to the key of F minor . During the verses , which are sung by Michael Tait and Kevin Max respectively , a sparse electric guitar pattern , which outlines the chord progression , is played . During each pre @-@ chorus , McKeehan begins rapping about various people who have been retrospectively labeled as " Jesus Freaks " , such as John the Baptist . After the second chorus , a melodic breakdown is followed by a dissonant guitar solo . Following the repetition of the chorus , the feedback @-@ laden conclusion ends abruptly .
Musically , the song has been described as alternative rock and grunge , with many reviews noting a similarity with the sound of Nirvana . According to the Encyclopedia of American Gospel Music , " Jesus Freak " is believed to be one of the first songs to link alternative rock and rap rock in CCM .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Jesus Freak " was directed by Simon Maxwell , who also worked on the music video for " Hurt " by Nine Inch Nails . Maxwell 's treatment of the video , reminiscent of his work with Nine Inch Nails , features footage of Christian imagery such as doves and crosses mixed with stock footage of riots , book burnings , hate crimes , a metallic hammer and sickle symbol of Communism , footage of one of Hitler 's speeches and an accompanying Nazi propaganda film projected onto a screen that includes Nazi burnings of " degenerate " materials . Interspersed between the stock footage is video of the band performing the song in a darkened room .
Although the song and video are , on the surface , about expressing one 's belief in Jesus Christ , the band later commented that the song could also be a metaphor for the " preservation of standing up for what you believe in – even in the midst of persecution . "
McKeehan later said that the point of the video was to " push the envelope " for the Christian rock community , and indeed , the song and video proved controversial . Although the song and video were an earnest attempt to " declare a single @-@ hearted faithfulness in Christ in an age when such devotion strikes many as the freakiest kind of fanaticism , " some of the more conservative Christian community members disapproved of the video . The song however , was highly successful on Z Music and managed to achieve air time on MTV .
= = Release and acclaim = =
The song was released as the lead @-@ off single for Jesus Freak in 1995 and received positive comments from music critics . The single was released to alternative and modern rock stations , the band 's first venture into these radio formats . Due to its dark , grunge sound – during an era when alternative rock was ruling the airwaves – the song was even played on some non @-@ Christian stations . As part of the promotion strategy for the song , InterLinc , a Nashville @-@ based Christian music promotion company , sent out over 4 @,@ 000 copies of the CD single to youth pastors , along with Bible study material . Commercially the single was successful ; it initially charted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at number 25 with little mainstream radio assistance . The song peaked at number 10 .
" Jesus Freak " received largely positive reviews from music critics . The song was even successful enough to garner praise from secular music reviews . Entertainment Weekly editor Laura Jamison , in a review for the Jesus Freak album , said that DC Talk , " successfully , if derivatively , combines textured vocals , aggressive guitar , and solid songwriting , especially on [ ... ] the raucous title track . " In a review of " Jesus Freak " , the Chicago Tribune said " In considering the group 's artistic merits , it 's time to bury the over @-@ burdened label ' Christian band ' [ ... ] DC Talk deserves to be judged by a different standard . "
In addition to " Colored People " and " Between You and Me " , " Jesus Freak " was considered instrumental in breaking DC Talk into the mainstream . " Jesus Freak " was extremely successful when it came to the GMA Dove Awards . In 1996 , the song won awards for Song of the Year and Rock Recorded Song of the Year . The music video for the song later won the award for Short Form Music Video of the Year in 1997 .
= = Other releases = =
Various version of " Jesus Freak " have appeared on several DC Talk official releases , including the band 's greatest hits album Intermission . A live version of " Jesus Freak " was included on the 1997 live release Welcome to the Freak Show ( 1997 ) . A short , comedic reprise , performed by Michael Tait , is included on the Jesus Freak album . In addition , a remix of the song , available on the " Jesus Freak " single , entitled " Jesus Freak ( Gotee Bros. Freaked Out Remix ) " features a more hip @-@ hop sound , reminiscent of the band 's third album , Free at Last . On August 3 , 2010 , the single was released as downloadable content for Rock Band .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The Newsboys have played this song ever since Tait joined in early 2009 . The band also released a new recording of the song with KJ @-@ 52 on their 2010 album Born Again . On the DC Talk tribute album , Freaked ! ( 2006 ) , both 4th Avenue Jones and Chasing Victory recorded covers of this particular song . " Jesus Freak " has also been covered by Larry Norman . McKeehan , under his stage name TobyMac , also recorded a cover version of the song for his album Alive and Transported . John Jonethis covered the song on his album Lounge Freak .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Album credits = =
= = Accolades = =
= Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the opening track of his 1973 album Living in the Material World . It was also issued as the album 's lead single , in May that year , and became Harrison 's second US number 1 , after " My Sweet Lord " . In doing so , the song demoted Paul McCartney and Wings ' " My Love " from the top of the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the only occasion that two former Beatles have held the top two chart positions in America . The single also reached the top ten in Britain , Canada , Australia and other countries around the world .
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " is one of its author 's most popular songs , among fans and music critics , and features a series of much @-@ praised slide @-@ guitar solos from Harrison . The recording signalled a deliberate departure from his earlier post @-@ Beatles work , in the scaling down of the big sound synonymous with All Things Must Pass and his other co @-@ productions with Phil Spector over 1970 – 71 . Aside from Harrison , the musicians on the track are Nicky Hopkins , Jim Keltner , Klaus Voormann and Gary Wright . In his lyrics , Harrison sings of his desire to be free of karma and the constant cycle of rebirth ; he later described the song as " a prayer and personal statement between me , the Lord , and whoever likes it " .
Harrison performed " Give Me Love " at every concert during his rare tours as a solo artist , and a live version was included on his 1992 album Live in Japan . The original studio recording appears on the compilation albums The Best of George Harrison ( 1976 ) and Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison ( 2009 ) . At the Concert for George tribute to Harrison , in November 2002 , Jeff Lynne performed " Give Me Love " with Andy Fairweather @-@ Low and Marc Mann playing the twin slide @-@ guitar parts . Marisa Monte , Dave Davies , Elliott Smith , Ron Sexsmith , Sting , James Taylor and Elton John are among the other artists who have covered the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
As with most of the songs on his Living in the Material World album , George Harrison wrote " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " over 1971 – 72 . During this period , he dedicated himself to assisting refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War , by staging two all @-@ star benefit concerts in New York and preparing a live album and concert film for release . In addition , much of his time was spent occupied with the business and legal problems afflicting the humanitarian aid project . Author Andrew Grant Jackson writes that Harrison 's frustration with this last issue resulted in a sombre quality pervading much of Material World , yet he " pushed his disillusionment aside for the lead single [ ' Give Me Love ' ] " .
The same period coincided with the height of Harrison 's devotion to Hindu spirituality . As with his religious @-@ themed 1970 – 71 hit , " My Sweet Lord " , and his subsequent singles " What Is Life " and " Bangla Desh " , Harrison wrote " Give Me Love " very quickly . Author Alan Clayson describes it as having " flowed from George with an ease as devoid of ante @-@ start agonies as a Yoko Ono ' think piece ' " . In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison recalls of the writing process :
Sometimes you open your mouth and you don 't know what you are going to say , and whatever comes out is the starting point . If that happens and you are lucky , it can usually be turned into a song . This song is a prayer and personal statement between me , the Lord , and whoever likes it .
= = Composition = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " continues the precedent that Harrison set on " My Sweet Lord " , through its fusion of the Hindu bhajan ( or devotional song ) with Western gospel tradition . Author Simon Leng comments that the song repeats another of its composer 's hit formulas , by using a three @-@ syllable lyrical hook as its title , like " My Sweet Lord " , " What Is Life " and " Bangla Desh " .
The song 's time signature is 4 / 4 throughout , and the musical key is F major . As on Harrison 's recording , this requires the placing of a capo on the guitar 's third fret , to transpose the chords from D up to the correct key . The intro features strummed acoustic guitar , similar in style to the opening of Bob Dylan 's " Mr. Tambourine Man " . The song builds gradually from its understated introduction , with the rhythm section only fully arriving after the first bridge segment . Harrison biographer Gary Tillery describes the musical mood as " bouncy yet soothing " .
In his lyrics , Harrison expresses his vision for life in the physical world . Following the opening instrumental passage , the song begins with a chorus in which he first pleads for a life devoid of the karmic burden of rebirth , or reincarnation : " Give me love , give me love , give me peace on earth / Give me light , give me life , keep me free from birth . " These lyrics bear a simple , universal message , one that , in the context of the time , related as much to the communal " peace and love " idealism of the 1960s as it did Harrison 's personal spiritual quest .
Harrison also asks for divine assistance to " cope with this heavy load " , while his stated attempt to " touch and reach you with heart and soul " recalls the same plea for a direct relationship with his deity that he expresses in " My Sweet Lord " . These two lines , which complete the chorus , imply a deficiency or unfulfilment on the singer 's part . According to author Ian Inglis , they serve as " an acknowledgment of the trials and tribulations he was facing in a more earthly setting " in the aftermath to the Concert for Bangladesh .
During the two bridge sections , Harrison incorporates the sacred term " Om " within his extended phrase " Oh ... my Lord " . Author Joshua Greene describes this as an example of a theme found in several songs on Material World , whereby Harrison " distilled " spiritual concepts into phrases " so elegant they resembled Vedic sutras : short codes that contain volumes of meaning " . The use of the word " Om " was a further comment from Harrison on the universality of faith , after his switching in " My Sweet Lord " from " hallelujah " refrains to the Hare Krishna mantra . Referring to the second half of the bridges in " Give Me Love " , Inglis views the drawn @-@ out " Please … " as " highly symbolic " , given the " unresolved conflict " that appears to be at the heart of the composition .
= = Recording = =
Harrison 's commitment to overseeing the release of the Concert for Bangladesh documentary film prevented him from being able to start on the follow @-@ up to his All Things Must Pass triple album until midway through 1972 . Another delay was caused by producer Phil Spector 's unreliability , as Harrison waited for him to turn up for the start of the sessions . Author Bruce Spizer writes that " the eccentric producer 's erratic attendance caused George to realize the project would never get done if he kept waiting for Spector " , and by October that year , Harrison had decided to produce the album alone .
As for the majority of Living in the Material World , Harrison recorded the basic track for " Give Me Love " in the autumn of 1972 with the assistance of former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald . The recording location was either FPSHOT , Harrison 's new home studio at Friar Park in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , or Apple Studio in London . In a departure from Harrison 's co @-@ productions with Spector , where a large line @-@ up of musicians had been standard , " Give Me Love " featured a pared @-@ down arrangement and more subtle instrumentation . Another contrast was Harrison 's adoption of a production style that partly recalls George Martin 's work with the Beatles . On " Give Me Love " , Inglis notes the same " supple and clear [ acoustic ] guitar @-@ playing that distinguished ' Here Comes the Sun ' " in 1969 , while the less grand production , relative to All Things Must Pass , allowed greater expression for Harrison as a slide guitarist .
Harrison carried out overdubs on the backing track , including twin slide @-@ guitar parts , during the first two months of 1973 . Aside from Harrison 's guitar work , the most prominent instrument on the recording is Nicky Hopkins ' piano , double @-@ tracked and played in his usual melodic style . The rhythm section consisted of bassist Klaus Voormann and drummer Jim Keltner . The organ player on the song was American musician Gary Wright , whose 1971 album Footprint was one of many musical projects in which Harrison was involved between All Things Must Pass and Material World . Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , comments on how quickly Harrison 's " unique approach " to slide @-@ guitar playing had matured since 1970 , to incorporate sitar , veena and other Hindustani musical stylings , and rates the mid @-@ song solo on " Give Me Love " as " one of his most intricate and melodic " .
= = Release = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " was Harrison 's first single in close to two years , after " Bangla Desh " in July 1971 . As with Living in the Material World , however , its release was delayed to allow for other items on Apple Records ' release schedule during the first half of 1973 : the Beatles ' compilations 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 , and Paul McCartney and Wings ' second album , Red Rose Speedway . In the years since All Things Must Pass , according to author Robert Rodriguez , the public bickering between John Lennon and McCartney and their " subpar " music had done much to diminish the " cachet of being an ex @-@ Beatle " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner wrote that , because of the altruism inherent in the Bangladesh project compared to the twin " fiascos " of McCartney 's Wild Life album and the Lennon – Ono collaboration Some Time in New York City , " [ a ] receptive audience was guaranteed " for Harrison 's new songs .
Backed by " Miss O 'Dell " , " Give Me Love " was issued on 7 May 1973 in America ( as Apple R 5988 ) and 25 May in Britain ( Apple 1862 ) . Three weeks later , the song appeared as the opening track on Living in the Material World . As with all the songs on the album bar the 1971 @-@ copyright " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " and " Try Some , Buy Some " , Harrison assigned his publishing royalties for " Give Me Love " to his newly launched Material World Charitable Foundation .
Apple 's US distributor , Capitol Records , mastered the single to run at a faster speed than the album track , in order to make the song sound brighter on the radio . Unusually for an Apple release by a former Beatle , the single was packaged in a plain sleeve in the main markets of Britain and the United States . A variety of picture sleeves were available in European countries , including a design incorporating Harrison 's signature and a red Om symbol , both of which were aspects of Tom Wilkes 's artwork for the Material World album .
= = = US chart feat = = =
The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 at the end of June , for one week , and peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart . Repeating the feat of January 1971 , when " My Sweet Lord " and All Things Must Pass sat atop the Billboard charts simultaneously , " Give Me Love " hit number 1 part @-@ way through Material World 's five @-@ week stay at the top of the albums listings .
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " replaced Wings ' " My Love " at number 1 on the Hot 100 singles chart , and in turn was replaced by " Will It Go Round in Circles " , by Harrison 's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston . For the week ending 30 June that year , the Harrison , McCartney and Preston songs were ranked numbers 1 , 2 and 3 , respectively , on the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the first time since 25 April 1964 that the Beatles occupied the top two positions on that chart . Schaffner described this period as " reminiscent of the golden age of Beatlemania " , due to the amount of Beatles @-@ related product dominating the charts in America . As of October 2013 , the week of 30 June 1973 remained the only time that two former members of the Beatles held the first and second positions on a US singles chart .
= = = Reissue = = =
" Give Me Love " later appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , as one of just six selections from the artist 's solo career . The song was also included on 2009 's Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison .
In Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , released ten years after Harrison 's death , the song plays over footage of the Friar Park grounds and of Harrison making music in the house with Keltner and Voormann . During the segment , Voormann discusses Harrison 's practice of preparing the studio with incense to create a suitable environment , adding : " He really made it into a real tranquil , nice surrounding – everybody felt just great . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " became one of Harrison 's most popular songs , both from his years with the Beatles and from his subsequent solo career . On release , McCartney described it as " very nice " , adding : " The guitar solo is ace and I like the time changes . " Billboard magazine 's reviewer wrote : " Harrison 's voice and sweet , country tinged guitar work within a rippling but controlled rhythm base , lends itself to this plea for human understanding . His sincere sound engulfs the listener and brings [ them ] into the story . " In Rolling Stone , Stephen Holden lauded the song for its " strong , short @-@ phrased melody whose lyrics are sheer exhortation " , and said that the single was " every bit as good as ' My Sweet Lord ' " .
In Britain , where the national economy was heading into recession after the boom years of the 1960s , lines such as " help me cope with this heavy load " " touched a raw nerve or two " , according to Alan Clayson . In the NME , Tony Tyler derided Harrison for " lay [ ing ] the entire Krishna @-@ the @-@ Goat trip on us " , while Michael Watts of Melody Maker suggested that " Living in the Material World " might have been a better choice for the album 's lead single . Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Tyler and Roy Carr said that " Give Me Love " bore " more than a distant resemblance " to Dylan 's " I Want You " , but praised the track for its " excellent and highly idiosyncratic slide @-@ guitar playing " .
= = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = =
Reviewing the song for AllMusic , Lindsay Planer highlights Harrison 's guitar contribution to this " serene rocker " and likewise acknowledges Hopkins ' " warm and soulful keyboard runs and fills " . Zeth Lundy of PopMatters describes " Give Me Love " as " effervescent " and " a # 1 single that remains one of Harrison 's most iconic and well @-@ loved " . In his liner notes to the Let It Roll compilation , music historian Warren Zanes views " Give Me Love " as " perhaps the best example " of how Harrison 's " post @-@ Beatles songwriting blurs the line between music and prayer without ever sacrificing the pure melodic force for which he was known " .
Mojo contributor John Harris cites " Give Me Love " as evidence of Material World 's standing as " something of a Hindu concept album … a pleasing fusion of Eastern religion , gospel , and the ghost of ' For You Blue ' " . Hugh Fielder of Classic Rock admires Harrison 's " painstaking craftsmanship " and " sublime playing " on this and other Material World tracks and describes it as " one of Harrison 's finest songs " . Writing for Uncut , David Cavanagh considers the album to be a " utopian follow @-@ up " to All Things Must Pass , on which " Give Me Love " " encapsulates the deal : simple message of hope , with gorgeous slide guitar … and fantastic rhythm section " .
Among Harrison and Beatles biographers , Robert Rodriguez recognises Harrison 's achievement in " cloak [ ing ] philosophical concerns in a thoroughly commercial package " , which included his " impossibly compelling slide work " . Simon Leng finds more superlatives for the song 's guitar lines , describing them as " almost too euphonious to be true " . Leng continues : " Living in the Material World could hardly have reveled in a stronger opening song ... A gorgeous ballad , awash with marvelously expressive guitar statements , ' Give Me Love ' retains the emotional power of All Things Must Pass in a compelling three minutes . "
Writing in Still the Greatest : The Essential Solo Beatles Songs , Andrew Grant Jackson considers that with " Give Me Love " , Harrison " captured the essence of what he had set out to do with the [ Bangladesh ] concerts – and what the Beatles had tried to do in their more idealistic moments " . Describing it as Harrison 's " finest plea to God " , with a vocal that " perfectly suits the yearning " implicit in the lyrics , Jackson adds : " ' Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) ' stands alongside ' All You Need Is Love , ' ' Let It Be , ' and ' Imagine ' as the purest expression of the Aquarian Age dream . " In his Harrison obituary for The Guardian in December 2001 , former Melody Maker critic Chris Welch concluded with a reference to the track , saying that the ex @-@ Beatle 's " feelings and needs were best expressed in one of his simplest songs – ' Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace On Earth ) ' " .
In the Concert for George documentary film ( 2003 ) , Eric Clapton names " Give Me Love " as one of his favourite Harrison compositions , along with " Isn 't It a Pity " . AOL Radio listeners voted the track fifth in a 2010 poll to find Harrison 's best post @-@ Beatles songs , while Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed it fourth on a similar list that he compiled . Guitar World editor Damian Fanelli includes the track among his choice of Harrison 's ten best post @-@ Beatles " Guitar Moments " , praising the mid @-@ song solo as " simply one of the most intricate and melodic things the former Beatle ever played on slide " . David Fricke includes " Give Me Love " in his list of " 25 essential Harrison performances " for Rolling Stone magazine , and describes it as " a soft , intimate hymn , a small @-@ combo reaction to the Wagnerian spectacle of All Things Must Pass " .
= = Performance = =
Harrison performed " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " throughout both his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton , and during his 1992 benefit show for the Natural Law Party . The latter took place at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 6 April that year and was Harrison 's only full concert as a solo artist in Britain .
In the 1974 shows , the song usually appeared midway through the set and featured Billy Preston 's synthesizer and a flute solo from Tom Scott instead of the familiar slide @-@ guitar breaks . Although widely bootlegged , no version of the song from this tour has been released officially .
= = = Live in Japan version = = =
The Japanese tour in December 1991 was Harrison 's only other tour as a solo artist . His 1992 album Live in Japan contains a version of " Give Me Love " from this tour , recorded at Tokyo Dome on 15 December 1991 . Harrison again delegated the solos to a fellow musician : in this case Andy Fairweather @-@ Low reproduced the slide @-@ guitar parts from the original studio recording . Ian Inglis notes the " impressive interplay " , particularly towards the end of the song , between Harrison and his backup singers , Tessa Niles and Katie Kissoon .
This live version of " Give Me Love " , along with the accompanying concert footage , was subsequently included in the Living in the Material World reissue in September 2006 , as part of a deluxe CD / DVD package . The performance also appears on the DVD included in the eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set , released in September 2014 .
= = Cover versions = =
Lindsay Planer writes that two covers of the song " worth noting " are a version by Bob Koenig , issued on his Prose & Icons album in 1996 , and one by Brazilian singer Marisa Monte from the same year . Monte 's version appeared on her album Barulhinho Bom , later released in English @-@ speaking countries as A Great Noise . In 1998 , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " was one of five Harrison songs that composers Steve Wood and Daniel May adapted for their soundtrack to the documentary film Everest ; part of the piece " The Journey Begins " incorporates " Give Me Love " .
Artists other than Harrison who have performed the song live include Elliott Smith and , in April 2002 , Sting , James Taylor and Elton John . These three musicians played " Give Me Love " as part of a tribute to Harrison during the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City . In what Planer describes as a " stirring reading " , Jeff Lynne performed the song at the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , held at the Royal Albert Hall exactly a year after Harrison 's death . Lynne was supported by a band comprising Harrison 's friends and musical associates , including Clapton , Fairweather @-@ Low , Marc Mann , Keltner , Dhani Harrison , Niles and Kissoon .
Dave Davies of the Kinks contributed a version of " Give Me Love " to the multi @-@ artist compilation Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003 . In a statement released in advance of the compilation , Davies explained that he was normally reluctant to perform other artists ' songs yet had made " an exception " with " Give Me Love
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" , in order to honour Harrison " as a great musical talent but primarily as an advanced soul who was unafraid to share his spiritual vision and journey with us " . Davies subsequently issued the recording on his 2006 album Kinked .
In 2010 , Broadway actress Sherie Rene Scott featured " Give Me Love " in her autobiographical musical Everyday Rapture as the show 's final number . Canadian singer Ron Sexsmith has included the song in his live performances ; a version by him appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
= = Personnel = =
According to Simon Leng :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , slide guitars , backing vocals
Nicky Hopkins – pianos
Gary Wright – organ
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
= = Chart performance = =
= Ann Rivers =
Ann Rivers ( born 1968 ) is an American politician , who has served as a Republican member of the Washington State Senate since she was appointed to represent the 18th district in 2011 , upon the resignation of Joe Zarelli . Prior to this she was a member of the Washington House of Representatives . In her first full term , a Majority Coalition Caucus was formed , taking control away from the Democrats in the state senate . Rivers was appointed to be majority whip for the session , a rare appointment for a freshman senator . She won re @-@ election for another four @-@ year term in 2012 , with 67 % of the vote against 32 % for her opponent , Ralph Schmidt .
Prior to her holding elected office , Rivers led AMR Consulting , a political consulting firm which aided candidates in their elections for offices , as well as providing political consultation to corporate clients . In 2007 , she was on the short list for candidates to be chosen to replace Richard Curtis in the state house , but Jaime Herrera Beutler was chosen instead . Later , Rivers succeeded Herrera Beutler in the house after the latter 's election to the United States Congress .
= = Early life and career = =
Rivers was born in 1968 in Michigan . She earned a bachelor 's degree in political science from Central Michigan University . After graduating in 1990 , Rivers worked as a 6th grade teacher . In 2002 , she returned to school and graduated from Lewis and Clark College with a secondary teaching certificate .
Though she didn 't run for office herself until much later , she helped Bill Williams in his election to the Alaska legislature in 1992 , and became his chief of staff . During that election , she founded AMR Consulting , a public relations and government affairs consulting firm , which helped in many political campaigns and provided political consultation for corporations . When Representative Richard Curtis resigned from state house in 2007 , Rivers was considered by the Clark County and Lewis County commissions to be a replacement but Jaime Herrera Beutler was chosen instead .
= = State House of Representatives = =
Rivers was elected to the Washington House of Representatives in 2010 succeeding Herrera Beutler after Beutler 's election to the United States Congress . As a state representative , Rivers was the assistant whip for the House Republican Caucus . She also served on the House 's Business and Financial Services Committee , Judiciary Committee , Transportation Committee and Rules Committee . Her website listed communication as being vital as a state representative .
In January 2011 , Rivers was selected to deliver the Republican response to governor Christine Gregoire 's State of the State address . In the address , she listed economic recovery and employment as well as compromise with Gregoire as being the top priorities of her party .
In February , Rivers submitted a bill to provide more funding for food banks and other charitable causes . The bill authorized public utilities to solicit and collect donations from customers to be put towards food programs for the poor . It also made the donations received by utilities separate from gross income , allowing for it to be tax @-@ free . The bill passed in the State House in Feb. 2011 but failed to make it to the Senate floor .
= = State senate = =
= = = Appointment and elections = = =
In June 2012 , about 18 months into her term as a representative , county commissioners appointed Rivers to the state senate to replace Joseph Zarelli , who resigned after 17 years in the senate . Rivers won re @-@ election in the 2012 election to a four @-@ year term , with 67 % of the vote , to 32 % for her opponent , Ralph Schmidt . She outraised by 30 @-@ 1 , with $ 150 @,@ 000 , to just $ 5 @,@ 000 for Schmidt . Rivers ' ideas for improving the economy include making the climate friendlier for business . Her plan includes reducing the burden of worker 's compensation costs for businesses , reducing regulations , and reducing permitting fees .
= = = Tenure = = =
Rivers has spoken strongly about the Columbia River Crossing I @-@ 5 bridge replacement , saying that she disagreed with most everything about the current plan , and that it does not do enough to solve the problem . Willamette Week of Portland labeled Rivers " The CRC killer " for her leadership role in the opposition to the proposed megaproject . Due to their opposition to the project , in July 2013 , Governor Jay Inslee labeled both Rivers and Senator Don Benton from the neighboring 17th district " a brick wall to economic progress and CRC . " Speaking to a group of CRC supports , " The road to this bridge runs through two senators from this region . Those two senators have stymied any progress on this bridge project . … Until that changes , there ’ s not a lot I or you can do about that . "
In early 2012 , Rivers was selected for the Council of State Governments for the Western Legislative Academy . Out of 93 applicants , 39 , including Rivers , were chosen . The academy is a training institute for lawmakers in their first four years of service .
In November 2012 , shortly after entering office , Rivers was appointed to the Republican leadership as the minority whip . When the Majority Coalition Caucus was formed , taking control of the Senate away from the Democrats , Rivers was promoted to majority whip . It is rare for a freshman senator to be appointed to party leadership .
Rivers introduced a bill in February 2013 to exempt nonprofit shooting clubs from paying sales and use taxes when they buy clay pigeons . The bill is cosponsored by Senators Don Benton and Pam Roach . Earlier in February , Rivers also introduced legislation attempting to lower restrictions on initiatives in Washington State , commenting , " If the people take the time to sign their name and say this is something we need to have a look at , we ought to respect that . " Along with cosponsors Roach and Benton , Tim Eyman also is cosponsoring the legislation . In March 2013 , Rivers reprimanded senate Democrats for taking advantage of Janéa Holmquist Newbry 's departure from the senate floor to feed her newborn son , leaving the Democrats in temporary control of the senate floor . Immediately after she left , Democrat David Frockt attempted to pass a bill through the floor . Senator Rivers commented , " I was ashamed that in this day and age they thought they could do that , driving a wedge between a mother and her baby like that . " Commenting on Democrats ' claim to be the party of women and minorities , Rivers said , " Their actions speak so loud that I can 't hear what they are saying . " As part of her duties , Rivers has also hosted high @-@ school aged pages for the Washington State Senate Page Program .
Rivers introduced legislation to increase taxes on medical marijuana . Washington is one of only a few states that has legalized marijuana for both medical and recreational use . Recreational marijuana has a 25 % tax for consumers . However , medical marijuana does not have any taxes . Rivers ' legislation would also force medical marijuana clinics to obtain more permits and waivers .
In June 2013 , fellow state senator Don Benton filed a complaint against Rivers , claiming she had broken a senate floor rule by swearing at him during a floor discussion . Benton also claimed that Rivers had screamed at him on one other occasion , during a Republican caucus . He claimed that he had felt physically threatened , saying , " It was a very uncomfortable feeling . I have been on the receiving end of many heated comments over the years , but I have never before felt the threat of physical violence . " Rivers responded with an apology ; he took issue with some of the wording in the apology and he filed the complaint . Many have come out in support of Rivers , who claims that Benton was harassing her , adding she will , " stand my ground against anyone who attempts to bully , intimidate or threaten me . " Some have labeled Benton a hypocrite , as he recently lifted sanctions against Pam Roach , who had been seen screaming on the floor and had mistreated staff . In a January 2014 decision , officials in the Washington State Legislature have decided both Senators were at fault for the spat . They determined that Benton had harassed Rivers , which provoked her . On the decision , Rivers stated , " I have to conclude that he was trying to bait me into this reaction , which unfortunately he did . ”
At the end of June 2014 , Rivers joined lawmakers including Lieutenant Governor Brad Owen on a state trade mission to Taiwan . Rivers ' district sells more fishing licenses than any other in the state and she would like “ to promote our area as a destination for sport fishing . ”
= = = Clark County Politics = = =
= = = = Freeholder = = = =
In 2013 , Rivers ran for a freeholder position in Clark County 's 1st district . The freeholders are responsible for drafting a new county charter that will , with voter 's approval , turn Clark County into a Charter County . 123 people filed for the 15 freeholder seats . The primary election , held August 5 , was noted for its low turnout ( under 20 % ) , although Rivers garnered enough votes to move on to the general election . In the November 6 election , she was elected with 46 % of the vote in a 5 candidate field and took office on November 26 .
The Board of Freeholders submitted a home rule charter on May 27 which put it on the ballot in the November election . In the November election , the charter was approved with 53 % of the vote .
= = = = Candidacy for Clark County Chair = = = =
In late 2014 and early 2015 , Rivers briefly considered running to be the chair of Clark County , a new position created with the home rule charter that Rivers worked to pass . There is no official rule against serving both as the chair and a state senator , but there were concerns about Rivers ' ability to balance the two offices . In December of 2014 , Rivers officially announced she would run for the office . On March 2 , 2015 , The Columbian reported Rivers would likely be withdrawing from the race later that week . That was confirmed when Rivers released a statement later that day that said Rivers would not be a candidate . Rivers cited the time commitment and desire to stay in the State Senate as reasons for her withdrawal . She was considered the front runner for the office .
= = Personal life = =
Rivers currently resides in La Center , Washington , with her husband , Fred Rivers , a senior account manager for NALCO , and their two children .
= Norfolk , Virginia =
Norfolk ( / ˈnɔːrfᵿk / NOR @-@ fək , local / ˈnɒfʊk / NOF @-@ uuk ) is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia , United States . At the 2010 census , the population was 242 @,@ 803 ; in 2015 , the population was estimated to be 247 @,@ 189 making it the second @-@ most populous city in Virginia , behind neighboring Virginia Beach .
Norfolk is located at the core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area , named for the large natural harbor of the same name located at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay . It is one of nine cities and seven counties that constitute the Hampton Roads metro area , officially known as the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA . The city is bordered to the west by the Elizabeth River and to the north by the Chesapeake Bay . It also shares land borders with the independent cities of Chesapeake to its south and Virginia Beach to its east . One of the oldest of the cities in Hampton Roads , Norfolk is considered to be the historic , urban , financial , and cultural center of the region .
The city has a long history as a strategic military and transportation point . The largest Navy base in the world , Naval Station Norfolk , is located in Norfolk along with one of NATO 's two Strategic Command headquarters . The city also has the corporate headquarters of Norfolk Southern Railway , one of North America 's principal Class I railroads , and Maersk Line , Limited , which manages the world 's largest fleet of US @-@ flag vessels . As the city is bordered by multiple bodies of water , Norfolk has many miles of riverfront and bayfront property , including beaches on the Chesapeake Bay . It is linked to its neighbors by an extensive network of Interstate highways , bridges , tunnels , and three bridge @-@ tunnel complexes — the only bridge @-@ tunnels in the United States .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial years = = =
In 1619 , the Governor for the Virginia Colony , Sir George Yeardley incorporated four jurisdictions , termed citties , for the developed portion of the colony . These formed the basis for colonial representative government in the newly minted House of Burgesses . What would become Norfolk was put under the Elizabeth Cittie incorporation .
In 1634 King Charles I reorganized the colony into a system of shires . The former Elizabeth Cittie became Elizabeth City Shire . After persuading 105 people to settle in the colony , Adam Thoroughgood ( who had immigrated to Virginia in 1622 from King 's Lynn , Norfolk , England ) was granted a large land holding , through the headrights system , along the Lynnhaven River in 1636 .
When the South Hampton Roads portion of the shire was separated , Thoroughgood suggested the name of his birthplace for the newly formed New Norfolk County . One year later , it was split into two counties , Upper Norfolk and Lower Norfolk ( the latter is incorporated within present @-@ day City of Norfolk ) , chiefly on Thoroughgood 's recommendation . This area of Virginia became known as the place of entrepreneurs , including men of the Virginia Company of London .
Norfolk developed in the late 17th century as a " Half Moone " fort was constructed and 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) were acquired from local natives of the Powhatan Confederacy in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 pounds of tobacco . The House of Burgesses established the " Towne of Lower Norfolk County " in 1680 . In 1691 , a final county subdivision took place when Lower Norfolk County split to form Norfolk County ( included in present @-@ day cities of Norfolk , Chesapeake , and parts of Portsmouth ) and Princess Anne County ( present @-@ day City of Virginia Beach ) .
Norfolk was incorporated in 1705 . In 1730 , a tobacco inspection site was located here . According to the Tobacco Inspection Act the inspection was " At Norfolk Town , upon the fort land , in the County of Norfolk ; and Kemp 's Landing , in Princess Anne , under one inspection . " In 1736 George II granted it a royal charter as a borough . By 1775 , Norfolk developed into what contemporary observers argued was the most prosperous city in Virginia . It was an important port for exporting goods to the British Isles and beyond . In part because of its merchants ' numerous trading ties with other parts of the British Empire , Norfolk served as a strong base of Loyalist support during the early part of the American Revolution . After fleeing the colonial capitol of Williamsburg , Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia , tried to reestablish control of the colony from Norfolk . Dunmore secured small victories at Norfolk but was forced into exile by the American rebels , commanded by Colonel Woodford . His departure brought an end to more than 168 years of British colonial rule in Virginia .
On New Year 's Day , 1776 , Lord Dunmore 's fleet of three ships shelled the city of Norfolk for more than eight hours . The damage from the shells , and fires started by the British and spread by the patriots , destroyed over 800 buildings , almost two @-@ thirds of the city . The patriots destroyed the remaining buildings for strategic reasons in February . Only the walls of Saint Paul 's Episcopal Church survived the bombardment and subsequent fires . A cannonball from the bombardment ( fired by the Liverpool ) remains within the wall of Saint Paul 's .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
Following recovery from the Revolutionary War 's burning , Norfolk and her citizens struggled to rebuild . In 1804 , another serious fire along the city 's waterfront destroyed some 300 buildings and the city suffered a serious economic setback . During the 1820s , agrarian communities across the American South suffered a prolonged recession , which caused many families to migrate to other areas . Many moved west into the Piedmont , or further into Kentucky and Tennessee . Such migration also followed the exhaustion of soil due to tobacco cultivation in the Tidewater , where it had been the primary commodity crop for generations .
Virginia made some attempts to phase out slavery , and manumissions had increased in the first two decades after the war . Thomas Jefferson Randolph gained passage of an 1832 resolution for gradual abolition in the state , but by that time , increased demand from development in the Deep South created a large internal market for slavery . Invention of the cotton gin in the late 18th century had enabled the profitable cultivation of short @-@ staple cotton in the uplands , which was widely used .
The American Colonization Society proposed to " repatriate " free blacks and freed slaves to Africa by establishing the new colony of Liberia and paying for transportation . But most African Americans wanted to stay in their birthplace of the United States and achieve freedom and rights . For a period , many emigrants to Liberia from Virginia and North Carolina embarked from the port of Norfolk . Joseph Jenkins Roberts , a free person of color native to Norfolk , emigrated via the ACS and later was elected as the first president of Liberia , establishing a powerful family .
On June 7 , 1855 , the 183 @-@ ft. vessel Benjamin Franklin put into Hampton Roads for repairs . She had just sailed from the West Indies where there had been an outbreak of yellow fever . The port health officer ordered the ship quarantined . After eleven days a second inspection found no issues , so she was allowed to dock . A few days later , the first cases of yellow fever were discovered in Norfolk , and a machinist died from the disease on July 8 . By August several people were dying per day , and a third of the city population had fled in the hopes of escaping the epidemic . No one understood how the disease was transmitted . With both Norfolk and Portsmouth being infected , New York banned all traffic from those sites . Neighboring cities also banned residents from Norfolk . The epidemic spread through the city via mosquitoes and poor sanitation , affecting every family and causing widespread panic . The number of infected reached 5 @,@ 000 in September , and by the second week 1 @,@ 500 had died in Norfolk and Portsmouth . As the weather cooled , the outbreak began to wane , leaving a final tally of about 3 @,@ 200 dead . It took the city some time to recover .
In early 1861 , Norfolk voters instructed their delegate to vote for secession . Virginia voted to secede from the Union . In the spring of 1862 , the Battle of Hampton Roads took place off the northwest shore of the city 's Sewell 's Point Peninsula , marking the first fight between two ironclads , the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia . The battle ended in a stalemate , but changed the course of naval warfare ; from then on , warships were fortified with metal .
In May 1862 , Norfolk Mayor William Lamb surrendered the city to Union General John E. Wool and his forces . They held the city under martial law for the duration of the Civil War . Thousands of slaves from the region escaped to Union lines to gain freedom ; they quickly set up schools in Norfolk to start learning to read and write , years before the end of the war .
= = = 20th century to present = = =
1907 brought both the Virginian Railway and the Jamestown Exposition to Sewell 's Point . The large Naval Review at the Exposition demonstrated the peninsula 's favorable location and laid the groundwork for the world 's largest naval base . Southern Democrats in Congress gained its location here . Commemorating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown , the exposition featured many prominent officials , including President Theodore Roosevelt , members of Congress , and diplomats from 21 countries . By 1917 , as the US built up to enter World War I , the Naval Air Station Hampton Roads had been constructed on the former exposition grounds .
In the first half of the 20th century , the city of Norfolk expanded its borders through annexation . In 1906 , the city annexed the incorporated town of Berkley , making the city cross the Elizabeth River . In 1923 , the city expanded to include Sewell 's Point , Willoughby Spit , the town of Campostella , and the Ocean View area . The city included the Navy Base and miles of beach property fronting on Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay . After a smaller annexation in 1959 , and a 1988 land swap with Virginia Beach , the city assumed its current boundaries .
With the dawn of the Interstate Highway System following World War II , new highways were constructed in the region . A series of bridges and tunnels , constructed during fifteen years , linked Norfolk with the Peninsula , Portsmouth , and Virginia Beach . In 1952 , the Downtown Tunnel opened to connect Norfolk with the city of Portsmouth . The highways also stimulated development of new housing in suburbs , leading to the population spreading out . Additional bridges and tunnels included the Hampton Roads Bridge @-@ Tunnel in 1957 , the Midtown Tunnel in 1962 , and the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk Expressway ( Interstate 264 and State Route 44 ) in 1967 . In 1991 , the new Downtown Tunnel / Berkley Bridge complex opened a new system of multiple lanes of highway and interchanges connecting Downtown Norfolk and Interstate 464 with the Downtown Tunnel tubes .
In 1954 the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated public schools were unconstitutional , as the public system was supported by all taxpayers . It ordered integration , but Virginia pursued a policy of " massive resistance " . ( At this time , most black citizens were still disfranchised under the state 's turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century constitution and discriminatory practices related to voter registration and elections . ) The Virginia General Assembly prohibited state funding for integrated public schools .
In 1958 , United States district courts in Virginia ordered schools to open for the first time on a racially integrated basis . In response , Governor James Lindsay Almond , Jr. ordered the schools closed . The Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals declared the state law to be in conflict with the state constitution and ordered all public schools to be funded , whether integrated or not . About 10 days later , Almond capitulated and asked the General Assembly to rescind several " massive resistance " laws . In September 1959 , 17 black children entered six previously segregated Norfolk public schools . Virginian @-@ Pilot editor Lenoir Chambers editorialized against massive resistance and earned the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing .
With new suburban developments beckoning , many white middle @-@ class residents moved out of the city along new highway routes , and Norfolk 's population fell , a pattern repeated in numerous cities in the postwar era independently of segregation issues . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the advent of newer suburban shopping destinations along with freeways spelled demise for the fortunes of downtown 's Granby Street commercial corridor , located just a few blocks inland from the waterfront . The opening of malls and large shopping centers drew off retail business from Granby Street .
Norfolk 's city leaders began a long push to revive its urban core . While Granby Street underwent decline , Norfolk city leaders focused on the waterfront and its collection of decaying piers and warehouses . Many obsolete shipping and warehousing facilities were demolished . In their place , planners created a new boulevard , Waterside Drive , along which many of the high @-@ rise buildings in Norfolk 's skyline have been erected . In 1983 the city and The Rouse Company developed the Waterside festival marketplace to attract people back to the waterfront and catalyze further downtown redevelopment . Other facilities opened in the ensuing years , including the Harbor Park baseball stadium , home of the Norfolk Tides Triple @-@ A minor league baseball team . In 1995 , the park was named the finest facility in minor league baseball by Baseball America . Norfolk 's efforts to revitalize its downtown have attracted acclaim from economic development and urban planning circles throughout the country . Downtown 's rising fortunes helped to expand the city 's revenues and allowed the city to direct attention to other neighborhoods .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 96 square miles ( 250 km2 ) , of which 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) is land and 42 square miles ( 110 km2 ) ( 43 @.@ 9 % ) is water . Norfolk is located at 36 ° 55 ′ N 76 ° 12 ′ W ( 36 @.@ 8857 ° N , 76 @.@ 2599 ° W )
The city is located at the southeastern corner of Virginia at the junction of the Elizabeth River and Chesapeake Bay . The Hampton Roads Metropolitan Statistical Area ( officially known as the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA ) is the 37th largest in the United States , with an estimated population of 1 @,@ 716 @,@ 624 in 2014 . The area includes the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Chesapeake , Hampton , Newport News , Poquoson , Portsmouth , Suffolk , Williamsburg , and the counties of Gloucester , Isle of Wight , James City , Mathews , and York , as well as the North Carolina counties of Currituck and Gates . The city of Norfolk is recognized as the central business district , while the Virginia Beach oceanside resort district and Williamsburg are primarily centers of tourism . Virginia Beach is the most populated city within the MSA though it functions more as a suburb . Additionally , Norfolk is part of the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk , VA @-@ NC Combined Statistical Area , which includes the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA , the Elizabeth City , North Carolina Micropolitan Statistical Area , and the Kill Devil Hills , NC Micropolitan Statistical Area . The CSA is the 32nd largest in the nation with a 2013 estimated population of 1 @,@ 810 @,@ 266 .
In addition to extensive riverfront property , Norfolk has miles of bayfront resort property and beaches in the Willoughby Spit and Ocean View communities .
Being low @-@ lying and largely surrounded by water , Norfolk is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels . In addition , the land on which it is built is slowly subsiding . Some areas already flood regularly at high tide , and the city commissioned a study in 2012 to investigate how to address the issue in the future : it reported the cost of dealing with a sea @-@ level rise of one foot would be around one billion dollars . Since then , in 2013 , scientists at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science have estimated that if current trends hold , the sea in Norfolk will rise by 5 1 / 2 feet or more by the end of this century .
= = = Cityscape = = =
When Norfolk was first settled , homes were made of wood and frame construction , similar to most medieval English @-@ style homes . These homes had wide chimneys and thatch roofs . Some decades after the town was first laid out in 1682 , the Georgian architectural style , which was popular in the South at the time , was used . Brick was considered more substantial construction ; patterns were made by brick laid and Flemish bond . This style evolved to include projecting center pavilions , Palladian windows , balustraded roof decks , and two @-@ story porticoes . By 1740 , homes , warehouses , stores , workshops , and taverns began to dot Norfolk 's streets .
Norfolk was burned down during the Revolutionary War . After the Revolution , Norfolk was rebuilt in Federal style , based on Roman ideals . Federal @-@ style homes kept Georgian symmetry , though they had more refined decorations to look like New World homes . Federal homes had features such as narrow sidelights with an embracing fanlight around the doorway , giant porticoes , gable or flat roofs , and projecting bays on exterior walls . Rooms were oval , elliptical or octagonal . Few of these federal rowhouses remain standing today . A majority of buildings were made of wood and had simple construction .
In the early 19th century , Neoclassical architectural elements began to appear in the federal style row homes , such as iconic columns in the porticoes and classic motifs over doorways and windows . Many Federal @-@ style row houses were modernized by placing a Greek @-@ style porch at the front . Greek and Roman elements were integrated into public buildings such as the old City Hall , the old Norfolk Academy , and the Customs House .
Greek @-@ style homes gave way to Gothic Revival in the 1830s , which emphasized pointed arches , steep gable roofs , towers and tracer @-@ lead windows . The Freemason Baptist Church and St. Mary 's Catholic Church are examples of Gothic Revival . Italianate elements emerged in the 1840s including cupolas , verandas , ornamental brickwork , or corner quoins . Norfolk still had simple wooden structures among its more ornate buildings .
High @-@ rise buildings were first built in the late 19th century when structures such as the current Commodore Maury Hotel and the Royster Building were constructed to form the initial Norfolk skyline . Past styles were revived during the early years of the 20th century . Bungalows and apartment buildings became popular for those living in the city .
As the Great Depression wore on , Art Deco emerged as a popular building style , as evidenced by the Post Office building downtown . Art Deco consisted of streamlined concrete faced appearance with smooth stone or metal , with terracotta , and trimming consisting of glass and colored tiles .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Norfolk has a variety of historic neighborhoods . Some neighborhoods , such as Berkley , were formerly cities and towns . Others , such as Willoughby Spit and Ocean View , have a long history tied to the Chesapeake Bay . Today , neighborhoods such as Downtown , Ghent and Fairmount Park have transformed with the revitalization that the city has undergone .
= = = Climate = = =
Norfolk has a humid subtropical climate with moderate changes of seasons . Spring arrives in March with mild days and cool nights , and by late May , the temperature has warmed up considerably to herald warm summer days . Summers are consistently warm and humid , but the nearby Atlantic Ocean often exercises a slight cooling effect on daytime high temperatures , but a slight warming effect on nighttime low temperatures ( compared to areas farther inland ) . As such , Norfolk has occasional days over 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . Temperatures over 100 F. are rare , but can occur on occasion . On average , July is the warmest month , and August is the year 's wettest month , due to still @-@ frequent summer thunderstorm activity combined with a rising frequency ( in August ) of tropical activity ( hurricanes and tropical storms ) , which can bring high winds and heavy rains . These usually brush Norfolk and only occasionally make landfalls in the area ; the highest @-@ risk period is mid @-@ August to the end of September . Fall is marked by mild to warm days and cooler nights . Winter is usually mild in Norfolk , with average winter days featuring lows near or slightly above freezing and highs in the upper 40s to mid 50s ( 8 to 13 ° C ) . On average , the coldest month of the year is January . Norfolk 's record high was 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on August 7 , 1918 and July 24 and 25 , 2010 , and record low was − 3 ° F ( − 19 ° C ) recorded on January 21 , 1985 . Snow occurs sporadically , with an average annual accumulation of 5 @.@ 8 inches .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 242 @,@ 803 people , 86 @,@ 210 households , and 51 @,@ 898 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 362 @.@ 8 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 684 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 94 @,@ 416 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 757 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 678 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 47 @.@ 1 % White , 43 @.@ 1 % African American , 0 @.@ 5 % Native American , 3 @.@ 3 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 2 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 6 @.@ 6 % of the population . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 44 @.@ 3 % of the population in 2010 , down from 68 @.@ 5 % in 1970 .
There were 86 @,@ 210 households out of which 30 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 36 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 18 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 30 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 07 .
The age distribution was 24 @.@ 0 % under the age of 18 , 18 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 9 % from 25 to 44 , 16 @.@ 9 % from 45 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 9 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 30 years . For every 100 females there were 104 @.@ 6 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 104 @.@ 8 males . This large gender imbalance is due to the military presence in the city , most notably Naval Station Norfolk .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 31 @,@ 815 , and the median income for a family was $ 36 @,@ 891 . Males had a median income of $ 25 @,@ 848 versus $ 21 @,@ 907 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 372 . About 15 @.@ 5 % of families and 19 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 27 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 13 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
For the year of 2007 , Norfolk had a total crime index of 514 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . This was above the national average of 320 @.@ 9 that year . For 2007 , the city experienced 48 homicides , for a murder rate of 21 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . Total crime had decreased when compared to the year 2000 , which the city had a total crime index of 546 @.@ 3 . The highest murder rate Norfolk has experienced for the 21st century was in 2005 when its rate was 24 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . For the year 2007 per 100 @,@ 000 , Norfolk experienced 21 @.@ 1 murders , 42 @.@ 6 rapes , 399 @.@ 3 robberies , 381 @.@ 3 assaults , 743 @.@ 3 burglaries , and 450 @.@ 6 automobile thefts . According to the Congressional Quarterly Press ' 2008 City Crime Rankings : Crime in Metropolitan America , Norfolk , Virginia , ranked as the 87th most dangerous city larger than 75 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Economy = =
Since Norfolk serves as the commercial and cultural center for the unusual geographical region of Hampton Roads ( and in its political structure of independent cities ) , it can be difficult to separate the economic characteristics of Norfolk from that of the region as a whole .
The waterways which almost completely surround the Hampton Roads region play an important part in the local economy . As a strategic location at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay , its protected deep @-@ water channels serve as a major trade artery for the import and export of goods from across the Mid @-@ Atlantic , Mid @-@ West , and internationally .
In addition to commercial activities , Hampton Roads is a major military center , particularly for the United States Navy , and Norfolk serves as the home for Naval Station Norfolk , the world 's largest naval installation . Located on Sewell 's Point Peninsula , in the northwest corner of the city , the station is the headquarters of the United States Fleet Forces Command ( formerly known as the Atlantic Fleet ) , which compromises over 62 @,@ 000 active duty personnel , 75 ships , and 132 aircraft . The base also serves as the headquarters to NATO 's Allied Command Transformation .
The region also plays an important role in defense contracting , with particular emphasis in the shipbuilding and ship repair businesses for the city of Norfolk . Major private shipyards located in Norfolk or the Hampton Roads area include : Huntington Ingalls Industries ( formerly Northrop Grumman Newport News ) in Newport News , BAE Systems Norfolk Ship Repair , General Dynamics NASSCO Norfolk , and Colonna 's Shipyard Inc . , while the US Navy 's Norfolk Naval Shipyard is just across the Downtown Tunnel in Portsmouth . Most contracts fulfilled by these shipyards are issued by the Navy , though some private commercial repair also takes place . Over 35 % of Gross Regional Product ( which includes the entire Norfolk @-@ Newport News @-@ Virginia Beach MSA ) , is attributable to defense spending , and that 75 % of all regional growth since 2001 is attributable to increases in defense spending .
After the military , the second largest and most important industry for Hampton Roads and Norfolk based on economic impact are the region 's cargo ports . Headquartered in Norfolk , the Virginia Port Authority ( VPA ) is a Commonwealth of Virginia owned @-@ entity that , in turn , owns and operates three major port facilities in Hampton Roads for break @-@ bulk and container type cargo . In Norfolk , Norfolk International Terminals ( NIT ) represents one of those three facilities and is home to the world 's largest and fastest container cranes . Together , the three terminals of the VPA handled a total of over 2 million TEUs and 475 @,@ 000 tons of breakbulk cargo in 2006 , making it the second busiest port on the east coast of North America by total cargo volume after the Port of New York and New Jersey .
In addition to NIT , Norfolk is home to Lambert 's Point Docks , the largest coal trans @-@ shipment point in the Northern Hemisphere , with annual throughput of approximately 48 million tons . Bituminous coal is primarily sourced from the Appalachian mountains in western Virginia , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The coal is loaded onto trains and sent to the port where it is unloaded onto large breakbulk cargo ships and destined for New England , Europe , and Asia .
Between 1925 and 2007 , Ford Motor Company operated Norfolk Assembly , a manufacturing plant located on the Elizabeth River that had produced the Model T , sedans and station wagons before building F @-@ 150 pick @-@ up trucks . Before it closed , the plant employed more than 2 @,@ 600 people at the 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 260 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility .
Most major shipping lines have a permanent presence in the region with some combination of sales , distribution , and / or logistical offices , many of which are located in Norfolk . In addition , many of the largest international shipping companies have chosen Norfolk as their North American headquarters . These companies are either located at the Norfolk World Trade Center building or have constructed buildings in the Lake Wright Executive Center office park . The French firm CMA CGM , the Israeli firm Zim Integrated Shipping Services , and Maersk Line Limited , a subsidiary of the world 's largest shipping line , A. P. Moller @-@ Maersk Group , have their North American headquarters in Norfolk . Major companies headquartered in Norfolk include Norfolk Southern , Landmark Communications , Dominion Enterprises , FHC Health Systems ( parent company of ValueOptions ) , Portfolio Recovery Associates , and BlackHawk Products Group .
Though Virginia Beach and Williamsburg have traditionally been the centers of tourism for the region , the rebirth of downtown Norfolk and the construction of a cruise ship pier at the foot of Nauticus in downtown has driven tourism to become an increasingly important part of the city 's economy . The number of cruise ship passengers who visited Norfolk increased from 50 @,@ 000 in 2003 , to 107 @,@ 000 in 2004 and 2005 . Also in April 2007 , the city completed construction on a $ 36 million state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art cruise ship terminal alongside the pier . Partly due to this construction , passenger counts dropped to 70 @,@ 000 in 2006 , but is expected to rebound to 90 @,@ 000 in 2007 , and higher in later years . Unlike most cruise ship terminals which are located in industrial areas , the downtown location of Norfolk 's terminal has received favorable reviews from both tourists and the cruise lines who enjoy its proximity to the city 's hotels , restaurants , shopping , and cultural amenities .
Hampton Roads is home to four Fortune 500 companies . Representing the food industry , transportation , retail and shipbuilding , these four companies are located in Smithfield , Norfolk , Chesapeake and Newport News .
213 Smithfield Foods
247 Norfolk Southern
346 Dollar Tree
380 Huntington Ingalls Industries
= = = Top employers = = =
According to a report published by the Virginia Employment Commission , below are the top employers in Norfolk :
= = Arts and culture = =
Norfolk is the cultural heart of the Hampton Roads region . In addition to its museums , Norfolk is the principal home for several major performing arts companies . Norfolk also plays host to numerous yearly festivals and parades , mostly at Town Point Park in downtown .
The Chrysler Museum of Art , located in the Ghent district , is the region 's foremost art museum and is considered by The New York Times to be the finest in the state . Of particular note is the extensive glass collection , the Glass Studio , the Moses Myers House , and American neoclassical marble sculptures . The museum 's main building is undergoing expansion and renovation and is expected to reopen in April 2014 . During the renovation the Glass Studio and the Moses Myers House will remain open and art will be displayed at venues throughout the community .
Nauticus , the National Maritime Center , opened on the downtown waterfront in 1994 . It features hands @-@ on exhibits , interactive theaters , aquaria , digital high @-@ definition films and an extensive variety of educational programs . Since 2000 , Nauticus has been home to the battleship USS Wisconsin , the last battleship to be built in the United States . It served briefly in World War II and later in the Korean and Gulf Wars .
The MacArthur Memorial , located in the 19th century Norfolk court house and city hall in downtown , contains the tombs of the late General and his wife , a museum and a vast research library , personal belongings ( including his famous corncob pipe ) and a short film that chronicles the life of the famous General of the Army .
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , the world 's largest animal rights organization , is based in Norfolk .
The Hermitage Foundation Museum , located in an early 20th @-@ century Tudor @-@ style home on a 12 @-@ acre ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate fronting the Lafayette River , features an eclectic collection of Asian and Western art , including Chinese bronze and ceramics , Persian rugs , and ivory carvings . Norfolk has a variety of performing groups with regular seasons .
The Virginia Opera was founded in Norfolk in 1974 . Its artistic director since its inception has been Peter Mark , who conducted his 100th opera production for the VOA in 2008 . Though performances are staged statewide , the company 's principal venue is the Harrison Opera House in the Ghent district .
The Virginia Stage Company , founded in 1968 , is one of the country 's leading regional theaters and produces a full season of plays in the Wells Theatre downtown . The company shares facilities with the Governor 's School for the Arts .
The Virginia Symphony Orchestra , founded in 1920 and directed by JoAnn Falletta , has been a regular staple on the regional fine arts scene . Most Norfolk performances take place at Chrysler Hall in the Scope complex downtown . The orchestra also provides musicians for many other performing arts organizations in the area .
Large @-@ scale concerts are held at either the Norfolk Scope arena or the Ted Constant Convocation Center at ODU , while The Norva provides a more intimate atmosphere for smaller groups . Other Norfolk cultural venues include the Attucks Theatre , the Jeanne and George Roper Performing Arts Canter ( formerly the Loew 's State Theater ) and the Naro Expanded Cinema .
The revitalization of downtown Norfolk has helped to improve the Hampton Roads cultural scene . In particular , a large number of clubs , representing a wide range of music interests and sophistication now line the lower Granby Street area .
Norfolk celebrates the rich ethnic diversity of its population with sights , sounds , attractions and special events that pay tribute to the city 's long multicultural heritage .
= = Sports = =
Norfolk serves as home to the two highest level professional franchises in the state of Virginia — the Norfolk Tides plays Triple @-@ A baseball in the International League , and the Norfolk Admirals play ice hockey in the ECHL . Norfolk has two universities with Division I sports teams — the Old Dominion Monarchs and the Norfolk State University Spartans , which provide many sports including football , basketball , and baseball .
From 1970 to 1976 , Norfolk served as home court ( along with Hampton , Richmond and Roanoke ) for the Virginia Squires regional professional basketball franchise of the now @-@ defunct American Basketball Association ( ABA ) . From 1970 to 1971 , the Squires played their Norfolk home games at the Old Dominion University Fieldhouse . In November 1971 , the Virginia Squires played their Norfolk home games at the new Norfolk Scope arena , until the team and the ABA league folded in May 1976 .
In 1971 , Norfolk built an entertainment and sports complex , featuring Chrysler Hall and the 13 @,@ 800 @-@ seat Norfolk Scope indoor arena , located in the northern section of downtown . Norfolk Scope has served as a venue of major events including the American Basketball Association 's All @-@ Star Game in 1974 , and the first and second NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championships ( also known as the Women 's Final Four ) in 1982 and 1983 .
Norfolk is also home to the Norfolk Blues Rugby Football Club .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Town Point Park in downtown plays host to a wide variety of annual events from early spring through late fall . Harborfest , the region 's largest annual festival , celebrated its 30th year in 2006 . It is held during the first weekend of June and celebrates the region 's proximity and attachment to the water . The Parade of Sail ( numerous tall sailing ships from around the world form in line and sail past downtown before docking at the marina ) , music concerts , regional food , and a large fireworks display highlight this three @-@ day festival . Bayou Boogaloo and Cajun Food Festival , a celebration of the Cajun people and culture , had small beginnings . This three @-@ day festival during the third week of June has become one of the largest in the region and , in addition to serving up Cajun cuisine , also features Cajun music . Norfolk 's Fourth of July celebration of American independence , contains a spectacular fireworks display and a special Navy reenlistment ceremony . The Norfolk Jazz Festival , though smaller by comparison to some of the big city jazz festivals , still manages to attract the country 's top jazz performers . It is held in August . The Town Point Virginia Wine Festival has become a showcase for Virginia @-@ produced wines and has enjoyed increasing success over the years . Virginia 's burgeoning wine industry has become noted both within the United States and on an international level . The festival has grown with the industry . Wines can be sampled and then purchased by the bottle and / or case directly from the winery kiosks . This event takes place during the third weekend of October . There is also a Spring Wine Festival held during the second weekend of May . Nearby are the museum ship USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 64 ) and Wisconsin Square .
The St. Patrick 's Day annual parade in the city 's Ocean View neighborhood , celebrates Ocean View 's rich Irish heritage .
Norfolk has a variety of parks and open spaces in its city parks system . The city maintains three beaches on its north shore in the Ocean View area . Five additional parks contain picnic facilities and playgrounds for children . The city also has some community pools open to city citizens .
The Norfolk Botanical Garden , opened in 1939 , is a 155 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 6 km2 ) botanical garden and arboretum located near the Norfolk International Airport . It is open year round .
The Virginia Zoological Park , opened in 1900 , is a 65 @-@ acre ( 260 @,@ 000 m2 ) zoo with hundreds of animals on display , including the critically endangered Siberian tiger and threatened white rhino .
The city is also known for its " Mermaids on Parade , " a public art program launched in 2002 to place mermaid statues all over the city . Tourists can take a walking tour of downtown and locate 17 mermaids while others can be found further afield .
= = Government = =
Norfolk is an independent city with services that both counties and cities in Virginia provide , such as a sheriff , social services , and a court system . Norfolk operates under a council @-@ manager form of government .
Norfolk city government consists of a city council with representatives from seven districts serving in a legislative and oversight capacity , as well as a popularly elected , at @-@ large mayor . The city manager serves as head of the executive branch and supervises all city departments and executing policies adopted by the Council . Citizens in each of the five wards elect one council representative each to serve a four @-@ year term . There are two additional council members elected from two city @-@ wide " Superwards . " The city council meets at City Hall weekly and , as of May 2012 , consists of : Mayor Paul D. Fraim ; Alveta V. Green , Ward 3 ; Vice Mayor Angelia Williams , Superward 7 ; Paul R. Riddick , Ward 4 ; Dr. Theresa W. Whibley , Ward 2 ; Andrew A. Protogyrou , Ward 1 ; Barclay C. Winn , Superward 6 ; Thomas R. Smigiel , Jr . , Ward 5 .
City government has infrastructure to create close working relationships with its citizens . Norfolk 's city government provides services for neighborhoods , including service centers and civic leagues that interact directly with members of City Council . Such services include preserving area histories , home rehabilitation centers , outreach programs , and a university that trains citizens in neighborhood clean @-@ up , event planning , neighborhood leadership , and financial planning . Norfolk 's police department also provides support for neighborhood watch programs including a citizens ' training academy , security design , a police athletic program for youth , and business watch programs .
Norfolk also has a federal courthouse for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . The Walter E. Hoffman U.S. Courthouse in Norfolk has four judges , four magistrate judges , and two bankruptcy judges . Additionally , Norfolk has its own General District and Circuit Courts which convene downtown .
Norfolk is located in the Virginia 's 2nd congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Scott Rigell ( Republican ) and in the Virginia 's 3rd congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Robert C. Scott ( Democrat ) .
= = Education = =
Norfolk City Public Schools , the public school system , comprises five high schools , eight middle schools , 34 elementary schools , and nine special @-@ purpose / preschools . In 2005 , Norfolk Public Schools won the $ 1 million Broad Prize for Urban Education award for having demonstrated , " the greatest overall performance and improvement in student achievement while reducing achievement gaps for poor and minority students " . The city had previously been nominated in 2003 and 2004 . There are also a number of private schools located in the city , the oldest of which , Norfolk Academy , was founded in 1728 . Religious schools located in the city include St. Pius X Catholic School , Alliance Christian School , Christ the King School , Norfolk Christian Schools and Trinity Lutheran School . The City also hosts the Governor 's School for the Arts which holds performances and classes at the Wells Theatre .
Norfolk is home to three public universities and one private . It also hosts a community college campus in downtown . Old Dominion University , founded as the Norfolk Division of the College of William and Mary in 1930 , became an independent institution in 1962 and now offers degrees in 68 undergraduate and 95 ( 60 masters / 35 doctoral ) graduate degree programs . Eastern Virginia Medical School , founded as a community medical school by the surrounding jurisdictions in 1973 , is noted for its research into reproductive medicine and is located in the region 's major medical complex in the Ghent district . Norfolk State University founded in 1935 is the largest HBCU in Virginia . Norfolk State offers degrees in a wide variety of liberal arts , Social Work , Nursing , and Engineering . Virginia Wesleyan College is a small private liberal arts college , and shares its eastern border with the neighboring city of Virginia Beach . Tidewater Community College offers two @-@ year degrees and specialized training programs , and is located in downtown . Additionally , several for @-@ profit schools operate in the city .
= = Norfolk Public Library = =
Norfolk Public Library , Virginia 's first public library , consists of one main library , one anchor library , ten branch libraries and a bookmobile . The library also has a local history and genealogy room and contains government documents dating back to the 19th century . The libraries offer services such as computer classes , book reviews , tax forms , and online book clubs .
= = Media = =
Norfolk 's daily newspaper is The Virginian @-@ Pilot . Its alternative papers include the ( now defunct ) Port Folio Weekly , the New Journal and Guide , and the online AltDaily.com. Inside Business serves the regional business community with local business news .
Local universities publish their own newspapers : Old Dominion University 's Mace and Crown , Norfolk State University 's The Spartan Echo , and Virginia Wesleyan College 's Marlin Chronicles .
Hampton Roads Magazine serves as a bi @-@ monthly regional magazine for Norfolk and the Hampton Roads area .
HamptonRoadsTimes.com serves as an online magazine for Norfolk and the Hampton Roads area .
Norfolk is served by a variety of radio stations on the AM and FM dials , with towers located around the Hampton Roads area . These cater to many different interests , including news , talk radio , and sports , as well as an eclectic mix of musical interests .
Norfolk is served by several television stations . The Hampton Roads designated market area ( DMA ) is the 42nd largest in the U.S. with 712 @,@ 790 homes ( 0 @.@ 64 % of the total U.S. ) . The major network television affiliates are WTKR @-@ TV 3 ( CBS ) , WAVY 10 ( NBC ) , WVEC @-@ TV 13 ( ABC ) , WGNT 27 ( CW ) , WTVZ 33 ( MyNetworkTV ) , WVBT 43 ( Fox ) , and WPXV 49 ( Ion Television ) . The Public Broadcasting Service station is WHRO @-@ TV 15 . Norfolk residents also can receive independent stations , such as WSKY broadcasting on channel 4 from the Outer Banks of North Carolina and WGBS @-@ LD broadcasting on channel 11 from Hampton .
Several major motion pictures have been filmed in and around Norfolk , including Rollercoaster ( filmed at the former Ocean View Amusement Park ) , Navy Seals , and Mission : Impossible III ( partially filmed at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel ) .
= = = Central Radio controversy = = =
In 2010 the Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority moved to take over the property of Central Radio , a communications and engineering firm , and other businesses and residential properties through eminent domain , and turn the land over to Old Dominion University . In response , Central Radio hung a 375 @-@ square foot banner reading , " 50 years on this street / 78 years in Norfolk / 100 workers / Threatened by eminent domain ! " The city cited Central Radio for sign code infringement and ordered the banner removed .
In 2013 the The Virginia Supreme Court held that the city 's attempt to take over the business properties was illegal . However , the U.S. District Court ruled in favor the city regarding the sign removal . In January 2015 , the 4th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court 's ruling . In April 2015 , the Institute for Justice asked the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case as a First Amendment free speech issue .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Norfolk is linked with its neighbors through an extensive network of arterial and Interstate highways , bridges , tunnels , and bridge @-@ tunnel complexes . The major east @-@ west routes are Interstate 64 , U.S. Route 58 ( Virginia Beach Boulevard ) and U.S. Route 60 ( Ocean View Avenue ) . The major north @-@ south routes are U.S. Route 13 and U.S. Route 460 , also known as Granby Street . Other main roadways in Norfolk include Newtown Road , Waterside Drive , Tidewater Drive , and Military Highway . The Hampton Roads Beltway ( I @-@ 64 , I @-@ 264 , I @-@ 464 , and I @-@ 664 ) makes a loop around Norfolk .
Norfolk is primarily served by the Norfolk International Airport ( IATA : ORF , ICAO : KORF , FAA LID : ORF ) , now the region 's major commercial airport . The airport is located near Chesapeake Bay , along the city limits straddling neighboring Virginia Beach . Seven airlines provide nonstop services to twenty five destinations . ORF had 3 @,@ 703 @,@ 664 passengers take off or land at its facility and 68 @,@ 778 @,@ 934 pounds of cargo were processed through its facilities . Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport also provides commercial air service for the Hampton Roads area . NNWIA is also the only airport in the region with direct international flights , as of February 2013 . The Chesapeake Regional Airport provides general aviation services and is located five miles ( 8 km ) outside the city limits .
Norfolk is served by Amtrak 's Northeast Regional service through the Norfolk station , located in downtown Norfolk adjacent to Harbor Park stadium . The line runs west along Norfolk Southern trackage , paralleling the US Route 460 corridor to Petersburg , thence on to Richmond and beyond . A high @-@ speed rail connection at Richmond to both the Northeast Corridor and the Southeast High Speed Rail Corridor are also under study .
Greyhound provides service from a central bus terminal in downtown Norfolk .
In April 2007 , construction of the new $ 36 million Half Moone Cruise Terminal was completed downtown adjacent to the Nauticus Museum , providing a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art permanent structure for various cruise lines and passengers wishing to embark from Norfolk . Previously , makeshift structures were used to embark / disembark passengers , supplies , and crew .
The Intracoastal Waterway passes through Norfolk . Norfolk also has extensive frontage and port facilities on the navigable portions of the Western and Southern Branches of the Elizabeth River .
Light rail , bus , ferry and paratransit services are provided by Hampton Roads Transit ( HRT ) , the regional public transport system headquartered in Hampton . HRT buses operate throughout Norfolk and South Hampton Roads and onto the Peninsula all the way up to Williamsburg . Other routes travel to Smithfield . HRT 's ferry service connects downtown Norfolk to Old Town Portsmouth . Additional services include an HOV express bus to the Norfolk Naval Base , paratransit services , park @-@ and @-@ ride lots , and the Norfolk Electric Trolley , which provides service in the downtown area . The Tide light rail service began operations in August 2011 . The light rail is a starter route running along the southern portion of Norfolk , commencing at Newtown Road and passing through stations serving areas such as Norfolk State University and Harbor Park before going through the heart of downtown Norfolk and terminating at Sentara Norfolk General Hospital . Hampton Roads Transportation , Inc. dispatches Black and White Cabs of Norfolk , Yellow Cab of Norfolk and Norfolk Checker Cab .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and sewer services are provided by the city 's Department of Utilities . Norfolk receives its electricity from Dominion Virginia Power which has local sources including the Chesapeake Energy Center ( a gas power plant ) , coal @-@ fired plants in Chesapeake and Southampton County , and the Surry Nuclear Power Plant . Norfolk @-@ headquartered Virginia Natural Gas , a subsidiary of AGL Resources , distributes natural gas to the city from storage plants in James City County and Chesapeake .
Norfolk 's water quality has been recognized one of the cleanest water systems in the United States and ranked as the fourth best in the United States by Men 's Health . The city of Norfolk has tremendous capacity for clean fresh water . The city owns nine reservoirs : Lake Whitehurst , Little Creek Reservoir , Lake Lawson , Lake Smith , Lake Wright , Lake Burnt Mills , Western Branch Reservoir , Lake Prince and Lake Taylor . The Virginia tidewater area has grown faster than the local freshwater supply . The river water has always been salty , and the fresh groundwater is no longer available in most areas . Currently , water for the cities of Chesapeake and Virginia Beach is pumped from Lake Gaston ( which straddles the Virginia @-@ North Carolina border ) into the City of Norfolk 's reservoir system and then diverted to the City of Chesapeake for treatment by the City of Chesapeake . Virginia Beach 's portion of water is treated by the City of Norfolk at Moores Bridges water treatment plant and then piped into Virginia Beach . The pipeline is 76 miles ( 122 km ) long and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) in diameter . Much of its follows the former right @-@ of @-@ way of an abandoned portion of the Virginian Railway . It is capable of pumping 60 million gallons of water per day ; Virginia Beach and Chesapeake are partners in the project .
The city provides wastewater services for residents and transports wastewater to the regional Hampton Roads Sanitation District treatment plants .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Because of the prominence of the Naval Medical Center Portsmouth and the Hampton VA Medical Center in Hampton , Norfolk has had a strong role in medicine . Norfolk is served by Sentara Norfolk General Hospital , Sentara Leigh Hospital , and Bon Secours DePaul Medical Center . The city is also home to the Children 's Hospital of The King 's Daughters and Lake Taylor Transitional Care Hospital .
Norfolk is home to Eastern Virginia Medical School , which is known for its specialists in diabetes , dermatology , and obstetrics . It achieved international fame on March 1 , 1980 , when Drs. Georgianna and Howard Jones opened the first in vitro fertilization clinic in the U.S. at EVMS . The country 's first in vitro test @-@ tube baby was born there in December 1981 .
The international headquarters of Operation Smile , a nonprofit organization that specializes in repairing facial deformities in underprivileged children from around the globe , is located in the city .
Physicians for Peace , a non profit that focuses on providing training and education to medical professionals in the developing world , is based in Norfolk .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Norfolk has ten sister cities :
= Guinness Foreign Extra Stout =
Guinness Foreign Extra Stout ( FES ) is a stout produced by the Guinness Brewery , an Irish brewing company owned by Diageo , a drinks multinational . First brewed by Guinness in 1801 , FES was designed for export , and is more heavily hopped than Guinness Draught and Extra Stout , and typically has a higher alcohol content ( at around 7 @.@ 5 % ABV ) , which gives it a more bitter taste . The extra hops were intended as a natural preservative for the long journeys the beer would take by ship .
FES is the Guinness variant that is most commonly found in Asia , Africa and the Caribbean , and it accounts for almost half of Guinness sales worldwide . In 2011 , over 4 million hectolitres of the beer were sold in Africa , where Diageo intend to grow the product into the continent 's highest selling beer .
Guinness Flavour Extract , a dehydrated , hopped wort extract made from barley malt and roasted barley , is used for overseas production of the stout . The syrup is shipped from Ireland , where it is added at the ratio of 1 : 49 to locally brewed pale beer . In most overseas markets , Guinness Flavour Extract ( GFE ) is blended with locally brewed beer to produce FES .
In the 1960s , FES was marketed in Nigeria as " gives you power " . This was updated for 1999 @-@ 2006 with the Michael Power campaign , which aired across Africa . The beer is ranked highly on beer rating websites , while beer critics have varying opinions .
= = History = =
In 1801 , Guinness West India Porter , the direct predecessor of Foreign Extra Stout , was first exported from the St. James 's Gate brewery in Dublin . The product was formulated for Irish immigrant workers in the Caribbean . The beer was only brewed between October and April , which reduced acidification , and was matured in large wooden vats for up to two years , which gave the finished product greater stability . To survive the long journey overseas , which was then taken by ship , it was brewed with extra hops and a higher alcohol content , which acted as natural preservatives for the beer . Exported in barrels , the product was then bottled locally , which helped to reduce costs .
The first recorded shipment of the beer to the United States was in 1817 . In 1827 , the first official shipment of Guinness on the African continent arrived in Sierra Leone . The beer was renamed Foreign Extra Stout from around 1849 onwards . The first recorded exports to South East Asia began in the 1860s .
At the turn of the twentieth century , FES accounted for around 5 per cent of all Guinness production , with two thirds destined for Australia and the United States , where it was largely used as a medicinal product . Australia remained the single largest export market for the product until 1910 , when it was eclipsed by the United States . Due to the expense of importation , FES was a premium product , selling for double the price of domestic stouts . By 1912 , total production had reached 105 @,@ 000 hogsheads . The American trade was disrupted by the onset of World War I and then discontinued entirely with the introduction of Prohibition . The product was not popular when it returned in the 1930s , as drinkers now preferred the lighter and cheaper Guinness Extra Stout . Following discontinuation of export during World War II , FES did not return to the United States until 1956 , but this was not successful , and the beer was withdrawn shortly afterwards .
Prior to 1920 , Guinness export sales were mostly to ethnic Anglo Saxons and Celts . From the 1920s onwards this changed , and among the first natives to develop a taste for the drink were the ethnic Chinese of the Malay Peninsula . In 1924 , a global Guinness salesman was appointed by the company , and sales began to be pursued among native populations .
In 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II , the British War Office purchased 500 @,@ 000 half @-@ pint bottles of FES for distribution to hospitals .
In 1951 , exports totalled 90 @,@ 000 barrels , but by 1964 had grown to 300 @,@ 000 barrels . By 1959 , sales in Ghana had grown large enough for Guinness to establish a joint venture in the country with the United Africa Company . By 1962 , Nigeria had become the largest export market for Guinness , with around 100 @,@ 000 barrels exported to the country every year . This led the company to build a brewery in Ikeja in western Nigeria to supply the demand ; it was only the third brewery in the company 's history . The brewery cost over £ 2 million , had a 150 @,@ 000 barrel capacity , and was 60 per cent owned by Guinness Nigeria , 25 per cent by the United Africa Company with the remaining shares held by local Nigerian interests . Breweries followed in Malaysia ( 1965 ) , Cameroon ( 1970 ) and Ghana ( 1971 ) , whilst licences were granted to other companies to brew Guinness under contract in other African countries and the West Indies . Historically a small proportion of Guinness production , it was this success , especially in Africa but also in Asia , that allowed FES to grow into a 4 @.@ 5 million hectolitre brand .
A new bottle design was debuted in Malaysia in 2005 , and later rolled out worldwide . In 2013 , FES received a packaging redesign in Africa and other selected markets , with a
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eming it an imitation of Simon & Garfunkel . The New York Times also covered the song , noting that " It has an odd , slightly serpentine vocal melody ( it sounds a bit like an adapted madrigal ) , and the lyrics are absurd and somehow touching . "
The A.V. Club called " New Slang " one of the year 's " loveliest ballads . " Will Hermes , in a piece on NPR 's All Things Considered , called the song a " masterpiece , " as well as " ridiculously melodic and structurally flawless . " Pitchfork Media later included the song at number 62 on its list of " The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s , " calling it " An agoraphobic bedroom @-@ pop gem that shuffled its way onto a stage larger than anyone imagined possible . " New Slang " paved the way for Norah , Nick , Juno , and the many lovely , odd , and grating mainstream / indie pairings to come . "
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was filmed in various locations in Albuquerque and Portland . Among the areas filmed included the Rio Grande , junkyards , and near Mercer 's home . The clip was directed by Lance Bangs , an associate of Spike Jonze . It features the band re @-@ enacting the cover art of other bands ' albums , including Zen Arcade and New Day Rising by Hüsker Dü , Let It Be by The Replacements , Moon Pix by Cat Power , Double Nickels on the Dime by The Minutemen , Squirrel Bait 's first EP , Sonic Youth 's Sister and Slint 's Spiderland . Shooting in just two cities created logistical problems for album covers originally photographed in cities such as Los Angeles , Minneapolis , and Louisville . For the homage to Double Nickels on the Dime , the band had to track down the exact model of the car featured on the album cover ( a Volkswagen Beetle ) , and Albuquerque happened to have a San Pedro Street , which is featured on a freeway sign on the original cover .
The video was in rotation on M2 , Much Music , and on the program 120 Minutes . The clip was also available for download from Sub Pop 's website in 2002 .
= = Commercial performance and usage = =
The song proved to be a " stealth hit , " helping Oh , Inverted World move over 100 @,@ 000 copies within two years , considered remarkable for an independent label ; Sub Pop had hoped the record would sell 10 @,@ 000 copies . The song was also used on an episode of Scrubs , The O.C. , The Sopranos , Buffy the Vampire Slayer , and the MTV reality series Newlyweds : Nick and Jessica . Mercer was positive in licensing the song to a variety of media , confirming to The New York Times that he received more money from touring and licensing than record sales .
The song was featured in a McDonald 's advert that aired during the 2002 Winter Olympics . Mercer elaborated on the song 's in an interview : " That whole thing was just an ad agency that McDonald ’ s hired to do a “ hip commercial , ” or whatever . So the kid who offered the whole thing up to us was a Shins fan . " Online message boards ( many on Pitchfork.com ) and fans of the Shins criticized the move as excessively commercialist . The band 's hometown alt weekly ran an editorial titled " McShins , New Corporate Suck @-@ ass " in reaction . The ad 's aesthetics were criticized for straying from the company 's typical upbeat themes , and fans of the band found its inclusion subversive , considering a set of the song 's lyrics , which at times refer to " the dirt in your fries . " The royalties Mercer earned from the commercial allowed him to purchase a home . In addition , the band used the money to finance a tour and relocate to Portland , Oregon , where they built a basement studio and recorded their second album , Chutes Too Narrow ( 2003 ) . Mercer nevertheless " recognized the detrimental capacity of linking music with advertising , " remarking , " Imagine us playing " New Slang , " and everyone in the audience going , ' That 's the song from the McDonald 's commercial — I 'm loving it . ' "
" New Slang " achieved a new level of cultural significance when it was prominently featured in the film Garden State ( 2004 ) . In a scene from the film , Sam ( portrayed by Natalie Portman ) tells Andrew Largeman ( played by director Zach Braff ) that the song " will change your life . " The song " changed everything " for the group , leading their first two albums to sell more than twice what they had prior to the film 's debut . " Almost overnight , the Shins became indie @-@ rock icons , " wrote Robert Levine of Spin . The band extended their tour in support of the song and its popularity . " We saw a change in our audience . By the time we were done touring for Chutes Too Narrow , there was this new interest , " said Mercer . " We toured again almost as the soundtrack to that movie , and colleges were all of a sudden interested in us playing on their campuses . We wanted to consummate the new relationship by touring and having a relationship with them . I mean , it just kept growing ! " This additional exposure helped Oh , Inverted World move 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States .
The band performed the song on their debut appearance at Saturday Night Live in 2007 . Mercer was disappointed the show 's producers requested he perform a song at that point six years old , but obliged after hearing stories of artists that argued their setlist and were not invited back .
= = Formats and track listing = =
7 " ( 2001 )
" New Slang " – 3 : 51
" Sphagnum Esplanade " - 4 : 01
CD Promo ( 2004 )
" New Slang " – 3 : 51
= Trey Burke =
Alfonso Clark " Trey " Burke III ( born November 12 , 1992 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Washington Wizards of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was drafted by the Minnesota Timberwolves with the 9th overall pick in the 2013 NBA Draft and immediately traded to the Jazz . He played college basketball for the Michigan Wolverines of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . As a sophomore during the 2012 – 13 season , he earned National Player of the Year and led his team to the championship game of the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Shortly after the tournament he declared his eligibility for the draft .
After being traded to the Jazz , Burke suffered a broken finger late in the preseason . He missed almost a month of the regular season before making his debut . He became a starter in his third game with the team . As a rookie he won the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge and went on to finish third in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award balloting .
As a freshman at Michigan , he earned the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Co @-@ Freshman of the Year award and was named to the 2011 – 12 All @-@ Big Ten 2nd team . He was selected as a 2012 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by CBSSports.com ( second team ) and the Associated Press — sometimes AP — ( honorable mention ) . He led the 2011 – 12 team in points , assists , steals and blocked shots . As a sophomore , Burke was a consensus first team 2013 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American . He also earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . He also earned almost all the possible National Player of the Year awards ( Wooden , AP , NABC , Naismith , Robertson and Sports Illustrated ) as well as the Bob Cousy Award . As a sophomore , he led the Big Ten in assists and set the Michigan single @-@ season assists record .
As a high school basketball player , he was 2011 Ohio Mr. Basketball and a second @-@ team Parade All @-@ American . Additionally , he was a member of the 2009 Ohio High School Athletic Association ( OHSAA ) Division I State Championship team and the 2011 OHSAA Division I State Runner @-@ up as well as an Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) U16 National Championship team in 2009 and a runner @-@ up in the 2008 AAU U15 National tournament .
= = Early life = =
Burke is the only son of Ronda and Alfonso Clark " Benji " Burke ll . He has an older sister Amber and a younger sister Amani . His parents met while Benji attended Northwest Missouri State University , where he played Division II basketball after spending time at Northeastern Oklahoma A & M College . His mother had just completed her tenure at Ruskin High School .
By the age of five , Burke 's local youth basketball league had to change its rules so that he would not keep stealing the ball from the other team . As a result of his prowess , he was not allowed over half court when the other team had the ball . He became Jared Sullinger 's best friend in fourth grade , but when his mother was transferred to Atlanta in sixth grade they were separated . The reassignment only lasted one year , however . At the age of nine , Burke 's father made him do everything with his left hand , including brushing his teeth and eating dinner , in order to develop his ambidexterity .
= = High school career = =
Satch Sullinger , father of current Boston Celtics forward Jared Sullinger , was the coach at Northland High School , while Burke 's father was an assistant coach at Eastmoor Academy . Burke chose Northland because he felt he had a better chance to succeed due to their personnel . Burke gave a verbal commitment to Penn State in 2009 after receiving his first Big Ten Conference offer , but later changed his mind to Michigan .
Burke made the high school varsity team as a freshman , but did not play much . Between his freshman and sophomore years , his summer league team was defeated when Darian Cartharn scored 35 points against them . Cartharn had been trained by Anthony Rhodman , so Burke sought his tutelage . Burke became a regular client of Rhodman 's despite his hectic scholastic , training and competition schedules . He trained regularly with Cartharn twice a day . Because he was a year younger , he was unable to compete with Sullinger in AAU competition , and Sullinger became an AAU teammate of point guard Aaron Craft . By the end of the summer Burke got his first scholarship offer , from Akron . The AAU duo of Sullinger and Craft eventually committed along with two other AAU teammates to Thad Matta 's Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team , who also signed point guard Shannon Scott .
As a sophomore , Burke made 5 of 6 free throws in overtime to help his team defeat Dublin Scioto High School by a 54 – 53 margin in a 2009 OHSAA Division I regional final . In the state championship game , he made one of two free throws to give Northland a 58 – 56 lead with 27 @.@ 6 seconds left in what became a 60 – 58 win over Princeton High School . He also made the pass to set up the final game @-@ winning points , although they were scored from the foul line by Sullinger . During the championship season , Burke averaged 10 @.@ 7 points and 9 @.@ 1 assists , and made only 1 @.@ 7 turnovers per game .
In his junior season , Burke , Sulllinger and another player , J. D. Weatherspoon , were dominant . That season they defeated both of the top two 2008 – 09 year @-@ end teams ( Oak Hill Academy and Findlay Prep ) . Northland was undefeated and ranked # 1 in the nation by ESPN HS before they fell in the 2010 OHSAA regional finals to Lincoln High School . They had also been ranked # 1 by USA Today for several weeks , but they fell out of the top 10 with the season @-@ ending loss . Before his senior season , Burke signed his National Letter of Intent with Michigan in the November signing period . Coming off a 23 – 1 season , after losing Sullinger and Weatherspoon to Ohio State , Northland entered Burke 's senior season ranked # 44 in the nation according to ESPN HS . Following a 26 – 2 season , the team finished # 45 in the ESPN HS poll .
During Burke 's career , Northland was 97 – 5 , including 57 – 0 in City League games . Burke was a 2009 OHSAA Division I State Champion , a Parade All @-@ American ( 2011 , second team ) and 2011 Associated Press Ohio Mr. Basketball . He was ranked as the 15th , 20th and 26th best high school point guard in the class of 2011 by ESPN.com , Scout.com and Rivals.com , respectively .
Most elite level high school basketball players participate in the summer Amateur Athletic Union circuit as a complement to scholastic competition . Burke played in the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) national competitions with All @-@ Ohio Red , coached by Benji Burke , his father . The team won the AAU U16 National Title in 2009 and finished as runner @-@ up in the 2008 AAU U15 National tournament .
= = College career = =
The 2010 – 11 Michigan Wolverines team lost 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season assist leader , point guard Darius Morris , to the Los Angeles Lakers in the 2011 NBA Draft . This left Michigan with a vacant starting point guard position . Burke enrolled at Michigan weighing 172 pounds ( 78 @.@ 0 kg ) .
= = = Freshman year = = =
Burke debuted in the season opener for the 2011 – 12 Wolverines against Ferris State on November 11 with 3 points in 18 minutes , but did not start until the second game against Towson on November 14 when he tallied 13 points , 2 rebounds , 2 assists and 2 steals . In the 3 @-@ game November 21 – 23 2011 Maui Invitational Tournament , the team defeated the # 8 Memphis Tigers 73 – 61 , lost to the # 6 Duke Blue Devils 82 – 75 , and defeated the 2011 – 12 Pac @-@ 12 season favorite UCLA Bruins 79 – 63 , which helped the team finish in third place . Burke 's 9 assists against Duke would hold as a season high . Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Week for his 36 points and 18 assists during the tournament on November 28 . On December 10 , 2011 , Michigan defeated Oakland by a 90 – 80 margin . It was the highest point production by Michigan since beating Northern Michigan 97 – 50 on November 14 , 2009 , and it was Michigan 's first game with three 20 @-@ point scorers ( Tim Hardaway , Jr . , Burke and Evan Smotrycz ) since December 11 , 2002 , when they played Bowling Green . For his season @-@ high 20 points and season @-@ high 9 assists , Burke earned his second Freshman of the Week honor on December 12 . On December 29 , against Penn State he posted 13 points , seven assists without a turnover and five rebounds , while on January 1 , 2012 , he added a career @-@ high 27 points on 8 @-@ for @-@ 11 shooting with three rebounds and three assists against Minnesota to earn the conference recognition the following day . On January 2 , Burke earned his first Big Ten Conference Player of the Week honor and his third Freshman of the Week recognition for his 40 @-@ point week in Michigan 's two conference openers . He earned his fourth Freshman of the Week recognition on January 23 for his performances against Michigan State and Arkansas . On February 20 , he earned his fifth Big Ten Freshman of the Week award for leading the team to its third victory over a top 10 team with 17 points and 5 assists against Ohio State . A week later , he earned his sixth Freshman of the Week award for his performances against Northwestern and Purdue . On March 1 , Michigan won at Illinois for the first time since 1995 . During the game ( Michigan 's 30th of the season ) , Burke broke Gary Grant 's school freshman assists record set over the course of 30 games for the 1984 – 85 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team by pushing his total to 143 on that night . On March 5 he earned his third consecutive and seventh overall Freshman of the Week honor when he averaged 20 points , 3 rebounds and 3 assists in road wins against Illinois and Penn State that clinched a share of the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference regular season championship .
Burke led all Big Ten freshman in scoring ( edging Cody Zeller by a 15 @.@ 8 – 15 @.@ 5 margin or 5 points over the 18 @-@ game conference season ) and assists per conference game . He concluded the season as the team leader in points , assists , blocks ( not blocks per game ) and steals . His three consecutive Big Ten Player of the Week awards to conclude the season coincided with the team winning 6 of its final 7 regular season games . His efforts lead the team to a share of its first Big Ten Conference Championship since the 1985 – 86 team and the best Big Ten record ( 13 – 5 ) since the 1993 – 94 team .
= = = = Watchlists and honors = = = =
In December 2011 , he was named one of nearly 60 candidates for the Bob Cousy Award , which recognizes the Collegiate Point Guard of the Year . On January 4 , Burke was named as one of the twenty Cousy Award Finalists along with fellow Big Ten point guards Aaron Craft and Jordan Taylor .
He earned the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Freshman of the Year award from the Big Ten media ( Cody Zeller earned the Big Ten coaches ' award ) and was named to the 2011 – 12 All @-@ Big Ten 2nd team by the coaches and media as well as named unanimously to the 2011 – 12 Big Ten All @-@ Freshman team . Burke and Zeller were named Co @-@ Big Ten Freshmen of the Year by the Sporting News . He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to its 10 @-@ man 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team . Burke was a second team selection to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 team on March 14 . CBSSports.com used a modified selection process that resulted in Burke being named a second team All @-@ American and a first team Freshman All @-@ American . The process derided the traditional basketball All @-@ American process of nameing the best players and was modelled on the All @-@ Pro or NHL All @-@ Star Team formula of choosing the best players by position . Burke was named an honorable mention Associated Press All @-@ American . Burke became Michigan 's first Associated Press All @-@ American honoree since Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock in 1998 . He became the eighth Michigan freshman to earn team MVP .
= = = = Post season = = = =
In the first game of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Minnesota , Burke set a new career high with 30 points , which established a school record for the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . The overtime game marked Burke 's third 45 @-@ minute appearance . Burke finished with 156 assists , and his single @-@ season total of 1 @,@ 227 minutes ranked second in school history . Burke 's freshman season came to an end when the Wolverine lost to Ohio in their first game in the 2012 NCAA Basketball Tournament .
= = = = 2012 NBA Draft = = = =
Immediately after the season ended , Burke said he was uninterested in declaring for the 2012 NBA Draft . After the season , Burke was recognized as one of the best point guards in the nation by CBSSports.com. He was named a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the website based on the premise that every team needed a " dribbler " . A few days later , however , the realization that the pool of point guards in the 2012 draft was shallow and Burke 's stock was high led to some deliberation for him and his family : " When you have a season as a freshman like he did , the NBA , they like them young , " Trey 's father , Benji Burke said . " They think their ceiling is higher when they 're young . Trey had ... a solid season for a freshman . It 's going to be one of the weaker point guard drafts in years . " On March 21 , Burke submitted himself for evaluation by the NBA Draft Advisory Council , which had encouraged Michigan 's DeShawn Sims and Manny Harris to return to school in 2009 but advised Harris in 2010 and Darius Morris in 2011 to declare for the draft . The deadline for entering the NBA draft was April 29 , but the deadline for withdrawing a declaration and retaining NCAA eligibility was April 10 . The deadline for submitting information to the NBA Advisory Committee for a 72 @-@ hour response was April 3 . As Burke weighed his decision , he became involved in a controversy when the Michigan State Spartans athletic director Mark Hollis communicated with him directly via Twitter . Experts doubted his readiness for the draft , noting that notable NBA draft successes who were between 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 5 @-@ foot @-@ 11 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) over the past 30 years ( Terrell Brandon , Dana Barros , Brevin Knight , Damon Stoudamire , Mark Price and Michael Adams ) waited past their freshman years to enter the draft . Nonetheless , CBS Sports reported on April 4 that Burke would declare for the draft . Burke 's early departure for the NBA would have been the third in a row for a Michigan guard after Manny Harris in 2010 and Darius Morris in 2011 . It would also have been the sixth scholarship @-@ player departure from the team after two players graduated and three transferred . On April 9 , Burke announced he would return to Michigan for his sophomore season instead of staying in the NBA draft . He decided to wait in hopes of becoming a more likely first round selection . During the summer , he spent 5 – 6 hour days with his trainer in Ohio .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
One year after enrolling , Burke had improved his vertical jump 4 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm ) . Entering his sophomore season , he was selected as a third team preseason All @-@ American by Sporting News . CBS Sports listed him as a second team preseason All @-@ American and the 9th best player in its preseason top 100 . CBS also named him the third best point guard ( behind Isaiah Canaan and Phil Pressey ) . ESPN and Sports Illustrated also named him to their preseason All @-@ American second teams . 16 of the 65 Associated Press selectors named Burke to their first team preseason All @-@ American team , which tied him for the fifth spot on the 6 @-@ man AP preseason All @-@ American team . The Big Ten conference media selected him as a preseason All @-@ Big Ten selection . Burke was both a preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selection and a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection . Burke was suspended for the exhibition opener for " violation of team standards . "
In his second game of the season , Burke tied his career @-@ high with 9 assists in a November 12 91 – 54 victory against the IUPUI Jaguars . Burke earned the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament team recognition with 27 points and 10 assists total in the November 21 semifinal and November 23 final against Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively . On November 27 , Burke posted a career @-@ high 11 assists , no turnovers and his first career double @-@ double with 18 points in a 79 – 72 victory against number 18 NC State in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . For averaging 23 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 0 steals with only 1 turnover in the games against Binghamton on December 11 and West Virginia on December 15 , Burke earned Big Ten Player of the Week on December 17 . On December 29 against Central Michigan , Burke posted his second career double @-@ double with 22 points and a career @-@ high tying 11 assists with only 1 turnover . In the subsequent game on January 3 , he posted a game @-@ high 23 points and a career high 4 steals in a 94 – 66 victory in the 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season opener against Northwestern . On January 6 , Burke posted 19 points and a new career high 12 assists against Iowa , to earn his third career double @-@ double . On January 7 , Burke was again recognized as Big Ten Conference Player of the Week . The following day , he earned the Oscar Robertson National Players of the Week from the United States Basketball Writers Association . On January 13 , the team lost to Ohio State ( # 15 AP / # 14 Coaches ) snapping their winning streak . Burke missed a three @-@ point shot with 17 seconds remaining that would have given Michigan a one @-@ point lead . Michigan had been the only remaining unbeaten team and was expected to be ranked # 1 if they had won .
On January 28 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 . Burke ended January as the only Big Ten player to have scored 15 points in each conference game . On February 12 in the rivalry game against ( # 8 AP / # 8 Coaches ) Michigan State , Burke 's 18 points , 4 assists and 3 steals were one of Michigan 's few bright spots in a 23 @-@ point loss . On February 17 against Penn State , Burke posted a season @-@ high 29 points along with 5 assists , 3 rebounds and two steals . As a result of his efforts , Burke won his third player of the week award on February 18 . On February 24 , Michigan defeated Illinois 71 – 58 behind 26 points and 8 assists from Burke . In the game , Burke became the seventh Wolverine sophomore to reach 1000 career points . On March 3 , in the Ann Arbor version of the Michigan – Michigan State rivalry game , Burke had a career @-@ high five steals , including 2 in the final 30 seconds of play , to go along with 21 points and 8 assists to key a 58 – 57 victory . On the March 10 regular season finale against # 2 ranked Indiana with a share of the Big Ten regular season title at stake , Burke missed a last second shot at the rim , that was contested by Cody Zeller . Burke finished the 18 @-@ game 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season schedule as the conference games leader in both scoring average and assist average and finished second in steals per game . He was Michigan 's first conference games scoring leader since Glen Rice in 1989 and Michigan 's first conference games assist leader since Gary Grant in 1988 . Burke was the only player to score 15 points in all 18 conference games .
Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan with Burke first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky who was relegated to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . On March 23 , in the team 's second game of the 2013 Tournament , in a 78 – 53 victory against VCU Burke tallied 7 assists , giving him a single @-@ season total of 236 and surpassing Darius Morris as the school 's single season record holder .
On March 29 against Kansas , Burke recorded his fourth career double @-@ double , with 23 points and 10 assists . He scored all 23 points in the second half and overtime , including a game @-@ tying deep three @-@ pointer with 4 @.@ 2 seconds remaining . Burke describes the 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) shot as " ... probably the biggest shot I ever made and definitely a shot I 'll always remember . " He also scored a layup with his team trailing by 5 points with 21 seconds remaining . Burke scored eight points in the final 1 : 15 of regulation time , as Michigan posted a 14 – 4 run in the final 2 : 52 to force overtime . He also gave the team its first lead since very early in the game in overtime with a three @-@ point shot . It marked the first time that a player had 20 or more points and 10 or more assists in a Sweet Sixteen game since Billy Donovan did so in the 1986 tournament for Rick Pitino 's Providence Friars . In the regional finals on March 31 against the Donovan @-@ coached Florida Gators , Burke contributed 15 points , 7 assists , 3 steals and a career @-@ high 8 rebounds . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . He was joined on the 5 @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team by teammates Mitch McGary and Nik Stauskas . Burke also earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition . Although Burke admits that the team he led , with three starting freshman and no seniors , was young , he said that was no excuse pointing at the 2012 tournament champions , Kentucky , saying " You saw what Kentucky did last year . We felt that being young isn ’ t an excuse for not going far in the tournament . " Burke scored 24 points in the April 8 championship game against Louisville and made the 7 @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates McGary and Albrecht . The turning point of the game was described as a missed call by the referees when as Michigan trailed 67 – 64 with 5 minutes left , Burke pinned Peyton Siva 's dunk attempt with a clean all @-@ ball block , but was called for a foul resulting in two made free throws by Siva . Michigan never got closer than 4 points the rest of the game . Burke finished his sophomore season with 1 @,@ 231 points , surpassing the former school record for sophomore season career point total of 1 @,@ 218 by Chris Webber . His final total of 260 assists established the Michigan career record , and his average of 6 @.@ 7 assists per game led the Big Ten .
= = = = Watchlists = = = =
Burke was one of 85 2013 Cousy Award watch list candidates on December 20 , 2012 . On January 9 , he was one of 4 Big Ten points guards among the 20 Cousy Award finalists . On January 10 , the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Burke , was announced . On January 31 , Burke was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason top 12 list . On February 26 , Burke was one of six Big Ten players named among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award . Burke was among four Big Ten Players on the March 4 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist . On March 9 , Burke was among four Big Ten Players named as top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . On March 24 , Burke was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Award .
In addition to official watchlists , the press ranked Burke atop several midseason National Player of the Year tabulations . For example , in mid @-@ January , The Sporting News called him the Player of the half @-@ year . On both February 7 , February 21 and March 7 , ESPN.com posted straw polls of people who are an " actual voter for at least one of the Wooden , Naismith , Associated Press or Robertson awards " that had Burke in first place . Since the NCAA Tournament had gone to a seeded format in 1985 , no point guard had won any of the four major player of the year awards without leading his team to a # 1 seed . However , neither Jay Williams ( 2002 , Sweet 16 ) nor Jameer Nelson ( 2004 , Elite 8 ) reached the championships as national player of the year and only a few players at any position had done so in the previous 20 years : Ed O 'Bannon ( UCLA , 1995 ) , Shane Battier ( Duke , 2001 ) and Anthony Davis ( Kentucky 2012 ) .
During the season , Burke and Hardaway were constantly referred to as the best backcourt in college basketball . The praise came from a variety of leading media outlets such as FOX Sports , ESPN color commentator Dick Vitale , ESPN journalists such as Miles Simon , Bleacher Report columnist Zach Dirlam ( who included backcourt depth provided by Nik Stauskas ) , as well as lots of local press . Following the schoolyear , Burke was one of 10 finalist for the Sports Illustrated College Athlete of the Year .
= = = = Awards and honors = = = =
Burke was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News on March 11 . On the same day , he also earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Burke as District V Player of the Year on its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . On March 18 , the USBWA named Burke to its All @-@ American first team . On March 19 , Sports Illustrated named Burke to its All @-@ American first team and as its National Player of the Year . On March 20 Burke was named to the CBSSports.com All @-@ American first team . He was named to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making him eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America team . On that same day , he was selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team . On March 28 , he was named first team All @-@ American by the NABC . On April 1 , Burke was named first team All @-@ American by the Associated Press , tying with Otto Porter for the most first @-@ place votes and most total points . On that same day , he was one of four Big Ten players named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award . Burke became the fifth Consensus All @-@ American ( Cazzie Russell , Rickey Green , Gary Grant and Chris Webber ) in school history . On April 4 , Burke won the Bob Cousy Award and was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . On April 5 , Burke won the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award . On April 7 , he won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards , giving him a sweep of the four major player of the year awards . Burke was named team MVP .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =
Burke stated on March 27 that he would almost certainly enter the draft if Michigan won the national title . On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , head coach Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board had until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players have until April 28 to enter the draft . On April 13 , reports surfaced that Burke would announce that he would enter the NBA Draft at a press conference the following day . On April 14 , he entered the 2013 NBA Draft .
Within days of entering the draft , some draft analysts , such as ESPN 's David Thorpe , said that Burke should be the first overall selection in the draft : " Burke might not have the prototypical physical attributes of an NBA superstar , but if the team that lands the No. 1 overall pick in this year 's NBA draft does not have its long @-@ term point guard already in place , it should select Burke without hesitation . " He was expected to be the first point guard taken , especially since Marcus Smart opted out of the draft . By early May , several NBA general managers acknowledged the possibility of Burke going # 1 overall .
Burke 's father became his agent . Burke was one of 60 players invited to the NBA Draft Combine . Before the draft , Burke was expected to post better NBA combine numbers than Chris Paul . At the combine , Burke strengthened his case for the number one overall draft selection with his physical measurements and his athletic results . Burke was invited to sit in the " green room " during the 2013 NBA Draft . Most mock drafts , including Draft Express , NBA Draft.net , The Times @-@ Picayune , Yahoo ! Sports , and Bleacher Report , predicted that Burke would be selected by the New Orleans Pelicans with the 6th overall selection . He was in contact with Orlando who had rights to the second overall draft pick and Phoenix , New Orleans , Sacramento and Detroit , who owned the fifth through eighth selections .
On June 27 , 2013 , Burke was selected 9th in the 2013 NBA Draft by the Minnesota Timberwolves and then traded to the Utah Jazz for the 14th and 21st picks , which were used to select Shabazz Muhammad and Gorgui Dieng . Burke and Hardaway Jr. became the first Michigan duo selected in the first round since Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose in the 1994 NBA Draft . Burke also became the first Wolverine selection in the top 10 of the first round since Jamal Crawford in the 2000 NBA Draft . In addition , Burke joined Indiana University players Victor Oladipo ( 2nd ) and Cody Zeller ( 4th ) to give the Big Ten its first top ten first round trio since the 1990 NBA Draft .
= = = Utah Jazz ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = =
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
On July 6 , Burke signed a maximum rookie contract — 120 percent of the preset salary scale of $ 2 @,@ 032 @,@ 300 — with the Jazz , resulting in a contract worth in $ 4 @,@ 987 @,@ 320 guaranteed salary for his first two seasons , while the Jazz have team option rights for the third and fourth years . This cleared the way for Burke to participate in the July 7 – 12 Orlando Summer League . At point guard , the Jazz had traded Randy Foye and were negotiating with Mo Williams . In the NBA Summer League , Trey Burke shot at 24 percent from the field , including 1 – 19 on three @-@ point shots , while trying to adjust to the pace of the NBA game . He was even benched for a game . Following Burke 's Summer League performance , the Jazz signed John Lucas III .
On October 12 , Burke broke his right index finger below the middle knuckle . He had been a favorite for NBA Rookie of the Year , but was listed as out indefinitely . On October 14 , an October 15 surgery to insert surgical pins was announced . The 2013 – 14 Jazz were scheduled to begin the 2013 – 14 NBA season on October 30 . Although early reports suggested an 8 – 12 week hiatus , ESPN The Magazine 's Chris Broussard reported only a 6 @-@ week absence was expected . On November 11 , Burke 's finger was reevaluated . Without Burke , the Jazz began the season 0 – 8 with Lucas and Jamaal Tinsley playing point guard . On November 12 , the Jazz announced that Burke had only been cleared to begin individual drills , that he would be reevaluated November 25 and that Tinsley had been waived . Jazz head coach Tyrone Corbin reported that by November 13 Burke was dribbling a basketball painfree . On November 20 , Burke announced he would make his career debut against the New Orleans Pelicans for the 1 – 11 Jazz , but he was not expected to start .
Burke debuted for the Jazz on November 20 with 11 points on 5 – 8 shooting in 12 minutes of play . His first basket was a left @-@ handed finish on a drive down the lane and his first assist was a pick and roll with Derrick Favors . Ironically , Burke 's second game was against the 2013 NBA draft 18th overall selection Shane Larkin and the Dallas Mavericks . Point guard Larkin returned to action two days before Burke did after injuring his ankle prior to summer league . In his second game , Burke posted 5 rebounds and 3 assists , but struggled with only 5 points on 8 shots during 20 minutes of play .
Burke started in his third game . He again played for 20 minutes , but only tallied four points and four assists . Burke experienced his first NBA win in his fourth game and second start on November 25 against a Chicago Bulls team that lost former NBA Most Valuable Player Award Derrick Rose for the season due to an injury in their prior game . Burke had 3 assists and established career highs with 14 points and 6 rebounds in 34 minutes of play . On November 30 , he had his first 20 @-@ point scoring performance , leading the Jazz to their first road victory of the season against the Phoenix Suns . With career highs of 21 points and 6 assists , Burke helped the Jazz record their first back @-@ to @-@ back wins of the season on December 2 against the Houston Rockets . Burke then tallied 9 assists on December 4 against the Indiana Pacers . Although Burke had 7 assists on December 7 against Sacramento , he nonetheless posted his first professional double double with a game @-@ high 10 rebounds and 19 points . On December 13 against the Denver Nuggets Burke had 10 points and 10 assists while posting just 1 turnover to log his first assists @-@ points double @-@ double . On December 18 against the Orlando Magic , Burke not only scored a career @-@ high 30 points while posting 8 assists and 7 rebounds , but he also became the first rookie to score 30 points during the 2013 – 14 NBA season . Burke was the first rookie to post at least a 30 @-@ point , 7 @-@ rebound , and 8 @-@ assist game since Blake Griffin on April 13 , 2011 ( 31 / 10 / 10 ) and the first to do so in his first 20 career games since Alvan Adams on November 14 , 1975 ( 35 / 12 / 8 ) . Burke was named Western Conference NBA Rookie of the Month for December , becoming the first Rookie of the Month honoree for the Jazz franchise since Karl Malone in December 1985 . On January 15 , Burke had 11 assists and 17 points against the San Antonio Spurs . On January 17 against Detroit , Burke had 20 points , a career @-@ high 12 assists , 3 rebounds , 2 steals and a block , giving him consecutive point @-@ assist double @-@ doubles . On January 29 , he was named a Rising Stars Challenge participant as part of the 2014 NBA All @-@ Star Game weekend . Burke led all rookies by averaging 6 @.@ 8 assists in January , to earn Western Conference Rookie of the Month . On February 15 , Burke won the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge with partner Damian Lillard . Burke was one of three finalists for February Western Conference Rookie of the Month , but he lost to Nick Calathes . He was again a Western Conference Rookie of the Month finalist in March . On April 6 , he scored 24 points and posted a career @-@ high 15 assists against the Golden State Warriors . On April 16 , he ended the season with a career @-@ high 32 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves . Two days later , he was named Western Conference Rookie of the Month , earning his third such award . Burke finished third in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award balloting behind Carter @-@ Williams and Oladipo . As a result of his third @-@ place finish in the separate NBA All @-@ Rookie Team voting he was a first team NBA All @-@ Rookie selection .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Burke committed to represent the Jazz in 2014 NBA Summer League . On July 18 , he was named to practice with the USA Basketball National Select Team from July 28 – 31 . On October 24 , 2014 , the Jazz exercised their third @-@ year team option on his rookie scale contract , extending the contract through the 2015 – 16 season . On November 14 , Burke made a buzzer beater to give Utah a 102 – 100 victory over the New York Knicks . On January 2 , he tied Antoine Walker 's NBA record for worst single @-@ game three point shooting performance , 0 @-@ for @-@ 11 . Burke scored a season @-@ high 28 points on January 3 against the Minnesota Timberwolves who had traded the 9th overall selection of the 2013 NBA draft to the Utah Jazz that they used to select Burke . On January 22 , the Jazz announced that Burke would not start despite being healthy , making way for Dante Exum 's first start at point guard . This gave Burke the role of scorer and leader of the reserves . With the shakeup , the 14 – 28 Jazz won their next two games against the Milwaukee Bucks and Brooklyn Nets . It was the first time in Burke 's basketball career that he had not been a starter .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
During the 2015 offseason , Burke was named as a participant in the first @-@ ever NBA Africa Game . On October 17 , 2015 , the Jazz exercised their fourth @-@ year team option on his rookie scale contract , extending the contract through the 2016 – 17 season . After Exum endured a torn ACL during the off @-@ season , ruling him out of the 2015 – 16 season , Burke was expected to resume his role as a starter . However , Jazz coach Quin Snyder announced that Raul Neto would be starting over Burke to begin the season . According to NBC Sports ' Kurt Helin , Neto , like Exum , was a better fit to start due to his pass first nature . On November 7 , 2015 , Burke scored 24 points with a career @-@ high six three @-@ pointers off the bench in an 89 – 79 win over the Memphis Grizzlies . On December 31 , he scored a season @-@ high 27 points in a 109 – 96 win over the Portland Trail Blazers .
= = = Washington Wizards ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 7 , 2016 , Burke was traded to the Washington Wizards in exchange for a 2021 second @-@ round pick .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = Personal life = =
Burke 's grandfather starred at East High School in Columbus in the 1950s and his father starred at Eastmoor Academy in the 1980s before going on to set records at Northwest Missouri State University . Three former Northland teammates are current or former Big Ten competitors : Sullinger ( Ohio State ) , J. D. Weatherspoon ( Ohio State ) and Javon Cornley ( Indiana , football ) .
= Economy of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China experienced contrasting periods of economic prosperity and decline . It is normally divided into three periods : Northern Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) , the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) , and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) . The Xin regime , established by the former regent Wang Mang , formed a brief interregnum between lengthy periods of Han rule . Following the fall of Wang Mang , the Han capital was moved eastward from Chang 'an to Luoyang . In consequence , historians have named the succeeding eras Western Han and Eastern Han respectively .
The Han economy was defined by significant population growth , increasing urbanization , unprecedented growth of industry and trade , and government experimentation with nationalization . In this era , the levels of minting and circulation of coin currency grew significantly , forming the foundation of a stable monetary system . The Silk Road facilitated the establishment of trade and tributary exchanges with foreign countries across Eurasia , many of which were previously unknown to the people of ancient China . The imperial capitals of both Western Han ( Chang 'an ) and Eastern Han ( Luoyang ) were among the largest cities in the world at the time , in both population and area . Here , government workshops manufactured furnishings for the palaces of the emperor and produced goods for the common people . The government oversaw the construction of roads and bridges , which facilitated official government business and encouraged commercial growth . Under Han rule , industrialists , wholesalers , and merchants — from minor shopkeepers to wealthy businessmen — could engage in a wide range of enterprises and trade in the domestic , public , and even military spheres .
In the early Han period , rural peasant farmers were largely self @-@ sufficient , but they began to rely heavily upon commercial exchanges with the wealthy landowners of large agricultural estates . Many peasants fell into debt and were forced to become either hired laborers or rent @-@ paying tenants of the land @-@ owning classes . The Han government continually strove to provide economic aid to poor farmers , who had to compete with powerful and influential nobles , landowners , and merchants . The government tried to limit the power of these wealthy groups through heavy taxation and bureaucratic regulation . Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) government even nationalized the iron and salt industries ; however , these government monopolies were repealed during Eastern Han . Increasing government intervention in the private economy during the late 2nd century BC severely weakened the commercial merchant class . This allowed wealthy landowners to increase their power and to ensure the continuation of an agrarian @-@ dominated economy . The wealthy landlords eventually dominated commercial activities as well , maintaining control over the rural peasants — upon whom the government relied for tax revenues — military manpower , and public works labor . By the 180s AD , economic and political crises had caused the Han government to become heavily decentralized , while the great landowners became increasingly independent and powerful in their communities .
= = Monetary system and urbanization = =
= = = Urbanization and population = = =
During the Warring States period ( 403 – 221 BC ) , the development of private commerce , new trade routes , handicraft industries , and a money economy led to the growth of new urban centers . These centers were markedly different from the older cities , which had merely served as power bases for the nobility . The use of a standardized , nationwide currency during the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) facilitated long @-@ distance trade between cities . Many Han cities grew large : the Western Han capital , Chang 'an , had approximately 250 @,@ 000 inhabitants , while the Eastern Han capital , Luoyang , had approximately 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The population of the Han Empire , recorded in the tax census of 2 AD , was 57 @.@ 6 million people in 12 @,@ 366 @,@ 470 households . The majority of commoners who populated the cities lived in extended urban and suburban areas outside the city walls and gatehouses . The total urban area of Western @-@ Han Chang 'an — including the extensions outside the walls — was 36 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) . The total urban area of Eastern @-@ Han Luoyang — including the extensions outside the walls — was 24 @.@ 5 km2 ( 9 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . Both Chang 'an and Luoyang had two prominent marketplaces ; each market had a two @-@ story government office demarcated by a flag and drum at the top . Market officials were charged with maintaining order , collecting commercial taxes , setting standard commodity prices on a monthly basis , and authorizing contracts between merchants and customers .
= = = Variations in currency = = =
During the early Western Han period , founding Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) closed government mints in favor of coin currency produced by the private sector . Gaozu 's widow Empress Lü Zhi , as grand empress dowager , abolished private minting in 186 BC . She first issued a government @-@ minted bronze coin weighing 5 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 20 oz ) , but issued another , weighing 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 053 oz ) , in 182 BC . The change to the lighter coin caused widespread inflation , so in 175 BC Emperor Wen of Han ( r . 180 – 157 BC ) lifted the ban on private minting ; private mints were required to mint coins weighing exactly 2 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 092 oz ) . Private minting was again abolished in 144 BC during the end of Emperor Jing of Han 's ( r . 157 – 141 BC ) reign . Despite this , the 2 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 092 oz ) bronze coin was issued by both central and local commandery governments until 120 BC , when for one year it was replaced with a coin weighing 1 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 067 oz ) . Other currencies were introduced around this time . Token money notes made of embroidered white deerskin , with a face value of 400 @,@ 000 coins , were used to collect government revenues . Emperor Wu also introduced three tin @-@ silver alloy coins worth 3 @,@ 000 , 500 , and 300 bronze coins , respectively ; all of these weighed less than 120 g ( 4 @.@ 2 oz ) .
In 119 BC , the government issued the bronze wushu ( 五銖 ) coin weighing 3 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) ; the coin remained the standard currency in China until the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 AD ) . During the brief interruptive Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) of Wang Mang ( 45 BC – 23 AD ) , the government introduced several new denominations in 7 , 9 , 10 , and 14 AD . These new units ( including bronze knife money , gold , silver , tortoise , and cowry shell currencies ) often had a market price unequal to their weight and debased the value of coin currency . Once the widespread civil wars following Wang 's overthrow abated , the wushu coin was reintroduced by Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) in 40 AD at the instigation of Ma Yuan ( 14 BC – 49 AD ) . Since commandery @-@ issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight , the central government closed all commandery mints in 113 BC and granted the central government 's Superintendent of Waterways and Parks the exclusive right to mint coins . Although the issue of central government coinage was transferred to the office of
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o period . " The calipers date from 9 AD . Han lacquerwares bearing the imperial mark of the emperor have been found far beyond the Han capital regions by modern archaeologists , in places such as Qingzhen ( in Guizhou ) , Pyongyang ( in North Korea ) , and Noin Ula ( in Mongolia ) .
= = = Public construction projects = = =
The Court Architect was charged by central government with overseeing all imperial construction and public works projects , including the building of palaces and tombs .
During the Western Han period , conscripted peasants were organized into work teams consisting of over a hundred thousand laborers . About 150 @,@ 000 conscripted workers , serving in consecutive periods of thirty days each over a total of five years , worked on the massive defensive walls of Chang 'an , which were completed in 190 BC . Conscript laborers were commissioned to build and maintain shrines dedicated to various deities and the spirits of the emperor 's ancestors . Conscripts also maintained canal systems used for agricultural transport and irrigation . Some of the larger Han canal renovation projects included repairs to the Dujiangyan Irrigation System and Zhengguo Canal , built by the previous State of Qin and Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) , respectively .
Nineteen stone inscriptions survive commemorating the building of new roads and bridges by the Eastern Han government . Archaeological excavations at Chang 'an show that wooden bridges were built over the defensive moat and led to the gatehouses . Roadways also needed periodic repairs ; in 63 AD the route leading from the Qilian Mountains , through Hanzhong ( modern southern Shanxi ) , and towards the capital Luoyang underwent major repairs . For this project , 623 trestle bridges , five large bridges , 107 km ( 66 mi ) of new roadways , and 64 buildings — including rest houses , post stations , and relay stations — were built . Those commissioned with military authority also built bridges . For example , during his campaign against the Xiongnu in the Ordos Desert in 127 BC , the general Wei Qing ( d . 106 BC ) had a new bridge built over the Wujia River ( a former tributary of the Yellow River ) in today 's Inner Mongolia . He used this bridge to move troops and supplies for an attack on the Xiongnu , northwest of modern Wuyuan County ( 五原县 ) . Ebrey writes :
There were , of course , numerous reasons for maintaining roads . A unified political system could be maintained only as long as the government had the means of quickly dispatching officials , troops , or messengers as needed . Such a system of transportation , once established , facilitated commerce . At the local level , road and bridge projects seem to have been initiated as much for the sake of traveling merchants as for officials .
= = Domestic trade = =
= = = Traded goods and commodities = = =
Han @-@ era historians like Sima Qian ( 145 – 86 BC ) and Ban Gu ( 32 – 92 AD ) , as well as the later historian Fan Ye ( 398 – 445 AD ) , recorded details of the business transactions and products traded by Han merchants . Evidence of these products has also emerged from archaeological investigations .
The main agricultural staple foods during the Han dynasty were foxtail millet , proso millet , rice ( including glutinous rice ) , wheat , beans , and barley . Other food items included sorghum , taro , mallow , mustard plant , jujube , pear , plum ( including Prunus salicina and Prunus mume ) , peach , apricot , and myrica . Chicken , duck , goose , beef , pork , rabbit , sika deer , turtle dove , owl , Chinese bamboo partridge , magpie , common pheasant , crane , and various types of fish were commonly consumed meats .
The production of silk through sericulture was profitable for both small @-@ time farmers and large @-@ scale producers . Silk clothing was too expensive for the poor , who wore clothes most commonly made of hemp . The rural women usually wove all the family 's clothes .
Common bronze items included domestic wares like oil lamps , incense burners , tables , irons , stoves , and dripping jars . Iron goods were often used for construction and farmwork , such as plowshares , pickaxes , spades , shovels , hoes , sickles , axes , adze , hammers , chisels , knives , saws , scratch awls , and nails . Iron was also used to make swords , halberds , arrowheads and scale armor for the military .
Other common goods included : consumables ( liquor , pickles and sauces , sheep and pigs , grain , yeast for fermentation , bean relish , dried fish and abalone , dates , chestnuts , fruits and vegetables ) , raw materials ( cattle hide , boat timber , bamboo poles , dyes , horns , cinnabar , raw lacquer , jade , amber ) , clothing and clothing materials ( silk fabrics , fine and coarse cloth , sable and foxskin garments , felt and mats , deerskin slippers ) , eating utensils ( bronze utensils and chopsticks , silver , wood and iron vessels , ceramic wares ) , art objects ( lacquerware , ceramics ) , elegant coffins ( made of catalpa , locust , juniper , and lacquered wood ) , vehicles such as light two @-@ wheeled carts and heavy oxcarts , and horses .
In addition to general commodities , Han historians list the goods of specific regions . Common trade items from the region of modern Shanxi included bamboo , timber , grain , and gemstones ; Shandong had fish , salt , liquor , and silk ; Jiangnan had camphor , catalpa , ginger , cinnamon , gold , tin , lead , cinnabar , rhinoceros horn , tortoise shell , pearls , ivory , and leather . Ebrey lists items found in a 2nd @-@ century AD tomb in Wuwei , Gansu ( along the Hexi Corridor fortified by the Great Wall of China ) , evidence that luxury items could be obtained even in remote frontiers .
... fourteen pieces of pottery ; wooden objects such as a horse , pig , ox , chicken , chicken coop , and a single @-@ horned animal ; seventy copper cash ; a crossbow mechanism made of bronze ; a writing brush ; a lacquer @-@ encased inkstone ; a lacquer tray and bowl ; a wooden comb ; a jade ornament ; a pair of hemp shoes ; a straw bag ; the remains of an inscribed banner ; a bamboo hairpin ; two straw satchels ; and a stone lamp .
= = = Estate management and trade = = =
In the early Eastern Han , Emperor Ming passed laws which prohibited those involved in agriculture from simultaneously engaging in mercantile trade . These laws were largely ineffective , since wealthy landowners and landlords made significant profits from the trading of goods produced on their estates . Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 AD ) , a local commandery administrator who later served as an official in the central government 's secretariat , started a winery business in his home to pay for his father 's funeral . His fellow gentry criticized him , claiming the practice was immoral , but not illegal .
Cui Shi 's book Simin yueling ( 四民月令 ) is the only significant surviving work on agriculture from the Eastern Han period , though about 3 @,@ 000 written characters of the Fan Shengzhi shu ( 氾勝之書 ) , dated to the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( 33 – 7 BC ) , still survive . Cui Shi 's book provides descriptions of rituals for ancestor worship , festival and religious holiday celebrations , conduct for family and kinship relations , farmwork , and the schooling season for boys . Cui Shi 's book also provides detailed instructions on which months were the most profitable times to buy and sell certain types of farm @-@ produced goods .
The following table is modelled on Ebrey 's " Estate and Family Management in the Later Han as Seen in the Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People " ( 1974 ) . Ebrey writes : " ... the same item was often bought and sold at different times of the year . The rationale for this is very clearly financial : items were bought when the price was low and sold when it was high . " The specific amounts for each commodity traded are not listed , yet the timing of sale and purchase during the year is the most valuable information for historians . Missing from Cui Shi 's list are important items which his family certainly bought and sold at specific times of the year , such as salt , iron farm tools and kitchen utensils , paper and ink ( the papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun in 105 AD ) , as well as luxury items of silk and exotic foods .
There was mass unemployment among landless peasants during the Eastern Han period . However , archaeological and literary evidence shows that those managing wealthy agricultural estates enjoyed great prosperity and lived comfortably . In addition to Cui 's work , the inventor , mathematician , and court astronomer Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 AD ) wrote a rhapsody describing the rich countryside of Nanyang and its irrigated rice paddies . He mentions grain fields , ponds filled with fish , and estate gardens and orchards filled with bamboo shoots , autumn leeks , winter rape @-@ turnips , perilla , evodia , and purple ginger .
Bricks lining the walls of the tombs of wealthy Han were adorned with carved or molded reliefs and painted murals ; these often showed scenes of the tomb occupant 's estate , halls , wells , carriage sheds , pens for cattle , sheep , chickens , and pigs , stables for horses , and employed workers picking mulberry leaves , plowing crop fields , and hoeing vegetable patches .
Small and medium @-@ sized estates were managed by single families . The father acted as the head manager , the sons as field workers . Wives and daughters worked with female servants to weave cloth and produce silk . Very wealthy landowners who had a large peasant following often used a sharecropping system to similar to the government 's system for state @-@ owned lands . Under this system , peasants would receive land , tools , oxen , and a house in exchange for a third or a half of their crop yield .
= = Foreign trade and tributary exchange = =
Prior to the Han dynasty , markets close to China 's northern border engaged in trade with the nomadic tribes of the eastern Eurasian Steppe . The heqin agreement between the Han and nomadic Xiongnu stipulated the transfer of tributary goods from China . The exact amount of annual tribute sent to the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC is unknown . In 89 BC , when Hulugu Chanyu ( 狐鹿姑 ) ( r . 95 – 85 BC ) requested a renewal of the heqin agreement , he demanded an annual tribute of 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 11 @,@ 000 US bu ) or 10 @,@ 000 dan of wine , 100 @,@ 000 litres ( 2 @,@ 800 US bu ) or 5 @,@ 000 hu of grain , and 10 @,@ 000 bales of silk . These amounts of wine , grain , and silk were considered to be a significant increase from earlier amounts of tribute , which must have been much less . Besides these arrangements , the most common commercial exchanges between the Xiongnu and Han merchants consisted of the trading of Xiongnu horses and furs for Han agricultural foodstuffs and luxury items , most notably silk . By means of the black market , the Xiongnu were also able to smuggle Han iron weapons across the border .
The Han established a diplomatic presence in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia during Emperor Wu of Han 's reign ( 141 – 87 BC ) . Han envoys brought gifts of sheep , gold , and silk to the urban oasis city @-@ states . The Chinese sometimes used gold as currency ; however , silk was favored as a means to pay for food and lodging . Once the Han had subjugated the Tarim Basin and established a Protectorate there , Han envoys in these states were given free food and lodging . These envoys were required to send tributary items of furs , precious stones , and delicacies such as Central Asian raisins to the Han court . The Arsacid court sent exotic animals including lions and ostriches to the Han court , and a king ruling in what is now Burma sent elephants and rhinoceroses . Han diplomatic missions to royal courts across Asia were usually accompanied by trade caravans which earned substantial profits .
The Han court received tributary submission from the Xiongnu leader Huhanye ( 呼韓邪 ) ( r . 58 – 31 BC ) , an important rival to Zhizhi Chanyu ( r . 56 – 36 BC , died at the Battle of Zhizhi ) . Huhanye 's tribute , exchange of hostages , and presence at Chang 'an in the New Year of 51 BC were rewarded with the following gifts from the emperor : 5 kg ( 160 ozt ) of gold , 200 @,@ 000 coins , 77 suits of clothes , 8 @,@ 000 bales of silk fabric , 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) of silk floss , 15 horses , and 680 @,@ 000 l ( 19 @,@ 000 US bu ) of grain . However , this is the only occurrence of rewarded gifts that present materials other than fabric . As shown in the table below , based upon Yü Ying @-@ shih 's " Han Foreign Relations " ( 1986 ) , the gifts consisted only silk after 51 BC , and the Xiongnu leader 's political submission was guaranteed only for as long as the Han could provide him with ever greater amounts of imperial largesse of silk with each succeeding visit to the Chinese court .
The establishment of the Silk Road occurred during Wu 's reign , owing to the efforts of the diplomat Zhang Qian . The increased demand for silk from the Roman Empire stimulated commercial traffic in both Central Asia and across the Indian Ocean . Roman merchants sailed to Barbarikon near present @-@ day Karachi , Pakistan , and Barygaza in present @-@ day Gujarat , India to purchase Chinese silks ( see Roman trade with India ) . When Emperor Wu conquered Nanyue — in what is now Southwest China and northern Vietnam — in 111 BC , overseas trade was extended to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean , as maritime merchants traded Han gold and silk for pearls , jade , lapis lazuli , and glasswares .
The Book of Later Han states that Roman envoys sent by Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161 – 180 AD ) , following a southern route , brought gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) in 166 AD . This Roman mission followed an unsuccessful attempt by the Han diplomat Gan Ying to reach Rome in 97 . Gan Ying was delayed at the Persian Gulf , by Arsacid authorities , and could only make a report on Rome based on oral accounts . Historians Charles Hucker and Rafe de Crespigny both speculate that the Roman mission of 166 AD involved enterprising Roman merchants instead of actual diplomats ; Hucker writes :
Tributary missions from vassal states were commonly allowed to include traders , who thus gained opportunities to do business in the capital markets . No doubt a large proportion of what the Chinese court chose to call tributary missions were in fact shrewdly organized commercial ventures by foreign merchants with no diplomatic status at all . This was unquestionably the case , most notably , with a group of traders who appeared on the south coast in 166 AD claiming to be envoys from the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus .
The main trade route leading into Han China passed first through Kashgar , yet Hellenized Bactria further west was the central node of international trade . By the 1st century AD , Bactria and much of Central Asia and North India were controlled by the Kushan Empire . Silk was the main export item from China to India . Indian merchants brought various goods to China , including tortoise shell , gold , silver , copper , iron , lead , tin , fine cloth , woolen textiles , perfume and incense , crystal sugar , pepper , ginger , salt , coral , pearls , glass items , and Roman wares . Indian merchants brought Roman styrax and frankincense to China , while the Chinese knew bdellium as a fragrant item from Persia , although it was native to West India . The tall Ferghana horses imported from Fergana were highly prized in Han China . The newly introduced exotic Central Asian grapes ( i.e. vitis vinifera ) were used to make grape wine , although the Chinese had rice wine before this . Glass luxury items from ancient Mesopotamia have been found in Chinese tombs and dated to the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 771 – 476 BC ) . Roman glasswares have been found in Chinese tombs dating to the early 1st century BC , with the earliest specimen found at the southern Chinese seaport of Guangzhou . Silverwares from Roman- and Arsacid territories have also been found at Han tomb sites .
= The Cincinnati Kid =
The Cincinnati Kid is a 1965 American drama film . It tells the story of Eric " The Kid " Stoner , a young Depression @-@ era poker player , as he seeks to establish his reputation as the best . This quest leads him to challenge Lancey " The Man " Howard , an older player widely considered to be the best , culminating in a climactic final poker hand between the two .
The script , adapted from Richard Jessup 's novel , was written by Ring Lardner Jr. and Terry Southern ; it was Lardner 's first major studio work since his 1947 blacklisting as one of The Hollywood Ten . The film was directed by Norman Jewison and stars Steve McQueen in the title role and Edward G. Robinson as Howard . Jewison , who replaced original director Sam Peckinpah shortly after filming began , describes The Cincinnati Kid as his " ugly duckling " film . He considers it the film that allowed him to transition from the lighter comedic films he had previously been making and take on more serious films and subjects .
The film garnered mixed reviews from critics on its initial release ; supporting actors Robinson and Joan Blondell earned award nominations for their performances .
= = Plot = =
Eric Stoner , nicknamed " The Kid , " is an up @-@ and @-@ coming poker player in New Orleans . He hears that Lancey Howard , a longtime master of the game nicknamed " The Man , " is in town , and sees it as his chance to finally become the Man himself . The Kid 's friend Shooter cautions him , reminding the Kid how he thought he was the best five @-@ card stud player in the world , until Howard " gutted " him when they played .
Howard arranges a game with wealthy William Jefferson Slade , who secures Shooter 's services as dealer . Howard wins $ 6 @,@ 000 ( over $ 90 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) from Slade over a 30 @-@ hour game , angering Slade and wounding his pride . That night at Slade 's home , he tries to bribe Shooter into cheating in the Kid 's favor when the two players meet . Shooter declines , but Slade calls in Shooter 's markers worth $ 12 @,@ 000 ( over $ 200 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) , and blackmails him by threatening to reveal damaging information about Shooter 's wild wife , Melba . Shooter agonizes over his decision , having spent the last 25 years building a reputation for integrity .
With the Kid 's girl Christian visiting her parents , Melba tries to seduce him , even though she and Christian are close friends . Out of respect for Shooter , he rebuffs her , and spends the day before the game with Christian at her family 's farm .
The big game starts with six players , including Howard and the Kid , with Shooter playing as he deals and Lady Fingers relieving him whenever Shooter needs a break . In the first big confrontation between the Kid and Howard , the Kid is short $ 2 @,@ 000 ( $ 35 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) and Slade steps in to stake him . Several hours later , Howard busts a player called Pig , perhaps with a bluff , and the remaining players take a break . Following the break , Lady Fingers , who has been delighting in needling Howard all evening , takes over as dealer and continues to needle him .
As the game wears on , Shooter only deals , and then after another hand when Howard outplays them , two more players , Yeller and Sokal , drop out . That leaves just Howard and the Kid . After a few unlikely wins , the Kid calls for a break and confronts Shooter , who admits to being forced into cheating by Slade . The Kid insists he can win on his own and tells Shooter to deal straight or he will blow the whistle , destroying Shooter 's reputation . Before the game resumes , Melba succeeds in seducing the Kid . Christian makes a surprise visit to the room , catches them after the fact and walks out on The Kid .
Slade tells the Kid that Shooter will continue to cheat for him and confronts him with a menacing thug , but the Kid flatly refuses . Back at the game , The Kid maneuvers to have Shooter replaced by Lady Fingers , lying that Shooter is ill . He then wins several major pots from Howard , who is visibly losing confidence .
= = = Alternate ending = = =
In some cuts , the film ends with a freeze @-@ frame on Steve McQueen 's face following his penny @-@ pitching loss . Turner Classic Movies and the DVD feature the ending with Christian . Jewison wanted to end the film with the freeze @-@ frame but was overruled by the producer .
The cockfight scene was cut by British censors .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The Cincinnati Kid was filmed on location in New Orleans , Louisiana , a change from the original St. Louis , Missouri , setting of the novel . Spencer Tracy was originally cast as Lancey Howard , but ill health forced him to withdraw from the film . Sam Peckinpah was originally hired to direct ; producer Martin Ransohoff fired him shortly after filming began for " vulgarizing the picture . " Peckinpah 's version was to be shot in black @-@ and @-@ white to give the film a 1930s period feel . Jewison scrapped the black @-@ and @-@ white footage , feeling it was a mistake to shoot a film with the red and black of playing cards in greyscale . He did mute the colors throughout , both to evoke the period and to help pop the card colors when they appeared . Strother Martin claimed he was cast in the film but got fired after Jewison replaced Peckinpah .
The film features a theme song performed by Ray Charles and a brief appearance during the film by The Preservation Hall Jazz Band , with Emma Barrett as vocalist and pianist .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = Reception = =
Upon its 1965 release , The Cincinnati Kid was favorably reviewed by Variety which wrote " Martin Ransohoff has constructed a taut , well @-@ turned @-@ out production . In Steve McQueen he has the near @-@ perfect delineator of the title role . Edward G. Robinson is at his best in some years as the aging , ruthless Lancey Howard .... " Howard Thompson of The New York Times called the film a " respectably packaged drama " that is " strictly for those who relish — or at least play — stud poker " and notes that the " film pales beside The Hustler , to which it bears a striking similarity of theme and characterization . " Time magazine also noted the similarities to The Hustler , saying " nearly everything about Cincinnati Kid is reminiscent " of that film , but falls short in the comparison , in part because of the subject matter :
Director Jewison can put his cards on the table , let his camera cut suspensefully to the players ' intent faces , but a pool shark sinking a tricky shot into a side pocket undoubtedly offers more range . Kid also has a less compelling subplot . Away from the table , McQueen gambles on a blonde ( Tuesday Weld ) and on the integrity of his dealer pal , Karl Malden . Pressure comes from a conventionally vicious Southern gentleman ( Rip Torn ) , whose pleasures include a Negro mistress , a pistol range adjacent to his parlor , and fixed card games . As Malden 's wife , Ann @-@ Margret spells trouble of another kind , though her naive impersonation of a wicked , wicked woman recalls the era when the femme fatale wore breastplates lashed together with spider web . By the time all the bets are in , Cincinnati Kid appears to hold a losing hand .
A retrospective review published by the New York State Writers Institute of the University at Albany also noted the similarities the film had to The Hustler , but in contrast said The Cincinnati Kid 's " stylized realism , dreamlike color , and detailed subplots give [ the film ] a dramatic complexity and self @-@ awareness that The Hustler lacks .
Blondell was singled out for her performance as Lady Fingers with an award from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress . Motion Picture Exhibitor magazine nominated Robinson for its Best Supporting Actor Laurel Award .
= = Home media = =
The Cincinnati Kid was released on Region 1 DVD on May 31 , 2005 . The DVD features a commentary track by director Norman Jewison , commentary on selected scenes from Celebrity Poker Showdown hosts Phil Gordon and Dave Foley and The Cincinnati Kid Plays According to Hoyle , a promotional short featuring magician Jay Ose . A Blu @-@ Ray DVD was released on June 14 , 2011 .
With the release of the film on DVD , one modern reviewer said the film " is as hip now as when it was released in 1965 " and another cited McQueen as " effortlessly watchable as the Kid , providing a masterclass in the power of natural screen presence over dialogue " and Robinson " simply fantastic . " Poker author Michael Wiesenberg calls The Cincinnati Kid " [ o ] ne of the greatest poker movies of all time . "
= Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl =
Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl ( かしまし ～ ガール ・ ミーツ ・ ガール ～ , Kashimashi ~ Gāru Mītsu Gāru ~ ) is a Japanese yuri manga series written by Satoru Akahori and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura . The manga was originally serialized in Dengeki Daioh between the July 2004 and May 2007 issues , and later published in five bound volumes by MediaWorks from January 2005 to May 2007 . The story focuses on Hazumu Osaragi , a normal , albeit effeminate high school boy who is killed when an alien spaceship crash lands on him , only to be restored to health as a girl . This results in a same @-@ sex love triangle that Hazumu finds herself in with two of her best female friends .
A single light novel written by Mako Komao and illustrated by the manga 's artist was published by MediaWorks under their Dengeki Bunko imprint in January 2006 . The manga series was adapted into a twelve @-@ episode anime television series plus a single original video animation ( OVA ) sequel by Studio Hibari . The anime aired in Japan on TV Tokyo between January and March 2006 ; the OVA was released in October 2006 . A visual novel was created based on the series for the PlayStation 2 and was released in March 2006 . Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga series for English @-@ language publication in North America and released the five volumes between December 2006 and March 2008 . Media Blasters licensed the anime series , including the OVA , and released three DVD volumes between June and October 2007 with English @-@ subtitles . Media Blasters re @-@ released the anime with an English dub .
The manga has been given positive reviews by the popular anime and manga magazine Newtype USA , and at the online resources Anime News Network and IGN . The first manga volume was Newtype USA 's Book of the Month for December 2006 , and Newtype 's noted Seven Seas Entertainment 's " fan @-@ focused " translation without an effort to localize the humor for the mainstream American market . In July 2007 , Kashimashi was Seven Seas Entertainment 's best @-@ selling title . The anime has been likened to Rumiko Takahashi 's Ranma ½ , though only as far as the mutual transgender themes . Critics of the anime praised the down to earth characters , and the generally great animation quality with its soft and detailed art style .
= = Plot = =
At the start of Kashimashi , a young high school boy named Hazumu Osaragi declares his love to classmate and close friend Yasuna Kamiizumi , but she quickly rejects him . Dejected , Hazumu climbs Mt . Kashima and is killed when an alien spacecraft accidentally crash lands on him . To rectify this , the alien in the ship named Hitoshi Sora brings Hazumu back to life , but inadvertently regenerates him as a female right down to the DNA level . This change in Hazumu serves as the catalyst for the development of character interactions for the remainder of the series .
After Hazumu returns to school , Yasuna unexpectedly professes her love for Hazumu , but this serves only to confuse Hazumu as she adjusts to her new life as a girl . Yasuna , a rather feminine girl , has a unique affliction which makes her incapable of seeing males , and instead sees males as covered in a gray , hazy blur . Hazumu 's childhood friend Tomari Kurusu , an athletic girl and tomboy , finds Hazumu 's change difficult to cope with . Tomari starts to realize her own romantic feelings for Hazumu as Yasuna starts becoming closer to Hazumu , especially after Tomari witnesses Hazumu and Yasuna kissing one day after school . A conflict arises between Yasuna and Tomari who fight for Hazumu 's affection while she is unable to choose between them . This results in a love triangle emerging between the three female main characters . Hazumu 's best male friend Asuta Soro also starts having romantic feelings for Hazumu , but tries his best to repress them . Tomari 's good friend Ayuki Mari , an intelligent girl interested in the sciences , continuously observes the ongoing development of the love triangle while keeping a stance of watching from afar .
The very stoic Hitoshi originally came to Earth in order to study human emotions , especially those related to love , in an attempt to save his species from extinction . His species has long @-@ since given up their emotions resulting in a loss of their sexual urges and thus a continuously dwindling population . Hitoshi moves into Hazumu 's home where he is warmly welcomed by Hazumu 's parents . He brings with him an artificially intelligent gynoid named Jan Pu which serves as the automatic pilot for his spaceship . Jan Pu 's body is modeled after Hazumu 's own female body , and possesses an energetic and childish personality .
While initially citing Hazumu 's change as an accident , Hitoshi later realizes this was an unexpected result of the regeneration process . By the time Hitoshi becomes aware of his mistake , he tells Hazumu and her friends she has only one month left to live . Hitoshi explains to Hazumu 's friends how someone very close to Hazumu has to donate " life grains " to Hazumu to sustain her life . While unaware her friends know about her impending death , Hazumu continues to live her life and comes to fully accept her fate . The day Hazumu is appointed to die , she falls off the school 's roof and Tomari jumps off the roof in an attempt to save her . While in mid @-@ air , Hitoshi interferes by transferring the necessary " life grains " to Hazumu , and both survive the fall . When they later wake up in the infirmary , Hazumu confesses her love to Tomari , effectively choosing her over Yasuna .
The anime ends differently , with no life @-@ threatening situation and Hazumu choosing Yasuna in order to help cure her worsening sight problem as it begins to degrade so she can no longer see girls as well . Afterwards however , Yasuna , who becomes able to see all people again , decides to break up with Hazumu , saying she can stand on her own , and in the follow @-@ up original video animation episode , Hazumu confesses her love to Tomari on Christmas and the two get married in a ceremony held by Hitoshi .
= = Production = =
When it was decided that Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl would begin serialization in MediaWorks ' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh , Satoru Akahori wondered what kind of a message he could send to the readers , and eventually decided he wanted to write a steady message of " true love " . Akahori noted that up to the creation of Kashimashi , the works that he created were far apart from the concept of true love , and much of his previous work involved a lot of ecchi content which Akahori was attempting to avoid in Kashimashi . He wondered if the story would be interesting , and if he could surprise normal readers and fans of his previous works , if he wrote a true love story without much ecchi or fan service .
When thinking on how to write about true love , Akahori considered laughingly that in normal relationships between boys and girls , it eventually tends towards having sex . In order to avoid this , he chose to have a cast of female main characters , but he felt that audiences have experienced this before and that it thus would not be enough . This is when he thought up the idea of changing the main character from a boy to a girl . Akahori knew this would be a problem , since normally changing a person 's gender would cause complications , one of them being that the now @-@ female character would invariably want to return to being male . He knew that there were a few problems that could not be avoided , but he wanted to remove the desire to turn back into a male . For this reason , Akahori devised that the character would not want to turn back into a male if there was the impact of the entire world already having accepted the fact that his gender had changed . To do this , Akahori decided to have the alien who crashed into the character to not only revive the character as a female , but to broadcast this over the entire world , which is what happens at the beginning of Kashimashi . Afterwards , Akahori felt it necessary to expand on the alien 's role in the story . At this point in the development process , Akahori felt he could now begin writing the story .
The title Kashimashi loosely translates as " noisy , boisterous , or clamorous " and is derived from the Japanese phrase , " When three women gather , it is noisy " ( 女三人寄れば姦しい , Onna sannin yoreba kashimashii ) . The main title was originally romanized as Kasimasi in accordance with Kunrei @-@ shiki romanization , but this was later changed in the English adaptations to Kashimashi in accordance with Hepburn romanization .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
The Kashimashi manga is written by Satoru Akahori and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura . The original character designs were created by Sukune Inugami and the school uniform was designed by the company Cospa . It was serialized between the July 2004 and May 2007 issues of the monthly manga magazine Dengeki Daioh , sold between May 21 , 2004 and March 21 , 2007 , respectively . Five bound volumes were released in Japan between January 27 , 2005 and May 26 , 2007 published under MediaWorks ' Dengeki Comics imprint , concluding the series at thirty @-@ five chapters .
The manga was licensed for an English @-@ language release in North America by Seven Seas Entertainment using the revised Hepburn romanization of the title , Kashimashi , unlike the traditional name of Kasimasi . The first volume was released on December 25 , 2006 , with volumes released every three to four months until the fifth volume was published on March 18 , 2008 . Seven Seas re @-@ released the manga in a two @-@ volume omnibus collection of roughly 500 pages each ; volume one was published in June 2009 , followed by volume two in December 2009 . The series is also licensed in French by Ki @-@ oon and in Chinese in Taiwan by Kadokawa Media .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
There have been two Internet radio shows for the Kashimashi series . The first show , entitled Kana , Yui , Yukari 's Kashima Radio ( 佳奈 ・ 由衣 ・ ゆかりのかしましらじお , Kana , Yui , Yukari no Kashima Radio ) , was produced by Beat Net Radio beginning with a pre @-@ broadcast on September 30 , 2005 , and concluding on October 27 , 2006 with fifty @-@ six episodes . As implied in the title , the show was hosted by Kana Ueda , Yui Horie , and Yukari Tamura , who voiced Hazumu , Yasuna , and Tomari in the anime , respectively . Multiple guests appeared on the show such
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that were Rihanna songs , that only I could do , had that little West Indian vibe to it , had that certain tone , a certain sass and a certain energy . " During the promotion of Loud , Rihanna said that much of the music was born out of frustration . She explained : " When you go to a club and have to listen to bad music you revert to the liquor , because you want to have a good time . I hate having to skip a track . I wanted to make an album you can just play . "
= = = Songs = = =
The opening track " S & M " is an up @-@ tempo eurodance song produced by Norwegian producers StarGate and Sandy Vee . The song is reminiscent of Depeche Mode 's 1984 song " Master and Servant " and contains lyrical thoughts of sadomasochism . Andy Kellman of Allmusic regarded " S & M " as a dance @-@ pop song which efficiently balanced " Rihanna 's playful and sinister sides " . " What 's My Name ? " was also produced by StarGate and features guest vocals from Canadian rapper Drake . It is a mid @-@ tempo , electro @-@ R & B song with a back track consisting of heavy reggae . The song also sees Rihanna 's return to the " Island @-@ pop " style of her early career " . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a pop rock song produced by The Runners , and interpolates Avril Lavigne 's 2002 single " I 'm with You " . Mark Savage from BBC News described the song as a funky , loping guitar groove for a night out on the town . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the third song from the album produced by StarGate . It is an up @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song that incorporates elements of eurodance in its production . Brad Wete , a reviewer of Entertainment Weekly , described Rihanna 's vocals as " seductive " and reminiscent of a " stronger , sexier version " of her 2007 single , " Don 't Stop the Music " .
" California King Bed " is a rock power ballad ; Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media compared it to the Aerosmith song , " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " . The Shama Joseph produced " Man Down " is a reggae song with an electro rhythm , in which Rihanna sings in a West Indian accent . " Raining Men " is a hip @-@ hop song , which features rap vocals from Trinidadian rapper Nicki Minaj . Rihanna described the song as a fun song that differs from the original , referring to the 1979 single by The Weather Girls with similar title " It 's Raining Men " . " Complicated " was produced by Tricky Stewart and Ester Dean . Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly said " Even while telling a recalcitrant man how hard he is to love , she [ Rihanna ] sounds almost buoyant , her newly expanded vocals eager to scale the song 's high @-@ altitude house beat " . The final track is the sequel to Rihanna 's duet with Eminem , " Love the Way You Lie " . " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , which was produced by Alex da Kid , features Rihanna as the protagonist and lead vocalist , viewing aspects of a relationship from a female perspective , unlike the original , which featured Eminem as lead vocalist and was from a male perspective .
= = Singles = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " was released as the album 's lead single on September 10 , 2010 . The song was sent to US mainstream and rhythmic radio on September 21 , 2010 . It received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its chorus and thunderous dance beats . The song reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , in the UK , Canada , Australia , Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Ireland , Israel , Italy , New Zealand , Norway and Slovakia , becoming one of her best charting songs to date . At the 53rd Grammy Awards , held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on February 13 , 2011 , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the award for Best Dance Recording .
" What 's My Name ? " , which features guest vocals by Canadian recording artist Drake , was released as the album 's second single ; it was sent to US mainstream and rhythmic radios on September 21 , 2010 . Music critics praised the song as some of Rihanna 's best vocal work to date , noting the romantic nature of the song and its sexual tones . The song peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , giving Rihanna her eighth number @-@ one on the chart , while " Only Girl ( In the World ) " became her ninth number @-@ one song two weeks after " What 's My Name ? " . It reached number one in the United Kingdom and became Rihanna 's fifth UK number one single and Drake 's first .
The collaboration with Nicki Minaj , " Raining Men " , was sent to urban radio on December 7 , 2010 as an urban radio single and third track from Loud as a single in the US . It peaked at number 48 on the US Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Raining Men " received mixed reviews from critics who praised the chemistry between Rihanna and Minaj but criticised the song for failing to create anything new or original . " S & M " , the album 's fourth US single and third international single , was solicited to US mainstream radio on January 25 , 2011 . Reception of " S & M " was mixed ; some reviewers criticized the overt use of sexual lyrics while others noted it as a stand @-@ out track from Loud . A remix of the song which features guest vocals by Britney Spears , was digitally released on April 11 , 2011 . " S & M " reached the top ten in twenty @-@ four countries and peaked at number one in Australia , Canada and the United States .
" Man Down " was released as the fifth international single in some European countries in July 2011 . It received positive reviews from critics , who called it a return to Rihanna 's Caribbean @-@ tinged rhythm . " Man Down " reached a peak of 59 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . In France , it peaked at number one for five consecutive weeks . " California King Bed " was released as the fourth international single on May 13 , 2011 , and as the sixth US single . It was sent to US Hot / Modern adult contemporary radio on May 16 , 2011 . The song peaked at number four in Australia and New Zealand and number eight on the UK Singles Chart . On July 24 , 2011 , Rihanna announced the release of " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " as the seventh single from the album . The single was released to US mainstream and rhythmic radio on August 2 , 2011 . The song peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and number twelve on the US Pop Songs chart .
= = Release and promotion = =
Loud was released on November 12 , 2010 , in four separate editions : a standard edition ; a deluxe edition , packaged in a digipak exclusively for the US and Australia , that features a 30 @-@ minute documentary Making of Loud DVD ( Directed by Brian and Brad Palmer ) ; a Couture Edition containing the deluxe edition of Loud with a deluxe cover art lithograph , a box set with enhanced clear couture cover and a full @-@ size photo book . An Ultra Couture Edition was also produced , containing a copy of the Deluxe Edition of Loud signed by Rihanna , the MP3 download of Loud on street date and all the features of the Couture Edition . The Ultra Couture Edition sold out and is no longer available neither on Amazon or her online store . An explicit version of Loud was also released and features a Parental Advisory label due to some of the lyrical content . The Japanese edition of the album was released with two additional remixes of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . The piano version of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " was only available with the iTunes edition of the album . However , the version which features Eminem was available for purchase .
= = = Live performances = = =
Rihanna embarked on a promotional tour across Europe and North America to promote the album 's release . The singer performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , the lead single , live for the first time in North America on Saturday Night Live on October 30 , 2010 , and debuted the second single , " What 's My Name ? " , later on in the show . The following day in the United Kingdom , Rihanna sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on series seven of The X Factor . Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2010 in Madrid , Spain , on November 7 , 2010 , on The X Factor in Italy on November 9 , 2010 , and on Le Grand Journal in France on November 10 , 2010 . On November 11 , 2010 , Rihanna appeared on a pre @-@ recorded edition of The Graham Norton Show in the United Kingdom , where she gave an interview and sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . On November 15 , before the album 's US release , Rihanna reprised her performance of " What 's My Name ? " for MTV 's The Seven , live from Times Square , New York City . The next day , Rihanna performed " What 's My Name ? " on the Late Show with David Letterman . On November 17 , 2010 , Rihanna was interviewed and performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " on Good Morning America . Rihanna performed a medley of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 , where she won the award for Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Rihanna opened with an a cappella version of " Love The Way You Lie Part II " .
On December 11 , 2010 , Rihanna returned to series seven of the UK 's The X Factor , to perform " Unfaithful " with finalist Matt Cardle , as well as a solo of " What 's My Name ? " . The finale was watched by fifteen million viewers ; however , the episode generated thousands of complaints about Rihanna 's choice of outfit and sexual performance . Rihanna performed the song with Drake for the first time at the 53rd Grammy Awards on February 13 , 2011 . Rihanna also appeared at the 2011 BRIT Awards on February 15 , 2011 , where she performed " S & M " for the first time , as a medley with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " . Rihanna was requested to " tone down " her performance of " S & M " by the show 's producers , and she performed only one verse and chorus in between " Only Girl ( In The World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " . The BRIT Awards corporation wanted to avoid receiving complaints similar to those received by the X @-@ Factor . Rihanna was a special guest at the NBA All Star Game on February 20 , 2011 , where she performed a medley of " Umbrella " , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " Rude Boy " , " What 's My Name ? " ( with Drake ) and " All of the Lights " ( with Kanye West ) .
Rihanna performed " California King Bed " in the style of a country music song for the first time with Sugarland front woman Jennifer Nettles , during the ACM Awards held by the Academy of Country Music on April 3 , 2011 . She was a guest on the tenth season of the US series American Idol on April 14 , 2011 , where she performed " California King Bed " . Rihanna promoted " California King Bed " with performances in Milan , Paris and Hamburg , because she was appointed ambassador for Nivea skincare . Rihanna opened the Billboard Music Awards on May 22 , 2011 , performing the remix of " S & M " with Britney Spears at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . The performance attracted complaints about the overt sexual nature of the broadcast on a publicly owned television channel . Rihanna performed on NBC 's Today show on May 27 , 2011 as part of a Summer Concert Series . She performed " S & M " , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " California King Bed " .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote Loud , Rihanna embarked on her fourth concert tour , the Loud Tour , in June 2011 , having announced it on February 9 , 2011 . The tour comprised 101 show dates , 32 in North America , 1 in Central America , 4 in South America and 64 in Europe . Tickets sold well in the United Kingdom and some additional shows were added . She performed ten shows at London 's O2 Arena . Rihanna was interviewed by Ryan Seacrest on American Idol , and talked about the design of the stage , stating : " We 've just designed the stage and we have a section that we are building ... where the fans can actually be in the show and in the stage and be closer than they 've ever been . It 's real VIP . " The North American leg of the tour began on June 4 , 2011 in Baltimore , United States . Originally , J. Cole and Cee Lo Green were planned as supporting acts for the North American leg . However , Green left the tour , citing schedule conflicts . Rappers Drake , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z made guest appearances on some dates to perform their collaborations " What 's My Name ? " , " Run This Town " , " All of the Lights " and " Umbrella " , respectively . The tour was received positively by critics , with some calling it " Rihanna 's best tour yet " . Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun commented that " the two @-@ hour , larger @-@ than @-@ life show lived up to the billing . " Jon Brean of the Minneapolis " Star Tribune " remarked , " The Barbadian singer is more visually and vocally dynamic than she has ever been before . "
= = Critical reception = =
Loud received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 given to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 67 , based on 22 reviews . Jon Pareles of The New York Times perceived a " hermetic , cool calculation " on the album , writing that it " works the pop gizmos as neatly as any album this year , maintaining the Rihanna brand " . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt commented that Loud shows Rihanna " undefeated by her worst circumstances — and finding redemption in exactly the kind of pop nirvana that made her famous in the first place " . James Reed of The Boston Globe called the album " an unabashed return to where Rihanna belongs : the dance floor " and stated : " As if liberating herself from the depths , she 's a force on these 11 songs " . Stacey Anderson of Spin commended Rihanna 's " full , healthy claim to her sexuality " and wrote that the album " offers a confident female ethos on par with the best of Shakira or Beyoncé " .
Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club commended Rihanna for elevating the album 's generic sound , writing that she " does sound invigorated , delivering charismatic vocal performances of material that doesn ’ t always warrant them " . Emily Mackay of NME felt that its " experiments feel more organic , its tone better paced " than Rated R. Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that " the celebratory atmosphere of Rihanna 's sassy new jams are seasoned with some of the darker flavors from ' Rated R ' " . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal complimented the album 's " effervescent pop " and stated : " Her laissez @-@ faire attitude toward hit @-@ making on Loud can result in too @-@ safe moves or semi @-@ experiments that come off surprisingly great " . Ed Power of Hot Press complimented its " unabashedly subtext @-@ free " songs and found its hooks " way beyond addictive . "
In a mixed review , Andy Kellman of Allmusic found the album 's material " slapdash " and " uneven " , and called it " more an unfocused assortment of poor @-@ to @-@ solid songs than a unified set " . Andy Gill of The Independent felt that " the more interesting tracks are those with less salacious demands on her vulnerability " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani commended that " the subtle West Indian flavor with which Rihanna and company have smartly imbued " most of the album , although he noted some flaws in its production and wrote that " Rihanna has always had trouble fitting into one genre ... and for better or worse , Rihanna continues to stylistically branch out on Loud " . Hugh Montgomery of The Observer commented that " sonically , it 's fairly unremarkable ... but its strident buoyancy is difficult to resist " .
" Only Girl ( in the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards and the album was nominated for three awards at the 54th Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year , Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " What 's My Name ? " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Loud debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 207 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , giving Rihanna her highest first @-@ week sales in the US at that time . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . In its second week , the album dropped to number six on the Billboard 200 and sold 141 @,@ 000 copies . By its thirteenth week , the album returned to its peak at number three and sold 62 @,@ 000 copies . However , in its fourteenth week , the album dipped to number ten on the Billboard 200 with 45 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its fifteenth week , Loud rose to number eight , selling an additional 33 @,@ 000 copies in the US . By July 3 , 2011 , Loud was the eleventh @-@ best selling album of 2011 in the United States , selling 598 @,@ 000 copies between January 1 , 2011 and July 3 , 2011 . On January 25 , 2011 , Loud was certified platinum in the United States , denoting shipments of over one million . Loud ranked as Billboard magazine 's ninth @-@ most successful album of 2011 on their year @-@ end charts . As of June 2015 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States .
Loud was also a commercial success outside of the United States . In Canada , it debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 27 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Loud sold more than 80 @,@ 000 units in Canada , achieving platinum status by the first week of December 2010 . By September 8 , 2011 , Loud had sold more than 240 @,@ 000 copies in Canada . In France , the album debuted at number three with first @-@ week sales of 17 @,@ 304 copies . By its sixth week on the French charts , Loud achieved platinum status , reaching the 100 @,@ 000 copies mark . In France , the album has sold 355 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 . In its second week on the Australian Albums Chart , Loud was certified platinum for shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In Italy , the album reached number eleven . It became Rihanna 's highest charting album there until her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) surpassed the record . Loud was her third consecutive number @-@ one album in Switzerland . Loud debuted at number two on the German Albums Chart .
The album debuted at number two in the United Kingdom , with first week sales of 91 @,@ 000 units . In its fifth week , the album sold 306 @,@ 107 copies in the United Kingdom , giving the singer her first platinum @-@ selling week in her career . In its seventh week on the chart , Loud reached number one , giving Rihanna her second UK number @-@ one album . After seven weeks of sales , the album became the fourth best @-@ selling album of 2010 in the UK . The album had sold 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom by September 4 , 2011 . By December 16 , 2011 , Loud was certified six @-@ times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , marking shipments of 1 @.@ 8 million copies to retailers . It was the biggest selling R & B album of 2011 in the UK . As of August 2012 , Loud is the fifth biggest selling digital album of all time . As of March 2015 , Loud is the 45th best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . As of November 2011 , the album has sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
" Cheers ( Drink to That ) " contains samples from " I 'm with You " ( 2002 ) , as performed by Avril Lavigne and written by Lavigne , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards and Lauren Christy .
= = Release formats = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Loud adapted from Allmusic .
Musicians
Production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Shackleton – Rowett Expedition =
The Shackleton – Rowett Expedition ( 1921 – 22 ) was Sir Ernest Shackleton 's last Antarctic project , and the final episode in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . The venture , financed by John Quiller Rowett , is sometimes referred to as the Quest Expedition after its ship Quest , a converted Norwegian sealer . Shackleton had originally intended to go to the Arctic and explore the Beaufort Sea , but this plan was abandoned when the Canadian government withheld financial support ; Shackleton thereupon switched his attention to the Antarctic . Quest , smaller than any recent Antarctic exploration vessel , soon proved inadequate for its task , and progress south was delayed by its poor sailing performance and by frequent engine problems . Before the expedition 's work could properly begin , Shackleton died on board the ship , just after its arrival at the sub @-@ Antarctic island of South Georgia .
The major part of the subsequent attenuated expedition was a three @-@ month cruise to the eastern Antarctic , under the leadership of the party 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Frank Wild . The shortcomings of Quest were soon in evidence : slow speed , heavy fuel consumption , a tendency to roll in heavy seas , and a steady leak . The ship was unable to proceed further than longitude 20 ° E , well short of its easterly target , and its engine 's low power was insufficient for it to penetrate southward through the pack ice . Following several fruitless attempts , Wild returned the ship to South Georgia , on the way visiting Elephant Island where he and 21 others had been stranded after the sinking of the ship Endurance , during Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition six years earlier .
Wild had thoughts of a second , more productive season in the ice , and took the ship to Cape Town for a refit . Here , in June 1922 , he received a message from Rowett ordering the ship home to England , so the expedition ended quietly . The Quest voyage is not greatly regarded in the histories of polar exploration , the event that defines it in public memory , overshadowing its other activities , being Shackleton 's untimely death .
= = Background = =
= = = Shackleton after the Endurance = = =
Shackleton returned to Britain from the Endurance expedition in late May 1917 , while World War I was raging . Too old to enlist , he nevertheless sought an active role in the war effort , and eventually departed for Murmansk with the temporary army rank of major , as part of a military mission to North Russia . Shackleton expressed his dissatisfaction with this role in letters home : " I feel I am no use to anyone unless I am outfacing the storm in wild lands . " He returned to England in February 1919 and began plans to set up a company that would , with the cooperation of the North Russian Government , develop the natural resources of the region . This scheme came to nothing , as the Red Army took control of that part of Russia during the Russian Civil War ; to provide himself with an income , Shackleton had to rely on the lecture circuit . During the winter of 1919 – 20 he lectured twice a day , six days a week , for five months .
= = = Canadian proposal = = =
Despite the large debts still outstanding from the Endurance expedition , Shackleton 's mind turned to his next exploration venture . He decided to turn away from the Antarctic , go northwards and , as he put it , " fill in this great blank now called the Beaufort Sea " . This area of the Arctic ocean , to the north of Alaska and west of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , was largely unexplored ; Shackleton believed , on the basis of tidal records , that it contained large undiscovered land masses that " would be of the greatest scientific interest to the world , apart from the possible economic value " . He also hoped to reach the northern " pole of inaccessibility " , the most remote point in the Arctic regions . In March 1920 , his plans received the general approval of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) and were supported by the Canadian government . On this basis Shackleton set about acquiring the necessary funding , which he estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @.@ 6 million , 2008 value ) . Later that year , Shackleton met by chance an old school @-@ friend , John Quiller Rowett , who agreed to put up a nucleus of cash to enable Shackleton to get started . With this money Shackleton was able , in January 1921 , to acquire the wooden Norwegian whaler Foca I , and to proceed with the purchase of other equipment and the hiring of a crew .
In May 1921 the policy of the Canadian government towards the funding of expeditions changed with the advent of a new Prime Minister , Arthur Meighen , who withdrew support from Shackleton 's proposal . Shackleton was required to rethink his plans , and decided to sail for the Antarctic after all . A varied programme of exploration , coastal mapping , mineral prospecting and oceanographic research in southern waters would replace the abandond Beaufort Sea venture .
= = Antarctic preparation = =
= = = Objectives = = =
Even before his problems with the Canadian government , Shackleton had been considering a southern expedition as a possible alternative to the Beaufort Sea . According to the RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill , as early as March 1920 Shackleton had talked about two possible schemes — the Beaufort Sea exploration , and " an oceanographical expedition with the object of visiting all the little @-@ known islands of the South Atlantic and South Pacific " . By June 1921 , it had expanded to include a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent and the mapping of around 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) of uncharted coastline . It would also encompass a search for " lost " or wrongly charted sub @-@ Antarctic islands ( including Dougherty Island , Tuanaki , and the Nimrod Islands ) , investigations of possible mineral resources to be exploited in these rediscovered lands , and an ambitious scientific research program . This was to include soundings around Gough Island to investigate an alleged " underwater continental connection between Africa and America . " Shackleton biographer Margery Fisher calls the plan " diffuse " , and " far too comprehensive for one small body of men to tackle within two years " . According to biographer Roland Huntford the expedition had no obvious goal and was " only too clearly a piece of improvisation , a pretext [ for Shackleton ] to get away " .
Fisher describes the expedition as representing " the dividing line between what has become known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration and the Mechanical Age " . Shackleton called the voyage " pioneering " , referring specifically to the aeroplane that was taken ( but ultimately not used ) on the expedition . In fact this was only one of the technological " firsts " that marked the venture ; there were gadgets in profusion . The ship 's crow 's nest was electrically heated ; there were heated overalls for the lookouts , a wireless set , and a device called an odograph which could trace and chart the ship 's route automatically . Photography was to figure prominently , and " a large and expensive outfit of cameras , cinematographical machines and general photographic appliances [ was ] acquired " . Among the oceanographical research equipment was a Lucas deep @-@ sea sounding machine .
This ample provision arose from the sponsorship of Rowett , who had extended his original gift of seed money to an undertaking to cover the costs of the entire expedition . The extent of Rowett 's contribution is not recorded ; in an ( undated ) prospectus for the southern expedition Shackleton had estimated the total cost as " about £ 100 @,@ 000 " . Whatever the total , Rowett appears to have funded the lion 's share , enabling Frank Wild to record later that , unique among Antarctic expeditions of the era , this one returned home without any outstanding debt . According to Wild , without Rowett 's actions the expedition would have been impossible : " His generous attitude is the more remarkable in that he knew there was no prospect of financial return , and what he did was in the interest of scientific research and from friendship with Shackleton . " His only recognition was the attachment of his name to the title of the expedition . Rowett was , according to Huntford , " a stodgy , prosaic looking " businessman , who was , in 1920 , a co @-@ founder and principal contributor to an animal nutrition research institute in Aberdeen known as the Rowett Research Institute ( now part of the University of Aberdeen ) . He had also endowed dental research work at the Middlesex Hospital .
= = = Quest = = =
In March 1921 , Shackleton renamed his expedition vessel Quest . She was a small ship , 125 tons according to Huntford , with sail and auxiliary engine power purportedly capable of making eight knots , but in fact rarely making more than five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . Huntford describes her as " straight @-@ stemmed " , with an awkward square rig , and a tendency to wallow in heavy seas . Fisher reports that she was built in 1917 , weighed 204 tons , and had a large and spacious deck . Although she had some modern facilities , such as electric lights in the cabins , she was unsuited to long oceanic voyages ; Shackleton , on the first day out , observed that " in no way are we shipshape or fitted to ignore even the mildest storm " . Leif Mills , in his biography of Frank Wild , says that had the ship been taken to the Beaufort Sea in accordance with Shackleton 's original plans , she would probably have been crushed in the Arctic pack ice . On her voyage south she suffered frequent damage and breakdowns , requiring repairs at every port of call .
= = = Personnel = = =
The Times newspaper had reported that Shackleton planned to take a dozen men to the Arctic , " chiefly those who had accompanied him on earlier expeditions " . In actuality , Quest left London for the south with 20 men , of whom eight were old Endurance comrades ; another , James Dell , was a veteran from the Discovery , 20 years previously . Some of the Endurance hands had not been fully paid from the earlier expedition , but were prepared to join Shackleton again out of personal loyalty .
Frank Wild , on his fourth trip with Shackleton , filled the second @-@ in @-@ command post as he had on the Endurance expedition . Frank Worsley , Endurance 's former captain , became captain of Quest . Other old comrades included the two surgeons , Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy , the meteorologist Leonard Hussey , the engineer Alexander Kerr , seaman Tom McLeod and cook Charles Green . Shackleton had assumed that Tom Crean would sign up , and had assigned him duties " in charge of boats " , but Crean had retired from the navy to start a family back home in County Kerry , and declined Shackleton 's invitation .
Of the newcomers , Roderick Carr , a New Zealand @-@ born Royal Air Force pilot , was hired to fly the expedition 's aeroplane , an Avro " Antarctic " Baby : an Avro Baby modified as a seaplane with an 80 @-@ horsepower engine . He had met Shackleton in North Russia , and had recently been serving as Chief of Staff to the Lithuanian air force . In fact , the aeroplane was not used during the expedition due to some missing parts , and Carr therefore assisted with the scientific work . The scientific staff included Australian biologist Hubert Wilkins , who had Arctic experience , and the Canadian geologist Vibert Douglas , who had initially signed for the aborted Beaufort Sea expedition . The recruits who caught the most public attention were two members of the Boy Scout movement , Norman Mooney and James Marr . As the result of publicity organised by the Daily Mail newspaper , these two had been selected to join the expedition out of around 1 @,@ 700 Scouts who had applied to go . Mooney , who was from the Orkney Islands , soon dropped out , leaving the ship at Madeira after suffering chronic seasickness . Marr , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old from Aberdeen , remained with the expedition throughout , winning plaudits from Shackleton and Wild for his application to the tasks at hand . After being put to work in the ship 's coal bunkers , according to Wild , Marr " came out of the trial very well , showing an amount of hardihood and endurance that was remarkable " .
= = Expedition = =
= = = Voyage south = = =
Quest sailed from St Katharine Docks , London , on 17 September 1921 , after inspection by King George V. Large crowds gathered on the banks of the river and on the bridges , to witness the event . Marr wrote in his diary that it was as though " all London had conspired together to bid us a heartening farewell " .
Shackleton 's original intention was to sail down to Cape Town , visiting the main South Atlantic islands on the way . From Cape Town , Quest would head for the Enderby Land coast of Antarctica where , once in the ice , it would explore the coastline towards Coats Land in the Weddell Sea . At the end of the summer season the ship would visit South Georgia before returning to Cape Town for refitting and preparation for the second year 's work . However , the ship 's performance in the early stages of the voyage disrupted this schedule . Serious problems with the engine necessitated a week 's stay in Lisbon , and further stops in Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands . These delays and the slow speed of the ship led Shackleton to decide that it would be necessary to sacrifice entirely the visits to the South Atlantic islands , and instead he turned the ship towards Rio de Janeiro , where the engine could receive a thorough overhaul . Quest reached Rio on 22 November 1921 .
The engine overhaul , and the replacement of the damaged topmast , delayed the party in Rio for four weeks . This meant that it was no longer practical to proceed to Cape Town and then on to the ice . Shackleton decided to sail directly to Grytviken harbour in South Georgia . Equipment and stores that had been sent on to Cape Town would have to be sacrificed , but Shackleton hoped that this shortfall could be made up in South Georgia . He was vague about the direction the expedition should take after South Georgia ; Macklin wrote in his diary , " The Boss says ... quite frankly that he does not know what he will do . "
= = = Death of Shackleton = = =
On 17 December , the day before Quest was due to leave Rio , Shackleton fell ill . He may have suffered a heart attack ; Macklin was called , but Shackleton refused to be examined and declared himself " better " the next morning . On the ensuing voyage to South Georgia he was , from the accounts of his shipmates , unusually subdued and listless . He also began drinking champagne each morning , " to deaden the pain " , contrary to his normal rule of not allowing liquor at sea . A severe storm ruined the expedition 's proposed Christmas celebrations , and a new problem with the engine 's steam furnace slowed progress and caused Shackleton further stress . By 1 January 1922 , the weather had abated : " Rest and calm after the storm – the year has begun kindly for us " , wrote Shackleton in his diary . On 4 January 1922 , South Georgia was sighted , and late that morning Quest anchored at Grytviken .
After visiting the whaling establishment ashore , Shackleton returned to the ship apparently refreshed . He told Frank Wild that they would celebrate their deferred Christmas the next day , and retired to his cabin to write his diary . " The old smell of dead whale permeates everything " , he wrote . " It is a strange and curious place .... A wonderful evening . In the darkening twilight I saw a lone star hover , gem like above the bay . " Later he slept , and was heard snoring by the surgeon McIlroy , who had just finished his watch @-@ keeping duty . Shortly after 2 a.m. on the morning of 5 January , Macklin , who had taken over the watch , was summoned to Shackleton 's cabin . He found Shackleton complaining of back pains and severe facial neuralgia , and asking for a painkilling drug . In a brief discussion , Macklin told his leader that he had been overdoing things , and needed to lead a more regular life . Macklin records Shackleton as saying : " You 're always wanting me to give up things , what is it I ought to give up ? " Macklin replied " Chiefly alcohol , Boss , I don 't think it agrees with you . " Immediately afterwards Shackleton " had a very severe paroxysm , during which he died " .
The death certificate , signed by Macklin , gave the cause as " Atheroma of the Coronary arteries and Heart failure " — in modern terms , coronary thrombosis . Later that morning Wild , now in command , gave the news to the shocked crew , and told them that the expedition would carry on . The body was brought ashore for embalming before its return to England . On 19 January , Leonard Hussey accompanied the body on board a steamer bound for Montevideo , but on arrival there he found a message from Lady Shackleton , requesting that the body be returned to South Georgia for burial . Hussey brought the body back to Grytviken , where on 5 March Shackleton was buried in the Norwegian cemetery . Quest had meantime sailed , so only Hussey of Shackleton 's former comrades was present at the interment . A rough cross marked the grave , until it was replaced by a tall granite column six years later .
= = = Voyage to the ice = = =
As leader , Wild had to arrange where the expedition should now go . Kerr reported that the furnace problem was manageable , and after supplementing stores and equipment with what was available in South Georgia , Wild decided to proceed in general accordance with Shackleton 's original plans . He would take the ship eastward towards Bouvet Island and then beyond , before turning south to enter the ice as close as possible to Enderby Land , and begin coastal survey work there . The expedition would also investigate an " Appearance of Land " in the mouth of the Weddell Sea , reported by Sir James Clark Ross in 1842 , but not seen since . Ultimately , however , progress would depend on weather , ice conditions , and the capabilities of the ship .
Quest left South Georgia on 18 January , heading south @-@ east towards the South Sandwich Islands . There was a heavy swell , such that the overladen ship frequently dipped its gunwales below the waves , filling the waist with water . As they proceeded , Wild wrote that Quest rolled like a log , was leaking and required regular pumping , was heavy on coal consumption , and was slow . All these factors led him , at the end of January , to change his plan . Bouvet Island was abandoned in favour of a more southerly course that brought them to the edge of the pack ice on 4 February .
" Now the little Quest can really try her mettle " , wrote Wild , as the ship entered the loose pack . He noted that Quest was the smallest ship ever to attempt to penetrate the heavy Antarctic ice , and pondered on the fate of others . " Shall we escape , or will the Quest join the ships in Davy Jones 's Locker ? " During the days that followed , as they moved southward in falling temperatures , the ice thickened . On 12 February they reached the most southerly latitude they would attain , 69 ° 17'S , and their most easterly longitude , 17 ° 9'E , well short of Enderby Land . Noting the state of the sea ice and fearing being frozen in , Wild retreated to the north and west . He still hoped to tackle the heavy ice , and if possible to break through to the hidden land beyond . On 18 February he turned the ship south again for another try , but was no more successful than before . On 24 February , after a series of further efforts had failed , Wild set a course westward across the mouth of the Weddell Sea . The ship would try to visit Elephant Island in the South Shetlands , before returning to South Georgia on the onset of winter .
For the most part , the long passage across the Weddell Sea proceeded uneventfully . Wild and Worsley were at odds with each other , according to Macklin , and there was other discontent among the crew which Wild , in his own account , dealt with by the threat of " the most drastic treatment " . On 12 March they reached 64 ° 11'S , 46 ° 4'W , which was the area where Ross had recorded an " Appearance of Land " in 1842 , but there was no sign of it , and a depth sounding of over 2 @,@ 300 fathoms ( 13 @,@ 800 ft , 4 @,@ 200 m . ) indicated no likelihood of land nearby . Between 15 – 21 March Quest was frozen into the ice , and the shortage of coal became a major concern . When the ship broke free , Wild set a course directly for Elephant Island , where he hoped that the coal supply could be supplemented by blubber from the elephant seals there . On 25 March the island was sighted . Wild wanted if possible to revisit Cape Wild , the site of the old Endurance expedition camp , but bad weather prevented this . They viewed the site through binoculars , picking out the old landmarks , before landing on the western coast to hunt for elephant seals . They were able to obtain sufficient blubber to mix with the coal so that , aided by a favourable wind , they reached South Georgia on 6 April .
= = = Return = = =
Quest remained in South Georgia for a month , during which time Shackleton 's old comrades erected a memorial cairn to their former leader , on a headland overlooking the entrance to Grytviken harbour . Quest finally sailed for South Africa on 8 May . The first port of call , however , was Tristan da Cunha , a remote inhabited island to the west and south of Cape Town . After a rough crossing of the " Roaring Forties " , Quest arrived at there on 20 May . On the orders of the Chief Scout , Marr presented a flag to the local Scout Troop .
During the five @-@ day stay , with the help of some of the islanders , the expedition made brief landings on the small Inaccessible Island , 20 miles ( 32 km ) south @-@ west of Tristan , and visited the even smaller Nightingale Island , collecting specimens . Wild 's impressions of the stay at Tristan were not altogether favourable . He noted the appalling squalor and poverty , and said of the population : " They are ignorant , shut off almost completely from the world , horribly limited in outlook . " After the Scout parade and flag presentation , Quest sailed on to Gough Island , 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the east , where members of the expedition took geological and botanical samples . They arrived at Cape Town on 18 June , to be greeted by enthusiastic crowds . The South African Prime Minister , Jan Smuts , gave an official reception for them , and they were honoured at dinners and lunches by local organisations .
They were also met by Rowett 's agent , with the message that they should return to England . Wild wrote : " I should have liked one more season in the Enderby Quadrant ... much might be accomplished by making Cape Town our starting point and setting out early in the season . " However , on 19 July they left Cape Town and sailed northwards . Their final visits were to St Helena , Ascension Island and St Vincent . On 16 September , one year after departure , they arrived at Plymouth Harbour .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Assessment = = =
According to Wild , the expedition ended " quietly " , although his biographer Leif Mills writes of enthusiastic crowds in Plymouth Sound . At the end of his account , Wild expressed the hope that the information they had brought back might " prove of value in helping to solve the great natural problems that still beset us " . These results were summarised in five brief appendices to Wild 's book . The summaries reflected the efforts of the scientific staff to collect data and specimens at each port of call , and the geological and survey work carried out by Carr and Douglas on South Georgia , before the southern voyage . Eventually a few scientific papers and articles were developed from this material , but it was , in Leif Mills 's words , " little enough to show for a year 's work " .
The lack of a clear , defined expedition objective was aggravated by the failure to call at Cape Town on the way south , which meant that important equipment was not picked up . On South Georgia , Wild found little that could make up for this loss — there were no dogs on the island , so no sledging work could be carried out , which eliminated Wild 's preferred choice of a revised expedition goal , an exploration of Graham Land on the Antarctic Peninsula . The death of Shackleton before the beginning of serious work was a heavy blow , and questions were raised about the adequacy of Wild as his replacement . Some reports imply that Wild drank heavily — " practically an alcoholic " , according to Huntford . Mills suggests that even if Shackleton had lived to complete the expedition , it is arguable whether under the circumstances it could have achieved more than it did under Wild 's command .
The non @-@ use of the aeroplane was a disappointment ; Shackleton had hoped to pioneer the use of air transport in Antarctic waters , and had discussed this issue with the British Air Ministry . According to Fisher 's account , essential aeroplane parts had been sent on to Cape Town , but remained uncollected . The long @-@ range , 220 @-@ volt wireless equipment did not work properly , and was abandoned early on . The smaller , 110 @-@ volt equipment worked only within a range of 250 miles ( 400 km ) . During the Tristan visit , Wild attempted to install a new wireless apparatus with the help of a local missionary , but this was also unsuccessful .
= = = End of the Heroic Age = = =
An Antarctic hiatus followed the return of Quest , there being no significant expeditions to the region for seven years . The expeditions that then followed were of a different character from their predecessors , belonging to the " mechanical age " that succeeded the Heroic Age .
At the end of his narrative of the Quest expedition , Wild wrote of the Antarctic : " I think that my work there is done " ; he never returned , closing a career which , like Shackleton 's , had bracketed the entire Heroic Age . None of the other Endurance veterans returned to the Antarctic , although Worsley made one voyage to the Arctic in 1925 . Of the other crew and staff of Quest , the Australian naturalist Hubert Wilkins became a pioneer aviator in both the Arctic and Antarctic , in 1928 flying from Point Barrow , Alaska to Spitsbergen . He also made several unsuccessful attempts during the 1930s , in collaboration with the American adventurer Lincoln Ellsworth , to fly to the South Pole . James Marr , the Boy Scout , also became an Antarctic regular after qualifying as a marine biologist , joining several Australian expeditions in the late 1920s and 1930s . Roderick Carr , the frustrated pilot , became an Air Marshal in the Royal Air Force .
= Tropical Storm Thelma =
Tropical Storm Thelma , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Uring , was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones in Philippine history , killing at least 5 @,@ 081 people . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on November 1 , 1991 , several hundred kilometers north @-@ northeast of Palau , the depression that would become Thelma tracked generally westward . After turning southwestward in response to a cold front , the system intensified into a tropical storm on November 4 as it approached the Philippines . Hours before moving over the Visayas , Thelma attained its peak intensity with estimated ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Despite moving over land , the system weakened only slightly , emerging over the South China Sea on November 6 while retaining gale @-@ force winds . Thelma ultimately succumbed to wind shear and degraded to a tropical depression . On November 8 , the depression made landfall in Southern Vietnam before dissipating hours later .
While passing over the Philippines , Thelma 's interaction with the high terrain of some of the islands resulted in torrential rainfall . Through a process known as orographic lift , much of the Visayas received 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rain ; however , on Leyte Island there was a localized downpour that brought totals to 580 @.@ 5 mm ( 22 @.@ 85 in ) . With the majority of this falling in a three @-@ hour span , an unprecedented flash flood took place on the island . Much of the land had been deforestated or poorly cultivated and was unable to absorb most of the rain , creating a large runoff . This water overwhelmed the Anilao – Malbasag watershed and rushed downstream . Ormoc City , located past where the Anilao and Malbasag rivers converge , suffered the brunt of the flood . In just three hours , the city was devastated with thousands of homes damaged or destroyed . A total of 4 @,@ 922 people were killed in the city alone , with 2 @,@ 300 perishing along the riverbank .
Outside of Ormoc City , 159 people were killed across Leyte and Negros Occidental . Throughout the country , at least 5 @,@ 081 people lost their lives while another 1 @,@ 941 – 3 @,@ 084 were missing and presumed dead . This made Thelma the deadliest tropical cyclone in Philippine history , surpassing a storm in 1867 that killed 1 @,@ 800 , until later surpassed by Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) in 2013 which killed at least 6 @,@ 300 people . A total of 4 @,@ 446 homes were destroyed while another 22 @,@ 229 were damaged . Total losses amounted to $ 27 @.@ 67 million . Initially , it took over 24 hours for word of the disaster to reach officials due to a crippled communication network around Ormoc City . Within a few days , emergency supply centers were established and aid from various agencies under the United Nations and several countries flowed into the country . A total of $ 5 @.@ 8 million worth of grants and materials was provided collectively in the international relief effort .
= = Meteorological history = =
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that they would enjoy far less freedom of religion and far higher taxes in that case . Therefore , resistance was not as strong as it could have been . Pope Pius 's claim that adherents of the Bosnian Church betrayed the kingdom is groundless .
Stephen Tomašević 's half @-@ siblings were taken to Constantinople and converted to Islam . Queen Catherine , his stepmother , left for the Papal States and unsuccessfully campaigned for the restoration of the kingdom ; Bosnia only ceased to be part of the Ottoman Empire in 1908 , 445 years after Stephen Tomašević 's death . His widow , Queen Maria , spent the rest of her life in the Empire .
In 1888 , the Croatian archeologist Ćiro Truhelka excavated bones in a settlement close to Jajce known as Kraljev Grob ( King 's Tomb ) and found the skeleton of a decapitated adult male . Though there is no direct evidence that these are the remains of Stephen Tomašević , folk tradition and circumstantial evidence have led to the conclusion that they are . The bones were placed in a glass coffin , and have since been housed in the Franciscan monastery in Jajce .
= Gastrotrich =
The gastrotrichs ( phylum Gastrotricha ) , commonly referred to as hairybacks , are a group of microscopic ( 0 @.@ 06 @-@ 3 @.@ 0 mm ) , worm @-@ like , pseudocoelomate animals , and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and marine environments . They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton , the layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other water bodies . The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other submerged surfaces , but a few species are terrestrial and live on land in the film of water surrounding grains of soil . Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders , the Macrodasyida which are marine ( except for two species ) , and the Chaetonotida , some of which are marine and some freshwater . Nearly eight hundred species of gastrotrich have been described .
Gastrotrichs have a simple body plan with a head region , with a brain and sensory organs , and a trunk with a simple gut and the reproductive organs . They have adhesive glands with which they can anchor themselves to the substrate and cilia with which they move around . They feed on detritus , sucking up organic particles with their muscular pharynx . They are hermaphrodites , the marine species producing eggs which develop directly into miniature adults . The freshwater species are parthenogenetic , producing unfertilised eggs , and at least one species is viviparous . Gastrotrichs mature with great rapidity and have lifespans of only a few days .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The name " gastrotrich " comes from the Greek γαστήρ gaster , meaning " stomach " , and θρίξ thrix , meaning " hair " . The name was coined by the Russian zoologist Élie Metchnikoff in 1865 . The common name " hairyback " apparently arises from a mistranslation of " gastrotrich " .
The relationship of gastrotrichs to other phyla is unclear . Morphology suggests that they are close to the Gnathostomulida , the Rotifera , or the Nematoda . On the other hand , genetic studies place them as close relatives of the Platyhelminthes , the Ecdysozoa or the Lophotrochozoa . As of 2011 , around 790 species have been described . The phylum contains a single class , divided into two orders : the Macrodasyida and the Chaetonotida . Edward Ruppert et al. report that the Macrodasyida are wholly marine , but two rare and poorly known species , Marinellina flagellata and Redudasys fornerise , are known from fresh water . The Chaetonotida comprises both marine and freshwater species .
= = Anatomy = =
Gastrotrichs vary in size from about 0 @.@ 06 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 002 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) in body length . They are bilaterally symmetrical , with a transparent strap @-@ shaped or bowling pin @-@ shaped body , arched dorsally and flattened ventrally . The anterior end is not clearly defined as a head but contains the sense organs , brain and pharynx . Cilia are found around the mouth and on the ventral surface of the head and body . The trunk contains the gut and the reproductive organs . At the posterior end of the body are two projections with cement glands that serve in adhesion . This is a double @-@ gland system where one gland secretes the glue and another secretes a de @-@ adhesive agent to sever the connection . In the Macrodasyida , there are additional adhesive glands at the anterior end and on the sides of the body .
The body wall consists of a cuticle , an epidermis and longitudinal and circular bands of muscle fibres . In some primitive species , each epidermal cell has a single cilium , a feature shared only by the gnathostomulans . The whole ventral surface of the animal may be ciliated or the cilia may be arranged in rows , patches or transverse bands . The cuticle is locally thickened in some gastrotrichs and forms scales , hooks and spines . There is no coelom ( body cavity ) and the interior of the animal is filled with poorly differentiated connective tissue . In the macrodasyidans , Y @-@ shaped cells , each containing a vacuole , surround the gut and may function as a hydrostatic skeleton .
The mouth is at the anterior end , and opens into an elongated muscular pharynx with a triangular or Y @-@ shaped lumen , lined by myoepithelial cells . The pharynx opens into a cylindrical intestine , which is lined with glandular and digestive cells . The anus is located on the ventral surface close to the posterior of the body . In some species , there are pores in the pharynx opening to the ventral surface ; these contain valves and may allow egestion of any excess water swallowed while feeding .
In the chaetonotidans , the excretory system consists of a single pair of protonephridia , which open through separate pores on the lateral underside of the animal , usually in the midsection of the body . In the macrodasyidans , there are several pairs of these opening along the side of the body . Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall , as part of respiration , and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in osmoregulation . Unusually , the protonephridia do not take the form of flame cells , but , instead , the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of cytoplasmic rods that in turn enclose a central flagellum . These cells , termed cyrtocytes , connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct .
As is typical for such small animals , there are no respiratory or circulatory organs . The nervous system is relatively simple . The brain consists of two ganglia , one on either side of the pharynx , connected by a commisure . From these lead a pair of nerve cords which run along either side of the body beside the longitudinal muscle bands . The primary sensory organs are the bristles and ciliated tufts of the body surface which function as mechanoreceptors . There are also ciliated pits on the head , simple ciliary photoreceptors and fleshy appendages which act as chemoreceptors .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Gastrotrichs are cosmopolitan in distribution . They inhabit the interstitial spaces between particles in marine and freshwater environments , the surfaces of aquatic plants and other submerged objects and the surface film of water surrounding soil particles on land . They are also found in stagnant pools and anaerobic mud , where they thrive even in the presence of hydrogen sulphide . When pools dry up they can survive periods of desiccation as eggs , and some species are capable of forming cysts in harsh conditions . In marine sediments they have been known to reach 364 individuals per 10 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 6 sq in ) making them the third most common invertebrate in the sediment after nematodes and harpacticoid copepods . In freshwater they may reach a density of 158 individuals per 10 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 6 sq in ) and are the fifth most abundant group of invertebrates in the sediment .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
In marine and freshwater environments , gastrotrichs form part of the benthic community . They are detritivores and are microphagous , sucking dead or living organic material , diatoms , bacteria and small protozoa into their mouths by the muscular action of the pharynx . They are themselves eaten by turbellarians and other small macrofauna .
Like many microscopic animals , gastrotrich locomotion is primarily powered by hydrostatics , but movement occurs through different methods in different members of the group . Chaetonotids only have adhesive glands at the back and , in them , locomotion typically proceeds in a smooth gliding manner ; the whole body is propelled forward by the rhythmic action of the cilia on the ventral surface . In the pelagic chaetonotid genus Stylochaeta , however , movement proceeds in jerks as the long , muscle @-@ activated spines are forced rhythmically towards the side of the body . By contrast , with chaetonotids , macrodasyidans typically have multiple adhesive glands and move forward with a creeping action similar to that of a " looper " caterpillar . In response to a threat , the head and trunk can be rapidly pulled backwards , or the creeping movement can be reversed . Muscular action is important when the animal turns sideways and during copulation , when two individuals twine around each other .
= = Reproduction and lifespan = =
Gastrotrich reproduction and reproductive behaviour has been little studied . That of macrodasiyds probably most represents that of the ancestral lineage and these more primitive gastrotrichs are simultaneous hermaphrodites , possessing both male and female sex organs . There is generally a single pair of gonads , the anterior portion of which contains sperm @-@ producing cells and the posterior portion producing ova . The sperm is sometimes packaged in spermatophores , and is released through male gonopores that open , often temporarily , on the underside of the animal , roughly two @-@ thirds of the way along the body . A copulatory organ on the tail collects the sperm and transfers it to the partner 's seminal receptacle through the female gonopore . Details of the process and the behaviour involved vary with the species , and there are a range of different accessory reproductive organs . During copulation , the " male " individual uses his copulatory organ to transfer sperm to his partner 's gonopore and fertilisation is internal . The fertilised eggs are released by rupture of the body wall which afterwards repairs itself . As is the case in most protostomes , development of the embryo is determinate , with each cell destined to become a specific part of the animal 's body . At least one species of gastrotrich , Urodasys viviparus , is viviparous .
Many species of chaetotonid gastrotrichs reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis . In these species , the male portions of the reproductive system are degenerate and non @-@ functional , or , in many cases , entirely absent . Though the eggs have a diameter of less than 50 µm , they are still very large in comparison with the animals ' size . Some species are capable of laying eggs that remain dormant during times of desiccation or low temperatures ; these species , however , are also able to produce regular eggs , which hatch in one to four days , when environmental conditions are more favourable . The eggs of all gastrotrichs undergo direct development and hatch into miniature versions of the adult . The young typically reach sexual maturity in about three days . In the laboratory , Lepidodermella squamatum has lived for up to forty days , producing four or five eggs during the first ten days of life .
Gastrotrichs demonstrate eutely , each species having an invariant genetically fixed number of cells as adults . Cell division ceases at the end of embryonic development and further growth is solely due to cell enlargement .
= = Classification = =
Gastrotricha is divided into two orders and a number of families :
= The Calusari =
" The Căluşari " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on April 14 , 1995 . It was written by Sara B. Charno and directed by Michael Vejar . " The Căluşari " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or fictional history . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 , being watched by 7 @.@ 9 million households in its initial broadcast . Due to perceived inconsistencies in the plot , " The Căluşari " received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , a photograph taken just before the death of a two @-@ year @-@ old boy yields evidence of some supernatural intervention which piques Mulder and Scully 's curiosity . When another death in the family occurs , the grandmother of the remaining child requests the aid of some Romanian ritualists , named the Calusari , in order to cleanse the home of evil .
The script for " The Căluşari " was inspired by Charno 's experience as a doctor of Eastern medicine . The inspiration for the entry came from an idea series creator Chris Carter had involving someone getting hanged with a garage @-@ door opener . Because " The Căluşari " was heavy in terms of violence , Fox 's standards and practices department took issues with several scenes . In addition , Carter re @-@ cut the episode after it was completed in order to make it scarier .
= = Plot = =
In Murray , Virginia , the Holvey family visits a local amusement park . When the youngest child , Teddy , lets his balloon fly away , his father , Steve , gives him the balloon that belongs to his older brother , Charlie ( Joel Palmer ) . When the boys ' mother , Maggie ( Helene Clarkson ) , is in the bathroom , the strap in Teddy 's stroller comes undone . Teddy follows the balloon floating under its own power out of the restroom and onto the tracks of the park 's tour train , leading to him getting killed by the train . Charlie is the only member of the Holvey family not to grieve Teddy 's death at the scene .
Three months later , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) shows Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) a photo taken moments before Teddy 's death , showing that the balloon moved horizontally against the wind . Chuck Burks ( Bill Dow ) , a digital photo expert , uses software to uncover evidence of electromagnetic disturbances in the shape of a child , holding the balloon . During a visit by the agents , the Holveys adamantly dispute Mulder 's theory that Teddy was led onto the tracks . Scully sees Golda ( Lilyan Chauvin ) , Maggie 's elderly Romanian mother , drawing a swastika on Charlie ’ s hand . Scully hypothesizes that the Holvey children may be victims of Munchausen by proxy , perpetrated by their grandmother . At a meeting with Steve Holvey , he explains that Golda was against his marriage to Maggie , and that strange things began to happen when Teddy was born and Golda came to live with the family . Steve hints that Golda might be hurting Charlie , leading Scully to suggest that they visit a social worker named Karen Kosseff ( Christine Willes ) . While preparing to take Charlie to a session with Kosseff , Steve 's tie is caught in the seemingly @-@ malfunctioning garage door , strangling and hanging him . Charlie , having been mysteriously locked in the car , starts crying over his father 's death .
Investigating Steve 's death , the police find evidence of the ritualistic sacrifices in Golda 's room . Mulder finds a film of fine dust in the garage , which Chuck identifies it as vibhuti , a residual sign of spiritual energy . Golda and three elderly Căluşari mystics conduct a ritual in her room . Meanwhile , during Charlie 's appointment with Kosseff , the child goes into convulsions . Kosseff and Maggie see smoke coming from under Golda 's door , coming across their ritual . Maggie is horrified , and forces the old men to leave the house . However , Golda grabs Charlie and pulls him into her room in an attempt to complete the ritual . However , Charlie quickly gains the upper hand and brings a pair of dead chickens back to life and makes them kill her .
When Kosseff asks Charlie about the incident , he insists that he was not in his grandmother 's room , and that it was a boy named Michael . Maggie is terrified at the claim , explaining to the agents that Michael was Charlie ’ s stillborn twin , about whom she and Steve agreed to never tell Charlie . Maggie also explains that Golda had told the parents that a ritual should be performed to separate the spirits of the twins , but Steve refused . Charlie has another seizure and is hospitalized . Michael knocks out the nurse and afterward convinces Maggie , by pretending to be Charlie , to take him home . Scully sees them leaving , and checks on Charlie . They find the nurse and Charlie still in the hospital room . Mulder , now convinced that Michael 's spirit is behind the killings , sends Scully to the Holvey residence to stop him .
Maggie tries to complete her mother 's ritual , but Michael tries to intervene . Back at the hospital , Mulder joins the Căluşari as they perform an exorcism on Charlie . As Mulder helps with the ritual , Scully arrives at the Holvey house , and finds Maggie being attacked by Michael . Scully is tossed across the room by an unseen force . Just as Michael is about to stab Scully , the exorcism ends , and Michael 's spirit disappears , sparing both Scully and Maggie 's lives . Maggie returns to the hospital and is reunited with Charlie . Before the agents leave , the head elder of the Căluşari says it 's over for the time being and cautiously forewarns Mulder that " it knows you . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Sara Charno and directed by Mike Vejar . Before becoming a writer , Charno had been a doctor of Eastern medicine . According to writer Frank Spotnitz , her " esoteric knowledge that none of the rest of [ the writers ] had about all kinds of things " was put to use in the script for " The Calusari " . The episode was based largely on an idea that series creator Chris Carter had ; his thought revolved around a " garage @-@ door opener hanging " . When Charlie stands over his grandmother and begins speaking in Romanian , he utters the words " You are too late to stop us . " Christine Willes , who plays the part of Agent Kosseff , reprises her role ; she originally appeared in the earlier episode " Irresistible " .
During production of the episode , the producers " agonized " over the teaser — due to the fact that it featured the death of a small child — as well as the darkness of the entire episode . Fox 's standards and practices department took issues with Steve 's strangulation scene ; in the end , the sequence was left in the episode , but Steve 's face was obscured to " soften the impact " . Although the episode 's filming went along smoothly , the final cut " didn 't pass muster " . Spotnitz explained that Carter " spent a lot of time in the editing room trying to figure out how to make this more terrifying . " Spotnitz later noted that Carter 's dedication impacted his work ethic and proved that something could be so " much better [ … ] if you didn 't give up . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Calusari " originally aired on the Fox network on April 14 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 6 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 7 @.@ 9 million households watched this episode during its original airing . " The Calusari " is the only episode of the series to have received an explicit rating of " 18 " in the United Kingdom by the BBFC for " occasional strong horror " and themes involving " demonic possession " .
" The Calusari " received mixed reviews , with critics citing inconsistencies in the plot as the main detractions . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a " B – " rating , calling it " an Exorcist / Omen rip @-@ off , but a classy one " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave it a " C + " , writing that it was " an episode with a lot of great and spooky moments " , but " a messy , chaotic story that could have been much better developed , and too many things that happen [ ... ] just because the writers thought it would be cool if they happened " . However , while he was " not sure everything hangs together " and he wished for more backstory , VanDerWerff did praise some " really great moments " , particularly the opening teaser . John Keegan from Critical Myth , while calling the episode " a mixed bag " , awarded it a 7 out of 10 . He praised the entry 's " fascinating implications [ about ] the mythology hidden within the events depicted " , and noted that it was " well directed and acted " . Despite this , he was more critical of the episode 's plot and wrote that there were " clear logical flaws [ ... ] and the subject matter can be disturbing . This is an episode that falls heavily to subjective interpretation . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a largely negative review and rated it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two called it a " pale retread of The Exorcist " and noted that many of the episode 's elements , like the chicken @-@ sacrificing grandmother and the Calusari members , were " tremendously crass " . Shearman and Pearson , however , did enjoy the episode 's dialogue , praising one scene in particular where the spirit of Michael torments his mother by asking to be taken to the amusement park and ride the train that killed his younger brother . Regardless , however , the duo concluded that " there 's something stale and pointless at [ the episode 's ] heart . "
= End Game ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" End Game " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 17 , 1995 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz . " End Game " featured guest appearances by Megan Leitch , Peter Donat , Brian Thompson and saw Steven Williams reprise his role as X. The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology . " End Game " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 2 , being watched by 10 @.@ 7 million households in its initial broadcast . It received positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully is kidnapped by an alien bounty hunter and Mulder offers his sister Samantha ( Leitch ) forward as ransom . However , Samantha is merely one of several clones created as part of a human @-@ alien hybrid project , leading Mulder to pursue the bounty hunter for the truth about her disappearance . " End Game " is a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Colony " .
" End Game " was the first episode of the series written by Spotnitz , who eventually went on to become one of the series ' executive producers .
= = Plot = =
The USS Allegiance , an American nuclear submarine , is patrolling the Beaufort Sea off the coast of Alaska when it comes across a craft below the ice that is emitting a radio signal . The Allegiance is ordered to fire upon the craft by Pacific Command . However , the craft manages to disable the sub using a high @-@ pitched frequency , stranding it far below the ice .
Continuing from the cliffhanger ending in " Colony " , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is beaten and kidnapped by " Mulder " , who is really the Bounty Hunter in disguise . When the real Mulder ( David Duchovny ) finds the wrecked hotel room , his sister Samantha explains that the Bounty Hunter will set up a hostage exchange to swap Scully for her . She further explains that the Bounty Hunter can only be killed by piercing the base of his neck , and that his toxic alien blood is deadly to humans . Finally , Samantha reveals that the clones are the progeny of two original aliens , and worked at abortion clinics to gain access to fetal tissue . Their objective was to set up an extraterrestrial colony on Earth , an effort that has gone as far back as the 1940s . However , because the clones ' experiments were considered to have tainted their alien race , the Bounty Hunter was sent to kill them .
Walter Skinner meets Mulder and Samantha at Mulder 's apartment , telling them that the remaining clones are missing . Mulder receives a call from Scully , who tells him that the Bounty Hunter seeks an exchange for Samantha . Mulder and Samantha are sent to a bridge near Bethesda while Skinner hides nearby with a sharpshooter . After the exchange takes place , Samantha attacks the Bounty Hunter . During the struggle , the sharpshooter fires upon the Bounty Hunter , and both he and Samantha fall into a river . An anguished Mulder tearfully apologizes to his father , Bill , for losing her again . His father leaves him a note from Samantha , which provides Mulder with the address of a Maryland clinic where they can meet if separated . Mulder hopes that she is alive , but soon gets a call from Scully reporting that Samantha 's body has been found . After Scully ends the call , she discovers Samantha 's body dissolving into a green liquid .
Meanwhile , inside the clinic , Mulder finds multiple clones of Samantha working on fetuses in labs similar to that of the clones . They reveal that they manipulated Mulder by sending one of their own to pose as " Samantha " in an effort to have him protect her original clone . They also claim to know the real Samantha 's location . Mulder , realizing he has been duped , initially refuses to help and starts to leave , but is knocked unconscious by the arriving Bounty Hunter , who proceeds to kill the Samantha clones and burn down the clinic . When no trace of the clones are found , Mulder meets with X at the Kennedy Center , demanding to know the Bounty Hunter 's location . X says that the Bounty Hunter 's craft below the Beaufort Sea has been found , and that a naval fleet has been sent to destroy it . Mulder heads there , and e @-@ mails Scully to tell her not to follow him .
Scully goes to Skinner for help , but he initially refuses . Scully also summons X to Mulder 's apartment , but he turns her down . On his way out , X is confronted by Skinner in an elevator . After the two men get into a vicious physical altercation , X divulges Mulder 's whereabouts . Meanwhile , Mulder finds the stranded Allegiance , with its sail broken through a patch of shallow ice . Inside , he finds what seems to be the sub 's only surviving crewman , whom Mulder correctly guesses is the disguised Bounty Hunter . The two struggle , during which Mulder becomes exposed to the Bounty Hunter 's toxic blood . The Bounty Hunter claims that Samantha is still alive before dumping Mulder off the sail and submerging the Allegiance ; Mulder is nearly cut in half with the sub 's diving plane in the process . Mulder is discovered and rushed to the field hospital seen at the beginning of " Colony " , where Scully — having learned that the alien blood contains a retrovirus that dies in cold temperatures — convinces the doctors to take him out of the bath that would warm his body up .
As Mulder 's condition stabilizes , Scully writes a field report crediting science with detecting the retrovirus and saving Mulder . She contends that the retrovirus is of a mysterious origin , and reports that neither the Bounty Hunter nor the Allegiance have been found . When Mulder regains consciousness , he tells Scully that his experiences did not give him the answers he had been searching for , but that they have given him renewed " faith to keep looking " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
This was the first episode of the series written by Frank Spotnitz . Spotnitz , who came up with the idea to bring back Samantha Mulder in " Colony " , wrote this episode , his first credited work on the show . According to Spotnitz , he along with Chris Carter , were overly ambitious when writing this episode . Since this was Spotnitz 's debut as a television writer , he got significant help from Carter to put the script together . All of the scenes originally pitched by Spotnitz were kept , except for a car chase scene that ended with a crash , and one where Mulder mistakes a federal marshal for the bounty hunter . The scenes were cut due to time restraints during filming . Spotnitz later became a frequent collaborator on many of the subsequent mythology episodes of the show , as well as co @-@ writing the two feature films .
It turned out in this episode that the Samantha Mulder ( Megan Leitch ) who appeared was a clone . Carter did not want it to be the real Samantha , since that would have been " straight science fiction " and it was too " ridiculous " to give too many answers . Spotnitz further explained that the production crew never saw The X @-@ Files as a " science fiction show " , but more of a show that incorporated science fiction , and that this and previous episode " Colony " were more of a " suspense thriller " than any other genre . Chris Carter described the " Colony " and " End Game " two @-@ parter as the " backbone of the show , the romantic quest of Mulder for the truth and Scully as well " , and that it led Scully to believe in the conspiracy .
= = = Filming = = =
The motel scene with the bounty hunter and Dana Scully was shot on a sound stage in Vancouver , Canada in a simple motel room set . The scene featuring Scully being beaten up by the bounty hunter was primarily performed by a stunt woman . The stiletto weapon , often referred to as the " gimlet " , used by the bounty hunter was constructed from aluminium and acrylic , and activated by a pneumatic hose hidden in actor Brian Thompson 's sleeve . The grunt Scully utters when thrown through a table was insisted on by Standards and Practices , giving the reasoning that the show needed to make it clear for the viewers that she was not dead . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz it was an " arcane , bizarre logic that you have to deal with when you 're putting a show on network television . " As director Rob Bowman was dissatisfied with the first take of Skinner shoving X against the elevator wall , Mitch Pileggi and Steven Williams decided to do the stunt for real , and Pileggi did it with so much strength that it broke the back of the elevator scenery . Williams ' background in fight choreography , stemming from his role in Missing in Action 2 : The Beginning , allowed him to help in choreographing the brawl .
One hundred and forty tons of snow and ice were trucked into a soundstage to create the scene with the submarine towards the end of the episode , and the stage had to be refrigerated for five days . The control tower scenery was able to rise or lower only five feet , leading to restrictions such as filming on black backdrops . A decommissioned destroyer , Her Majesty 's Canadian Ship Mackenzie , was rented from the Royal Canadian Navy and used for the submarine interior . It was reused two episodes later for interior shots in " Død Kalm " .
= = Reception = =
" End Game " premiered on the Fox network on February 17 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 18 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 2 with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 10 @.@ 7 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode has been met with positive reviews from critics . In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated an A- , being called " an exhausting , essential chapter , boasting the series ' most visually stunning finale " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , noting that it was " X @-@ Files in top form " . He felt that the fight between Skinner and X was " one of the season 's great moments " , although he derided the use of Scully in a " heroine @-@ as @-@ victim " role . Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , has noted that " End Game " is " a good example of the basic premises that Mulder and Scully cannot succeed without the other " , and serves to highlight " the danger of making someone else 's choice for them . "
= Butterflies ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Butterflies " is a song by Michael Jackson . It was written and composed by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius , and produced by Jackson and Harris . The track appears on Jackson 's tenth studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song is Michael Jackson 's last single from a studio album . " Butterflies " is a midtempo ballad song with R & B musical styles . The single received generally positive reviews from music critics ; some music reviewers described the song as being one of the best songs on Invincible while others felt that it was a " decent track " .
The song was only released in the United States to radio airplay . It peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , and also charting at number two and thirty @-@ six , respectively , on alternative Billboard charts in 2001 and 2002 . There was no music video released for the song .
= = Background and development = =
" Butterflies " was recorded by Michael Jackson in 2001 for his tenth studio album , Invincible , which was released the same year . The song was written by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius , who is one half of the London bred neo @-@ soul act Floetry , and was produced by Jackson and Harris . Jackson first met Ambrosius and Natalie Stewart , who is also a member of Floetry , through John McClain , who is DreamWorks 's senior urban executive and Jackson 's manager . Stewart said she was surprised that Jackson invited her and Ambrosius to a studio and asked for their input on the recording of the track . She recalled in an interview with LAUNCH magazine , " It was incredible because he asked , he continually asked , ' Marsh , what 's the next harmony ? Girls , does this sound right ? What do you think ? Is this what you were looking for ? He was so open " .
When Ambrosius first met Jackson , it took a few minutes to calm down . She recalled to the same publication Stewart was interviewed by , " To begin with , I was kinda shook . Because you don 't realize how you 're going to feel until you 're put in that situation . I had the tears in my eyes and got kinda nervous . But as I got into it , I realized it was work , it was a job . I had to vocally conduct a legend . " Harris commented on the single , " He 's showing you , I 'm still the Michael Jackson that did ' Billie Jean ' and ' Rock With You ' because ' Butterflies ' really falls along those lines . " Unlike the previous single released from Invincible , a music video was not made to promote the song .
= = Composition = =
" Butterflies " is a midtempo love ballad song with groove musical influences . The track is cited as having pop and R & B musical styles . Vaughn Watson of the Providence Journal noted that the track is a " velvety old @-@ school soul ballad " with " elegiac horn riffs " and " simple ' 70s @-@ style David Ruffin soul . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a writer for Allmusic noted that " Butterflies " had " Bacharach @-@ styled horns . " Lonell Broadnax , Jr . , a contributing writer to the Daily Helmsman Online felt that " Butterflies " is a soulful song which takes Jackson back to his " rhythm and blues roots " . Ben Rayer of the Toronto Star felt that the song had a " oozy slow jam " . " Butterflies " is written in the time signature of common time . Throughout the song Jackson 's vocal range spans from E ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 . The track is played in the key of A ♭ major . " Butterflies " has a moderately slowly tempo and its metronome is ninety @-@ two beats per minute . Lyrically , " Butterflies " describes the feeling of being in love .
= = Critical response = =
The track received generally positive reviews from music critics . Ken Barnes of USA Today described the song as being a " hopelessly sappy ballad oozing with fuzzy sentiments . I 'd say it 's more like caterpillars . " Frank Kogan of the Village Voice , citing the lyrics , " I would give you anything baby , just make my dreams come true / Oh baby you give me butterflies " wrote " so , would he give her , like , caterpillars in exchange ? birds ? " and added that what grabs his attention about a song like " Butterflies " is not the " melody but the weirdly ringing wrench @-@ against @-@ faucet clang on the backbeat . " Christie Leo of the New Straits Times gave the track a more positive review , calling the song a " luxuriant " ballad . Pop music critic Robert Hilburn , writing for the Los Angeles Times , described " Butterflies " , and another song from Invincible ( " Speechless " ) , as being " as woefully generic as their titles " . A journalist of the same publication felt that track was about romantic " jitters " . Darryl Frierson of University Wire felt that songs like " Butterflies " can set the " mood for any romantic interlude " . Joel Rubinoff of The Record said that " Butterflies " was one of the " only good songs " from Invincible , while a writer for The Atlanta Journal cited the song as being a " decent track " .
A writer for the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution viewed " Butterflies " as being " laid @-@ back " . Mark Anthony Neal of Popmatters wrote in his music review for Jackson 's 2002 album , entitled Love Songs , that in song 's such as " Butterflies " , it shows the " essence " of Jackson 's " genius has been in the boy 's uncanny ability to perform , even the mundane , outside of the box . " Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that ballads on Invincible such as " Speechless and " Butterflies " are " almost to a formulaic fault . " Chicago Tribune rock music critic Greg Kot said that Jackson is not " convincing as the vulnerable ladies ' man on drippy ballads " such as " Butterflies " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a writer for Allmusic , commented that Invincible was " highlighted " by " lovely ballads " such as " Break of Dawn " and " Butterflies " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote in his review for Invincible that , " The ballads are a squishy bunch with glaringly banal lyrics , pleasantries like ' Butterflies ' and ' Break of Dawn ' that could emanate from just about " anyone . A journalist for the Philadelphia Inquirer called the track " gorgeous " and Bomani Jones of Salon.com called " Butterflies " a " sparkling " track . Ben Rayer of the Toronto Star wrote that Jackson " fares best " on " Butterflies " .
Catherine Halaby of the Yale Daily News said that songs on the album like " Heaven Can Wait " , " Butterflies " , and " You Are My Life " " fulfill the quota for sugary ballads " . Jon Pareles , writing for The New York Times , said that tracks on Invincible like " Butterflies " ' and " Don 't Walk Away " are " melting love ballads " . Pareles noted in his review for the album that songs on it are recurring themes present on Jackson 's albums , such as love ballads , as well as tracks pertaining to making the world a better place . Tim Perzyk of the Duke Chronicle wrote , " By the time ' Butterflies ' spins on track seven , it 's unclear why Michael didn 't record a collaborative boxed set with Mariah Carey , whose ' Heartbreaker , ' ' Breakdown ' and ' Butterfly ' would fit quite nicely " into Jackson 's Invincible album . Pop music critic Craid Seymour of the Buffalo News wrote that " another winning tune " on the album is the " dreamy ' Butterflies , ' which flows along at a groovy midtempo pace . " Kevin C. Johnson of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described " Butterflies " as being about the " feeling that special someone gives him . " Music critics writing for the South Florida Sun Sentinel said that the track shows the " shy , loving , gentle side " of Jackson .
= = Chart performance = =
" Butterflies " entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early November 2001 , at number sixty . The single eventually peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 the week ending January 26 , 2002 . The track also charted within the top ten , peaking at number two , on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on January 26 , 2002 ; the song was held from the top position from Ja Rule and Ashanti 's " Always on Time " 2001 single . In 2002 , " Butterflies " also peaked at number thirty @-@ six on the Billboard Top 40 Mainstream chart . The track , which was released as a promotional single internationally , did not chart on any music charts outside of the United States .
= = Track listings = =
Promo - CD @-@ Single ( Epic ESK 54863 )
" Butterflies ( Album Version ) " - 4 : 40
Michael Jackson - Butterflies ( Track Masters Remix )
A1 " Butterflies ( Master Mix ) ( Featuring - Eve ) " - 3 : 47
A2 " Butterflies ( Michael A Cappella ) " - 2 : 13
B1 " Butterflies ( Eve A Cappella ) ( Featuring - Eve ) " - 3 : 47
B2 " Butterflies ( Master Mix Instrumental ) " - 3 : 47
= = Credits and personnel = =
Written and composed by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius
Produced by Michael Jackson and Andre Harris
Lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Background vocals by Michael Jackson and Marsha Ambrosius
All musical instruments performed by Andre Harris
Horns by Norman Jeff Bradshaw and Matt Cappy
Recorded by Andre Harris and Bruce Swedien
Assistant engineering by Vidal Davis
Mixed by Bruce Rammkisoon
Source :
= = Charts = =
= Lindenwood University =
Lindenwood University , often referred to as Lindenwood or LU , is a private , coeducational , liberal arts Christian @-@ based university located in Saint Charles , Missouri , United States . Founded in 1827 by George Champlin Sibley and Mary Easton Sibley as The Lindenwood School for Girls , it is the second @-@ oldest higher @-@ education institution west of the Mississippi River and since 1990 , the fastest @-@ growing university in the Midwest .
Lindenwood offers undergraduate , graduate , and doctoral degrees through nine colleges and schools . Its annual enrollment is more than 12 @,@ 000 students in all programs , including 5 @,@ 662 undergraduate day students at its main campus in St. Charles . The 500 @-@ acre ( 202 @.@ 3 ha ) main academic and residential campus is located 24 miles ( 39 km ) northwest of St. Louis , Missouri , in St. Charles , the Daniel Boone historic site in Defiance , Missouri 26 miles ( 42 km ) southwest of the St. Charles campus . In addition to numerous satellite campuses , Lindenwood also has an independently accredited sister college in Belleville , Illinois , known as LU – Belleville .
The university offers a number of extracurricular activities to its students , including athletics , honor societies , clubs , and student organizations , as well as fraternities and sororities . Alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government , business , science , medicine , education , sports , and entertainment .
On June 1 , 2015 , Michael Shonrock , President of Emporia State University , succeeded James Evans as the 22nd president , who retired May 31 , 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history = = =
Lindenwood University traces its roots back to George Champlin Sibley , an early 19th @-@ century American explorer , soldier , Indian agent , and politician , and his wife Mary Easton Sibley , an educator . In 1808 , Acting Governor and friend Frederick Bates promoted Sibley to the position of chief factor at Fort Osage in western Missouri , near present @-@ day Kansas City , Missouri . While at Fort Osage , Sibley immediately set to work creating relationships with the neighboring Osage tribes . He also Mary Easton , the daughter of Rufus Easton , a prominent St. Louis attorney and Missouri 's second Attorney General . The couple were married in 1815 . During the Sibleys ' time at Fort Osage , Mary began teaching the children at the fort .
In 1813 , Sibley opened a temporary trading post at Fort Sibley , now known as the town of Arrow Rock , Missouri , which remained in operation until 1822 . After the trading post shut down , George and Mary remained at Fort Osage , with George serving as postmaster until the fort closed in 1825 . The couple then settled in St. Charles , where Mary began teaching family members and later , in 1827 , other young women from the community . Lindenwood University is now considered the second @-@ oldest higher @-@ education institution west of the Mississippi River , after Saint Louis University , as well as the first women 's college west of the Mississippi . In 1829 , the Sibleys purchased 280 acres ( 113 @.@ 3 ha ) of land , known as the " Linden Wood " because of the numerous linden trees . The Sibleys borrowed money and began clearing the overgrown property to convert it into a farm with livestock brought from Fort Osage . They completed construction of a cabin and outhouses and moved into Linden Wood in December 1829 . As the work on Linden Wood continued , the idea of opening a boarding school evolved .
Mary Sibley took in students within a year of moving into the cabin . Her 12 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Alby , became the first student at Linden Wood in the fall of 1830 . A year later , the first two paying students arrived ; in early 1832 , the Sibleys made plans to expand the cabin to create a boarding school for women to over a dozen students During the 1830s , the school was known as The Boarding School for Young Ladies at Linden Wood , Missouri . Mary took charge of the boarding school and developed a strict curriculum that included literature , grammar , writing , spelling , and diction . French , music and piano , landscape painting , flower painting and needle work were available for an additional fee . The school was one of the first to require physical education , which included walking and dancing .
By the 1840s , the boarding school had grown to 30 students . As the enrollment expanded , the Sibleys added new rooms to the cabin . The continued improvements created a financial strain on the school and Mary Sibley traveled to the East Coast to solicit additional funding . In the early 1850s , the school was on the brink of closing when the Sibleys offered the property to the Presbyterian Church . In 1853 , the school was incorporated by special act of the Missouri Legislature and became known as the Lindenwood College for Women . The newly chartered college was placed under the control of 15 directors appointed by the Presbytery of St. Louis . On July 4 , 1856 , the cornerstone was laid for a new permanent brick building to replace the original log cabins . The new building , Sibley Hall , was completed in July 1857 , and at the time contained the entire school . This event marked the beginning of a new era of significant growth for Lindenwood .
George Sibley died in 1863 . Following his death , the college charter was amended in 1870 to provide that the appointment of directors for the management of the college would be under the control of the Synod of Missouri instead of the Presbytery of St. Louis . A south wing was added to Sibley Hall in 1881 and a north wing in 1886 . The school began expanding in the early 20th century with four new buildings constructed between 1900 and 1920 .
In 1913 , the school was accredited as a junior college by the North Central Association . Lindenwood received a $ 4 million bequest in 1918 , the entire estate of the late Margaret Leggat Butler , wife of Colonel James Gay Butler , a Civil War veteran and philanthropist . The college used the funds to establish a permanent endowment and moved from a two @-@ year to a four @-@ year curriculum . A few years later , the college became a full member of the North Central Association .
The college became a co @-@ educational institution in 1969 and changed its name from Lindenwood College for Women to Lindenwood Colleges , with a separate college for men and women . In 1970 , the college started offering evening classes and in 1976 began awarding master 's degrees . That same year , the St. Louis Football Cardinals of the NFL constructed a football field for practices . In 1980 , the college became a member of the NAIA for athletics . Lindenwood Colleges , Lindenwood College for Men and Lindenwood College for Women were merged into Lindenwood College in 1983 . It was known as Lindenwood College until 1997 , at which time the school changed its name to the current name of Lindenwood University .
= = = Recent history and expansion = = =
By 1989 , Lindenwood College was bankrupt with student enrollment below 800 . The college was in danger of closing when the administration hired Dennis Spellmann as the new president . Spellmann immediately began to implement changes , eliminating co @-@ ed dorms and placing the emphasis on a " values @-@ centered " approach in the classroom .
The university began an extensive expansion of academic , residential , and athletic facilities starting in the mid @-@ 1990s which included construction of eight new residence halls , the Spellmann Campus Center , Lou Brock Sports Complex , and Harlen C. Hunter Stadium , as well as extensions to Ayres Hall and Harmon Hall . A change that caused controversy for the school was the " Pork for Tuition " program begun in 2002 and designed to help rural families pay for tuition by the university accepting livestock in return for discounts . The animals were then processed and used in the school cafeteria . At the time , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals staged a small protest in Saint Charles in response to the program . In 2006 , Dennis Spellmann died by which time the university had seen its endowment grow to more than $ 50 million . Dr. James Evans became Lindenwood 's 21st president on February 9 , 2007 .
Expansion continued under Evans . The J. Scheidegger Center for the Arts , a performance and fine arts center , opened in late 2008 at a cost of $ 32 million . The university also constructed new dormitories and began building a new home for university presidents . Construction of Evans Commons began in 2009 and was completed during the summer of 2011 . In 2011 , Lindenwood University became the Lindenwood University System . Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville transitioned from a satellite campus to a separately accredited college . The university was notified of the accrediting decision in November by the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools . Under the new accreditation , Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville will keep the same name and the same governing board as the St. Charles campus , now considered to be a sister school as part of the Lindenwood University System . By 2010 , Lindenwood University 's endowment had reached $ 148 million Early the following year , Lindenwood began construction of a new parking lot to ease congestion on campus . The university announced a new athletic facility would be constructed behind the west end zone stands of Hunter Stadium . The three @-@ story , 43 @,@ 450 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 037 m2 ) building includes new football , men 's and women 's soccer , men 's and women 's lacrosse , and field hockey locker rooms . It also houses a new academic support center for student @-@ athletes , coaches ' offices , and meeting rooms overlooking the stadium . Lindenwood plans to construct a new administrative building , as well as additional dorms and campus facilities , and expand enrollment to over 20 @,@ 000 students . The university and the DESCO Group announced in February 2011 that the St. Charles City Council had approved a resolution supporting the Lindenwood Town Center , a planned $ 30 million development that includes a shopping center , retail / business plaza , hotel , and apartment @-@ style student housing complexes .
In the fall of 2012 , the university announced it had purchased the 28 @-@ acre ( 11 @.@ 3 ha ) property that was previously home to the Barat Academy . The 69 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m2 ) facility opened in 2007 and was used by the private high school until it was evicted in 2011 and relocated to a smaller property . Lindenwood purchased the facility for $ 8 @.@ 1 million with plans to enlarge classrooms and add chemistry labs . The building became the home of the Lindenwood Nursing and Allied Health Sciences program opening in fall 2013 . It is a BSN completion program for students who hold associate degrees in nursing . The university hired Dr. Peggy Ellis as the dean of the program . Ellis had served since 2005 as the associate dean of graduate studies at the St. Louis University nursing school .
In May 2014 , the Lindenwood University Board of Directors approved plans for a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Academic Resources Center off First Capitol Drive , adjacent to the Welcome Center on the St. Charles campus . In 2015 , Lindenwood announced the construction of the new facility , which will replace the 36 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Margaret Leggat Butler Library , built in 1929 . The new Academic Resources Center building will bring together a variety of student services under one roof , including the Writing Center , Student and Academic Support Services ( SASS ) , Career Services , English as a Second Language , the Office of International Students and Scholars , and Lindenwood Online , all of which were involved in putting together the proposal for the new structure . The building will also include classroom space and an expanded coffee shop . Completion is expected in the latter part of 2016 .
= = Campus = =
The 500 @-@ acre ( 202 @.@ 3 ha ) main campus is located in historic St. Charles , Missouri , on high ground overlooking downtown St. Charles and the Missouri River . Its buildings range from historic 19th @-@ century buildings to modern on @-@ going construction projects . The campus stretches roughly one mile from southwest to northeast and is divided by a meandering stream . To the west , the campus is bordered by Duchesne Dr. with Droste Rd. and W. Clay St. forming the southern boundary . First Capitol Drive runs along the eastern edge of the campus and Gamble St. adjoins its north side . The eastern area of campus is the oldest section with the most recent expansion in the central and southern areas . The northwestern area has almost no structures . The university is a dry campus with alcoholic beverages prohibited on campus and in all university buildings .
The eastern part of the LU campus is the oldest part and contains many historic buildings characterized by their early 20th @-@ century architecture and vast numbers of linden trees . This area is located near the site of the original log cabin where Mary Sibley began the Linden Wood School for Girls . The eastern part of campus is the location of many of the academic buildings and contains the Margaret Leggat Butler Library , the university 's main academic library . Roemer Hall , constructed in 1921 , is the main administration building on the campus and home to the president 's office , financial aid office , the registrar , and the business office , as well as the School of Education .
Sibley Hall was built in 1856 and is the oldest building at Lindenwood . It was the original building for the Linden Wood School for Girls , and is still used as a women 's dormitory today ; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Numerous mysterious incidents have occurred over the years , and legends say that Sibley Hall is haunted by the ghost of Mary Sibley .
The central portion of the Lindenwood campus includes various residence halls and athletic facilities . At the heart of the campus sits the Spellmann Campus Center . It was built in 2002 and is located in the center of campus on the hillside near the highest part of the campus . Spellmann Center overlooks Harlen C. Hunter Stadium and much of the rest of the campus . The modern 112 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 400 m2 ) student center houses a cafeteria , a coffee shop , the Student Health Center , Student Activities Office , student media publications and student @-@ run radio station , as well as office , classroom , and meeting spaces .
To the west of the Spellmann Center is the 7 @,@ 450 @-@ seat Harlen C. Hunter Stadium , the main athletic stadium on campus . Built in 1976 by the St. Louis Cardinals NFL football team as a training camp location , the stadium opened in 1979 and was renovated in 1988 , 2004 , and 2009 . The stadium is the home of Lindenwood Lions football , men 's and women 's soccer , women 's field hockey , and both men 's and women 's lacrosse programs .
To the northwest of the stadium is the 3 @,@ 270 @-@ seat Robert F. Hyland Performance Arena . This was built in 1997 and is home to both men ’ s and women ’ s basketball , volleyball , wrestling , table tennis , dance , and cheerleading teams . The facility also includes the athletic department offices and classroom space . Evans Commons is being constructed adjacent to the Hyland Arena . Construction for the $ 20 million student center began in May 2009 . The 119 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 11 @,@ 100 m2 ) facility opened in August 2011 and features a second dining hall , three basketball courts , and a roller hockey rink , a suspended jogging track , a fitness center , offices for student activities , quiet study areas , and a US post office .
The southern and western areas of campus contain much of the new construction . The J. Scheidegger Center for the Arts opened in 2008 at a cost of $ 32 million and lies on the southeast edge of campus . The state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , 138 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 12 @,@ 800 m2 ) building includes space for performance and arts education . It houses classrooms and faculty offices , as well as the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat Bezemes Family Theatre , the Emerson Black Box Theatre , the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat Boyle Family Gallery , the Charter LUTV HD Studio , and studio space for performing arts and communications students . The Scheidegger Center is also the home of the School of Fine and Performing Arts .
To the northwest of the Scheidegger Center is the Lou Brock Sports Complex . The Sports Complex is home to the Lindenwood Lions baseball and softball teams . The new president 's house , known as Lindenwood House , opened in 2010 , and is located on a hill overlooking the Sports Complex and much of the campus . The western portions of campus contain many of the new residence halls . Reynolds Hall and Pfremmer Hall were constructed in 2008 and sit between the new president 's residence and LU Commons , the new student and recreation center .
= = = Residence halls = = =
Over 3 @,@ 800 students live on campus the university 's 19 residence halls segregated into male and female facilities . Each residence hall has a live @-@ in resident director and three assistant resident directors . Male residence halls include Ayres Hall , Cobbs Hall , Flowers Hall , Guffey Hall , Linden Lodge , Mathews Hall , Parker Hall , Pfremmer Hall , and Reynolds Hall . Female residence halls include Blanton Hall , Calvert Rogers , Eastlick Hall , Irwin Hall , McCluer Hall , New Ayres Hall , Niccolls Hall , Rauch Memorial Hall , Sibley Hall , and Stumberg Hall .
Lindenwood purchased land adjacent to the main campus containing various residential properties to create two large student quarters in adjacent neighborhoods , known as the Linden Terraces and First Capitol Houses . The properties offer on @-@ campus housing for married student couples and single @-@ parent students , and are also available to male and female students . Linden Terrace neighborhood lies just southwest from the main campus . First Capitol Houses and the Powell Terrace Residential Area sit east of campus across First Capitol Drive from the main campus .
= = = Regional centers = = =
The period of growth at Lindenwood started by Spellmann included the opening of regional centers for adult evening education programs in various locations around Greater St. Louis . In 2009 , the university opened a regional center , known as Lindenwood University @-@ St. Louis , at 1409 Washington Avenue in St. Louis. a rapidly growing loft district in the city . Lindenwood also operates regional centers in Daniel Boone Campus , Florissant , Moscow Mills , O 'Fallon , South County , Downtown St. Louis , Westport , Weldon Spring , Wildwood , and the former Southern Air Restaurant in Wentzville .
= = = Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville = = =
In 2008 , Lindenwood University announced plans to expand facilities at Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville and increased academic programs from an adult continuing education structure to offer traditional daytime semester @-@ based programs . Starting in the fall of 2009 , LU @-@ Belleville began offering courses in business administration , communications , criminal justice , and health management . The Lindenwood University at Belleville sports teams are known the " Lynx " and currently compete in the USCAA . Previously , programs were only offered for junior- and senior @-@ level students during the first semester of traditional daytime classes . These programs have now been extended to underclassman . As many as 2 @,@ 000 daytime students are expected to enroll at the Belleville campus within the next 5 to 10 years . In November 2011 , Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville completed the transition from satellite campus of Lindenwood University to a full @-@ fledged , stand @-@ alone college . Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville is now considered to be sister school of Lindenwood University in St. Charles , and while the two schools share a name and governing board , the Belleville campus is no longer under control of the St. Charles campus
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and compared himself to people who warned that the government should be more concerned about terrorism before the September 11 , 2001 attacks . According to Della Rocca , Thompson then challenged him to a series of gaming debates , claiming that they could each make more than $ 3 @,@ 000 per event . When Della Rocca suggested that neither he nor Thompson accept any money for the events , Thompson refused .
In July 2009 , Entertainment Consumers Association ( ECA ) president Hal Halpin posted a copy of an email exchange between himself and Thompson , stating , " I get messages ( IMs , emails , FB notes , etc . ) from members all the time , asking what the ( almost daily ) notes are from JT . Since this one 's fairly harmless and I 've redacted anything personal ( not that I don 't love getting his threatening cease and desist letters ) , I thought I 'd share it as a pretty typical exchange . " Halpin and Thompson have been vocal opponents since 1998 , when Halpin ran the game retail trade association IEMA . The exchange was sparked by a guest editorial that Halpin entitled , " Perception is Everything " for IndustryGamers.com where he called for consumers and the industry to speak out against negative stereotyping of gamers .
In March 2011 , in response to the creation of a school shooter mod entitled School Shooter : North American Tour 2012 , developed by Checkerboarded Studios on Valve Corporation 's Source engine , Thompson emailed Valve 's managing director , Gabe Newell , demanding that the mod be removed , as he speculated that Valve played a part in the mod 's development . In the letter , Thompson stated that Half @-@ Life was directly responsible for the Erfurt massacre , as well as the Virginia Tech massacre and that Valve had until 5 : 00 PM on March 18 to remove the mod .
= = The Howard Stern Show = =
In 2004 , Thompson helped get Howard Stern 's show taken off a radio station in Orlando , Florida by filing a complaint with the Federal Communications Commission . Thompson objected to Stern ’ s use of perceived obscenities on the air . He argued that " Either broadcasters will accept the light harness of decency that has been the law for decades and start cleaning up their acts , or the public 's deepening outrage will foster a more fearsome governmental response . " Thompson claimed to have received death threats from listeners of Stern 's show , noting that " you 'd expect that considering the IQ of people who listen to Howard Stern . Apparently they fail to realize that I might have caller ID . "
During his opposition to Howard Stern , Thompson was asked in an interview with a reporter if , by his standards , he would blame Christianity for the murders committed by Michael Hernandez , a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old who murdered one of his classmates in 2004 , because Hernandez wrote a diary in which he constantly spoke about praying to God . Thompson replied , " The Bible doesn 't promote killing innocent people , Grand Theft Auto does . Islam does . " Thompson then expanded his comments in the same interview by saying , " Islam promotes the killing of innocent people . The Quran requires the infidel , whether Jew or Christian , to be killed . ... That 's a core essence of the religion . ... Muhammad was a pirate who killed infidels and who advocated the killing of infidels — not a nice guy . Osama bin Laden is in keeping with his fine tradition . "
He later spoke in defense of Stern during the latter ’ s legal dispute with CBS over promoting Sirius on @-@ air before his switch to satellite radio . Thompson contended that the technology added by CBS to edit out profanity also could have worked to edit out Stern 's references to Sirius . According to Thompson , " The reason why CBS chose not to edit Stern is that Stern 's Arbitron ratings remained high and were arguably even enhanced by people tuning in to hear daily about Stern 's running feud with CBS and his move to Sirius . In other words , CBS actually used Stern 's discussion of his move to Sirius to make more money for CBS . "
CBS President Leslie Moonves responded , saying " You know what ? You can ’ t let people like that tell you what to put on the air or what not to put on the air . That would only open the door when suddenly next week , he says , ' Take David Letterman off the air or take C.S.I. off the air . ' Or you know what ? Everybody Loves Raymond was about , you know , sex last week or about a 70 @-@ year @-@ old man — you know , we dealt with Peter Boyle having sex with Doris Roberts . ' Take that off the air . ' That 's something we can ’ t let happen . "
= = The Florida Bar = =
= = = Actions against the bar = = =
In 1993 , Thompson asked a Florida judge to declare The Florida Bar unconstitutional . He said that the Bar was engaged in a vendetta against him because of his religious beliefs , which he said conflicted with what he called the Bar 's pro @-@ gay , humanist , liberal agenda . He also said that the " wedding of all three functions of government into The Florida Bar , the ' official arm ' of the Florida Supreme Court , is violative of the bedrock constitutional requirement of the separation powers and the ' checks and balances ' which the separation guarantees . " Thompson accepted a $ 20 @,@ 000 out @-@ of @-@ court settlement .
On January 7 , 2002 , Thompson sent the Supreme Court of Florida a letter regarding The Florida Bar 's actions . The letter was filed with the court on January 10 , 2002 and was treated as a petition for a writ of mandamus against The Florida Bar . Before any action was taken on the petition , Thompson sent the court another letter on January 28 , 2002 voluntarily dismissing the case . The letter was filed with the court on January 30 , 2002 , and the Florida Supreme Court issued an order of dismissal on February 28 , 2002 .
In January 2006 , Thompson asked the Justice Department to investigate The Florida Bar 's actions . " The Florida Bar and its agents have engaged in a documented pattern of this illegal activity , which may sink to the level of criminal racketeering activity , in a knowing and illegal effort to chill my federal First Amendment rights , " Thompson wrote in a letter to Alex Acosta , interim U.S. attorney for the Southern District of Florida .
In April 2006 , Thompson filed another suit against The Florida Bar , this time in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida , alleging that the Bar harassed him by investigating what he called baseless complaints made by disgruntled opponents in previous disputes . His five @-@ count complaint asked for more than $ 1 million in damages . The lawsuit alleged that the Bar was pursuing baseless ethics complaints brought against Thompson by Tew Cardenas attorneys Lawrence Kellogg and Alberto Cardenas of Miami , and by two lawyers from the Philadelphia office of Blank Rome , in violation of Thompson 's constitutional rights . According to the lawsuit , the Bar looked at Thompson for violations of a bar rule that prohibits attorneys from making disparaging remarks about judges , other attorneys , or court personnel . Thompson also filed a motion with the court to order the mediation of his dispute with the Bar . Thompson commented , " I enjoy doing what I do and I think I 've got a First Amendment right to annoy people and participate in the public square in the cultural war . " Thompson also said he is optimistic his federal lawsuit will be successful . " I 'm 100 percent certain that it will effect change , otherwise I would not have filed it . "
On April 25 , 2006 , The Florida Bar filed a motion to dismiss Thompson 's complaint . The Bar argued that Thompson 's complaint should be dismissed for a number of reasons , including the fact that the complaint failed to state a claim on which he could be granted relief . The Bar also argued that it was absolutely immune from liability for actions arising out of its disciplinary functions , that the Eleventh Amendment barred Thompson 's recovery of damages , and that the court should dismiss the case pursuant to the abstention doctrine of Younger v. Harris . On May 4 , 2006 , Thompson filed a motion asking Judge Federico Moreno to recuse himself from the case , as Judge Moreno was a member of the Florida Bar . Citing an " abundance of caution , " Judge Moreno recused himself on May 9 , 2006 and referred the case to Chief Judge William Zloch for further action . Thompson did not , however , respond to the Bar 's motion to dismiss the case . Finally , on May 17 , 2006 , Thompson filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal with the court , and the case was dismissed without prejudice .
= = = Filings = = =
In October 2007 , then @-@ Chief U.S. District Judge Federico Moreno sealed court documents submitted by Thompson in the Bar case that depicted " gay sex acts . " Thompson 's submission prompted U.S. District Judge Adalberto Jordan on to order Thompson to show cause why his actions should not be filed as a grievance with the court 's Ad Hoc Committee on Attorney Admissions , Peer Review and Attorney Grievance , but the order was dismissed after Thompson promised not to file any more pornography . Thompson then sent letters to acting U.S. Attorney General Peter Keisler and U.S. Senators Patrick Leahy and Arlen Specter demanding that Jordan be removed from his position for failing to prosecute Florida attorney Norm Kent , who Thompson claimed had " collaborated " with the Bar for 20 years to discipline him .
In February 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court ordered Thompson to show cause as to why it should not reject future court filings from him unless they are signed by another Florida Bar member . The Florida Supreme Court described his filings as " repetitive , frivolous and insult [ ing to ] the integrity of the court , " particularly one in which Thompson , claiming concern about " the court 's inability to comprehend his arguments , " filed a motion which he called " A picture book for adults " , including images of " swastikas , kangaroos in court , a reproduced dollar bill , cartoon squirrels , Paul Simon , Paul Newman , Ray Charles , a handprint with the word ' slap ' written under it , Bar Governor Benedict P. Kuehne , Ed Bradley , Jack Nicholson , Justice Clarence Thomas , Julius Caesar , monkeys , [ and ] a house of cards . " ( see ) Thompson claimed that the order " wildly infringes " on his constitutional rights and was " a brazen attempt " to repeal the First Amendment right to petition the government to redress grievances . In response , he sent a letter to U.S. Attorney General Michael Mukasey , referring to the show @-@ cause order as a criminal act done in retaliation for his seeking relief with the court .
On March 20 , 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson , requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of The Florida Bar other than himself . The court noted that Thompson had responded to the show cause order with multiple " rambling , argumentative , and contemptuous " responses that characterized the show cause order as " bizarre " and " idiotic . "
= = = Disbarment = = =
In February 2007 , The Florida Bar filed disbarment proceedings against Thompson over allegations of professional misconduct . The action was the result of separate grievances filed by people claiming that Thompson made defamatory , false statements and attempted to humiliate , embarrass , harass or intimidate them . According to the complaint , Thompson accused Alberto Cardenas of " distribution of pornography to children , " claimed that the Alabama judge presiding over the Devin Moore case " breaks the rules , even the Alabama State Bar Rules , because he thinks that the rules don 't apply to him , " and sent a letter to Blank Rome 's managing partner , saying , " Your law firm has actively and knowingly facilitated by various means the criminal distribution of sexual material to minors . " Thompson claims that the complaints violate state religious protections because his advocacy is motivated by his Christian faith .
In May 2008 , Miami @-@ Dade Circuit Judge Dava Tunis , after reviewing 2 @,@ 400 pages of transcripts and 1 @,@ 700 pages of exhibits , recommended that Thompson be found guilty of 27 of the 31 violations of which he had been accused , including making false statements to tribunals , disparaging and humiliating litigants and other lawyers , and improperly practicing law outside of Florida . Thompson filed a motion with the Florida Supreme Court the day after the report was issued to strike Tunis ' recommendations as vague for lack of detail . Previously , Thompson had attempted to have Tunis thrown off his case , and filed a complaint against her with the state Judicial Qualifications Commission , which is responsible for investigating judges .
On June 4 , 2008 , prosecutor Sheila Tuma recommended ' enhanced disbarment ' for Thompson , saying that Thompson demonstrated continued misconduct , a pattern of misconduct and persistently failed to admit any wrongdoing . Enhanced disbarment lengthens the period before an attorney may reapply for admission to the bar from five years to ten . After being prevented from making a speech to begin the disciplinary hearing , Thompson distributed his written objections to lawyers , a court reporter , and a newspaper reporter , departed the courtroom , and called the proceedings against him a " star chamber " and " kangaroo court " .
On July 8 , 2008 , Judge Tunis recommended permanent disbarment and a $ 43 @,@ 675 @.@ 35 fine for Thompson to the Florida Supreme Court , citing " cumulative misconduct , a repeated pattern of behavior relentlessly forced upon numerous unconnected individuals , a total lack of remorse or even slight acknowledgment of inappropriate conduct , and continued behavior consistent with the previous public reprimand ... Over a very extended period of time involving a number of totally unrelated cases and individuals , the Respondent has demonstrated a pattern of conduct to strike out harshly , extensively , repeatedly and willfully to simply try to bring as much difficulty , distraction and anguish to those he considers in opposition to his causes ... He does not proceed within the guidelines of appropriate professional behavior , but rather uses other means available to intimidate , harass , or bring public disrepute to those whom he perceives oppose him . " The court approved the recommendation and fine on September 25 , 2008 , and ordered that Thompson be permanently disbarred effective 30 days from the date of the order so Thompson could close out his practice . He later filed for an emergency stay of the Florida Supreme Court 's order with the U.S. District Court , which was ultimately denied . In an e @-@ mail to media outlets , Thompson responded to the court 's decision by stating , " The timing of this disbarment transparently reveals its motivation : This past Friday Thompson filed a federal civil rights action against The Bar , the Supreme Court , and all seven of its Justices . This rush to disbarment is in retribution for the filing of that federal suit . With enemies this foolish , Thompson needs only the loyal friends he has . " He closed the email — in which he included the court ruling — with , " ... this should be fun , starting now " .
On September 19 , 2009 , Thompson announced that he intended to resume practicing law as of October 1 , 2009 , claiming that he was " never disbarred " because all of the orders resulting in his disbarment were legal nullities . He dared The Florida Bar to get a court order to stop him .
= = Other activities = =
In 1992 , a complaint from Thompson led Florida Secretary of State Jim Smith to withhold a $ 25 @,@ 000 grant to the Miami Film Festival ; Thompson claimed that the festival was using state money to show pornographic films . In response , Thompson was named an " Art Censor of the Year " by the ACLU . The next month , Thompson faced disbarment over allegations that he lied while making accusations against prominent Dade County lawyer Stuart Z Grossman . Thompson ultimately admitted violating bar rules of professional conduct , including charges that he contacted people represented by an attorney without first contacting their attorneys , and agreed to pay $ 3 @,@ 000 in fines and receive a public reprimand .
In 1999 , Thompson represented the parents of Bryce Kilduff , an 11 @-@ year @-@ old boy who committed suicide by hanging himself . Police believed that the death was an accident , and that Kilduff was imitating Kenny , a character from the Comedy Central series South Park , which Bryce , according to his parents , had never watched . Thompson called for Comedy Central to stop marketing the show and toys based on the series to children . " You see , the whole show — thrust of the show is it 's — it 's cool for kids to act like the characters in South Park . "
Prior to Thompson 's disbarment , attorney Norm Kent filed a personal lawsuit against him , which eventually resulted in Thompson paying Kent $ 50 @,@ 000 for defamation . Thompson reacted to the suit by threatening employees at one of Kent 's clients , Beasley Broadcast Group , with lawsuits and depositions unless they got Kent to drop his case .
In January 2005 , Beasley hired attorney Lawrence A. Kellogg of law firm Tew Cardenas , LLP , to manage Thompson 's threats . Because Kellogg delayed arranging a meeting with him , Thompson on March 17 began a campaign targeting the firm 's name partner Al Cardenas , a former chair of the Republican Party of Florida , accusing him of personally being involved in " a statewide racketeering activity " in a letter sent to the media , Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist , and Florida Governor Jeb Bush . Kellogg then filed a complaint to the Florida bar that figured largely in Thompson 's disbarment .
On April 30 , Thompson extended his campaign against Cardenas to an attempt at embarrassing him as a trustee of Florida A & M University , a historically black university . In an email sent to FAMU interim president Castell V. Bryant , the media , the FCC , and Governor Bush , he cites racist remarks made by a caller to The Howard Stern Show to suggest that Cardenas put " profit ahead of race relations " , even though Beasley , which owned a station broadcasting Stern 's show , was not among Cardenas 's clients .
On February 21 , 2007 , Thompson filed a complaint with the Florida Judicial Qualifications Commission against Judge Larry Seidlin , accusing Seidlin of " violating nearly every judicial canon " in conducting a hearing on the disposition of the body of Anna Nicole Smith . On June 28 , 2007 , Thompson filed a complaint with the State Attorney 's Office , asking for an investigation and possible prosecution regarding accusations that Seidlin inappropriately accepted expensive gifts .
In March 2008 , Thompson called for the New York State Supreme Court ’ s Appellate Division to immediately suspend the law license of former state governor Eliot Spitzer , who had resigned from the position amidst reports he was a client of a prostitution ring . Thompson said that the Disciplinary Committee for the Appellate Division 's First Department should stop Spitzer from practicing law until the matter was resolved , noting that Spitzer did not claim innocence in his initial public apology .
= = = Facebook lawsuit = = =
Thompson filed a lawsuit for $ 40 million against Facebook in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida on September 29 , 2009 . Thompson claimed that the social networking site had caused him " great harm and distress " by not removing angry postings made by users in several Facebook groups . Thompson quietly dismissed his case less than two months later . According to Parry Aftab , a cyber @-@ law attorney , Thompson would likely not have had any success because the U.S. Communications Decency Act provides that companies such as Facebook have no liability for what users do with their services in most cases .
= Walking Liberty half dollar =
The Walking Liberty half dollar was a silver 50 @-@ cent piece or half dollar coin issued by the United States Mint from 1916 to 1947 ; it was designed by Adolph A. Weinman .
In 1915 , the new Mint Director , Robert W. Woolley , came to believe that he was not only allowed but required by law to replace coin designs that had been in use for 25 years . He therefore began the process of replacing the Barber coinage : dimes , quarters and half dollars , all bearing similar designs by long @-@ time Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber , and first struck in 1892 . Woolley had the Commission of Fine Arts conduct a competition , as a result of which Weinman was selected to design the dime and half dollar .
Weinman 's design of Liberty striding towards the Sun for the half dollar proved difficult to perfect , and Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo , whose department included the Mint , considered having Barber create his own design . Mint officials were successful in getting Weinman 's design into production , although it never struck very well , which may have been a factor in its replacement by the Franklin half dollar beginning in 1948 . Nevertheless , art historian Cornelius Vermeule considered the piece to be among the most beautiful US coins . Since 1986 , a modification of Weinman 's obverse design has been used for the American Silver Eagle , and the half dollar is being issued in gold for its centennial in 2016 .
= = Inception = =
On September 26 , 1890 , the United States Congress passed an act providing :
The Director of the Mint shall have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to cause new designs ... to be prepared and adopted ... But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design ... But the Director of the Mint shall nevertheless have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to engage temporarily the services of one or more artists , distinguished in their respective departments of art , who shall be paid for such service from the contingent appropriation for the mint at Philadelphia .
The Barber coinage was introduced in 1892 ; dimes , quarter dollars , and half dollars with similar designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber . The new pieces attracted considerable public dissatisfaction . Beginning in 1905 , successive presidential administrations had attempted to bring modern , beautiful designs to United States coins . Following the redesign of the double eagle , eagle , half eagle and quarter eagle in 1907 and 1908 , as well as the cent and nickel redesigns of 1909 and 1913 respectively , advocates of replacing the Barber coins began to push for the change when the coins ' minimum term expired in 1916 . As early as 1914 , Victor David Brenner , designer of the Lincoln cent , submitted unsolicited designs for the silver coins . He was told in response that Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo was completely occupied with other matters .
On January 2 , 1915 , an interview with Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce appeared in the Michigan Manufacturer and Financial Record :
So far as I know ... there is no thought of issuing new coins of the 50 @-@ cent , 25 @-@ cent , and 10 @-@ cent values . If , however , a change is made we all hope that more serviceable and satisfactory coins are produced than the recent Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle and eagle and the Pratt half and quarter eagle . The buffalo nickel and the Lincoln penny are also faulty from a practical standpoint . All resulted from the desire by the government to mint coins to the satisfaction of artists and not practical coiners .
In January 1915 , Assistant Secretary of the Treasury William P. Malburn sent McAdoo a memorandum about the silver subsidiary coinage , noting that " the present silver half dollar , quarter , and dime were changed in 1892 , and a new design may , therefore , be adopted in 1916 . This can be done any time in the year . " In reply , McAdoo wrote " let the mint submit designs before we try anyone else " on the memorandum .
In April 1915 , Robert W. Woolley took office as Mint Director . On April 14 , he asked Joyce to request Engraver Barber , then in his 36th year in office , to prepare new designs . The same day , Malburn requested the opinion of the Treasury Department 's Solicitor concerning the Mint view that it could strike new designs for the three denominations in 1916 . On April 17 , the Solicitor 's Office responded that the Mint could change the designs . At the time , the Mint was intensely busy producing the Panama @-@ Pacific commemorative coin issue , and immediate action was not taken . In October , Barber was summoned to Washington to discuss coin designs with Woolley , although it is uncertain whether or not he had by then prepared sketches for the new coinage .
On December 3 , Woolley met with the Commission of Fine Arts . Woolley asked the Commission to view sketches produced by the Mint 's engraving department . Barber was present to explain the coinage process to the Commission members . Woolley suggested to the members that if they did not like the Mint 's work , they should select sculptors to submit designs for the new pieces . It was Woolley 's intent to have distinct designs for the dime , quarter and half dollar — previously , the three pieces had been near @-@ identical . The director informed the Commission that as the existing coinage had been in use for 25 years , it would have to be changed — which numismatic historian David Lange calls a " misinterpretation of the coinage laws " .
The Commission disliked the sketches from the Mint ( submitted by Barber ) and selected sculptors Adolph Weinman , Hermon MacNeil and Albin Polasek to submit proposals for the new coins . The sculptors could submit multiple sketches . Although the Mint could decide to use a design on a denomination not intended by its sculptor , the designs were not fully interchangeable — by statute , an eagle had to appear on the reverse of the quarter and half dollar , but could not appear on the dime . Woolley hoped that each sculptor would be successful with one piece .
The three sculptors submitted design sketches in mid @-@ February , and on February 23 met with Woolley in New York City to make presentations of their work and answer his questions . After discussions between Woolley and McAdoo , Weinman was notified on February 28 that five of his sketches had been selected — for the dime and half dollar , and the reverse of the quarter . The same day , Woolley wrote to MacNeil to tell him he would sculpt the quarter 's obverse , and to Polasek to inform him of his lack of success . Members of the Commission persuaded Woolley that so much should not be entrusted to a single artist , and MacNeil was allowed to design both sides of the quarter , subject to the sculptor producing a design satisfactory to Woolley .
On March 3 , the new coins were publicly announced , with the Treasury noting , " [ d ] esigns of these coins must be changed by law every 25 years and the present 25 @-@ year period ends with 1916 . " The press release indicated that the Treasury hoped production of the new coins would begin in about two months , once the designs were finalized . The same day , Woolley wrote to Mint Engraver Barber , telling him that his sketches were rejected , and that models from Weinman and MacNeil would arrive at the Philadelphia Mint no later than May 1 . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Barber became " sullen and totally uncooperative " . Lange notes that " numerous delays were encountered as the artists fine @-@ tuned their models while simultaneously avoiding obstacles thrown in their path by Barber . While his observations regarding many aspects of practical coinage were quite accurate , they clearly could have been presented in a more constructive manner . " In his book on Mercury dimes , Lange notes that Barber , by then aged 75 , had been " compelled over the past ten years to participate in the systematic undoing of a lifetime 's achievements " ; he had to participate in the process which resulted in coins designed by others replacing ones designed by him .
With the new pieces , all American coins would have had a recent change of design ( the Morgan dollar was not then being struck . ) According to a column in The Art World magazine later in 1916 @,@
Since that day [ the 19th century ] much artistic progress has taken place in our coinage . Sculptors of reputation have been employed with admirable results ... And now we are to have a new half dollar and a new dime by Weinman and a new quarter by McNeill [ sic ] . Altogether , in the retrospect , it seems an incredible achievement .
= = Design = =
According to Secretary McAdoo in his 1916 annual report ,
The design of the half dollar bears a full @-@ length figure of Liberty , the folds of the Stars and Stripes flying to the breeze as a background , progressing in full stride toward the dawn of a new day , carrying branches of laurel and oak , symbolical of civil and military glory . The hand of the figure is outstretched in bestowal of the spirit of liberty . The reverse of the half dollar shows an eagle perched high upon a mountain crag , his wings unfolded , fearless in spirit and conscious of his power . Springing from a rift in the rock is a sapling of mountain pine , symbolical of America .
Weinman 's obverse bears a resemblance to Oscar Roty 's " Sower " design for French coins ; according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette , " Weinman has taken the ideal of a nineteenth century provincial figure and turned it into an American icon . " Burdette ties both the appearance of the head of Liberty and of the branches which she carries to Baltimore 's Union Soldiers and Sailors ' Monument , designed by Weinman . The sculptor may also have drawn inspiration from a 1913 bust he did of his tenant , Elsie Stevens , wife of lawyer and poet Wallace Stevens . Elsie Stevens is generally believed to have been a model for Weinman 's Mercury dime ; her daughter Holly wrote in 1966 that her mother had been the model for both coins . The reverse is similar to Weinman 's medal for the American Institute of Architects , although the sculptor replaced the laurel on the medal with a pine sapling . Weinman 's work on the medal had been widely admired for the power of the depicted eagle .
Breen , in his comprehensive volume on US coins , said of the half dollar , " Ms. Liberty wears the American flag , anticipating a rebellious counterculture by half a century . " Though admiring the piece generally , he noted that Liberty is striding towards the east , that is towards war @-@ torn Europe , and wrote , " she points into the sky at nothing visible ( perhaps aiming a warning at German warplanes ? ) " Breen objects to the use of the mountain pine on the reverse , calling it not particularly American nor especially notable except for an ability to thrive near the tree line .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule wrote that the Walking Liberty half dollar " really treat [ s ] the obverse and reverse as a surface sculptural ensemble . The ' Walking Liberty ' design particularly gives the true feeling of breath and sculptural services on the scale of a coin . " Vermeule noted the resemblance of the half dollar to Roty 's " Sower " but states that Weinman 's piece " is an original creation , not a slavish copy " . On the reverse , Vermeule admired the eagle , which dominates but does not overwhelm the design , and stated that the bird 's feathers are " a marvelous tour de force " , showing the influence of Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , under whom Weinman studied . Vermeule characterized the Walking Liberty half dollar to be " one of the greatest coins of the United States — if not of the world " .
= = Preparation = =
The three sculptors met with Woolley on March 6 , 1916 at the New York Assay Office to be formally told of the outcome of the competition , including the change in the outcome for the quarter , and to receive back rejected models and sketches . Polasek , who received his participation fee of $ 300 on March 10 , never again had any connection with the Mint or coinage design . Until a plaster model of one of his submissions was discovered at the Polasek Museum ( formerly his house ) in 2002 , his participation was known only through the Mint 's records .
After Weinman 's success in the competition , he visited the Mint to discuss conversion of his models to finished dies . On his first visit , he found Barber absent , but had a productive talk with long @-@ time Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . Other visits followed , and on March 29 , Woolley wrote to Superintendent Joyce , " confidentially , the sculptors designing the new coins felt that on their last trip Mr. Morgan was much more cordial and cooperative than Mr. Barber was . I realize I am dealing with artistic temperaments at both ends . " Woolley came to New York twice in April to examine MacNeil 's evolving reverse design for the quarter , on May 26 he also visited Weinman 's studio and viewed progress on the models of his designs . A severe case of tonsillitis delayed Weinman 's work , and caused him to request an extension of the May 1 deadline . On May 29 , Woolley wrote Weinman that the designs , both for the dime and half dollar , were accepted by the Mint .
During June , the Mint 's engraving department , headed by Barber , reduced the models to coin @-@ sized hubs and prepared dies for experimental pattern coins , which were subsequently struck . Woolley hoped to begin production of the new coins of all three denominations by July 1 , but the grant of time to Weinman required the Mint to act with greater speed . Burdette suggests the haste with which the dies were prepared caused coins struck with them to appear worn and without sharp detail . By June 22 , Weinman had viewed the first patterns , as he wrote to Woolley stating that he did not like the way the word " Liberty " on the obverse had turned out , and asking for the loan of two patterns so he could redo the lettering . On June 24 , Woolley wrote to Joyce , informing him of the loan and stating of the new pieces ,
The model of the obverse on the half dollar will have to be made over and Mr. Weinman informs me he is now at work on it . The same is true of the quarter dollar . The reverse of both the quarter dollar and the half dollar , as shown on the coins struck from the polished dies , are satisfactory ... Everyone to whom the coins have been shown here thinks they are beautiful .
With Woolley 's permission to redo the obverse , Weinman decided to remove the word " Liberty " from above the figure and place it above " In God We Trust " to the right of it . This permitted him to extend Liberty 's head almost to the top of the coin , maximizing the size of the depiction . The letter " L " was placed in the concavity formed by the flag as it drapes under the figure 's left elbow , and the rest of the word extended to the right from there , with the letter T in larger print , actually saving room as the larger size allowed the crossbar of the " T " to extend above the capitalized letters " R " and " Y " . This allowed the letters to be squeezed closer together . When Woolley resigned on July 15 to become director of publicity for the Wilson reelection campaign ( a function he also fulfilled for Democratic candidates in 1912 and 1920 ) , he mentioned in his resignation letter to Secretary McAdoo , " in working over the model for the obverse side of the half dollar Mr. Weinman is making a slight rearrangement of the word ' Liberty ' , and will have it ready for your inspection in a few days . I like it and believe you will . " Weinman wrote to the former director on July 20 that increasing the size of the figure of Liberty improved its appearance .
McAdoo accepted Weinman 's revised design on July 26 ; at that time Adjuster of the Bureau of the Mint Fred H. Chaffin was serving as Acting Mint Director until President Wilson could nominate a replacement for Woolley and have him confirmed by the Senate . Weinman decided , on his own initiative , to rearrange the legends on the reverse . On the original pattern , " United States of America " is at the top of the reverse , with " Half Dollar " directly below and " E Pluribus Unum " at the bottom of the coin . Weinman 's revision has the legends in the places they would occupy on the circulation strikes , and was approved by McAdoo on August 10 . On August 18 , Wilson nominated Woolley 's successor , Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken , who was promptly confirmed by the Senate . Von Engelken was supposed to be sworn in on the August 21 ; his swearing in was delayed until September 1 by President Wilson 's failure to sign his commission .
= = Modification = =
When von Engelken took office as Mint Director on September 1 , 1916 , the half dollar had been approved , and pattern coins had been struck . Actual production of the 50 @-@ cent piece was delayed as the Mint struggled to finalize Weinman 's Mercury dime . On September 6 , production of the dime was halted as companies testing the new 10 @-@ cent piece found that the new pieces would not work in vending machines . The defect was found to be a " fin " , excess metal at the edge of the coin , making it seem too thick when inserted in machines . The fin could also break off , leaving the silver coins underweight . The problem was found on the pattern half dollars as well . On September 6 , von Engelken wrote to Assistant Secretary Malburn , using information that Burdette suggests came from Barber :
I am sending you with this letter ten of the new dimes and one of the new half dollars . If you examine these coins carefully , you will find that they are decidedly imperfect . You will note both on the half dollar and the ten cent piece a sharp projection of the metal on the edge , which is the " fin " to which I have referred . You will note also , particularly on the half dollar on account of its size , a variation in the thickness of the coin , specifically noticeable at the edge . I went to Philadelphia yesterday to ascertain whether or not this could be overcome , and I find that we are faced with certain mechanical restrictions which make it impossible to produce a coin of uniform thickness of edge , and to obviate the fin edge , as long as we maintain the high relief of the coin as it is at present .
Von Engelken 's letter caused concern in the Secretary 's office — McAdoo feared that if the Mint proved unable to successfully issue new coins , the Republicans might exploit the failure as an issue in the presidential race . The Secretary enquired how long it would take " our Mr. Barber " to produce new designs ; after consultation with officials at the Philadelphia Mint , von Engelken replied that it would take six to eight months . The two officials decided that Weinman must be asked to modify his design for the half dollar — it was hoped that if Weinman shrank the figure of Liberty , and lowered the relief , the piece would prove coinable .
Weinman arrived at the Mint on September 11 . He left with two pattern half dollars and instructions to reduce the size of the figure of Liberty . Barber appealed to Joyce for permission to make major changes to Weinman 's design , but this was initially refused . However , when an additional change by Weinman failed to eliminate the fin problem , Joyce gave in and allowed Barber a free hand . Engraver Barber shrank the design , moving the design further from the edge , and creating a wide space between design and rim . Barber insisted that this was the only way to prevent a fin and uneven edge . A beaded border was added within the rim . According to Burdette , patterns struck from the new dies were dull and uninteresting , as the size of the figures had lent them strength .
On October 18 , Weinman wrote to Joyce , asking how the Mint was getting on with the dies for the half dollar and dime , and expressing his willingness to come to Philadelphia . Joyce replied two days later , informing him that the design of the half dollar was being reduced in size to prevent recurrence of the edge difficulties , and informing him of the beaded border . Weinman responded hoping that Joyce would prevent the figure of Liberty from being unduly reduced , and rendering his account . As the sculptor and superintendent corresponded , the Mint began the work of converting the Barber @-@ modified designs to working dies from which circulation coins could be struck , but Joyce interceded before coining could begin . The Philadelphia Mint superintendent , who had the support of von Engelken , felt that Barber 's modifications were unnecessary . Joyce believed that coins closer to Weinman 's concept could be struck by lowering the relief slightly , adjusting the force with which the Mint 's presses struck the planchets or blanks , and better preparing the planchets for striking . Joyce 's position prevailed , and Barber and his department prepared working dies for striking of circulation pieces , omitting Barber 's beaded border and wide space between rim and design . Working dies were at the Denver and San Francisco Mints on November 27 , and production began at all three mints soon after .
In late December Weinman , who had received no update from the Mint since being told of the Barber modifications , but who had read in the newspapers that the half dollars were being struck , sent a $ 10 money order to Joyce with a request for 20 of the new coins . On January 2 , 1917 , Weinman wrote to Joyce again , telling him the new pieces had been received in time to be given as New Year 's gifts , and wishing the superintendent " every good wish to you for every day of the New Year and with thanks to the Almighty and yourself that the beads are not on the border of the Half Dollar " .
= = Reception = =
Although the dime 's debut on October 30 , 1916 had seen considerable publicity , the Mint had little comment on the release of the half dollar and Standing Liberty quarter the following January . There were few newspaper mentions of the new half dollar ; the United States was moving towards war with Germany , and the dime release had exhausted much of the public interest in the novelty of new coins . The quarter dominated what public attention there was with argument over whether the eagle on its reverse was portrayed accurately . Despite the minimal publicity , according to a January 1917 report from Mint Adjuster Chaffin , all three mints initially had trouble keeping up with public demand for the new half dollars .
The New York Times noted on January 3 that the new pieces had been received by the Sub @-@ Treasury and would be released two to a customer , starting on January 9 . It stated that the Mint was working as hard as possible to keep up with demand , but that initially quantities would be limited . Banking , the journal of the American Bankers Association stated that " The designs of the new coins have been highly praised by those having expert knowledge of such matters . " A Connecticut newspaper predicted readers would like the new half dollar five times as much as the new dime .
The Huntsville ( Alabama ) Mercury , however , expressed its dislike of the new half dollar . In a piece entitled " New half dollar is sick " , it stated :
The new coin is radically different from all other monies produced by the government mints . A suffragette is shown sowing small stars in a western field that hasn ’ t been plowed very deeply . The sun is setting and the old girl looks rather tired from her day ’ s labors , in fact perspiration can be seen trickling from her forehead . The lady wears sandals and her feet are rather dusty . She also appears , to have on overalls under her thin dress . She carries a load of firewood in one arm and wears a large napkin around her neck which leads to the belief that she left a small child at the house . The wind is blowing from the north and the sun has a blizzardly appearance . In great letters LIBERTY is spelled , extending more than half way around the entire surface . On the other side appears an eagle , grown to enormous size and marching madly toward Mexico , a cactus bush being shown in the background . The eagle has raised his wing , as if to strike ; the old fellow looks like he could put up a good fight if aroused but he has a swell crop of feathers on his legs .
= = Production and collecting = =
The mint marks had initially been placed on the obverse , the first time that had been done for a regular issue US half dollar since 1839 . On February 14 , 1917 , von Engelken ordered that the mint mark be moved from the obverse to the reverse , stating that the obverse placement had the appearance of a die defect . At that time , Von Engelken had resigned pending appointment to the post of president of the Federal Land Bank for the Third District ; once he left to take that position , he was succeeded by Raymond T. Baker . In April , Joyce asked Baker for written confirmation of von Engelken 's order , and after he obliged , the mint mark was duly moved . The majority of the 1917 half dollars struck at Denver ( 1917 @-@ D ) and San Francisco ( 1917 @-@ S ) bear the mint mark on the reverse .
Throughout the time in which the Mint struck the Walking Liberty half dollar , it had difficulty bringing out the design fully . According to Breen ,
Mint authorities knew well that the Weinman design , despite its great artistic merit , no matter how thorough Barber 's original attempt to reduce relief , was technically unsatisfactory . Areas of highest relief still opposed relief areas on the other side .
The San Francisco Mint especially had difficulty with the coins ; many pieces struck there are noticeably weak . In 1918 Morgan , who had succeeded Barber as Engraver after the latter 's death the previous year , modified the design , incising some of the details at Liberty 's neck . According to Breen , " The attempt was a failure . " Morgan 's successor , John R. Sinnock made additional attempts in 1937 and 1938 , with little better results . Breen suggested that the difficulties in striking the piece contributed to the willingness to replace it after World War II .
No Walking Liberty half dollar is especially rare , but many dates are scarce in Mint State condition , particularly the 1921 and 1921 @-@ D. The Mint struck proof coins in 1916 – 1917 and 1936 – 1942 , all at Philadelphia . The 1916 pieces were struck in very small numbers — Breen stated that he had seen only four — and only three 1917 proof coins are confirmed , most likely struck for VIPs at a time when proof coins were not sold to the public . A number of the later proof coins lack Weinman 's monogram , apparently lost through overpolishing of dies . This is most common with the 1941 proof pieces — much of the year 's production lacks the monogram — but is known for other years . A total of 74 @,@ 400 proof coins were struck for the series .
There are few varieties in the series , and they are relatively minor . They principally involve the mint mark : several repunchings , one overpunching of a D over an S in 1942 , and some changes in size . One oddity is the 1943 / 1942 , which is not a true overdate but was formed by a working die struck once from a 1942 @-@ dated master die , and once from one dated 1943 . Some 1946 half dollars show a doubled die on the reverse .
= = Replacement and design reuse = =
In 1947 , Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross asked Engraver Sinnock to produce a design for a half dollar featuring Founding Father Benjamin Franklin . Ross had long been an admirer of Franklin , and wanted to see him on a coin . Mint officials had considered putting Franklin on the dime in 1941 , but the project was shelved owing to heavy demands on the Mint for coins as the United States entered World War II . During the war , the Mint contemplated adding one or more new denominations of coinage ; Sinnock prepared a Franklin design in anticipation of a new issue , which did not occur . In 1946 , the Treasury replaced the Mercury dime with a piece depicting the recently deceased president , Franklin Roosevelt , who had been closely associated with the March of Dimes . With the Lincoln cent popular and politically inexpedient to replace , the half dollar was the only piece being struck which was available for redesign without congressional permission . The Treasury approved the new design . Although Sinnock died before the coin was issued , the Franklin half dollar went into production at the start of 1948 , ending the Walking Liberty series . A total of 485 @,@ 320 @,@ 340 Walking Liberty half dollars were struck .
Since 1986 , Weinman 's obverse design has been used as the obverse design for the American Silver Eagle bullion coin . In adapting the design , Mint Sculptor @-@ Engraver John Mercanti and other members of the engraving staff strengthened many of the details . Mercanti noted that Weinman 's original plaster was only 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in diameter , and was softly modelled . Mercanti increased the detail so that the design , struck on a larger coin , would be bolder and would have a more even metal flow when struck than Weinman 's original coin . Treasury Secretary James Baker chose a heraldic eagle design , by Mercanti , as the reverse of the American Silver Eagle .
In December 2010 , President Barack Obama signed legislation authorizing bullion coins made of palladium . The obverse would be taken from the Mercury dime ; the reverse would follow Weinman 's architectural award medal on which he based the half dollar 's reverse . The Mint was directed to obtain an independent study of whether there would be enough market demand to justify the issuance of the piece ; it voided its first contract for such a study on learning that the contracted firm had ties to the palladium industry . The contract was re @-@ awarded to New York @-@ based CPM Group , which conducted the necessary research between May and July 2012 . On March 1 , 2013 , the Mint submitted a report to Congress based on the study , finding that demand would most likely not be sufficient to sustain a market in palladium bullion coins .
The United States Mint in 2015 announced plans to restrike for collectors , in gold , the three silver coins first issued in 1916 . The half dollar will have its weight and fineness inscribed on the reverse . The mockups of the half dollar released by the Mint show the mint mark on the obverse .
= Atlantic campaign of 1806 =
The Atlantic campaign of 1806 was a complicated series of manoeuvrees and counter @-@ manoeuveres conducted by squadrons of the French Navy and the British Royal Navy across the Atlantic Ocean during the spring and summer of 1806 , as part of the Napoleonic Wars . The campaign followed directly from the Trafalgar campaign of the year before , in which the French Mediterranean fleet had crossed the Atlantic , returned to Europe and joined with the Spanish fleet . On 21 October 1805 , this combined force was destroyed by a British fleet under Lord Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar , although the campaign did not end until the Battle of Cape Ortegal on 4 November 1805 . Believing that the French Navy would not be capable of organised resistance at sea during the winter , the First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the British blockade squadrons to harbour . Barham had miscalculated – the French Atlantic fleet , based at Brest , had not been involved in the Trafalgar campaign and was therefore at full strength . Taking advantage of the reduction in the British forces off the port , Napoleon ordered two heavy squadrons to sea , under instructions to raid British trade routes while avoiding contact with equivalent Royal Navy forces .
Departing from Brest on 13 December 1805 , it was 12 days before the Admiralty in London were aware of the French movements , by which time the French squadrons were deep in the Atlantic , one under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues intending to cruise in the Caribbean and the other , under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , sailing for the South Atlantic . Two British squadrons were hastily mustered and dispatched in pursuit , one under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and the other under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren . These squadrons were joined by a third under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth , who had deserted his station off Cadiz when he learned news of a French squadron to his south and subsequently crossed the Atlantic in pursuit of Willaumez . Although Willaumez managed to escape into the South Atlantic , Leissègues was less successful and was discovered and destroyed at the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 by a combined force under Duckworth and Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane . Other squadrons already at sea became embroiled in the campaign : a smaller squadron that had been raiding the African coast under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite since August 1805 provided a diversion to the major campaign but failed to draw off significant British forces , while the remnants of a French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois that had been operating in the Indian Ocean since 1803 was intercepted and defeated by Warren in March , after a chance encounter on its journey back to France .
Willaumez achieved minor success in his operations in the South Atlantic and Caribbean , but was caught in a summer hurricane on his return journey and his ships were scattered along the Eastern Seaboard of North America . One was intercepted and destroyed by British forces and others were so badly damaged in the storm that they were forced to shelter in American ports . The survivors gradually returned to Brest during the autumn , the last arriving in early 1807 . The campaign was the last significant operation in the Atlantic for the remainder of the war , and no French squadron of any size left any of the Biscay ports until 1808 . The losses suffered by the Brest fleet weakened it so severely that it would not participate in a major operation until 1809 , when an attempt to break out of Brest ended in defeat at the Battle of Basque Roads .
= = Background = =
= = = Trafalgar = = =
On 30 March 1805 , the French Mediterranean Fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve successfully broke out of Toulon harbour , avoiding the British blockade fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson and sailing westwards out of the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic , Nelson following several days behind . Villeneuve , joined by a Spanish squadron , crossed the ocean to the Caribbean and anchored at Martinique , while Nelson arrived at Barbados on 11 June . Panicked by the British arrival , Villeneuve immediately returned to Europe , with Nelson again close behind . Villeneuve 's orders had specified that he sail to Brest , the French naval port on the Bay of Biscay , and join there with the fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Honoré Ganteaume . Together this force would drive the Royal Navy out of the English Channel in preparation for an invasion of Britain . However , as he passed the Spanish port of Ferrol on 22 July 1805 , Villeneuve was intercepted by a British fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Calder . At the ensuing Battle of Cape Finisterre , Calder captured two Spanish ships but failed to inflict a decisive blow on Villeneuve 's squadron , which later sailed to Cadiz , Spain 's principal Atlantic seaport . Nelson arrived shortly afterwards and initiated a blockade of the port .
On 21 October 1805 , Villeneuve 's combined Franco @-@ Spanish fleet sailed from Cadiz and was intercepted by Nelson , resulting in the Battle of Trafalgar . Although Nelson was killed at the height of the battle , his squadron inflicted a devastating defeat on the combined fleet , capturing or destroying 17 French or Spanish ships , including Villeneuve 's flagship . The battered remnants of the French Mediterranean and Spanish Atlantic fleets retreated to Cadiz , although four French ships fled north and were intercepted and captured at the Battle of Cape Ortegal two weeks later . In total , the campaign cost Napoleon 13 French and 12 Spanish ships , eliminating any possibility of even regional superiority at sea and therefore preventing the planned invasion of Britain , which had already been indefinitely postponed . The elimination of the French and Spanish fleets and the end of the threat of French invasion was widely celebrated in Britain , and seen by First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham , as an opportunity to reduce costs and damage to his ships by withdrawing the Atlantic blockade to Britain during the winter under the assumption that the battered French Navy would be unable and unwilling to operate at sea during the period . He wrote : " It is of little purpose now , to wear out our ships in a fruitless blockade during the winter . "
= = = French plans = = =
Barham had seriously miscalculated the strength of the Brest fleet , which had been uninvolved in the campaign of 1805 and was therefore at full strength . He also underestimated Napoleon , who had observed that Villeneuve 's brief stay in the Caribbean had acted as a major threat to British trade , delaying convoys and causing panic among the West Indian merchants . The French naval authorities were also inspired by the effect of a raiding squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , which had escaped from Rochefort on 17 July 1805 , caused significant disruption to British trade in the Atlantic and remained at sea off the North African coast . Seeking to repeat these effects , Napoleon sent orders to the commander at Brest , Vice Admiral Honoré Ganteaume , in November 1805 for two strong squadrons to be prepared for service in the Atlantic . These were to leave Brest under cover of darkness on 13 December , with orders to strike deep into the Atlantic and intercept any merchant convoys that they encountered . Subsequently the squadrons were to separate , one to the South Atlantic and the other to the Caribbean , there to cause as much disruption to British intercontinental trade as possible . The orders encouraged the admirals not to engage any Royal Navy force of equivalent size or larger and thus avoid the risk of being captured or destroyed .
Ganteaume selected 11 ships of the line for the operation , including the 120 @-@ gun first rate Impérial , flagship of Vice Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , who was to sail to the Caribbean with four other ships of the line , two frigates and a corvette . His squadron carried over 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers to augment the garrison on Santo Domingo under General Jean @-@ Louis Ferrand , and was then required to spend two months blockading Jamaica before cruising along the American Eastern Seaboard to Newfoundland , returning to France when food supplies ran low . The other squadron was given to Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez in Foudroyant , with orders to cruise the shipping lanes of the South Atlantic before sailing to the Leeward Islands , communicating with the French colonies of Martinique , Guadeloupe and Cayenne and blockading Barbados . When British opposition became too strong , he was to return to the South Atlantic off Saint Helena , also returning to France once food supplies ran low . His squadron consisted of six ships of the line , two frigates and two brigs , and included among its captains Jérôme Bonaparte , the Emperor 's younger brother . Although both squadrons carried six months provisions , they were expected to capture more during their voyages and it was intended that their raiding operations should last as long as 14 months , causing severe indirect damage to the British economy by restricting the movement of trade .
= = December 1805 = =
On 13 December 1805 , with the majority of the British blockade squadron anchored in Cawsand Bay and the remainder driven far offshore by a winter gale , the French squadrons sailed from Brest into the Bay of Biscay unnoticed . Within two days they had passed nearly 500 nautical miles ( 930 km ) into the Atlantic Ocean and had encountered a British merchant convoy , Willaumez detaching in pursuit . The convoy was sailing to Britain from Gibraltar , escorted by the 64 @-@ gun HMS Polyphemus under Captain Robert Redmill and the frigate HMS Sirius under Captain William Prowse . Heavily outnumbered , the convoy turned away and ran before the wind , Willaumez in close pursuit . Later in the day a second convoy appeared to the north , of 23 ships sailing from Cork to the Caribbean escorted by the frigates HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane , HMS Boadicea under Captain John Maitland and the brig HMS Wasp . With Willaumez distracted , Leissègues ordered his squadron in pursuit .
Willaumez 's ships captured a number of stragglers from Redmill 's convoy and managed to isolate Sirius , which only just escaped after narrowly avoiding an unequal encounter with four French ships of the line . With the convoy dispersed , Willaumez gathered his scattered forces and despatched the frigate Volontaire to the Spanish island of Tenerife with the prizes , before turning the remainder of his squadron southwards for his designated cruising grounds . To the north , Leissègues gradually approached Brisbane 's convoy during the night but did not close with him until the morning of 16 December . In response , Brisbane formed his three warships into a line of battle , accompanied by three of the larger merchant ships . This force could not hope to resist Leissègues ' main force , but would enable the 17 other vessels to escape by blocking the French squadron 's frigates from chasing them . Ignoring the escaping convoy , Leissègues formed his own line of battle and continued to close with Brisbane , whose faster ships steadily pulled away from the French throughout the day . As darkness fell , Leissègues abandoned the pursuit and turned to the south and Brisbane immediately despatched Boadicea to Brest and Wasp to the blockade squadrons along the Atlantic Seaboard with urgent warnings of the French operations in the Eastern Atlantic . Brisbane himself remained in distant contact with Leissègues for another day before the French squadron sheered away . Brisbane continued southwards with the remainder of his convoy , seeking the British blockade squadron at Cadiz .
= = = Duckworth 's cruise = = =
On 20 November 1805 , the French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Allemand encountered a British convoy off the Savage Islands . Allemand 's squadron was on its return journey to France when he encountered the convoy , consisting of six merchant ships sailing from Britain to Gorée under the escort of the brig HMS Lark under Commander Frederick Langford . Langford gave orders for his convoy to scatter as the French approached , Lark turning northwards in search of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth and the Cadiz squadron , reaching it on 26 November . Duckworth immediately sailed in pursuit of Allemand , leaving behind only two frigates to watch Cadiz in his absence .
Sailing south from Cadiz , Duckworth 's squadron reached Madeira on 5 December , passing Tenerife ten days later without sighting any French ships . Continuing south to the Cape Verde Islands , Duckworth reluctantly conceded that the French squadron had escaped and he retired northwards until he encountered Brisbane 's reduced convoy on 23 December . Tracking the presumed course of Leissègues ' ships , Duckworth continued northwards on a course that would intercept the French squadron . At 06 : 45 on 25 December , at 30 ° 52 ′ N 20 ° 16 ′ W , approximately 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) northwest of the Canary Islands , lookouts in Duckworth 's squadron spotted nine sails in the distance . As Allemand 's squadron was estimated to have approximately nine ships , Duckworth initially believed that his enemy was Allemand , possibly accompanied by prizes captured on his cruise . However , as he closed with the French , it became clear that this was a different squadron altogether . In fact his target was Willaumez , and despite the French admiral 's efforts , Duckworth was steadily gaining on him , the ships of the line HMS Superb , HMS Spencer and HMS Agamemnon outstripping the rest of the British squadron .
By 13 : 00 on 26 December , the flagship Superb was just 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ) behind the rearmost French ship , with Spencer 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) further back and Agamemnon another 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) distant . The rest of the squadron was more than 22 nautical miles ( 41 km ) behind the leaders , almost completely out of sight , with the rearmost ship , HMS Donegal , more than 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) behind Superb . The more compact French squadron was therefore at an advantage . The British were too dispersed to be able to bring a powerful enough force to engage the French in equal battle and the distance between the individual British ships was too great to allow them to provide mutual support if Willaumez turned to face them . Therefore , to the fury of his officers , Duckworth called off the pursuit . This decision was heavily criticised , both at the time and subsequently : historian William James commenting that " had the Superb brought to action , as in the course of a few hours she might , the sternmost French ship . . . the issue , in all reasonable calculation , would have been favourable to the British " .
Gathering his scattered squadron , Duckworth despatched the frigate HMS Amethyst to Britain with the news of the French activity in the Eastern Atlantic , his message suggesting that the French were probably destined for the Dutch East Indies . He himself turned southwest towards the Leeward Islands , where he could resupply his ships in preparation for resuming the blockade at Cadiz . On 2 January 1806 he ordered HMS Powerful under Captain Robert Plampin to sail for the Indian Ocean and reinforce the British squadron there , in case Willaumez 's squadron reached Asian waters .
= = = British response = = =
Word of the French break @-@ out did not reach Britain until 24 December , when a cartel arrived from Gibraltar with the news . The report understated the size of the French forces , claiming seven rather than eleven ships of the line had broken out , with four frigates . Recognising his error in withdrawing the blockade , Barham immediately ordered two squadrons to prepare for sea : one under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren gathered at Spithead , including the second rate HMS London and six other ships of the line . The other formed in Cawsand Bay under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and consisted of the second rate HMS St George and five other ships of the line . Both were ordered to cruise the mid @-@ Atlantic in search of the missing French squadrons , Warren in the vicinity of Madeira and subsequently the West Indies , eventually joining with the squadrons there under Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane and Vice @-@ Admiral James Richard Dacres . Strachan was to pass Saint Helena and cruise the West African coast to the Cape of Good Hope , guarding the vital trade route in the Eastern Atlantic that connected Britain with India . If he was unable to discover the French he was instructed to attach his squadron to that under Commodore Home Riggs Popham that had been sent to invade the Dutch base at the Cape of Good Hope in the autumn of 1805 .
= = Battle of San Domingo = =
On 12 January 1806 , Duckworth 's squadron anchored in Carlisle Bay , Barbados , sending HMS Acasta to St. Kitts for additional water supplies . On 19 January the whole squadron sailed to Basseterre at St. Kitts , where they anchored and took on fresh food and water . On 21 January two ships of the West Indian squadron joined them : HMS Northumberland under Captain John Morrison and HMS Atlas under Captain Samuel Pym . Northumberland was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , who met with Duckworth but had no new information about French movements in the region . In fact , Leissègues had arrived in the Caribbean on 20 January , his passage delayed since departing from Brisbane 's convoy in December and his ships damaged and dispersed by a series of winter storms off the Azores . Disembarking the troops at Santo Domingo , the French admiral made repairs to his ships , awaited the arrival of the missing Alexandre and Brave , and took on supplies over the next two weeks in preparation for raiding operations in the West Indies .
On 1 February , the British sloop HMS Kingfisher arrived at St. Kitts with news that three French ships of the line had been spotted off Santo Domingo . Duckworth immediately weighted anchor and sailed for the port , passing St. Thomas on 3 February and though the Mona Passage the following day . On 5 February , the frigate HMS Magicienne under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined the squadron , accompanied by a captured Danish schooner that had recently departed Santo Domingo and whose crew were able to give a precise account of the French squadron at anchor in the harbour . Before the Danish ship had left port , a number of French officers had been concerned that the scho
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1806 , lookouts on HMS London reported sails to the northeast and Captain Sir Harry Burrard @-@ Neale ordered his ship in pursuit . Although no other ships in the squadron could see anything , Warren gave the order to follow London in case the sails proved to be French .
The distant ships were in fact the remains of Linois 's squadron , which had put to sea on 13 March 1803 and operated in the Indian Ocean ever since . There Linois conducted a string of commerce raids that achieved minimal success , hampered by both the lack of naval stores at Île de France and Linois 's hesitation in the face of the enemy . The squadron had missed opportunities at Pulo Aura and the Battle of Vizagapatam in 1804 and against a conovy escorted by Sir Thomas Troubridge in 1805 . Much reduced by detachments and shipwreck , Linois 's squadron now consisted only of his ship of the line Marengo and the frigate Belle Poule . At 03 : 00 on 13 March , lookouts on Marengo sighted sails to the southwest and despite his officers ' misgivings Linois ordered Marengo to investigate , in the hope that he had discovered another merchant convoy .
At 05 : 30 , London and Marengo almost collided in the darkness , Linois recognising the strange ship as a Royal Navy second rate and desperately turning away in an effort to escape . Marengo was too slow and Neale opened fire , rapidly inflicting serious damage to the French flagship . Captain Bruilhac on Belle Poule assisted his admiral for as long as possible , but at 06 : 15 swung away with British frigate HMS Amazon pursuing closely . The fighting continued for another four and a half hours , Linois defending his ship against mounting odds as the rest of Warren 's squadron came into range . To the northeast , Amazon succeeded in catching Belle Poule , the British frigate inflicting serious damage on the French ship as she closed . Unable to escape or continue the fight , both Linois and Bruilhac surrendered at 11 : 00 , although by that time the French admiral had been severely wounded and taken below . French losses were 69 killed and 106 wounded to British casualties of 13 killed and 27 wounded . Following the engagement Warren returned to Britain with his prizes , leaving the eastern half of the Atlantic temporarily unguarded .
= = Willaumez in the Caribbean = =
At the beginning of April 1806 , Strachan was the only British admiral still hunting for Willaumez 's squadron , following the withdrawal of Duckworth and Warren . Strachan 's squadron was hampered in its movements by the presence of the 98 @-@ gun HMS St George , which was much too slow to operate effectively with Strachan 's fast response force . Returning to Britain in early April to resupply , Strachan detached St George and HMS Centaur ( the new flagship of the Rochefort blockade ) at Plymouth and was joined by three additional ships of the line and two frigates , all fast ships capable of extended operations . In early May , news reached Britain of Willaumez 's stay at Salvador and his subsequent departure in mid @-@ April , and Strachan was again ordered in pursuit , sailing for the West Indies .
On leaving Brazil , Willaumez first steered for the French colony of Cayenne , where he divided his ships into three squadrons to increase his raiding operations throughout the West Indies . In May he briefly considered an attack on Carlisle Bay , Barbados , but withdrew claiming that the wind and tide were against him . Cochrane , whose squadron was based at Carlisle Bay , came out in pursuit of the French and almost captured Jérôme Bonaparte in Vétéran with his flagship Northumberland , forcing the French ship to withdraw to Fort @-@ de @-@ France on Martinique on 9 June . Cochrane blockaded the port and was joined by HMS Elephant under Captain George Dundas and HMS Canada under Captain John Harvey , but Northumberland was damaged by a storm and the British temporarily withdrew to Saint Lucia , allowing Éole and Impétueux to reach Fort @-@ de @-@ France on 15 June . Over the following week the rest of Willaumez 's squadron joined Vétéran , ignoring Cochrane 's efforts to intercept his ships as they entered the harbour .
On 1 July Willaumez left Fort @-@ de @-@ France with two ships and sailed to Montserrat , seizing three merchant ships in the harbour . The British governor on Montserrat sent urgent messages to Nevis and St. Kitts , where the authorities hastily evacuated a 65 @-@ ship convoy anchored at Sandy Point under the meagre protection of the 28 @-@ gun frigate HMS Carysfort . However , 13 ships from other harbours missed the warning and on 3 July four ships that had detached from Willaumez 's squadron the day before descended on the islands , seizing four vessels on Nevis and attacking the remaining nine that had gathered under Brimstone Hill . There gunfire from the Brimstone Hill batteries drove off the attacking French ships . On 4 July Willaumez rejoined the squadron from Montserrat with news that the annual Jamaica convoy , a large collection of merchant ships that sailed each year from the Caribbean to Britain during the summer , was anchored off Tortola . Cochrane had already recognised the danger to the Jamaica squadron and had overtaken Willaumez while he was at Montserrat , waiting for the French squadron off St. Thomas with four ships of the line and four frigates . On 6 July Willaumez sighted Cochrane south @-@ east of St. Thomas and , heeding his orders from Napoleon not to risk battle , turned away and passed between St. Thomas and the Passage Islands . With the French driven off , Cochrane sailed to Tortola where nearly 300 ships had gathered to prepare the convoy for the journey to Europe .
Frustrated in his efforts to intercept the convoy at anchor , Willaumez determined to meet it at sea , sailing to the Bahama Banks . There he waited for the convoy , seizing any ships that came within sight of his squadron , including neutral vessels , in case they revealed his position . For several weeks Willaumez 's lookouts saw nothing , the British holding the convoy back until they obtained some information about the location of the French squadron . During the night of 31 July , bored with waiting for the convoy , Captain Jérôme Bonaparte sailed northwards away from the squadron , acting without orders or even notifying his admiral . When dawn broke on 1 August , Willaumez was panicked by the disappearance of Vétéran and , assuming that the ship had somehow been accidentally separated , began to search for the missing vessel and its important commander .
While Willaumez was distracted by his missing ship , Cochrane had finished preparing the convoy . Unable to delay its departure any longer , he sent 109 large merchant ships eastwards under the protection of one small ship of the line , two frigates and two sloops , a significantly inferior force to the one under Willaumez . The convoy passed across Willaumez 's cruising ground during August while the French admiral was to the north searching for Vétéran , and by the time the he returned the convoy was far to the east , was well on its journey to Britain . Willaumez 's absence also meant that he missed a potential encounter with Admiral Warren , who had returned to the Atlantic in search of Willaumez following his victory over Linois in March . Warren had sailed from Spithead on 4 June and by 12 July had anchored at Barbados . During August he searched for Willaumez in the eastern Bahamas but failed to discover the French squadron , which at that time was still searching for Vétéran far to the north .
= = Hurricane = =
With his squadron unexpectedly depleted , his principal target escaped and food supplies running low , Willaumez decided to begin the final stage of his cruise and sail for Newfoundland , thereby escaping pursuit from Cochrane and Warren and preying on the convoys and fishing fleets that crossed the area . Turning northwards on 18 August , Willaumez was at 22 ° N 63 ° W , 324 nautical miles ( 600 km ) north @-@ east of Puerto Rico , when his squadron was struck by a fierce hurricane . When the storm abated , Willaumez found that his flagship Foudroyant was badly damaged and entirely alone . Rigging jury masts , Foudroyant began slowly limping for the Spanish port of Havana on Cuba , where she could make the repairs needed for the journey back to France . For nearly a month Willaumez encountered nothing , but on 15 September , with Havana in sight , the heavy British frigate HMS Anson under Captain Charles Lydiard appeared . Willaumez sent a boat into Havana for assistance as the frigate approached and at 13 : 15 Lydiard opened fire . Although Foudroyant was far larger than Anson she was significantly damaged and incapable of rapid manoeuvres , which gave Lydiard some hope of capturing her . However the fire of Willaumez 's flagship proved too strong and at 13 : 45 Anson sheered away with two men killed and eight wounded . Spanish ships , including the ship of the line San Lorenzo came out to assist Foudroyant and within a few hours she was safely anchored in the heavily fortified harbour .
The rest of Willaumez 's squadron was less successful in their attempts to reach safety . All were badly damaged and most had been blown north @-@ west towards the Eastern Seaboard of the United States . There they encountered Strachan 's squadron , which had passed through the Bahamas while Willaumez searched for Vétéran and been 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) from Willaumez when they were caught in the same hurricane that had dispersed the French squadron . Less damaged than their opponents , Strachan 's ships began gathering off Chesapeake Bay with the intention of continuing their search once temporary repairs had been completed . On 14 September the ships of the line HMS Belleisle under Captain William Hargood , HMS Bellona under Captain John Erskine Douglas and the frigate HMS Melampus under Captain Stephen Poyntz were cruising off Cape Henry in search of Strachan 's flagship HMS Caesar when they spotted a ship sailing under jury masts to the southwest . Closing to investigate , they discovered that the stranger was the French ship Impétueux , left in a dismasted and leaking state by the hurricane and desperately attempting to reach a harbour in the United States . Commodore Alain @-@ Joseph Le Veyer @-@ Belair immediately steered Impétueux towards the coast to avoid the unequal combat and drove his ship on shore at 08 : 15 . Although Impétueux was now on United States soil , Melampus opened fire , the attack followed at 10 : 00 by boats from Belleisle and Bellona . Boarding parties seized Impétueux but the appearance of two sails on the horizon , later discovered to be British , convinced Hargood to abandon the wreck to Melampus . By 20 : 00 the remaining French crew had been taken aboard the frigate as prisoners and Poyntz gave orders for the wreck to be burnt .
The destruction of Impétueux on United States territory prompted complaints from the French consul at Norfolk , Virginia and from the captains of Éole and Patriote , which had sheltered in Annapolis following the storm . Badly damaged by the high winds , repairs on Patriote took over a year , Commodore Joseph @-@ Hyacinthe @-@ Isidore Khrom waiting until 16 December 1807 to make the journey back to France . He arrived at Ile d 'Aix on 17 January 1808 , narrowly avoiding the blockade squadron under Strachan that was temporarily out of position to take on fresh supplies . Éole was never repaired : the difficulty in obtaining the required naval stores proved too great and she was broken up at Annapolis in 1811 . Another ship that never returned to France was the frigate Valeureuse , which sheltered in the Delaware River following the hurricane but was later forced to sail up river to Philadelphia to avoid attacks by British raiding parties . As with Éole , repairs proved too complex and Valeureuse was also broken up some years later . The flagship Foudroyant did succeed in returning to France , sailing from Havana late in 1806 and arriving at Brest in February 1807 .
Of the original squadron only two ships returned to France immediately : Vétéran had separated before the storm and Captain Bonaparte , assisted by a specially selected veteran crew , managed to intercept a convoy travelling from Quebec to Britain escorted only by the 22 @-@ gun HMS Champion under Captain Robert Howe Bromley on 10 August . Although Bromley made a desperate attempt to draw off the French ship of the line , Vétéran ignored the small escort ship and seized six merchant vessels , setting them on fire . Champion and the transport Osborne escaped , accompanied by nine other merchant ships . On 26 August 26 days after he deserted Willaumez 's squadron , Bonaparte was nearing the French coast when he was chased by the 80 @-@ gun HMS Gibraltar under Captain Willoughby Lake and the frigates HMS Penelope and HMS Tribune under Captains William Robert Broughton and Thomas Baker . Closely pursued , the reliable officers placed under Bonaparte abandoned the intended destination of Lorient and instead used their expert local knowledge to direct Vétéran to the tiny port of Concarneau , the first time a ship of the line had ever successfully anchored in the harbour . Although another captain might have been court martialed for abandoning his admiral without orders or permission , the Emperor 's brother was instead praised for intercepting the Quebec convoy and promoted soon afterwards . The other surviving ship of Willaumez 's squadron was Cassard , which passed through the hurricane relatively intact and made its way to Europe alone , arriving at Rochefort several weeks later .
= = Minor operations = =
In addition to the squadrons of Willaumez , Leissègues and Linois , the French authorities sent several other forces into the Atlantic during the campaign ; either separate operations intended to pass unnoticed under the cover of the major campaign or deliberate diversionary expeditions to draw British forces away from the main theatre of operations . The first of these was L 'Hermite 's expedition , a expedition to West Africa under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite that had sailed from Lorient towards the end of the Trafalgar campaign with orders to attack undefended merchant shipping off West Africa and await reinforcements under Jérôme Bonaparte . Before Bonaparte could sail , the Battle of Trafalgar changed the strategic situation and the reinforcements were never despatched . L 'Hermite conducted an effective but minor raiding operation of his own , cruising off West Africa and capturing a number of merchant ships and slave ships , eventually sailing for Cayenne and then back to France in September 1806 . A second force was less planned and more opportunistic : Lamellerie 's expedition was drawn from frigates that had survived the Battle of Trafalgar and were sheltering in Cadiz . Duckworth withdrew from the blockade of Cadiz in November 1805 , and inadequate replacements were provided by Collingwood . In February 1806 , a British plan to lure the French squadron out of port by withdrawing all of the available forces except the frigate HMS Hydra and a brig backfired when a storm blew Hydra out of position on 26 February 1806 and La Meillerie escaped with four frigates and a brig . Hydra gave chase , and La Meillerie abandoned the slower brig to avoid combat with the British frigate , eventually escaping with his remaining ships . La Meillerie 's expedition then visited Senegal and Cayenne , failing to make any impact on British merchant shipping despite orders to commerce raid when possible . After four months , La Meillerie decided to return to France , reaching the Bay of Biscay on in July 1806 .
As well as the squadrons under Warren and Strachan , the British authorities had deployed additional forces in response to the French operations , in particular with the intention of intercepting and capturing Willaumez during his return journey to France . To this end , Rear @-@ Admiral Louis was given a squadron to patrol in the English Channel and Admiral William Cornwallis maintained a powerful force off Brest , which was so successful in cutting off the seaport that L 'Hermite 's Régulus was the only ship of the line to enter or leave the port during 1806 . Other squadrons were stationed off the remaining French Biscay ports , including a force of five ships of the line under Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats off Rochefort . One of Keats ' ships , HMS Mars under Captain Robert Dudley Oliver was able to intercept La Meillerie 's squadron on his return journey and capture the frigate Rhin on 17 July .
In September , Keats was replaced off Rochefort by Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , who achieved a significant success when he intercepted a French squadron of seven frigates and corvettes under Commodore Eleonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil sailing from Rochefort to the French West Indies with supplies and reinforcements at the Action of 25 September 1806 . Hood , commanding six ships of the line , sighted Soleil 's force at 01 : 00 on 25 September , within hours of it leaving Rochefort . Giving chase , conditions suited Hood 's larger ships and by 04 : 00 Soleil recognised that he would be caught by the advancing British and detached three ships southwards and one to the north , retaining three others to delay the approaching British squadron , which had become separated during the pursuit . Engaging the lead ship , HMS Monarch under Captain Richard Lee , Soleil ordered his frigates to target her rigging in the hope of slowing Monarch 's advance and escaping . Monarch was damaged in the battle , but remained in contact with the French long enough that Hood 's flagship HMS Centaur and later HMS Mars could come up and join the engagement . In all four of the French frigates were captured , including the vessel sent north , which was caught by Mars . British casualties were nine killed and 29 wounded , the latter including Hood , who lost an arm .
L 'Hermite 's force had been caught in the same hurricane that had dispersed Willaumez , and as a result his ships were scattered and damaged on 20 August , one frigate joining the remains of Willaumez 's squadron in the United States and the others limping back to France . Most succeeded in slipping through the British blockade independently , including Régulus , which arrived at Brest on 5 October , but one ship was less successful : on 27 September 1806 the frigate Président became the final French casualty of the campaign when it was trapped in the Bay of Biscay by Louis ' squadron . Closed in from all sides , the approach of Louis ' flagship Canopus convinced Captain Labrosse that continued resistance was impossible and he struck his colours without a fight .
= = Aftermath = =
Although Allemand led a minor expedition from Brest to Toulon in 1808 , and the Brest fleet under Willaumez made a determined if ineffectual effort to break into the Atlantic in early 1809 which ended at the Battle of Basque Roads , there were no other large scale naval campaigns fought in the Atlantic Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars . Minor operations by individual French ships and small squadrons continued , but the losses of 1805 and 1806 , combined with the barring of Spanish ports after the Dos de Mayo Uprising and the seizure of much of the French West Indies in 1809 , reduced both the need and the ability of the French to operate on a large scale in the Atlantic : Lord Barham recognised this when he commented on hearing the news of the victory at San Domingo that it " puts us out off all fear from another predatory war in the West Indies " .
In Britain the campaign emphasised the important lesson previously demonstrated in the Trafalgar campaign of the year before , that it was immensely difficult in the vastness of the Atlantic Ocean to detect and intercept French squadrons at sea : only off their own harbours and in the confined waters of the Caribbean were they vulnerable to detection and attack by British squadrons . The inadequate size and power of convoy escorts and the expense in resources employed in chasing French squadrons at sea meant that British trade was placed at risk by the depredations of independent French squadrons , and the maintenance of a tight blockade was essential . The British grip on French maritime travel was a constant source of irritation to Napoleon , who instigated a massive shipbuilding program with the intention of breaking the blockade : by 1808 he was able to muster over 80 ships of the line against the British blockade squadrons .
= Cyrus B. Comstock =
Cyrus Ballou Comstock ( February 3 , 1831 – May 29 , 1910 ) was a career officer in the Regular Army of the United States . After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1855 , Comstock served with the Army Corps of Engineers . At the beginning of the American Civil War , he assisted with the fortification of Washington , D.C. In 1862 , he was transferred to the field , eventually becoming chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . In 1863 during the Siege of Vicksburg , he served as the chief engineer of the Army of the Tennessee .
The most significant phase of Comstock 's career began in November 1864 when he was appointed to the staff of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant , becoming Grant 's senior aide @-@ de @-@ camp . In 1865 , Comstock was appointed the senior engineer in the assault on Fort Fisher , North Carolina , and the assault on Mobile , Alabama , both of which were successful . By the end of the war , Comstock had earned the awards of the honorary grades of brevet major general in the Volunteer Army and brevet brigadier general in the Regular Army .
After the close of the war , Comstock served on the military commission for the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln . He was dismissed from the commission for his criticism of the proceedings . Later Comstock continued with the Army Corps of Engineers , took part in several engineering projects , and served on the Mississippi River Commission , of which he was president .
= = Early life = =
Born in Wrentham , Massachusetts , to Nathan and Betsy Comstock on February 3 , 1831 , Cyrus Comstock attended the United States Military Academy at West Point . He graduated first in his class in 1855 . Following his graduation , Comstock was assigned to the Army Corps of Engineers and assisted with the design and construction of several fortifications . He also served as an instructor of engineering at West Point .
= = Civil War service = =
At the commencement of the Civil War , Comstock , then holding the rank of first lieutenant in the Regular Army , was transferred from West Point to Washington , D.C. He became an assistant to Brig. Gen. John G. Barnard , the engineer in charge of the fortifications of Washington and later chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac .
= = = Army of the Potomac = = =
When the Army of the Potomac took the field in the spring of 1862 during Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's Peninsular Campaign , Comstock continued to serve as Barnard 's assistant . On June 1 , 1862 , during the Peninsular Campaign , Comstock was appointed chief engineer of the II Corps . He continued with the Army of the Potomac through the remainder of the Peninsular Campaign and through the Maryland Campaign .
Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside succeeded McClellan and appointed Comstock the chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . During the Fredericksburg Campaign , Comstock was faced with the difficult task of constructing pontoon bridges over the Rappahannock River , a debacle which proved to be one of the most challenging of his career . Due to confusion in Washington , D.C. at the War Department , the materials necessary for the construction of the bridges did not arrive at Falmouth , Virginia at the same time as the Army of the Potomac . Despite Comstock 's urgent telegraphs and messages , which went unanswered , it took nearly a month for the pontoons to arrive during which time the Union army had completely lost the element of surprise , the Confederate army had dug in at Fredericksburg , Virginia and morale within the Army of the Potomac had sunk . When the material for the bridges finally did arrive , Comstock personally led men from the 50th New York Engineers in seeing to the task of construction . In piecing together the bridges on the Rappahannock River , Comstock and other soldiers were dangerously exposed to enemy fire .
When Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker reorganized the Army of the Potomac in the spring of 1863 , Comstock was removed as chief engineer of that army and placed in command of a battalion of engineers . In that capacity , he played an important role in the Battle of Chancellorsville , overseeing the construction of pontoon bridges over various rivers which first allowed the advance of the Army of the Potomac and later facilitated its retreat after Union forces were defeated .
= = = Siege of Vicksburg = = =
After the Battle of Chancellorsville , Comstock was transferred to the Army of the Tennessee which was , at that time , involved in the Siege of Vicksburg , Mississippi , under the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant . Comstock arrived at Vicksburg in June 1863 and set to work on improving the siege works . His efforts earned Grant 's respect . Comstock was soon promoted to major and appointed chief engineer of the Army of the Tennessee . The Siege of Vicksburg was successful , in part due to Comstock 's supervision of the overall siege works , and the city surrendered to Union forces on July 4 , 1863 . This victory marked a major turning point in the war as the Union Army gained control of the Mississippi River . The impression that Comstock made on Grant would have a significant impact on Comstock 's career later in the war .
Comstock remained with the Army of the Tennessee into the fall of 1863 . On November 19 , he became assistant inspector general of the Department of the Mississippi and promoted to lieutenant colonel of volunteers . He served in this role until March 1864 .
= = = General Grant 's staff = = =
On March 12 , 1864 , Grant was appointed general @-@ in @-@ chief of the United States Army and moved his headquarters to the eastern theater in Virginia . Grant asked Comstock to come with him as his senior aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Grant determined to command in the field , following and directing the movements of the Army of the Potomac in a major offensive during the summer of 1864 known as the Overland Campaign . During the campaign , Comstock played a key role in coordinating the movements of the various corps of the army and personally conveying Grant 's orders to the corps commanders . His efforts were particularly successful during the Battle of the Wilderness for which Comstock won a commendation from Grant and a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the Regular Army .
Comstock was temporarily detached from Grant 's staff and appointed by Grant to the post of chief engineer of the Department of North Carolina in January 1865 . The transfer was prompted by Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler 's failure to take Fort Fisher in December 1864 . The fort was the last Confederate stronghold on the east coast . Serving under the command of Maj. Gen. Alfred Terry , Comstock assisted in planning a second and successful assault on Fort Fisher . Following this victory , Comstock was awarded the grade of brevet colonel in the Regular Army . Comstock also was nominated by President Abraham Lincoln on January 23 , 1865 for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from January 15 , 1865 , for gallant services in the capture of Fort Fisher and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on February 14 , 1865 . He returned to Virginia and to his role as Grant 's senior aide , but did not remain long .
In March 1865 , Grant again dispatched Comstock to aid in a key siege operation — this time to Mobile , Alabama , the last Confederate stronghold on the Gulf of Mexico . There Comstock served under Maj. Gen. Edward Canby and assisted in operations leading to the surrender of Mobile after the Battle of Spanish Fort and the Battle of Fort Blakely in April 1865 . While Comstock was serving in Alabama , Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant after the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , essentially ending the Civil War . On January 13 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet major general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 26 , 1865 , for faithful and meritorious services during the campaign against the city of Mobile and its defenses , and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on March 12 , 1866 . On April 10 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Army , ( Regular Army ) , to rank from March 13 , 1865 , for gallant and meritorious services in the campaign ending with the capture of Mobile , Alabama , and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on May 4 , 1866 .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
= = = Lincoln assassination = = =
In May 1865 , while still serving on Grant 's staff , Comstock was called to serve as one of the nine military commissioners to oversee the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln . At first , Comstock was eager to see the prosecution of the conspirators , writing that , for them , " death is too good . " However , as the trial proceeded , Comstock became disturbed by the secrecy of the military proceedings . Concerned about the violation of the defendants ' rights , he began to openly argue for the case to be transferred to a civilian court . President Andrew Johnson removed Comstock from the commission due to Comstock 's protests . The rationale for the removal , as explained to Comstock by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , was that Grant had also been a potential target of the conspirators and the commissioners felt that Comstock , due to his closeness to Grant , could not be counted on to act impartially .
= = = Later career = = =
Comstock served on Grant 's staff until 1866 , then returned to service with the Corps of Engineers and remained on active duty until 1895 when he retired with the rank of colonel . In the course of his post @-@ war duty , he served with several boards and commissions including the Permanent Board of Engineers in New York City , the geodetic survey of the north and northwestern lakes of the United States , and was president for many years of the Mississippi River Commission .
Comstock was a prominent member of the National Academy of Sciences and bequeathed a fund to the Academy to support an award to a scientist conducting innovative work in the investigation of electricity , magnetism , or radiant energy . Today known as the Comstock Prize in Physics , the award in the amount of $ 20 @,@ 000 is granted every five years by the Academy .
= = = Family = = =
In 1869 , Comstock married Elizabeth Blair , daughter of Montgomery Blair who had served as United States Postmaster General during the Lincoln administration . They had a daughter , Elizabeth Marion Comstock , who was born in Detroit , Michigan in 1872 while Comstock was at work on the geodetic survey of the Great Lakes .
= Nuremberg Laws =
The Nuremberg Laws ( German : Nürnberger Gesetze ) were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany . They were introduced on 15 September 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour , which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households , and the Reich Citizenship Law , which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens ; the remainder were classed as state subjects , without citizenship rights . A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November , and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date . The laws were expanded on 26 November to include Romani people and Afro @-@ Germans . Out of foreign policy concerns , prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics , held in Berlin .
After they seized power in 1933 , the Nazis began to implement their policies , which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft ( people 's community ) based on race . Chancellor and Führer ( leader ) Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933 , and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April , excluded most Jews from the legal profession and civil service . Books considered un @-@ German , including those by Jewish authors , were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May . Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks . They were actively suppressed , stripped of their citizenship and civil rights , and eventually completely removed from German society .
The Nuremberg laws had a serious economic and social impact on the Jewish community . Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned , and ( subsequent to 8 March 1938 ) upon completing their sentences were re @-@ arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps . Non @-@ Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish @-@ owned stores , many of which closed due to lack of customers . As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government @-@ regulated professions such as medicine and education , many middle class , business owners , and professionals were forced to take menial employment . Emigration was problematic , as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country . By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them . Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out , and starting in mid @-@ 1941 , the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe . The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people , and estimates of the number of Romani killed in the Porajmos range from 150 @,@ 000 to 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Background = =
Prior to the formation of the German Empire in 1871 , the legal status of Jews varied from place to place within the German Confederation and the Kingdom of Prussia . Jews became equal citizens with the creation of the new constitution that soon followed . However , they still faced discrimination and antisemitism . Nationalist sentiments and the idea of Germans as a separate race took hold at the beginning of the 20th century . Jews , with their different culture and ancestry , were viewed ( particularly by proponents of the Völkisch movement ) as being members of a separate and inferior race . Several nationalistic and antisemitic groups ( some with memberships of hundreds of thousands of people ) formed after the First World War . These groups committed acts of violence against Jews and lobbied for their disenfranchisement and removal from German society .
The National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( NSDAP ; Nazi Party ) was one of several far @-@ right political parties active in Germany at the time . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a ' Volksgemeinschaft ( people 's community ) based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights . The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement .
= = = Nazi eugenics and racial belief = = =
Nazi racial beliefs arose from earlier proponents of a supremacist conception of race such as Arthur de Gobineau , who published a four @-@ volume work titled An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races ( translated into German in 1897 ) . In it , de Gobineau proposed that the Aryan race was superior , and urged the preservation of its cultural and racial purity . Houston Stewart Chamberlain 's work The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century ( 1900 ) , one of the first to combine Social Darwinism with antisemitism , describes history as a struggle for survival between the Germanic peoples and the Jews , whom he characterized as an inferior and dangerous group . The two @-@ volume book Foundations of Human Hereditary Teaching and Racial Hygiene ( 1920 – 21 ) by Eugen Fischer , Erwin Baur , and Fritz Lenz , used pseudoscientific studies to conclude that the Germans were superior to the Jews intellectually and physically , and recommended eugenics as a solution . Madison Grant 's work The Passing of the Great Race ( 1916 ) advocated Nordicism and proposed using a eugenic program to preserve the Nordic race . After reading the book , Hitler called it " my Bible " . The Nazis embraced the concept of Nordicism and wished for the Nordic race to dominate Germany , but they did not discriminate against Aryans who did not have Nordic physical characteristics .
While imprisoned in 1924 after the failed Beer Hall Putsch , Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to his deputy , Rudolf Hess . The book is an autobiography and exposition of Hitler 's ideology in which he laid out his plans for transforming German society into one based on race . In it he outlined his belief in Jewish Bolshevism , a conspiracy theory that posited the existence of an international Jewish conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews were the mortal enemy of the German people . Throughout his life Hitler never wavered in his world view as expounded in Mein Kampf . The NSDAP advocated the concept of a Volksgemeinschaft ( " people 's community " ) with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades , whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or of a foreign race ( Fremdvölkische ) .
= = Nazi Germany = =
Discrimination against Jews intensified after the NSDAP seized power ; following a month @-@ long series of attacks by members of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ; paramilitary wing of the NSDAP ) on Jewish businesses , synagogues , and members of the legal profession , on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses . By 1933 , many people who were not NSDAP members advocated segregating Jews from the rest of German society . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April 1933 , forced all non @-@ Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise . In 1934 , the NSDAP published a pamphlet titled " Warum Arierparagraph ? " ( " Why the Aryan Law ? " ) , which summarized the perceived need for the law . As part of the drive to remove Jewish influence from cultural life , members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un @-@ German , and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May . Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country . Legislation passed in July 1933 stripped naturalised German Jews of their citizenship , creating a legal basis for recent immigrants ( particularly Eastern European Jews ) to be deported . Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews . Throughout 1933 and 1934 , Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks .
Laws promulgated in this period that were not aimed directly at Jews included the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring ( passed on 14 July 1933 ) , which called for the compulsory sterilisation of people with a range of hereditary , physical , and mental illnesses . Under the Law against Dangerous Habitual Criminals ( passed 24 November 1935 ) , habitual criminals were forced to undergo sterilisation as well . This law was also used to force the incarceration in prison or Nazi concentration camps of " social misfits " such as the chronically unemployed , prostitutes , beggars , alcoholics , homeless vagrants , and Romani people .
= = = " The Jewish problem " = = =
Disenchanted with the unfulfilled promise of the NSDAP to eliminate Jews from German society , SA members were eager to lash out against the Jewish minority as a way of expressing their frustrations . A Gestapo report from early 1935 stated that the rank and file of the NSDAP would set in motion a solution to the " Jewish problem ... from below that the government would then have to follow " . Assaults , vandalism , and boycotts against Jews , which the Nazi government had temporarily curbed in 1934 , increased again in 1935 amidst a propaganda campaign authorised at the highest levels of government . Most non @-@ party members ignored the boycotts and objected to the violence out of concern for their own safety . The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka argues that there was a disparity between the views of the Alte Kämpfer ( longtime party members ) and the general public , but that even those Germans who were not politically active favoured bringing in tougher new antisemitic laws in 1935 . The matter was raised to the forefront of the state agenda as a result of this antisemitic agitation .
The Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick announced on 25 July that a law forbidding marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews would shortly be promulgated , and recommended that registrars should avoid issuing licenses for such marriages for the time being . The draft law also called for a ban on marriage for persons with hereditary illnesses .
Dr. Hjalmar Schacht , the Economics Minister and Reichsbank president , criticised the violent behaviour of the Alte Kämpfer and SA because of its negative impact on the economy . The violence also had a negative impact on Germany 's reputation in the international community . For these reasons , Hitler ordered a stop to " individual actions " against German Jews on 8 August 1935 , and the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick threatened to take legal action against Party members who ignored the order . From Hitler 's perspective , it was imperative to quickly bring in new antisemitic laws to appease the radical elements in the NSDAP who persisted in attempting to remove the Jews from German society by violent means . A conference of ministers was held on 20 August 1935 to discuss the question . Hitler argued against violent methods because of the damage being done to the economy , and insisted the matter must be settled through legislation . The focus of the new laws would be marriage laws to prevent " racial defilement " , stripping Jews of their German citizenship , and laws to prevent Jews from participating freely in the economy .
= = = Events at Nuremberg = = =
The seventh annual Nazi Party Rally , held in Nuremberg from 10 – 16 September 1935 , featured the only Reichstag session held outside Berlin during the Nazi regime . Hitler decided that the rally would be a good opportunity to introduce the long @-@ awaited anti @-@ Jewish laws . In a speech on 12 September , leading Nazi physician Gerhard Wagner announced that the government would soon introduce a " law for the protection of German blood " . The next day , Hitler summoned the Reichstag to meet in session at Nuremberg on 15 September , the last day of the rally . Franz Albrecht Medicus and Bernhard Lösener of the Interior Ministry were summoned to Nuremberg and directed to start preparing a draft of a law forbidding sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews . The two men arrived on 14 September . That evening , Hitler ordered them to also have ready by morning a draft of the Reich citizenship law . Hitler found the initial drafts of the Blood Law to be too lenient , so at around midnight Frick brought him four new drafts that differed mainly in the severity of the penalties they imposed . Hitler chose the most lenient version , but left vague the definition of who was a Jew . Hitler stated at the rally that the laws were " an attempt at the legal settlement of a problem , which , if this proved a failure , would have to be entrusted by law to the National Socialist Party for a definitive solution . " Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had the radio broadcast of the passing of the laws cut short , and ordered the German media to not mention them until a decision was made as to how they would be implemented .
= = Text of the laws = =
The two Nuremberg Laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag on 15 September 1935 . The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans , and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens ; the remainder were classed as state subjects , without citizenship rights . The wording in the Citizenship Law that a person must prove " by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich " meant that political opponents could also be stripped of their German citizenship . Over the coming years , an additional 13 supplementary laws were promulgated that further marginalised the Jewish community in Germany .
= = = Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour = = =
Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people , and inspired by the inflexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time , the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law , which is promulgated herewith :
Article 1
Marriages between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden . Marriages nevertheless concluded are invalid , even if concluded abroad to circumvent this law .
Annulment proceedings can be initiated only by the state prosecutor .
Article 2
Extramarital relations between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden .
Article 3
Jews may not employ in their households female subjects of the state of German or related blood who are under 45 years old .
Article 4
Jews are forbidden to fly the Reich or national flag or display Reich colours .
They are , on the other hand , permitted to display the Jewish colours . The exercise of this right is protected by the state .
Article 5
Any person who violates the prohibition under Article 1 will be punished with prison with hard labour [ Zuchthaus ] .
A male who violates the prohibition under Article 2 will be punished with prison [ Gefängnis ] or prison with hard labour .
Any person violating the provisions under Articles 3 or 4 will be punished with prison with hard labour for up to one year and a fine , or with one or the other of these penalties .
Article 6
The Reich Minister of the Interior , in co @-@ ordination with the Deputy of the Führer and the Reich Minister of Justice , will issue the legal and administrative regulations required to implement and complete this law .
Article 7
The law takes effect on the day following promulgation , except for Article 3 , which goes into force on 1 January 1936 .
= = = Reich Citizenship Law = = =
The Reichstag has unanimously enacted the following law , which is promulgated herewith :
Article 1
A subject of the state is a person who enjoys the protection of the German Reich and who in consequence has specific obligations toward it .
The status of subject of the state is acquired in accordance with the provisions of the Reich and the Reich Citizenship Law .
Article 2
A Reich citizen is a subject of the state who is of German or related blood , and proves by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich .
Reich citizenship is acquired through the granting of a Reich citizenship certificate .
The Reich citizen is the sole bearer of full political rights in accordance with the law .
Article 3
The Reich Minister of the Interior , in co @-@ ordination with the Deputy of the Führer , will issue the legal and administrative orders required to implement and complete this law .
= = Classifications under the laws = =
= = Impact = =
While both the Interior Ministry and the NSDAP agreed that persons with three or more Jewish grandparents would be classed as being Jewish and those with only one ( Mischlinge of the second degree ) would not , a debate arose as to the status of persons with two Jewish grandparents ( Mischlinge of the first degree ) . The NSDAP , especially its more radical elements , wanted the laws to apply to Mischlinge of both the first and second degree . For this reason Hitler continued to stall , and did not make a decision until early November 1935 . His final ruling was that persons with three Jewish grandparents were classed as Jewish ; those with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish only if they practised the faith or had a Jewish spouse . The supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November , and the Reich Citizenship Law came into force on that date . Jews were no longer German citizens and did not have the right to vote . Civil servants who had been granted an exemption to the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service because of their status as war veterans were forced out of their jobs on this date . A supplementary decree issued on 21 December ordered the dismissal of Jewish veterans from other state @-@ regulated professions such as medicine and education .
While Frick 's suggestion that a citizenship tribunal before which every German would have to prove that they were Aryan was not acted upon , proving one 's racial heritage became a necessary part of daily life . Non @-@ government employers were authorised to include in their statutes an Aryan paragraph excluding both Mischlinge and Jews from employment . Proof of Aryan descent was achieved by obtaining an Aryan certificate . One form was to acquire an Ahnenpass , which could be obtained by providing birth or baptismal certificates that all four grandparents were of Aryan descent . The Ahnenpass could also be acquired by citizens of other countries , as long as they were of " German or related blood " .
Under the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour ( 15 September 1935 ) , marriages were forbidden between Jews and Germans ; between Mischlinge of the first degree and Germans ; between Jews and Mischlinge of the second degree ; and between two Mischling
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e of the second degree . Mischlinge of the first degree were permitted to marry Jews , but they would henceforth be classed as Jewish themselves . All marriages undertaken between half @-@ Jews and Germans required the approval of a Committee for the Protection of German Blood . Few such permissions were granted . A supplementary decree issued on 26 November 1935 extended the law to " Gypsies , Negroes , and their bastards . " Estimates of the death toll of Romani people in the Porajmos range from 150 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 .
Persons suspected of having sexual relations with non @-@ Aryans were charged with Rassenschande ( racial defilement ) and tried in the regular courts . Evidence provided to the Gestapo for such cases was largely provided by ordinary citizens such as neighbours , co @-@ workers , or other informants . Persons accused of race defilement were publicly humiliated by being paraded through the streets with a placard around their necks detailing their crime . Those convicted were typically sentenced to prison terms , and ( subsequent to 8 March 1938 ) upon completing their sentences were re @-@ arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps . As the law did not permit capital punishment for racial defilement , special courts were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases . From the end of 1935 through 1940 , 1 @,@ 911 people were convicted of Rassenschande . Over time , the law was extended to include non @-@ sexual forms of physical contact such as greeting someone with a kiss or an embrace .
For the most part , Germans accepted the Nuremberg Laws , partly because Nazi propaganda had successfully swayed public opinion towards the general belief that Jews were a separate race , but also because to oppose the regime meant leaving oneself open to harassment or arrest by the Gestapo . Citizens were relieved that the antisemitic violence ceased after the laws were passed . Non @-@ Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish @-@ owned stores . Wholesalers who continued to serve Jewish merchants were marched through the streets with placards around their necks proclaiming them as traitors . The Communist party and some elements of the Catholic Church were critical of the laws . Concerned that international opinion would be adversely swayed by the new laws , the Interior Ministry did not actively enforce them until after the 1936 Summer Olympics , held in Berlin that August .
The Interior Ministry estimated there were 750 @,@ 000 Mischlinge as of April 1935 ( studies done after the war put the number of Mischlinge at around 200 @,@ 000 ) . As Jews became more and more excluded from German society , they organised social events , schools , and activities of their own . Economic problems were not so easily solved , however ; many Jewish firms went out of business due to lack of customers . This was part of the ongoing Aryanization process ( the transfer of Jewish firms to non @-@ Jewish owners , usually at prices far below market value ) that the regime had initiated in 1933 , which intensified after the Nuremberg laws were passed . Former middle @-@ class or wealthy business owners were forced to take employment in menial jobs to support their families , and many were unable to find work at all .
Although a stated goal of the Nazis was that all Jews should leave the country , emigration was problematic , as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country . Anyone caught transferring their money overseas were sentenced to lengthy terms in prison as " economic saboteurs " . An exception was money sent to Palestine under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , whereby Jews could transfer their wealth and emigrate to that country . Around 52 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to Palestine under the terms of this agreement between 1933 and 1939 .
By the start of the Second World War in 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews had emigrated to the United States , Palestine , Great Britain , and other countries . By 1938 it was becoming almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country that would take them . After the 1936 – 39 Arab revolt , the British were disinclined to accept any more Jews into Palestine for fear it would further destabilize the region . Nationalistic and xenophobic people in other countries pressured their governments not to accept waves of Jewish immigrants , especially poverty @-@ stricken ones . The Madagascar Plan , a proposed mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar , proved to be impossible to carry out . Starting in mid @-@ 1941 , the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe . The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people .
= = Legislation in other countries = =
Some of the allies of the Nazis passed their own versions of the Nuremberg laws . In 1938 , Fascist Italy passed the Italian Racial Laws , which stripped Jews of their citizenship and forbade marriages between Jewish and non @-@ Jewish Italians . Hungary passed laws on 28 May 1938 and 5 May 1939 banning Jews from various professions . A third law , added in August 1941 , defined Jews as anyone with at least two Jewish grandparents , and forbade sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews . In 1940 the ruling Iron Guard in Romania passed the Law Defining the Legal Status of Romanian Jews , in 1941 the Codex Judaicus was enacted in Slovakia , in 1941 Bulgaria passed the Law for Protection of the Nation , and in 1941 the Ustasha in Croatia passed legislation defining who was a Jew and restricting contact with them . Imperial Japan did not draft or pass any such legislation .
= = Existing copies = =
An original typescript of the laws signed by Hitler was found by the US Army 's Counter @-@ Intelligence Corps in 1945 . It ended up in the possession of General George S. Patton , who kept it , in violation of orders that such finds should be turned over to the government . During a visit to Los Angeles , he handed it over to the Huntington Library , where it was stored in a bomb @-@ proof vault . The library revealed the existence of the document in 1999 , and sent it on permanent loan to the Skirball Cultural Center , which placed it on public display . The document was transferred to the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington in August 2010 .
= Castle Park , Bristol =
Castle Park ( sometimes referred to as Castle Green ) is a public open space in Bristol , England , managed by Bristol City Council . It is bounded by the Floating Harbour and Castle Street to the south , Lower Castle Street to the east , and Broad Weir , Newgate and Wine Street to the north . Its western boundary is less obviously defined and has been the subject of controversy , perhaps because the area around High Street and St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Church , though not part of the park and always intended for development , is often considered at the same time as the park . The park was completed and opened on 30 September 1978 , and occupies most of the site which had contained Bristol 's main shopping area . Much of this area was heavily damaged in the Blitz during the Second World War , and that which remained was subsequently demolished .
The ruined tower of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church stands to the west of the park , surrounded by derelict financial office buildings . Adjoining the ruins of St Peter 's church in the middle of the park is a sensory herb garden , and five silver birch trees as a memorial to the beaches of the D @-@ Day landings . To the east is a grassy arena , and the partially excavated remains of Bristol Castle with a preserved vaulted chamber . There is also a bandstand and a children 's play area .
Tree @-@ lined St Peter 's Square , to the north of St Peter 's church , has been home to various events including German Christmas markets . In recent summers a tethered balloon has been placed near the bandstand , offering ascents to sightseers .
Recent attempts to develop the area between the park 's western edge and High Street have proved controversial ; Bristol City Council are keen to replace derelict buildings with a mixed @-@ use development to help reconnect the Old City to Broadmead and raise funds to improve the park ; others would rather see the park extended to High Street .
= = History = =
The town of Bristol was settled at some time in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period on the northern or Mercian side of a crossing point of the River Avon , at or near to the present Bristol Bridge . The town lay entirely between the Avon and the Frome , which at that time emerged into the Avon just downstream of Bristol Bridge .
Archaeological excavations of the area in 1962 @-@ 1963 suggest that the original settlement was centred to the east of St Peter 's Church , with Mary @-@ le @-@ Port on its western limit . The building of Bristol Castle in the latter part of the 11th century resulted in the focus of the settlement being moved to the west , where it developed into a symmetrical plan centred on the crossroads of High Street , Wine Street , Broad Street and Corn Street . The area around Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street was thus the most ancient part of the mediaeval city . Bristol Castle was home to the Norman garrison , and was a massive structure whose keep was comparable to that of the Tower of London . The castle occupied the whole of the eastern end of today 's Castle park , from just east of St Peter 's Church to Lower Castle Street .
In 1612 Robert Aldworth , Mayor of Bristol , rebuilt St Peter 's Hospital on a site between St Peter 's Church and the Floating Harbour . This ' beautiful house with its elaborate carving ' became the Bristol Mint in 1695 , and was considered to be Bristol 's greatest architectural loss of the Second World War .
By the 16th century the castle was ' tending to ruin ' , and following his victory in the English Civil War Oliver Cromwell decreed its destruction in 1655 , a process which was completed within a fortnight . The castle had stood on the main route from Bristol to London , and following its destruction a commercial avenue opened along Castle Street from the mediaeval city towards Old Market . The demolition of Lawford 's Gate at the eastern end of Old Market Street extended this into West Street , creating an uninterrupted route into the bustling heart of Bristol .
Wine Street and Castle Street became the main shopping streets , where retailers such as Boots , Jones 's ( later to become part of the Debenhams group ) , the Co @-@ op and Marks & Spencer traded . Baker Baker had large stores in Bridge Street , Wine Street and Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street ; two of these were connected by a high bridge across Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street . The area also hosted a cinema ( the News Theatre ) and its narrow winding back @-@ streets contained many independent shops , hotels , and pubs . At the corner of High Street and Wine Street stood the ' most loved fragment of Old Bristol ' : The Dutch House .
= = = 24 November 1940 = = =
On the afternoon of 24 November 1940 , 148 aircraft of the Luftwaffe left airfields in Northern France heading for Bristol . The concentration point was to be the City Docks , and their objective was to destroy Bristol 's industry and port facilities . 135 aircraft reached the target area , and dropped 156 @,@ 250 kg ( 344 @,@ 470 lb ) of high explosives , 4 @,@ 750 kg ( 10 @,@ 470 lb ) of oil bombs and 12 @,@ 500 incendiaries . As the raid progressed , the fires could be seen from 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) away . Wide areas of the city were struck , but the most concentrated damage occurred in the area between Broad Quay and Old Market where fierce fires burnt through the night . By the morning , 200 Bristolians were dead and 689 injured , four Luftwaffe crewmen were dead , one injured and four captured , two aircraft were lost , and a large part of the historic heart of Bristol was a smouldering ruin .
The destruction was not total , however . Post @-@ war photographs show that buildings survived intact on Bridge Street , High Street , Castle Street and Peter Street . The west end of Narrow Wine Street , a ' fantastic little old thoroughfare ' , was more or less intact ; Castle Mill Street and Castle Green received little damage , and Upper , Middle and Lower Terrace survived . More importantly , the irreplaceable mediaeval street plan remained .
= = = Replanning = = =
The idea that Bristol 's main shopping area should be moved away from the Castle Street and Wine Street area was first proposed to Bristol Corporation 's Planning and Reconstruction Committee by the Multiple Traders ' Federation ( MTF ) , representing the larger retailers and chain @-@ stores , in October 1943 . They suggested that the pre @-@ war shopping area should be set aside as a civic area with perhaps a concert hall or similar building and an open space , and that the central shopping area should be moved to a less @-@ constrained site . This suggestion formed part of the City Engineer 's Master Plan of February 1944 , which envisaged that the area would contain a limited number of buildings such as a conference hall , with underground parking for 2 @,@ 000 cars . The removal of the shopping area was considered desirable because the fire that had destroyed so much of the area was in large part sustained by its congested nature , and in any case many of the chain @-@ stores represented by the MTF wanted larger sites .
The main objection to this plan came from the independent traders who did not wish to relocate because they felt that the proposed new shopping area was ' off the beaten track ' . This objection was not unreasonable , as in its pre @-@ war topography Bristol had a long shopping axis that started at Stapleton Road to the east , passed through Old Market into Castle Street , Wine Street , and the City Markets , and then via The Centre and Park Street to Queens Road and Whiteladies Road . Moving the central shopping area would break this axis . There was also concern about the serious negative social and economic impacts of ' sterilising ' such a large area in the centre of the city . However , when the Bristol Retail Traders Federation , representing the small traders , produced a poll showing that 13 @,@ 000 people wished to retain the shopping centre on its current site whereas only 400 preferred to see it moved , the local Labour party dismissed the poll describing it as ' undemocratic ' and comparing the Federation 's methods to those of Hitler .
By 1966 , the shops had been rebuilt in ' barren ' Broadmead ( at the expense of demolishing an area of Victorian , Georgian and Tudor buildings that had escaped the wartime bombing more or less unscathed ) , and the Wine Street and Castle Street area was being used for car parking . The picturesque area around Narrow Wine Street and Castle Mill Street had been demolished to create modern Newgate , and Old Market , severed from Bristol 's shopping axis by the new Temple Way Underpass and the destruction of Castle Street , was in serious decline . The plan for Castle Park was crystallising , however . The ruined St Peter 's Church would be surrounded by a museum and an art gallery ; to the east of this there would be an arts centre and the remaining area east to Lower Castle Street would be a park . The south @-@ western corner nearest Bristol Bridge would contain a riverside hotel , and the north @-@ western corner would be home to ' a block for cultural , professional and exhibition purposes ' .
In the event , the north @-@ western corner was leased to the Bank of England and Norwich Union Insurance ( whose offices now stand derelict ) , and the critical corner site where the Dutch House had stood was replaced by a link road to a short section of dual @-@ carriageway linking High Street with Wine Street . Plans for a civic centre were dropped as being too expensive .
Finally , in 1977 , work began on an ' emasculated ' version of the new park . This was designed by Bristol City Council 's parks department and , largely for financial reasons , it contained few of the features intended by earlier plans but was much larger than that originally planned . The last remaining vestiges of the mediaeval street plan , Dolphin Street and Peter Street , were buried .
= = = Mary @-@ le @-@ Port development = = =
In 2006 , Bristol City Council announced its intention to redevelop the area to the west of Castle Park , known as the ' Mary @-@ le @-@ Port ' site . These plans encompassed the by then derelict financial buildings , and the area to the west of St Peter 's church , about 5 % of the park . It was to be a 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) mixed @-@ use development to ' regenerate this historic heart of Bristol ' and to ' improve connections between Broadmead , the Old City and Redcliffe ' and ' enhance the setting of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church ' . The council selected Deeley Freed as its preferred developer . The scheme provoked opposition from park users who felt that any reduction in the area of the park was not acceptable . ' Surprised by the extent of feeling ' , Bristol City Council decided to revise the plans . Campaigners then applied to have ' Town Green ' status applied to the park , but this was declined in 2009 .
In 2010 , the Mary @-@ le @-@ Port site was listed as being ' for sale ' by Bristol City Council .
= = = Footbridge = = =
In March 2016 , Bristol City Council approved plans for an S @-@ shaped footbridge over the Floating Harbour , linking the park to the Finzels Reach development .
= = Sites of Interest = =
Very little of Bristol Castle remains above ground . The most tangible survival is a vaulted chamber of the King 's Hall , formerly on Tower Street near the now @-@ truncated Castle Street . Other than that , the excavated remains of the south wall can be seen near the landing stage , and near St Peter 's Church the sally port and traces of the west wall are visible . The foundations of the keep are on show next to the public toilets on Newgate .
The park contains a number of memorials . The ruins of St Peter 's Church are a memorial to the civilians and auxiliary personnel killed in the aerial bombing of Bristol , and a plaque on its wall lists their names . Adjoining the church is a sensory herb garden and The Normandy Garden of Peace , which was opened on 5 November 1995 , with five Silver Birch trees trees , managed by Bristol 's D @-@ Day veterans , in memory of the five D @-@ Day beaches . There are also memorials for trees for Anne Frank and the victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
The ruined tower of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church , subject of a painting by John Piper that appeared on a 1968 1s . 6d. postage stamp , stands on the western edge of the park , surrounded by now @-@ derelict buildings .
= Castell Coch =
Castell Coch ( Welsh pronunciation : [ ˈkastɛɬ koːχ ] ; Welsh for Red Castle ) is a 19th @-@ century Gothic Revival castle built above the village of Tongwynlais in South Wales . The first castle on the site was built by the Normans after 1081 , to protect the newly conquered town of Cardiff and control the route along the Taff Gorge . Abandoned shortly afterwards , the castle 's earth motte was reused by Gilbert de Clare as the basis for a new stone fortification , which he built between 1267 and 1277 to control his freshly annexed Welsh lands . This castle was likely destroyed in the native Welsh rebellion of 1314 . In 1760 , the castle ruins were acquired by John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute as part of a marriage settlement that brought the family vast estates in South Wales .
John Crichton @-@ Stuart , the 3rd Marquess of Bute , inherited the castle in 1848 . One of Britain 's wealthiest men , with interests in architecture and antiquarian studies , he employed the architect William Burges to reconstruct the castle , " as a country residence for occasional occupation in the summer " , using the medieval remains as a basis for the design . Burges rebuilt the outside of the castle between 1875 and 1879 , before turning to the interior ; he died in 1881 and the work was finished by Burges 's remaining team in 1891 . Bute reintroduced commercial viticulture into Britain , planting a vineyard just below the castle , and wine production continued until the First World War . The Marquess made little use of his new retreat and in 1950 his grandson , the 5th Marquess of Bute , placed it into the care of the state . It is now controlled by the Welsh heritage agency Cadw .
Castell Coch 's external features and the High Victorian interiors led the historian David McLees to describe it as " one of the greatest Victorian triumphs of architectural composition . " The exterior , based on 19th @-@ century studies by the antiquarian George Clark , is relatively authentic in style , although its three stone towers were adapted by Burges to present a dramatic silhouette , closer in design to mainland European castles such as Chillon than native British fortifications . The interiors were elaborately decorated , with specially designed furniture and fittings ; the designs include extensive use of symbolism drawing on classical and legendary themes . Joseph Mordaunt Crook wrote that the castle represented " the learned dream world of a great patron and his favourite architect , recreating from a heap of rubble a fairy @-@ tale castle which seems almost to have materialised from the margins of a medieval manuscript . "
The surrounding beech woods contain rare plant species and unusual geological features and are protected as a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 14th centuries = = =
The first castle on the Castell Coch site was probably built after 1081 , during the Norman invasion of Wales . It formed one of a string of eight fortifications intended to defend the newly conquered town of Cardiff and control the route along the Taff Gorge . It took the form of a raised , earth @-@ work motte , about 35 metres ( 115 ft ) across at the base and 25 metres ( 82 ft ) on the top , protected by the surrounding steep slopes . The 16th @-@ century historian Rice Merrick claimed that the castle was built by the Welsh lord Ifor ap Meurig , but there are no records of this phase of the castle 's history and modern historians doubt this account . The first castle was probably abandoned after 1093 when the Norman lordship of Glamorgan was created , changing the line of the frontier .
In 1267 , Gilbert de Clare , who held the Lordship of Glamorgan , seized the lands around the town of Senghenydd in the north of Glamorgan from their native Welsh ruler . Caerphilly Castle was built to control the new territory and Castell Coch — strategically located between Cardiff and Caerphilly — was reoccupied . A new castle was built in stone around the motte , comprising a shell @-@ wall , a projecting circular tower , a gatehouse and a square hall above an undercroft . The north @-@ west section of the walls was protected by a talus and the sides of the motte were scarped to increase their angle , all producing a small but powerful fortification . Further work followed between 1268 and 1277 , which added two large towers , a turning @-@ bridge for the gatehouse and further protection to the north @-@ west walls .
On Gilbert 's death , the castle passed to his widow Joan and around this time it was referred to as Castrum Rubeum , Latin for " the Red Castle " , probably after the colour of the sandstone defences . Gilbert 's son , also named Gilbert , inherited the property in 1307 . He died at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 , triggering an uprising of the native Welsh in the region . Castell Coch was probably destroyed by the rebels in July 1314 , and possibly slighted to put it beyond any further use ; it was not rebuilt and the site was abandoned .
= = = 15th – 19th centuries = = =
= = = = Bute ownership = = = =
Castell Coch remained derelict ; the antiquarian John Leland , visiting around 1536 , described it as " all in ruin , no big thing but high " . The artist and illustrator Julius Caesar Ibbetson painted the castle in 1792 , depicting substantial remains and a prominent tower , with a lime kiln in operation alongside the fortification . Stone from the castle may have been robbed and used to feed the kilns during this period . A similar view was sketched by an unknown artist in the early 19th century , showing more trees around the ruins ; a few years later , Robert Drane recommended the site as a place for picnics and noted its abundance in wild garlic .
The ruins were acquired by the Earls of Bute in 1760 , when John Stuart , the 3rd Earl and , from 1794 , the 1st Marquess , married Lady Charlotte Windsor , adding her estates in South Wales to his inheritance . John 's grandson , John Crichton @-@ Stuart , developed the Cardiff Docks in the first half of the 19th century ; although the docks were not especially profitable , they opened opportunities for the expansion of the coal industry in the South Wales valleys , making the Bute family extremely wealthy . The 2nd Marquess carried out exploration for iron ore at Castell Coch in 1827 and considered establishing an ironworks there .
The 3rd Marquess of Bute , another John Crichton @-@ Stuart , inherited the castle and the family estates as a child in 1848 . On his coming of age , Bute 's landed estates and industrial inheritance made him one of the wealthiest men in the world . He had a wide range of interests including archaeology , theology , linguistics and history . Interest in medieval architecture increased in Britain during the 19th century , and in 1850 the antiquarian George Clark surveyed Castell Coch and published his findings , the first major scholarly work about the castle . The ruins were covered in rubble , ivy , brushwood and weeds ; the keep had been largely destroyed and the gatehouse was so covered with debris that Clark failed to discover it . Nonetheless , Clark considered the external walls " tolerably perfect " and advised that the castle be conserved , complete with the ivy @-@ covered stonework .
In 1871 , Bute asked his chief Cardiff engineer , John McConnochie , to excavate and clear the castle ruins . The report on the investigations was produced by William Burges , an architect with an interest in medieval architecture who had met Bute in 1865 . The Marquess subsequently employed him to redevelop Cardiff Castle in the late 1860s , and the two men became close collaborators . Burges 's lavishly illustrated report , which drew extensively on Clark 's earlier work , laid out two options : either conserve the ruins or rebuild the castle to create a house for occasional occupation in the summer . On receipt of the report , Bute commissioned Burges to rebuild Castle Coch in a Gothic Revival style .
= = = = Reconstruction = = = =
The reconstruction of Castell Coch was delayed until 1875 , because of the demands of work at Cardiff Castle and an unfounded concern by the Marquess 's trustees that he was facing bankruptcy . On commencement , the Kitchen Tower , Hall Block and shell wall were rebuilt first , followed by the Well Tower and the Gatehouse , and the Keep Tower last . Burges 's drawings for the proposed rebuilding survive at the Bute seat of Mount Stuart . The drawings were supplemented by a large number of wooden and plaster models , from smaller pieces to full @-@ size models of furniture .
The bulk of the external work was complete by the end of 1879 . The result closely followed Burges 's original plans , with the exception of an additional watch tower intended to resemble a minaret , and some defensive timber hoardings , both of which were not undertaken . Clark continued to advise Burges on historical aspects of the reconstruction and the architect tested the details of proposed features , such as the drawbridge and portcullis , against surviving designs at other British castles .
Burges 's team of craftsmen at Castell Coch included many who had worked with him at Cardiff Castle and elsewhere . John Chapple , his office manager , designed most of the furnishings and furniture , and William Frame acted as clerk of works . Horatio Lonsdale was Burges 's chief artist , painting extensive murals at the castle . His main sculptor was Thomas Nicholls , together with another long @-@ time collaborator , the Italian sculptor Ceccardo Fucigna .
Stimulated by antiquarian writings about British viticulture , Bute decided to reintroduce commercial grape vines into Britain in 1873 . He sent his gardener Andrew Pettigrew to France for training and planted a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ hectare ( 3 @-@ acre ) vineyard just beneath the castle in 1875 . The first harvests were poor and the initial harvest in 1877 produced only 240 bottles . Punch magazine claimed that any wine produced would be so unpleasant that " it would take four men to drink it — two to hold the victim and one to pour the wine down his throat " . By 1887 , the output was 3 @,@ 000 bottles of sweet white wine of reasonable quality . Bute persevered , commercial success followed and 40 hogsheads of wine , including a red varietal using Gamay grapes , were produced annually by 1894 to positive reviews .
Burges died in 1881 after catching a severe chill during a site visit to the castle . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , the architect Richard Pullan , took over the commission and delegated most of the work to Frame , who directed the work on the interior until its completion in 1891 . Bute and his wife Gwendolen were consulted over the details of the interior decoration ; replica family portraits based on those at Cardiff were commissioned to hang on the walls . Clark approved of the result , commenting in 1884 that the restoration was in " excellent taste " . An oratory originally built on the roof of the Well Tower was removed before 1891 but in other respects the completed castle was left unaltered .
The castle was not greatly used ; the Marquess rarely visited after its completion . The property had probably only been intended for limited , informal use , for example as a retreat following picnics . Although it had reception rooms suitable for large gatherings , it had only three bedrooms and was too far from Cardiff for casual visits . The restored castle initially received little interest from the architectural community , possibly because the total rebuilding of the castle ran counter to the increasingly popular late @-@ Victorian philosophy of conserving older buildings and monuments .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Bute died in 1900 and his widow , the Marchioness , was given a life interest in Castell Coch ; during her mourning , she and her daughter , Lady Margaret Crichton @-@ Stuart , occupied the castle and made occasional visits thereafter . Production in the castle vineyards ceased during the First World War due to the shortages of the sugar needed for the fermentation process , and in 1920 the vineyards were uprooted . John , the 4th Marquess , acquired the castle in 1932 but made little use of it . He also began to reduce the family 's investments in South Wales . The coal trade had declined after 1918 and industry had suffered during the depression of the 1920s ; by 1938 , the great majority of the family interests , including the coal mines and docks , had been sold off or nationalised .
The 5th Marquess of Bute , another John , succeeded in 1947 and , in 1950 , he placed the castle in the care of the Ministry of Works . The Marquess also disposed of Cardiff Castle , which he gave to the city , removing the family portraits from the castle before doing so . In turn , the paintings in Castell Coch were removed by the ministry and sent to Cardiff , the National Museum of Wales providing alternatives from their collection for Castell Coch . Academic interest in the property grew , with publications in the 1950s and 1960s exploring its artistic and architectural value . Since 1984 , the property has been administered by Cadw , an agency of the Welsh Government , and is open to the public ; it received 69 @,@ 466 visitors in 2011 . The castle has also been used as a location for filming .
The castle 's exposed position causes it to suffer from penetrating damp and periodic restoration work has been necessary . The stone tiles on the roof were replaced by slate in 1972 , a major programme was carried out on the Keep in 2007 and interior conservation work was undertaken in 2011 to address problems in Lady Bute 's Bedroom , where damp had begun to damage the finishings .
The original furnishings , many of which the Marquess removed in 1950 , have mostly been recovered and returned to their original locations in the castle . Two stained @-@ glass panels from the demolished chapel , lost since 1901 , were rediscovered at an auction in 2010 and were bought by Cadw for £ 125 @,@ 000 in 2011 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Overview = = =
Castell Coch occupies a stretch of woodland on the slopes above the village of Tongwynlais and the River Taff , about 10 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ west of the centre of Cardiff . The architecture is High Victorian Gothic Revival in style , influenced by contemporary 19th @-@ century French restorations . Its design combines the surviving elements of the medieval castle with 19th @-@ century additions to produce a building which the historian Charles Kightly considered " the crowning glory of the Gothic Revival " in Britain . It is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building due to its exceptional architectural and historical interest .
= = = Exterior = = =
The castle comprises three circular towers — the Keep , the Kitchen Tower and the Well Tower — along with the Hall Block , the Gatehouse and a shell wall ; the buildings almost entirely encase the original motte in stone . The older parts of the castle are constructed from crudely laid red sandstone rubble and grey limestone , the 19th @-@ century additions in more precisely cut red Pennant sandstone . A ditch is cut out of the rock in front of the Gatehouse and leads to an eastern approach road . The castle is surrounded by woodland and the 19th @-@ century vineyards below it have been converted into a golf course . In 1850 , George Clark recorded an " outer court " of which nothing remains ; this may , in fact , have been the traces of the earlier lime kiln operations around the site .
The Gatehouse is reached across a wooden bridge , incorporating a drawbridge . Burges intended the bridge to copy those of medieval castles , which he believed were designed to be easily set on fire in the event of attack . The Gatehouse was fitted with a wooden defensive bretache and , above the entrance , Burges sited a portcullis and a glazed statue of the Madonna and Child sculpted by Ceccardo Fucigna .
The Keep is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter with a square , spurred base ; in the 13th century there would have been an adjacent turret , on the south @-@ west side , containing latrines , but few traces remain . There is no evidence that the tower that Burges termed a keep would have fulfilled this function in the medieval period and he appears to have chosen the name because of his initial decision to locate the bedrooms of Lord and Lady Bute in the rebuilt tower . The Kitchen Tower is also 12 metres ( 39 ft ) across and rests on a square , spurred base . It was originally two storeys high and contained the medieval kitchen ; Burgess raised its height and gave it a conical roof and chimneys . The walls of these two towers are around 3 @.@ 0 metres ( 10 ft ) thick at the base , thinning to 0 @.@ 61 metres ( 2 ft ) at the top . The Well Tower at 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) in diameter is slightly narrower than the Keep or Kitchen Tower , with a well in its lowest chamber sunk into the ground . The Well Tower lacks the spurs of the other two towers and has a flat rather than curved back , facing onto the courtyard , similar to some of the towers built at Caerphilly by the de Clares .
The towers contribute to what the architectural writer Charles Handley @-@ Read considered the castle 's " sculptural and dramatic exterior " . Almost equal in diameter , but of differing conical roof designs and heights , and topped with copper @-@ gilt weather vanes , they combine to produce a romantic appearance , which Matthew Williams described as bringing " a Wagnerian flavor to the Taff Valley " .
The design of the towers was influenced by the work of the contemporary French architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc , including his restorations of Carcassone and the châteaus of Aigle and Chillon . While the exterior of Castell Coch is relatively true to English 13th @-@ century medieval design — albeit heavily influenced by the Gothic Revival movement — the inclusion of the conical roofs , which more closely resemble those of fortifications in France or Switzerland than Britain , is historically inaccurate . Although he mounted a historical defence ( see box ) , Burges chose the roofs mainly for architectural effect , arguing that they appeared " more picturesque " , and to provide additional room for accommodation in the castle .
The three towers lead into a small oval courtyard that sits on the top of the motte , about 19 @.@ 5 metres ( 64 ft ) across lengthways . Cantilevered galleries and wall @-@ walks run around the inside of the courtyard with neat and orderly woodwork ; the historian Peter Floud critiqued it as " perhaps too much like the backcloth for an historical pageant " . Burges reconstructed the shell wall that runs along the north @-@ west side of the courtyard 0 @.@ 99 metres ( 3 ft 3 in ) thick , complete with arrow holes and a battlement .
= = = Interior = = =
The Keep , the Well Tower and the Kitchen Tower incorporate a series of apartments , of which the main sequence , the Castellan 's Rooms , lies within the Keep . The Hall , the Drawing Room , Lord Bute 's Bedroom and Lady Bute 's Bedroom form a suite of rooms that exemplify the High Victorian Gothic style of 19th century Britain . Unlike the exterior of the castle , which deliberately imitated the architecture of the 13th century , the interior was purely High Victorian in style . On Burges 's decoration of Cardiff Castle and Castell Coch , Handley @-@ Read wrote : " I have yet to see any High Victorian interiors from the hand , very largely , of one designer , to equal either in homogeneity or completeness , in quality of execution or originality of conception the best of the interiors of the Welsh castles . For sheer power of intoxication , Burges stand [ s ] unrivalled . "
= = = = The Banqueting Hall = = = =
The Banqueting Hall is 6 @.@ 1 by 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 by 30 ft ) across with an 11 @-@ metre ( 35 ft ) ceiling , and occupies the whole of the first floor of the Hall Block . Burges persuaded Bute and the antiquarian George Clark that the medieval hall would have stood on the first floor . His original plan saw access via one of two equally circuitous routes through the Well Tower or around the entire internal gallery to enter the hall through a passage next to the Drawing Room . Neither approach was acceptable to Bute and at a late stage , around 1878 / 9 , the present entrance was created by expanding a window at the head of the internal gallery .
The hall is austere ; the architect John Newman critiqued its decoration as " dilute " and " unfocused " , Crook as " anaemic " . It features stencilled ceilings and murals which resemble medieval manuscripts . The murals were designed by Horatio Lonsdale and executed by Campbell , Smith & Company . The furniture is by John Chapple , made in Lord Bute 's workshops at Cardiff . The tapered chimney of the room , modelled on 15th @-@ century French equivalents , contains a statue carved by Thomas Nicholls . Although the architectural historian Mark Girouard suggested that the statue depicts the Hebrew King David , most historians believe that it shows Lucius of Britain , according to legend the founder of the diocese of Llandaff in nearby Cardiff .
= = = = The Drawing Room = = = =
The octagonal Drawing Room occupies the first and second floors of the Keep . The ceiling is supported by vaulted stone ribs modelled on Viollet @-@ Le @-@ Duc 's work at Château de Coucy and the lower and upper halves of the room are divided by a minstrels ' gallery . The original plans for the space involved two chambers , one on each floor , and the new design was adopted only in 1879 , Burges noting at the time that he intended to " indulge in a little more ornament " than elsewhere in the castle .
The decoration of the room focuses on what Newman described as the " intertwined themes [ of ] the fecundity of nature and the fragility of life " . A fireplace by Thomas Nicholls features the Three Fates , the trio of Greek goddesses who are depicted spinning , measuring and cutting the thread of life . The ceiling 's vaulting is carved with butterflies , reaching up to a golden sunburst at the apex of the room , while plumed birds fly up into a starry sky in the intervening sections . Around the room , 58 panels , each depicting a unique plant , are surmounted by a mural showing animals from Aesop 's Fables . Carved birds , lizards and other wildlife decorate the doorways .
The historian Terry Measham wrote that the Drawing Room and Lady Bute 's Bedroom , " so powerful in their effect , are the two most important interiors in the castle . " The architectural writer Andrew Lilwall @-@ Smith considered the Drawing Room to be " Burges 's pièce de résistance " , encapsulating his " romantic vision of the Middle Ages " . The decoration of the ceiling , which was carried out while Burges was alive , differs in tone from the treatment of the murals , and the decoration of Lady Bute 's Bedroom , which were both completed , under the direction of William Frame and Horatio Lonsdale respectively , after Burges 's death . Burges 's work is distinctively High Gothic in style , while the later efforts are more influenced by the softer colours and character of the Aesthetic movement , which had grown in popularity by the 1880s .
= = = = Lord Bute 's Bedroom = = = =
In comparison to other rooms within the castle , Lord Bute 's Bedroom , sited above the Winch Room , is relatively small and simple . The original plan had Bute 's personal accommodation in the Keep but the expansion of the Drawing Room to a double @-@ height room in 1879 required a late change of plan . The bedroom contains an ornately carved fireplace . Doors lead off the room to an internal balcony overlooking the courtyard and to the bretache over the gate arch . The furniture is mainly by Chapple and post @-@ dates Burges , although the washstand and dressing table are pared @-@ down versions of two pieces – the Narcissus Washstand and the Crocker Dressing Table – that Burges made for his own home in London , The Tower House .
This bedroom is also less richly ornamented than many in the castle , making extensive use of plain , stencilled geometrical patterns on the walls . Crook suggested this provided some " spartan " relief before the culmination of the castle in Lady Bute 's Bedroom but Floud considered the result " thin " and drab in comparison with the more richly decorated chambers . The bedroom would have been impractical for regular use , lacking wardrobes and other storage .
= = = = Lady Bute 's Bedroom = = = =
Lady Bute 's Bedroom comprises the upper two floors of the Keep , with a coffered , double @-@ dome ceiling that rises up into the tower 's conical roof . The room was completed after Burges 's death and , although he had created an outline model for the room 's structure , which survives , he did not undertake detailed plans for its decoration . His team attempted to fulfil his vision for the room — " would Mr Burges have done it ? " William Frame asked Nicholls in a letter of 1887 — but the interior decoration was the work of Lonsdale between 1887 and 1888 , with considerable involvement from Bute and his wife .
The room is circular , with the window embrasures forming a sequence of arches around the outside . It is richly decorated , with love as the theme , displaying carved monkeys ,
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taken to a nursing home after his stroke . Tory visits the home to learn how to kill the leprechaun .
At the nursing home , the leprechaun pretends to be O 'Grady . After he chases Tory to an elevator , the leprechaun throws O 'Grady 's bloodied body down the shaft as Tory flees . Before dying , O 'Grady tells her that the only way to kill the leprechaun is with a four @-@ leaf clover . Tory returns to the farmhouse , where she searches for a clover until she is attacked by the leprechaun ; Nathan and Ozzie save her . Alex sets a trap near the well , but the leprechaun almost kills him . Ozzie reveals he swallowed the last gold coin , and the leprechaun critically wounds him to get at it . Before the leprechaun can kill Ozzie , Alex takes a four @-@ leaf clover Tory has found , sticks it to a wad of gum , and shoots it into the leprechaun 's mouth , taking away his power . The leprechaun falls into the well , but his skeleton climbs out . Nathan pushes the leprechaun back into the well and blows up both the well and leprechaun with gasoline . The police arrive , and Tory is reunited with her father . As the police investigate the remains of the well , the leprechaun vows he will not rest until he recovers every last piece of his gold .
= = Cast = =
Warwick Davis as The Leprechaun
Jennifer Aniston as Tory Redding
Ken Olandt as Nathan Murphy
Mark Holton as Ozzie Jones
Robert Hy Gorman as Alex Murphy
David Permenter as Deputy Tripet
William Newman as Sheriff Roy Cronin
Shay Duffin as Daniel O 'Grady
Pamela Mant as Mrs. O 'Grady
John Sanderford as J. D. Redding
John Voldstad as Joe Voldstad
= = Production = =
Mark Jones , the writer @-@ director , had a career in American television shows . Desiring to make a film , he decided that a low budget horror film was his best opportunity . Jones was inspired by the Lucky Charms commercials to create a leprechaun character , only his twist was to turn the character into an antagonist . Jones was further influenced by the film Critters , which featured a small antagonist . Jones brought the concept to Trimark , who were looking to get into film production and distribution . Leprechaun became the first film produced in @-@ house by Trimark to be theatrically released . Entertainment Weekly quoted the budget at " just under $ 1 million " . Warwick Davis , who had experienced a dry spell after playing the protagonist in Willow , liked the script and was excited to play against type . Jennifer Aniston , who was an unknown at the time , impressed Jones , and he fought to have her cast .
Shooting occurred over three weeks , beginning at Valencia Studios , where Terminator 2 : Judgment Day had recently finished production . Several violent scenes were filmed at Big Sky Ranch , where Little House on the Prairie and The Waltons were shot . Davis later said it felt " a little blasphemous " . Davis performed most of his own stunts . For the scene where Davis chases Aniston in a wheelchair , Aniston had to run in slow motion so that Davis could keep up with her , as he had trouble manipulating the wheels . The film was initially more of a straightforward horror film , but Davis sought to add more comedic elements . Jones agreed with this tonal shift , and they shot it as a horror comedy . Several scenes had to be re @-@ shot after the producers insisted that the film be made gorier to appeal to older audiences .
Gabe Bartalos performed the make @-@ up effects . Trimark contacted Bartalos to produce a sample . Bartalos 's early efforts were not to his liking , and he pushed the design in a more grotesque direction , as that was what he wanted to see on the screen as a horror fan . Bartalos 's design impressed Trimark , and he got the account . Applying the make @-@ up took three hours , and taking it off took another 40 minutes . Davis described the experience as " not a pleasant sensation " . To pass the time while the make @-@ up was being applied , Davis said he had bizarre conversations with Bartalos , with whom he got along well . Davis was conscious of the need to stay relaxed and not move , and he channelled his confidence that the make @-@ up effects were properly applied into his acting .
= = Release = =
Leading up to the film 's release , Trimark engaged in an aggressive marketing campaign , partnering with the National Basketball Association , American Stock Exchange , and , after failing to secure deals with either corporate headquarters , individual franchisees of Domino 's Pizza and Subway . Leprechaun opened on January 8 , 1993 , in 620 theatres and took in $ 2 @,@ 493 @,@ 020 its opening week , ultimately earning $ 8 @,@ 556 @,@ 940 in the United States . Vidmark released it on VHS in April 1993 , and it sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The film score was released on March 9 , 1993 , by Intrada Records . The film was released on DVD in August 1998 . Lionsgate released a triple feature collection on March 11 , 2008 . All seven films in the series were released on Blu @-@ ray in a collection in September 2014 . The film is often broadcast on cable channels such as Syfy on Saint Patrick 's Day .
= = = Sequels = = =
Leprechaun was followed by five sequels : Leprechaun 2 ( 1994 ) , Leprechaun 3 ( 1995 ) , Leprechaun 4 : In Space ( 1997 ) , Leprechaun in the Hood ( 2000 ) , and Leprechaun : Back 2 tha Hood ( 2003 ) . In 2014 , a reboot , Leprechaun : Origins was released . After Leprechaun 2 's theatrical gross disappointed Trimark , Leprechaun 3 was released direct @-@ to @-@ video . Origins was theatrically released .
= = Reception = =
On release , critical reception for the film was negative . Writing for The Deseret News , Chris Hicks said that the film should have been released direct @-@ to @-@ video . Also criticizing Trimark 's release of the film , The Austin Chronicle 's Marc Savlov called it cliched , uninteresting , and an " utter waste of perfectly good Kodak film stock " . Internet @-@ based critic James Berardinelli called it " unwatchable " and not even enjoyably bad , and Matt Bourjaily of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the film " has brought new meaning to the term ' bad ' " . At the Los Angeles Daily News , Robert Strauss called it " as witless and worthless a horror film as could possibly be conjured " . Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette critic Ron Weiskind called the film incompetent and criticized the film 's acting , lack of suspense , and production values . Weiskind concluded , " Forget about the proverbial pot of gold . The movie Leprechaun is a crock . "
Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called the cast " the usual all @-@ formula grab @-@ bag " , and The Washington Post 's Richard Harrington said the human actors are all bland . Berardinelli described the characters as " a group of morons who act like they flunked kindergarten " but said Aniston " might be competent " in a better film . Weiskind instead called Aniston 's character a " Beverly Hills brat " who audiences will want to die . Of Davis , Harrington wrote that he " imbues a weak character with a strong presence " , saying the film is only interesting while Davis is on @-@ screen . Harrington concludes that the film is notable only for Davis ' performance . Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the leprechaun " no more than dangerously cranky " and reminiscent of Chucky from Child 's Play ; Hicks also described the leprechaun as similar to Chucky . Wilmington wrote that while a killer Leprechaun logically follows a trend of gimmicky antagonists , it is still a bad idea .
Of the film 's humor , Wilmington wrote that Leprechaun " isn 't dumb enough to be fun " . Hicks described the film 's humor as " ill @-@ advised slapstick " , and Canby wrote that it is " neither scary nor funny " . Berardinelli called the leprechaun 's one @-@ liners " more idiotic than pithy " . Writing in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , critic Jeff Makos unfavorably compared the film 's tone to that of Tremors , which he posited as an influence . Makos said Davis does his best to be funny , but the film has no funny jokes , making audience feedback probably more entertaining than the film itself . The use of Lucky Charms as humor also received commentary . Harrington wrote that Jones is " so bereft of inventive ideas that he refers to Lucky Charms cereal not once but three times " , and Bourjaily criticized the Lucky Charms jokes as unfunny .
Berardinelli said director Mark Jones has no style evident in the film . Wilmington described it as a " dingy , drab , pointless little movie ... made without flair or imagination , seemingly enervated by its own bad taste and low intentions " . Canby called the screenplay and direction amateurish , and Hicks wrote that Jones is bereft of ideas and should go back to his day job , describing the plot as " by @-@ the @-@ numbers killings with no rhyme or reason " . Harrington wrote that the film " has major continuity and credibility problems " . Strauss identified the theme as anti @-@ greed but said the writing is " simultaneously prosaic and murky " , causing Jones to miss his mark . Wilmington wrote that the leprechaun 's cries for his gold reflects the filmmakers ' cynical desire for box office success . Sight & Sound described Leprechaun as a film which seems to have no concept of a target audience , stating , " Jones wants this to be a lively romp for older kids in the mould of Time Bandits ... but also wants to corner the lucrative horror market . " The review concluded , " Unsuitable for adults or kids , this is ultimately for completists . " Harrington called the make @-@ up " quite evil @-@ looking " , though Strauss wrote that " effects are strictly so @-@ so " .
Rotten Tomatoes , a review aggregator , reports that 23 % of 13 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review ; the average rating is 4 / 10 . A 2014 retrospective from Entertainment Weekly identified it as Aniston 's worst role to date , and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over the film . In 2009 , Tanya Gold of The Guardian selected it as one of her ten favorite scary films to watch on Halloween .
= Alphonse Alley =
Alphonse Amadou Alley ( April 9 , 1930 – March 28 , 1987 ) was a Beninese army officer and political figure . He was most active when his country was known as Dahomey . He was born in Bassila , central Dahomey , and enrolled in schools in Togo , Cote d 'Ivoire , and Senegal before enlisting in the French army in 1950 . He saw combat in Indochina from 1950 to 1953 , in Morocco from 1955 to 1956 , and in Algeria from 1959 to 1961 . After the coup in 1965 , President Christophe Soglo promoted Alley Chief of Staff of the Army . Young army officer Maurice Kouandété was appointed Alley 's chef de cabinet in 1967 .
Kouandété launched another coup against Soglo on December 17 , but he was forced to hand power to Alley two days later . His administration oversaw the creation of a new constitution and a presidential election , Dahomey 's first since 1964 . The results were annulled because of a boycott that prevented almost three @-@ quarters of the country from voting . Alley lost popularity with the suggestion that the military should retreat back to the barracks , and was eventually reduced to a mouthpiece for Kouandété . On July 17 , 1968 , Alley was forced to hand power to Emile Zinsou , a veteran politician .
Alley 's retirement was marked by a series of discharges from the military , trials , and prison sentences . At one trial , Zinsou 's conduct sparked another coup led by Kouandété . On October 26 , 1972 , Mathieu Kérékou seized power in a coup . He ended Alley 's military career , as well as that of every other senior officer , and named Alley commissioner of the National Oil Wells ( SNADAH ) , a role with very little responsibility . Kérékou accused Alley of plotting against him on February 28 , 1973 , and sentenced the latter to 20 years in prison . He died on March 28 , 1987 .
= = Military background = =
Alley was born on April 9 , 1930 , in Bassila , central Dahomey . He was a member of the small Widji ethnic group , based in the north . His father was also a military commander , who served the French in Syria during 1942 and helped train police in Togo . Alphonse enrolled in schools in Togo , Cote d 'Ivoire , and Senegal until he enlisted in the French army in 1950 . His first combat operation later that year was at the Indochinese Peninsula for the First Indochina War . Alley withdrew in late 1953 , shortly before Operation Castor was launched at Dien Bien Phu . After this wartime experience , he went the Saint Maxient Officer School in France . He saw combat in Morocco from 1955 to 1956 and in Algeria from 1959 to 1961 , where he became a paratrooper .
After Dahomey gained independence in 1960 , Alley travelled back to his homeland and led a paratrooper unit . At first , he was a lieutenant , but he was promoted to captain in 1962 and major in 1964 . Later that year he led several soldiers to the Dahomey @-@ Niger border during a border dispute . Historian Samuel Decalo described Alley as " a jovial , dashing , easygoing and well @-@ liked figure " and was known by diplomats as " the wine , women and song officer " .
In Dahomeyan coups in 1963 and 1965 , Alley urged General Christophe Soglo to seize power . After the 1965 coup , Soglo promoted Alley Chief of Staff of the Army . Alley made known his disagreements with Soglo on several occasions , though he remained loyal nonetheless . Young army officer Maurice Kouandété was appointed Alley 's chef de cabinet in 1967 and his frequent opposition to Alley during staff meetings helped to create factions in the Dahomeyan Army .
= = 1967 coup d 'état = =
Kouandété had aspirations of his own . On December 17 , 1967 , he and 60 other soldiers led a military coup and toppled Soglo . Kouandété seized the presidency , though he was unsure what to do with it . Members of his faction urged the new president to remain at his post , though the general public 's opinion was against him . Meanwhile , France refused to aid Dahomey and would not recognise Kouandété . He was forced to appointed Alley provisional president two days later , although Kouandété had placed Alley under house arrest and accused him of " shirking [ his ] duties " and maintained a " policy of appeasement . " Kouandété served as prime minister thereafter .
= = President of Dahomey = =
Alley was one of the few figures who were trusted by northern and southern Dahomeyans alike . His role was only temporary , until power was to be ceded back to civilians in six months time . Among the events on the official timetable , which the military published on January 17 , 1968 , was the creation of a nonmilitary Constitution Commission on January 31 , which would write a new Dahomeyan constitution . The document granted Alley strong executive power , and was adopted by the Comite Militaire Revolutionaire , Alley 's interim government comprisising only military officers , in early March . A national referendum on the constitution was held on March 31 , which passed with 92 percent in favor .
The Comite decided to ban all former presidents , vice presidents , government ministers , and National Assembly presidents from the upcoming presidential election . This was to prevent Dahomeyan politics from repeating its practices of old . The Supreme Court ruled the proscription was unconstitutional , although Alley overruled the decision . He instead only recognised five candidates as legitimate .
In response to their disqualification , former presidents Hubert Maga and Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy staged protests while Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , another ex @-@ president , supported an obscure candidate named Basile Adjou Moumouni . The election was held on May 15 , and was Dahomey 's first since 1964 . Moumouni won the election with 80 percent of the vote , but Alley declared the result void because the protest prevented nearly three @-@ quarters of the electorate from voting . This result sparked further demonstrations , and Maga , Apithy , Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , and former president Christophe Soglo were forbidden to enter the country , in an attempt to crack down on dissent . Alley felt he had made a mistake in disqualifying Maga , Apithy , and Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , as he believed that only they could bring unity to Dahomey .
In a radio address on May 11 , Alley announced that due to the nullification , the military would heve to stay in power beyond June 17 . He noted that his administration would require extra time to find a successor who was backed by everyone . Alley suggested that the military should retreat back to the barracks at Camp Ghezo and leave Dahomeyan politics to the career politicians . The view was unpopular , and he was outvoted by his military comrades . Alley eventually became little more than Kouandété 's mouthpiece .
Alley attempted to remove Kouandété from the army , though to no avail . In any case , by June his fellow officers had made up their mind as to the next president . After talks with unionists , civil servants , and academics , they " entrust [ ed ] the reins of power to Émile Derlin Zinsou for at least five years " , who was " charged to form a government of national union " , as per a June 28 newspaper article by the state press . On July 17 , Alley handed power to Zinsou , a veteran politician .
= = Later life = =
After Alley was retired from the presidency , he was purged from combat in the army and was assigned the new post of military attaché in Washington , D.C , an appointment he refused to accept . General Etienne Eyadema , the president of neighboring Togo , thought that this " serve [ d Alley ] right , for being stupid enough to give power back to the politicians . Don 't think I 'm ever going to be that dumb . " Alley was discharged from the armed forces altogether in September , with Kouandété taking his place as Chief of Staff .
On July 11 , 1969 , Kouandété accused Alley of plotting to kidnap and murder him . Facing the death penalty , Alley was sentenced to ten years of hard labor at an open trial held on October 4 . Zinsou had intervened for Alley , and it strained relations between the president and Kouandété . The latter decided to lead another coup on December 10 . In the aftermath , Alley was released from incarceration and reinstated in the army . In July 1968 , he was named Secretary General of National Defence . Kouandété ended up becoming Alley 's adjutant .
In 1971 , Alley allowed Togolese refugee Noe Kutuklui protection in Dahomey , despite official government policy to the contrary . On October 26 , 1972 , Mathieu Kérékou seized power in a coup . He ended Alley 's military career , as well as that of every other senior officer , and named him commissioner of the National Oil Wells ( SNADAH ) , a role with very little responsibility . Kérékou accused Alley of plotting against him on February 28 , 1973 , and sentenced him to 20 years in prison . He was released on amnesty on August 1 , 1984 , as well as all other political detainees besides those involved in the " ignoble and barbarous imperialist armed aggression of Sunday , January 16 , 1967 , " as the official press release states .
Alley died on March 28 , 1987 . He was survived by his son , Zacharie . Plans for a mausoleum are in the works , decades after his death .
= Effects of Hurricane Charley in North Carolina =
The effects of Hurricane Charley in North Carolina were minor to moderate and included $ 25 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , 2004 , and at peak intensity it attained 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , and moved northward , parallel to the U.S. East Coast before moving ashore on northeastern South Carolina .
The storm caused flooding in seven counties within the state as a result of 5 @.@ 05 inches ( 128 mm ) of rainfall . Winds peaked at 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) which downed trees and power lines , and left 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . A storm surge of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) was reported , along with moderate waves that caused minor beach erosion . No deaths are attributed to the storm .
= = Preparations = =
On August 13 , 2004 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Cape Fear , southward to South Carolina . The watch was extended northward to Oregon Inlet later that day ; the watch further extended to Chincoteague , Virginia . The tropical storm watch from Cape Lookout to Oregon Inlet was changed to a hurricane warning . A hurricane watch was subsequently put into effect for coastal areas from Oregon Inlet to the North Carolina / Virginia border , although by August 15 all advisories were discontinued . Flood watches were also placed into effect for portions of the state .
Governor Mike Easley declared a state of emergency in advance of the storm , and 200 National Guard troops were dispatched to Charlotte , Raleigh , Kinston and Lumerton , while 800 more were on standby . On Ocracoke Island , authorities ordered mandatory evacuations , while on Bogue Banks voluntary evacuations were in place . Officials in Wrightsville Beach drove along the streets with loudspeakers mounted on trucks , warning tourists that a storm was approaching . The storm forced the University of North Carolina at Wilmington to suspend a planned opening for students moving in to residence halls . Campgrounds at the Cape Hatteras National Seashore were closed by the National Park Service and three boat ramps were closed . Duke Power Co. prepared for Charley by lowering the level of hydroelectric lakes to make room for excessive rainfall . The state Department of Environment and Natural Resources advised hog farmers to pump out their waste lagoon . About 60 Red Cross shelters were opened during the storm and during the peak of Charley , and roughly 1 @,@ 600 people sought protection .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Charley produced moderate to heavy rainfall over the state , peaking at 5 @.@ 05 inches ( 128 mm ) near Greenville ; other rainfall amounts ranged from less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) – more than 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . The outer rainbands began affecting the region in the early hours of August 14 . Due to widespread debris , storm drains became clogged which left flooding in some areas . Freshwater flooding was reported in seven counties along the coastal plain . State highways 42 and 581 , as well as numerous county and local roads , were covered with at least 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Wilmington and surrounding towns were forced to close a total of 20 streets . The heavy precipitation also caused the Neuse River to swell to flood stage . A few businesses throughout the region were damaged ; two in downtown Greenville and five others were flooded .
The storm produced estimated storm surge of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , along with waves of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . However , there were isolated reports of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) surge , particularly along the beaches of Brunswick County . This produced minor beach erosion along the coastline . Winds gusted from 60 – 70 miles per hour ( 95 – 110 km / h ) , causing minor wind damage . The hurricane spawned five weak tornadoes across the state , including an F1 in Nags Head that damaged twenty structures . Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2 @,@ 231 , 231 severely , including 221 damaged beach homes in Sunset Beach . Damage was the greatest in Brunswick County , where wind gusts peaked at 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) . The winds blew down chimneys and damaged a roof on one building , and ripped the siding off another . Crop damage was also heavy in Brunswick County , with 50 % of the tobacco crop lost and 30 % of the corn and vegetable fields destroyed . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , leaving 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . Damage in North Carolina totaled to $ 25 million ( 2004 USD ) .
= Texas State Highway 151 =
State Highway 151 , or SH 151 , also known as the Raymond E. Stotzer Jr . Freeway is a 10 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Texas that runs from Loop 1604 to U.S. Highway 90 ( US 90 ) in San Antonio . SH 151 is a limited @-@ access freeway for its entire length with the exception of its junction with Loop 1604 at its western terminus where a traffic light controls the junction . The routing of the freeway was first conceived in 1983 and construction was conducted in phases through the 1980s and 1990s until completion in 2004 . The freeway provides access to the western part of San Antonio , the SeaWorld San Antonio theme park , Chase , Northwest Vista College , and the future site of a Microsoft data center .
= = History = =
The route of Highway 151 was originally conceived in 1983 by local land developer Charles Martin Wender and later received approval by Raymond Stotzer , the district supervisor of the Texas Department of Transportation at the time and for whom the freeway would later be named . The freeway was a joint effort with landowners providing 85 % of the right @-@ of @-@ way worth US $ 26 million and half of the cost of the frontage roads worth $ 14 million with the city buying the rest . During the construction of the freeway , the Texas Turnpike Authority considered SH 151 as a candidate to become a toll road , but this drew much criticism from local politicians and the Bexar County commissioners and did not come to fruition .
The freeway was built in phases with the frontage roads constructed first followed by the main lanes . The overpasses for Wiseman Boulevard , Westover Hills Boulevard and Military Drive between I @-@ 410 and Loop 1604 were completed over the main lanes of SH 151 in 1987 . In 1988 , the I @-@ 410 overpasses over the SH 151 frontage roads were completed , as was the interchange with US 90 at the eastern terminus . Also completed in 1988 were the frontage road bridges over Leon and Slick Ranch Creek , which enabled traffic to travel the entire corridor from Loop 1604 to US 90 by way of the frontage roads . The main lane overpasses at FM 1957 ( Potranco Road ) and Ingram Road were completed in 1997 . The overpasses at Pinn Road and Enrique M. Barrera Parkway were completed in 1998 , and completed at Callaghan Road in 2000 . Construction of the freeway was completed in 2004 .
= = Route description = =
SH 151 begins at Loop 1604 , the outer loop around San Antonio , on the west side of San Antonio and from there follows a southeastern path through the western part of the city . The highway provides access to the SeaWorld San Antonio theme park as well as industry along its corridor to include Chase , Hyatt Hill Country Resort , World Savings , Philips semiconductor , the National Security Agency campus , QVC , American Funds , Maxim Integrated Products , and the Northwest Vista College , as well as the nearby Southwest Research Institute . Microsoft has also selected the corridor for a $ 550 million data center . The highway continues to the southeast to a junction with Interstate 410 ( I @-@ 410 ) , the inner loop around San Antonio . There is not a direct connect interchange at the junction of I @-@ 410 . It is necessary to travel on both highways ' frontage roads in order to change highways . The highway continues to the southeast through mainly undeveloped land until it merges with US 90 . According to the San Antonio Master Thoroughfare Plan , there are plans to extend SH 151 westward from Loop 1604 to SH 211 . The plan also shows the construction of an interchange at Loop 1604 .
Traffic volumes are low to moderate for the entire length of the freeway ranging from 14 @,@ 500 average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) just east of Loop 1604 to 46 @,@ 000 AADT between Farm to Market Road 1957 ( FM 1957 ) and I @-@ 410 . Between 2003 and 2005 , traffic volumes have remained steady between I @-@ 410 and US 90 . In that same time period , traffic between I @-@ 410 and Loop 1604 has increased by 1 @,@ 100 @-@ 7 @,@ 000 AADT .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in San Antonio , Bexar County . All exits are unnumbered .
= Danebod =
Danebod ( pronounced " DAHN @-@ a @-@ bo " , or " DAN @-@ a @-@ bo " ) is a historic district at the south edge of the railway town of Tyler in southwestern Minnesota . Founded in 1885 by Danish Evangelical Lutherans led by Rev. Hans Jørgen Pedersen ( 1851 – 1905 ) , the district comprises a group of buildings dating back to 1888 from Minnesota 's oldest Danish immigrant settlement . Danebod remains until this day a predominantly Danish Lutheran , close @-@ knit religious community . An annual celebration named Æbleskiver Days , held on the fourth weekend of July , celebrates Danish heritage and culture and includes a parade that goes down the town 's main street with floats that are made by the various Danebod neighborhoods .
On the basis of its cultural and architectural significance , four buildings from Danebod were added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on June 30 , 1975 as the " Danebod Historic Complex " .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Danebod " honors Denmark 's first queen , Queen Thyra Danebod , the consort of tenth @-@ century Danish king Gorm the Old . Queen Thyra is thought to have directed the building of a stone wall across the Danish peninsula of Jutland as protection against foes to the south , and in gratitude she was given the name Danebod . The name Danebod originally meant in Danish " one who mends , comforts , or saves the Danes " .
= = History = =
The native inhabitants of the area which later became Danebod were the Dakota Sioux people .
= = = Establishment = = =
On September 8 , 1872 , two Danish pioneer pastors , Adam Dan and Rasmus Andersen , established a small organization in Neenah , Wisconsin , which later became the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . At one of the churches ' conventions in Clinton , Iowa , in 1884 , the Danish farmer Rasmus Hansen of Elk Horn , Iowa , suggested that " the Danish Church should help all the families living around in cities , who would prefer living in the countryside , where they could find a fitting spot for a Danish colony . " A committee was appointed for the purpose of finding a piece of land for the scattered Danish immigrants to settle . The committee consisted of the Grundtvigian Evangelical @-@ Lutheran pastors F. L. Grundtvig ( the son of N. F. S. Grundtvig ) , Kristian Anker , Rasmus Hansen , Jens C. Kjær , and C. Bruhn . This committee soon made arrangements with Winona and the St. Peter Railroad Company to purchase 35 @,@ 000 acres ( 140 km2 ) of land in the southeastern part of Lincoln County , Minnesota . An agreement with the land agent , A. Bojsen , stipulated that for three years this land was to be sold only to Danish people . The land was rolling prairie by the hills of Buffalo Ridge , just south of the community of Tyler , Minnesota . By June 27 , 1885 , seventy settlers from various states , towns , and communities had made the area their home .
The pioneer settlers were all Grundtvigians ; a faction within the Danish National Church . The Grundtvigians represented a nationalistic and liberal religious tradition , in staunch contrast to pietists and fundamentalists in the Church Association for the Inner Mission in Denmark . Grundtvigians believed in celebrating life , but they lived for the present , and were often nicknamed " Happy Danes " . While salvation was the gift of Christianity , being saved was not a focus . The Bible was the Holy Book , but was not to be taken literally , and the Apostles ' Creed rather than the Bible was their source of Christianity . Grundtvigians were also nationalists who wanted to " rewaken the Danes in appreciation of their identity " , and its founder , Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig , is quoted for his writing : " first a Dane and then a Christian " in 1848 . The Grundtvigians stressed four elects of a " true people " : a common land , a common language , a common history and forefathers , and common culture through songs , folk dancing , language , cuisine , etc . Grundtvigians established Danebod to " save the Danes from total Americanization " , and the colony 's only written and spoken language remained Danish for several decades after its establishment . On Sunday , June 28 , 1885 , the pioneers arranged a festival to celebrate the new colony . The population grew rapidly in the early 1890s , and by the year 1895 , 222 people lived in the Danish Colony of Danebod .
= = = Late 19th century = = =
On July 11 , 1886 , a meeting was held at the home of P. N. Clausen at which the Danebod congregation was formally organized with fifteen members . The church council consisted of its president , P. N. Clausen , secretary M. Lauritsen , and treasurer Jørgen Jacobsen . At first there were no regular church services and no resident pastor . Instead , the people met in various homes to sing Danish hymns and listen to a reading of the sermon by a layman . The pastor of Sleepy Eye , Minnesota , S. C. Madsen , and other ministers occasionally conducted services in town . The congregation later hired the Danish settler , pastor Hans Jørgen Pedersen ( 1851 – 1905 ) of Gowen , Michigan . He arrived with his family on April 12 , 1888 . Pedersen had a humble upbringing in Denmark , where he later studied at Ryslinge Folk High School before emigrating to America in 1875 . He was an eloquent preacher , resourceful , and became involved in community activities throughout the area . He quickly assumed leadership and thus , in a sense , became the founder of Danebod . One of the pastor 's six children , Sigurd Pedersen , described their first arrival in Danebod in his autobiography : " It was a chilly morning , when the committee stood on the platform to bid welcome to the new pastor and his wife , trailed by six children , and the rear held up by the trusty hired man , Søren Olsen , who was to keep count of the straying flock and see that the last luggage was not forgotten . Friends invited us over for breakfast in the home of H. J. Nelsen , the merchant . Then the committee guided us to a small house on the corner just west of the present @-@ day Chevrolet dealer , where businessman Carl Cold Sorensen brought the first automobiles to the area in the early 1900 's . The committee had left no kindling in this small house , but Søren Olsen soon discovered that the kitchen range was in place and claimed to be able to manipulate the same if kindling could be provided . Across the street was a large general store , and father sent us there to beg Mr. Lauritsen for some kindling . We were given old boxes to break up , and we soon had our arms full and Søren had a blazing fire in a few minutes . " In September 1888 , it was decided at a convention in Elk Horn , Iowa , to give the congregation at Danebod 77 acres ( 0 @.@ 31 km2 ) of land , and the Danebod Lutheran Church was dedicated on Sunday , June 16 , 1895 . Pedersen died in 1905 , and the Reverend Thorvald Knudsen succeeded him at Danebod .
Pastor H. J. Pedersen , like most early pastors in the synod , had received his training in a folk school , and he was convinced that the success of the new congregation and colony depended on the establishment of such a Danish @-@ speaking folk school . Danebod Folk School opened December 1 , 1888 , with Pedersen as president . Other teachers were Carl Hansen and Christian Hansen . Among the first students were Niels Petersen and Kristian Klink , both Danish immigrants . Klink was a stonemason educated in Denmark , and he helped pastor Pedersen in building the Stone Hall . It was built of native rock . Farmers hauled rocks from the shores of Swan Lake just south of Danebod , and Klink and his helpers split and shaped the rocks . The Stone Hall was finished in the fall of 1889 , and the first public gathering in the Stone Hall was at Klink 's funeral in November 1889 . The Stone Hall quickly became the center of the new colony , and Sunday services were conducted here , as well as numerous weddings , baptisms and funerals . The students at the Danebod Folk School used the building as a gym hall , and young people would meet here to socialize , meet up with friends , and participate in singing games . Three years later , the Stone Hall was now too small for worship services . It was decided to build a new church , and the Cross Church at Danebod was dedicated on Sunday , June 16 , 1895 .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
A Ladies ' Aid society was established on July 15 , 1903 , with board members Marie Hovgaard , Anna P. C. Petersen , Henrietta Hansen , and Sine C. Jensen . At first , Sunday school was conducted an hour prior to the church services on Sunday , but in 1907 it was decided to hold Sunday school during the time of worship service . As early as 1904 , the synod had discussed the possibility of establishing a children 's home at Tyler . On November 1 , 1906 , a children 's home opened in the residence of K. H. Duus , who temporarily moved to Askov , Minnesota . A Folk School Association was organized in 1912 . As early as 1888 , the colony organized its first Danish elementary school for its children , Børneskolen , which was in use until 1939 . In her travel diary entitled My Big Adventure of 1915 – 1916 : The joys and hazards of motor touring in 1915 , Danebod local Ragna C. Olson ( 1905 – 2007 ) described the average school day in 1914 : " We had an hour of religion , then learned how to read and write Danish , some history , and the last hour we girls learned work such as knitting , crocheting and embroidery . In the afternoons , they taught us English , writing , reading and arithmetic . " Ragna Olsen ( previously Sorensen ) was the daughter of the Danish pioneers Johanne Marie Sorensen ( 1877 – 1947 ) and Carl Cold Sorensen ( 1879 – 1967 ) , both of whom hold a place in Danebod history for bringing the first motorized vehicles to Tyler in the early 1900s .
On Sunday , February 25 , 1917 , Danebod Folk School burned to the grown . Fortunately , the fire burned slowly . The students and the quickly summoned neighbors had time to rescue much of the furniture and other items of high value . Nearby buildings were saved , but the Folk School was beyond rescue . In the fall of 1917 , nine months after the disastrous fire , a new and larger Folk School was dedicated . Speakers at the dedicatory exercises were Pastor Knudsen , C. P. Højbjerg , Aage Møller , P. Rasmussen , and Kristian Østergaard . Meanwhile , a terrible epidemic of influenza swept the county , and all churches and schools were temporarily closed in an effort to halt the deadly disease ; but many people died . Another catastrophe followed on August 21 , 1918 , when a devastating tornado tore through Lincoln County . It was the fourth most deadly tornado in Minnesota history and took the lives of 36 people and injured a dozen more .
= = Culture = =
Danebod has continued to be a haven for Danish culture through the 20th century and into the 21st . The elementary school , university , library , newspapers , and church services remained Danish language for decades ( and remained the most widely spoken language until the 1940s ) . Danebod remains a predominantly Danish @-@ American town . It is customary to fly the Danish flag , Dannebrog , and Danish cuisine , music , cultural celebrations , language , literature , and the Evangelical Lutheran religious tradition remain important parts of life for the more than 200 inhabitants . Until 1947 church services were held solely in the Danish language , but has since offered one weekly service in Danish . Danebod is sometimes referred to as " the home of the Nissemænd , " a reference to the mythological tomte of folklore . There is a sign on Tyler Street saying : " Welcome to Tyler . Home of the Nissemaend " .
During the 1930s , a combination of financial pressure and low enrollment forced the Danish @-@ language based Danebod Folk School to close down . The building was re @-@ opened in 1946 and has since 1947 offered annual summer family camps . Danebod Folk Camp offers Danish cuisine , Danish folk dance , Danish art , and other Danish cultural experiences . In the spirit of the Danish Folk School system , camp attendees sing Danish songs , dance traditional Danish folk dance , work on crafts and have Danish @-@ based lectures throughout the day .
There are several annual Danish @-@ inspired celebrations in town , including the town parade , Grundlovsdag ( Danish Constitution Day ) , Fastelavn , and Æbleskiver Days . Æbleskiver are traditional Danish pancakes in a distinctive spherical shape . Æbleskiver Days is one of the town 's top attractions , and has been held annually by Danish descendants for more than a hundred years . During this two @-@ day festival held on the 4th weekend of every July , Danebod celebrates its Danish heritage and community . During this festival , there is a parade inspired by Danish traditions and culture that goes down Main Street with floats made by the various neighborhoods . Traditional Danish foods such as medisterpølse , frikadeller , rabarbergrød , rødkål , cream wafers , cinnamon sticks , rosettes , kisses , as well as æbleskiver , smørrebrød , Danish coffee , liver @-@ pâté , and sweets are also popular during the festival . Other activities during Æbleskiver Days include traditional Danish folk dancing , Danish art displays , Danish folk song singing , children 's activities , and the fairground fair called Tivoli The Scandinavian tradition of singing and dancing around the Christmas tree still takes place at the center of the Gym Hall during Christmas time . Some families keep up the tradition of celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 . There is a town fair on the Danish Constitution Day , June 5 . There are still quite a few Danish speakers , especially among the elders .
= = Danebod Historic Complex = =
Recognized for its architectural and cultural significance , the Danebod Historic Complex , at 101 Danebod Court , was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on June 30 , 1975 . The complex includes four historic buildings : the Folk School ( built in 1888 , rebuilt in 1917 ) , Stone Hall ( 1889 ) , Cross Church or Danebod Lutheran Church ( 1893 ) , and Gym Hall ( 1904 ) . Most of these buildings survived the disastrous fire of 1917 , except for the Folk School , which burned down and was rebuilt the same year . These buildings also stood through the devastating 1918 tornado , which killed 36 people in the community .
All four structures were built in a simplified Greek Cross floor plan to signify a religious purpose . Closest to Lake Danebod stands the Folk High School , a three @-@ story wooden building with eight gables . Next to the Folk High School stands the multipurpose Stone Hall , and across the street stands the Gym Hall with its iconic twin towers . Danebod Lutheran Church is located on the town 's main street , appropriately named Tyler Street , and is in the shape of a Greek cross on the outside .
The Danebod Lutheran Church ( also known as the Cross Church at Danebod ) was dedicated Sunday , June 16 , 1895 . It is a cruciform clapboard building with a square placed obliquely in the center . The tower in the middle is carried at a 45 degree angle to the arms of the cross . The outside and interior detailing of the church is Eastlake . It was built largely with volunteer labor and money pledged by the early settlers , who had little to give . Points of interest include the altar chairs , kerosene lamps , architectural structure , wainscoting walls and ceiling , porthole windows as in a ship , hand @-@ carving on the altar , pulpit and railing , the candelabra and altar cloth , hand @-@ carved stone baptismal font , the Star of Bethlehem in the ceiling , Bertel Thorvaldsen 's statue of Christ , the Celtic cross , and pictures in the narthex . The church is located at 101 Danebod Court . The church was established by the organization that later became the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( DELCA ) . This organization later merged into the Lutheran Church in America ( LCA ) in 1962 and then into the largest Lutheran church in the U.S. in 1988 : the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( ELCA ) . Danebod Lutheran Church remains a part of the ELCA still today .
The Danebod Stone Hall was built in 1889 and is a single @-@ floor stone building in the form of a Latin cross . Its entrance wing features medieval @-@ inspired crenellations , but the rest of the building with its pedimented windows are closer to being Greek Revival . It was built from native field rock hauled in by farmers and split and shaped by a Danish stonemason named Kristian Klink . The Stone Hall was used as the first church , later as a gymnasium and assembly hall . Points of interest are the outdoor old bell from the former children 's school , fresco from the Gym Hall , the old chandelier from the Cross Church , old photographs , and handcut field stone in the structure . The Stone Hall is now a museum housing a collection of photographs , publications and objects important in Danebod history . It is also a venue for activities , lectures and discussion groups , and is typically open for public viewing during the Danebod Family Camp sessions .
The Danebod Gym Hall was erected in 1904 and is a cruciform clapboard building . The two sides of the entrance arm project forward to the eaves , and the sides plus a small roof enclose the entrance . It was originally built as a space for Danish gymnastics , folk dancing , music , theatrical performances , larger social gatherings , and worship for the Folk School students and other locals . Every year in the Gym Hall , the Danebod Lutheran Church upholds the Danish tradition of dancing around the Christmas tree . The basement is also commonly used for crafts such as stained glass and woodworking . In 1928 it was enlarged with a stage , basement and furnace . Many home talent plays were presented there , and it is still used for an occasional play , and is also used by the camps and retreats for folk dancing . Points of interest are the statue with an original canvas curtain with advertising , bars used years ago by gymnasts ( on the south wall ) , and the original wainscoting on the walls .
The Danebod Folk School was first built in the year 1888 , but it burned to the ground on February 25 , 1917 . It was soon rebuilt , and nine months later the current school building was completed . A three @-@ story brick building , it has gable ends carried up as parapets . The four @-@ story crenelated corner tower and the pointed arches at the entrance are from Gothic and native Danish architecture . The Folk School was renovated in 1946 and is now used by the Danebod Lutheran Church for camps and retreats , and as a meeting place for local groups and clubs . Points of interest are the hand @-@ carved podium in the lecture hall , the picture behind the podium , the hand @-@ carved wooden cross on the podium , collection plates made by Dr. Thomsen , and also the statuary in the lecture hall and sitting rooms , pictures in the sitting rooms , and the small podium in the dining room . Early settlers of the colony founded a residential school in the Danish tradition of folk High Schools and fostered the concept of " learning for living " , by which individuals sought to become enlightened and thoughtful citizens . The Folk School Building stands as a testament to these values , and continues to serve as a place for fellowship and lifelong learning . Each dormitory style room is unique in plan and decoration . A large kitchen and dining area provide a perfect setting for group meals and activities . A lecture hall and several classrooms allow ample space for programming .
= The Four Stages of Cruelty =
The Four Stages of Cruelty is a series of four printed engravings published by English artist William Hogarth in 1751 . Each print depicts a different stage in the life of the fictional Tom Nero .
Beginning with the torture of a dog as a child in the First stage of cruelty , Nero progresses to beating his horse as a man in the Second stage of cruelty , and then to robbery , seduction , and murder in Cruelty in perfection . Finally , in The reward of cruelty , he receives what Hogarth warns is the inevitable fate of those who start down the path Nero has followed : his body is taken from the gallows after his execution as a murderer and is mutilated by surgeons in the anatomical theatre .
The prints were intended as a form of moral instruction ; Hogarth was dismayed by the routine acts of cruelty he witnessed on the streets of London . Issued on cheap paper , the prints were destined for the lower classes . The series shows a roughness of execution and a brutality that is untempered by the funny touches common in Hogarth 's other works , but which he felt was necessary to impress his message on the intended audience . Nevertheless , the pictures still carry the wealth of detail and subtle references that are characteristic of Hogarth .
= = History = =
In common with other prints by Hogarth , such as Beer Street and Gin Lane , The Four Stages of Cruelty was issued as a warning against immoral behaviour , showing the easy path from childish thug to convicted criminal . His aim was to correct " that barbarous treatment of animals , the very sight of which renders the streets of our metropolis so distressing to every feeling mind " . Hogarth loved animals , picturing himself with his pug in a self @-@ portrait , and marking the graves of his dogs and birds at his home in Chiswick .
Hogarth deliberately portrayed the subjects of the engravings with little subtlety since he meant the prints to be understood by " men of the lowest rank " when seen on the walls of workshops or taverns . The images themselves , as with Beer Street and Gin Lane , were roughly drawn , lacking the finer lines of some of his other works . Fine engraving and delicate artwork would have rendered the prints too expensive for the intended audience , and Hogarth also believed a bold stroke could portray the passions of the subjects just as well as fine lines , noting that " neither great correctness of drawing or fine engraving were at all necessary " .
To ensure that the prints were priced within reach of the intended audience , Hogarth originally commissioned the block @-@ cutter J. Bell to produce the four designs as woodcuts . This proved more expensive than expected , so only the last two of the four images were cut and were not issued commercially at the time . Instead , Hogarth proceeded to create the engravings himself and announced the publication of the prints , along with that of Beer Street and Gin Lane , in the London Evening Post over three days from 14 – 16 February 1751 . The prints themselves were published on 21 February 1751 and each was accompanied by a moralising commentary , written by the Rev. James Townley , a friend of Hogarth 's . As with earlier engravings , such as Industry and Idleness , individual prints were sold on " ordinary " paper for 1s . ( one shilling , equating to about £ 7 @.@ 10 in 2016 terms ) , cheap enough to be purchased by the lower classes as a means of moral instruction . " Fine " versions were also available on " superior " paper for 1s . 6d . ( one shilling and sixpence , about £ 10 @.@ 60 in 2016 terms ) for collectors .
Variations on plates III and IV exist from Bell 's original woodcuts , bearing the earlier date of 1 January 1750 , and were reprinted in 1790 by John Boydell , but examples from either of the woodcut printings are uncommon .
= = Prints = =
= = = First stage of cruelty = = =
In the first print Hogarth introduces Tom Nero , whose surname may have been inspired by the Roman Emperor of the same name or a contraction of " No hero " . Conspicuous in the centre of the plate , he is shown being assisted by other boys to insert an arrow into a dog 's rectum , a torture apparently inspired by a devil punishing a sinner in Jacques Callot 's Temptation of St. Anthony . An initialled badge on the shoulder of his light @-@ hued and ragged coat shows him to be a pupil of the charity school of the parish of St Giles . Hogarth used this notorious slum area as the background for many of his works including Gin Lane and Noon , part of the Four Times of the Day series . A more tender @-@ hearted boy , perhaps the dog 's owner , pleads with Nero to stop tormenting the frightened animal , even offering food in an attempt to appease him . This boy supposedly represents a young George III . His appearance is deliberately more pleasing than the scowling ugly ruffians that populate the rest of the picture , made clear in the text at the bottom of the scene :
The other boys carry out equally barbaric acts : the two boys at the top of the steps are burning the eyes out of a bird with a hot needle heated by the link @-@ boy 's torch ; the boys in the foreground are throwing at a cock ( perhaps an allusion to a nationalistic enmity towards the French , and a suggestion that the action takes place on Shrove Tuesday , the traditional day for cock @-@ shying ) ; another boy ties a bone to a dog 's tail — tempting , but out of reach ; a pair of fighting cats are hung by their tails and taunted by a jeering group of boys ; in the bottom left @-@ hand corner a dog is set on a cat ; and in the rear of the picture another cat tied to two bladders is thrown from a high window . In a foreshadowing of his ultimate fate , Tom Nero 's name is written under the chalk drawing of a man hanging from the gallows ; the meaning is made clear by the schoolboy artist pointing towards Tom . The absence of parish officers who should be controlling the boys is an intentional rebuke on Hogarth 's part ; he agreed with Henry Fielding that one of the causes for the rising crime rate was the lack of care from the overseers of the poor , who were too often interested in the posts only for the social status and monetary rewards they could bring .
Below the text the authorship is established : Designed by W. Hogarth , Published according to Act of Parliament . 1 Feb .. 1751 The Act of Parliament referred to is the Engraving Copyright Act 1734 . Many of Hogarth 's earlier works had been reproduced in great numbers without his authority or any payment of royalties , and he was keen to protect his artistic property , so had encouraged his friends in Parliament to pass a law to protect the rights of engravers . Hogarth had been so instrumental in pushing the Bill through Parliament that on passing it became known as the " Hogarth Act " .
= = = Second stage of cruelty = = =
In the second plate , the scene is Thavies Inn Gate ( sometimes ironically written as Thieves Inn Gate ) , one of the Inns of Chancery which housed associations of lawyers in London . Tom Nero has grown up and become a hackney coachman , and the recreational cruelty of the schoolboy has turned into the professional cruelty of a man at work . Tom 's horse , worn out from years of mistreatment and overloading , has collapsed , breaking its leg and upsetting the carriage . Disregarding the animal 's pain , Tom has beaten it so furiously that he has put its eye out . In a satirical aside , Hogarth shows four corpulent barristers struggling to climb out of the carriage in a ludicrous state . They are probably caricatures of eminent jurists , but Hogarth did not reveal the subjects ' names , and they have not been identified . Elsewhere in the scene , other acts of cruelty against animals take place : a drover beats a lamb to death , an ass is driven on by force despite being overloaded , and an enraged bull tosses one of its tormentors . Some of these acts are recounted in the moral accompanying the print :
The cruelty has also advanced to include abuse of people . A dray crushes a playing boy while the drayman sleeps , oblivious to the boy 's injury and the beer spilling from his barrels . Posters in the background advertise a cockfight and a boxing match as further evidence of the brutal entertainments favoured by the subjects of the image . The boxing match is to take place at Broughton 's Amphitheatre , a notoriously tough venue established by the " father of pugilism " , Jack Broughton : a contemporary bill records that the contestants would fight with their left leg strapped to the floor , with the one with the fewest bleeding wounds being adjudged the victor . One of the advertised participants in the boxing match is James Field , who was hanged two weeks before the prints were issued and features again in the final image of the series ; the other participant is George " the Barber " Taylor , who had been champion of England but was defeated by Broughton and retired in 1750 . On Taylor 's death in 1757 , Hogarth produced a number of sketches of him wrestling Death , probably for his tomb .
According to Werner Busch , the composition alludes to Rembrandt 's painting , Balaam 's Ass ( 1626 ) .
In an echo of the first plate , there is but one person who shows concern for the welfare of the tormented horse . To the left of Nero , and almost unseen , a man notes down Nero 's hackney coach number to report him .
= = = Cruelty in perfection = = =
By the time of the third plate , Tom Nero has progressed from the mistreatment of animals to theft and murder . Having encouraged his pregnant lover , Ann Gill , to rob and leave her mistress , he murders the girl when she meets him . The murder is shown to be particularly brutal : her neck , wrist , and index finger are almost severed . Her trinket box and the goods she had stolen lie on the ground beside her , and the index finger of her partially severed hand points to the words " God 's Revenge against Murder " written on a book that , along with the Book of Common Prayer , has fallen from the box . A woman searching Nero 's pockets uncovers pistols , a number of pocket watches — evidence of his having turned to highway robbery ( as Tom Idle did in Industry and Idleness ) , and a letter from Ann Gill which reads :
Dear Tommy
My mistress has been the best of women to me , and my conscience flies in my face as often as I think of wronging her ; yet I am resolved to venture body and soul to do as you would have me , so do not fail to meet me as you said you would , for I will bring along with me all the things I can lay my hands on . So no more at present ; but I remain yours till death .
Ann Gill .
The spelling is perfect and while this is perhaps unrealistic , Hogarth deliberately avoids any chance of the scene becoming comical . A discarded envelope is addressed " To Thos Nero at Pinne ... " . Ronald Paulson sees a parallel between the lamb beaten to death in the Second Stage and the defenceless girl murdered here . Below the print , the text claims that Nero , if not repentant , is at least stunned by his actions :
Various features in the print are meant to intensify the feelings of dread : the murder takes place in a graveyard , said to be St Pancras but suggested by John Ireland to resemble Marylebone ; an owl and a bat fly around the scene ; the moon shines down on the crime ; the clock strikes one for the end of the witching hour . The composition of the image may allude to Anthony van Dyck 's The Arrest of Christ . A lone Good Samaritan appears again : among the snarling faces of Tom 's accusers , a single face looks to the heavens in pity .
In the alternative image for this stage , produced as a woodcut by Bell , Tom is shown with his hands free . There are also differences in the wording of the letter and some items , like the lantern and books , are larger and simpler while others , such as the man to the left of Tom and the topiary bush , have been removed . The owl has become a winged hourglass on the clock tower .
= = = The reward of cruelty = = =
Having been tried and found guilty of murder , Nero has now been hanged and his body taken for the ignominious process of public dissection . The year after the prints were issued , the Murder Act 1752 would ensure that the bodies of murderers could be delivered to the surgeons so they could be " dissected and anatomised " . It was hoped this further punishment on the body and denial of burial would act as a deterrent . At the time Hogarth made the engravings , this right was not enshrined in law , but the surgeons still removed bodies when they could .
A tattoo on his arm identifies Tom Nero , and the rope still around his neck shows his method of execution . The dissectors , their hearts hardened after years of working with cadavers , are shown to have as much feeling for the body as Nero had for his victims ; his eye is put out just as his horse 's was , and a dog feeds on his heart , taking a poetic revenge for the torture inflicted on one of its kind in the first plate . Nero 's face appears contorted in agony and although this depiction is not realistic , Hogarth meant it to heighten the fear for the audience . Just as his murdered mistress 's finger pointed to Nero 's destiny in Cruelty in Perfection , in this print Nero 's finger points to the boiled bones being prepared for display , indicating his ultimate fate .
While the surgeons working on the body are observed by the mortar @-@ boarded academics in the front row , the physicians , who can be identified by their wigs and canes , largely ignore the dissection and consult among themselves . The president has been identified as John Freke , president of the Royal College of Surgeons at the time . Freke had been involved in the high @-@ profile attempt to secure the body of condemned rioter Bosavern Penlez for dissection in 1749 . Aside from the over @-@ enthusiastic dissection of the body and the boiling of the bones in situ , the image portrays the procedure as it would have been carried out .
Two skeletons to the rear left and right of the print are labelled as James Field , a well @-@ known boxer who also featured on a poster in the second plate , and Macleane , an infamous highwayman . Both men were hanged shortly before the print was published ( Macleane in 1750 and Field in 1751 ) . The skeletons seemingly point to one another . Field 's name above the skeleton on the left may have been a last minute substitution for " GENTL HARRY " referring to Henry Simms , also known as Young Gentleman Harry . Simms was a robber who was executed in 1747 . The motif of the lone " good man " is carried through to this final plate , where one of the academics points at the skeleton of James Field , indicating the inevitable outcome for those who start down the path of cruelty .
The composition of the scene is a pastiche of the frontispiece of Andreas Vesalius 's De humani corporis fabrica , and it possibly also borrows from Quack Physicians ' Hall ( c . 1730 ) by the Dutch artist Egbert van Heemskerck , who had lived in England and whose work Hogarth admired . An earlier source of inspiration may have been a woodcut in the 1495 Fasciculo di medicina by Johannes de Keth
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A massive remastering and expansion , Gill Sans Nova adds many additional variants , including some of the previously undigitised inline versions and stylistic alternates and an ultra @-@ light weight ( once an option in metal type ) which had been digitised for Grazia . The basic set of Regular , Light and Bold weights is bundled with Windows 10 . The fonts differ from Gill Sans MT in their adoption of the hooked 1 as default , while the regular weight is renamed ' Medium ' . Monotype celebrated the release with a London exhibition on Gill 's work , as they had in 1958 to mark the general release of Gill 's serif design Joanna . One addition was italic swash caps , which had been considered by Gill but never released .
= = Usage = =
First unveiled in a single uppercase weight in 1928 , Gill Sans achieved national prominence almost immediately , when it was chosen the following year to become the standard typeface for the LNER railway system , soon appearing on every facet of the company 's identity , from metal locomotive nameplates and hand @-@ painted station signage to printed restaurant car menus , timetables and advertising posters . The LNER promoted their rebranding by offering Gill ( who was fascinated with railway engines ) a footplate ride on the Flying Scotsman express service ; he also painted for it a signboard in the style of Gill Sans , which survives in the collection of the St Bride Library .
When British Railways was created by nationalisation in 1948 , Gill Sans was used in much of its printed output , very often in capitals @-@ only settings for signage . Specially drawn variations were developed by the Railway Executive ( part of the British Transport Commission ) for signs in its manual for the use of signpainters painting large signs by hand . Other users included Penguin Books ' iconic paperback jacket designs from 1935 and British official mapping agency Ordnance Survey . It was also used by London Transport for documents which could not be practically set in Johnston . Paul Shaw , a historian of printing , has described it as a key element of the ' Modernist classical ' style from the 1930s to the 1950s , that promoted clean , spare design , often with all @-@ capitals and centred setting of headings .
Gill Sans remains popular , although a trend away from it towards grotesque and neo @-@ grotesque typefaces took place around the 1950s and 1960s under the influence of continental and American design . Typefaces that became popular around this time included original early " grotesque " sans @-@ serifs , as well as new and more elegant designs in the same style such as Helvetica and Univers . Mosley has commented that in 1960 " orders unexpectedly revived " for the old Monotype Grotesque design : " [ it ] represents , even more evocatively than Univers , the fresh revolutionary breeze that began to blow through typography in the early sixties . " He added in 2007 " its rather clumsy design seems to have been one of the chief attractions to iconoclastic designers tired of the ... prettiness of Gill Sans " . As an example of this trend , Jock Kinneir and Margaret Calvert 's corporate rebranding of BR as British Rail in 1965 introduced Helvetica and Univers for printed matter and the custom but very similar Rail Alphabet for signage , and abandoned the classical , all caps signage style with which Gill Sans is often associated . Kinneir and Calvert 's road signage redesign used a similar approach .
An additional development which reduced Gill Sans ' dominance was the arrival of phototypesetting , which allowed typefaces to be printed from photographs on film and ( especially in display use – hot metal continued for some body text setting for longer ) massively increased the range of typefaces that could cheaply be used . Dry transfers like Letraset had a similar effect for smaller projects ; their sans @-@ serif Compacta and Stephenson Blake 's Impact exemplified the design trends of the period by choosing dense , industrial designs . Of the period from the 1930s to 1950s , when he was growing up , James Mosley would later write :
The Monotype classics dominated the typographical landscape ... in Britain , at any rate , they were so ubiquitous that , while their excellent quality was undeniable , it was possible to be bored by them and to begin to rebel against the bland good taste that they represented . In fact we were already aware by 1960 that they might not be around to bore us for too long . The death of metal type ... seemed at last to be happening .
While extremely popular in Britain , and to a lesser extent in European printing , Gill Sans did not achieve popularity with American printers in the hot metal era , with most preferring gothic designs like Franklin Gothic and geometric designs like Futura and Monotype 's own Twentieth Century . Monotype 's competitor Linotype was dominant in the American market at the time , which may have been a factor in this . The shadow @-@ effect capitals @-@ only fonts appear in some US specimen brochures that otherwise excluded it in this period . Gill Sans therefore particularly achieved worldwide popularity after the close of the metal type era and in the phototypesetting and digital era , when it became a system font on Macintosh computers and Microsoft Office . One use of Gill 's work in the United States in this early period , however , was a custom wordmark and logo made by Gill for Poetry magazine in 1930 based on Gill Sans . Its editor Harriet Monroe had seen Gill 's work in London .
The BBC adopted the typeface as its corporate typeface in 1997 for many but not all purposes , including on its logo . Explaining the change , designer Martin Lambie @-@ Nairn said that " by choosing a typeface that has stood the test of time , we avoid the trap of going down a modish route that might look outdated in several years ' time . " The BBC had an earlier association with Gill , who created some sculptures on Broadcasting House . Other more recent British organisations using Gill Sans have included Railtrack ( and initially its successor Network Rail ) , John Lewis and the Church of England , which adopted Gill Sans as the typeface for the definitive Common Worship family of service books published from 2000 . Notable non @-@ British modern businesses using Gill Sans include United Colours of Benetton ( which commissioned a custom variant ) , Tommy Hilfiger and Saab Automobile . British rock band Bloc Party has used Gill Sans in its logo . AT & T used it until 2006 , before changing it to Clearview after feeling that it was too in keeping with market research that people found the company " monolithic . " Edward Tufte , the information design theorist , uses Gill Sans on his website and in some of his published works . The Wikimedia Foundation uses Gill Sans on its wordmark .
= = Similar fonts = =
= = = Early competitors = = =
An immediate metal type competitor to Gill Sans was Granby from Stephenson Blake ; it was based on Gill Sans and also Johnston . Stephenson Blake had cut the original metal type for Johnston , making them familiar with its design and perhaps explaining its Johnston @-@ influenced diamond @-@ dot tittles . A large family , it also included a " Granby Elephant " weight influenced by Gill Kayo .
Another similar but more eccentric design was created by Johnston 's student Harold Curwen for the use of his family company , the Curwen Press of Plaistow . Named " Curwen Sans " or " Curwen Modern " , it has many similarities to Johnston also , and was occasionally used by London Transport in work printed by the Curwen Press . Curwen described it as based on his time studying with Johnston in the 1900s , although it was not cut into metal until 1928 , around the same time as Gill Sans was released . Jan Tschichold , who would later make extensive use of Gill Sans while designing books for Penguin , created a similar design for an early phototype machine , which was at the time little @-@ used .
Besides similar fonts , many signs and objects made in Britain during the period of Gill Sans ' dominance , such as the famous Keep Calm and Carry On poster , received hand @-@ painted or custom lettering similar to Gill Sans . Fighter Command during the war used a standard set of letters similar to it and Matthew Carter , later a prominent font designer , recalled in a 2005 profile playing with linoleum block letters in the style cut by his mother during the Blitz .
= = = Later and digital @-@ only designs = = =
The category of humanist sans @-@ serif typefaces , which Gill Sans helped to define , saw great attention during the 1980s and 1990s , especially as a reaction against the overwhelming popularity of Helvetica and Univers in the 1960s and 1970s . It can be identified by a tendency to use ' double @-@ storey ' as and gs in the roman and " single @-@ storey " as in italic , like serif fonts .
Modern sans @-@ serif designs inspired by Gill often adapt the concept by creating a design better proportioned and spaced for body text , or create a wider and more homogeneous range of weights , something easier since the arrival of the computer due to the use of multiple master or interpolation . Jeremy Tankard 's Bliss and Volker Küster 's Today Sans are modern variations . Rowton Sans is inspired by Gill but has a nearly upright italic , similar to that used by Gill in his serif font Joanna . More distantly , Arthur Vanson 's Chesham Sans is inspired by the British tradition of sans @-@ serif signpainting , with many similarities to Gill 's work . Bitstream 's Humanist 521 was an unofficial digitisation , to which its Russian licensee ParaType added a Cyrillic version in 1997 . The companies SoftMaker and Fontsite also released Gill Sans digitisations under different names including ' Chantilly ' , ' Gibson ' and others .
More loosely , Syntax by Hans Eduard Meier is similar in some ways . Released in 1968 , it was intended to be a more dynamic , handwriting @-@ influenced sans @-@ serif form . Tschichold , whose serif font Sabon had influenced it , described it as " very easy to read , well designed : better than the related Gill Sans . " Its italic is , however , more of an oblique than Gill 's . Hypatia Sans , designed by Thomas Phinney and released by Adobe , was intended to be a more characterful humanist sans design .
= = = Font superfamilies = = =
A logical extension of the humanist sans @-@ serif concept is the font superfamily : a serif font and a matching humanist sans @-@ serif with similar letterforms . Martin Majoor 's FF Scala Sans is a popular example of this influenced by Gill 's work , as are Charlotte Sans and Serif by Letraset and Mr and Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko , which are based on Baskerville . Indeed , Monotype themselves released Joanna Sans in 2015 , as a screen @-@ optimised sans @-@ serif font intended to complement ( but not exactly match ) Gill 's serif design Joanna . It is intended for use at smaller sizes than Gill Sans .
= = Legal aspects = =
Typeface designs are in many countries not copyrightable , while in others such as the United Kingdom the design is out of copyright with 70 years passed since Gill 's death in 1940 , by which time the metal type family was essentially completed . This makes it legally permissible to create alternative digitised versions of Gill Sans ( although not necessarily of later Monotype additions to the font such as the book weight and Euro sign ) . However , the name " Gill Sans " remains a Monotype trademark ( no . 1340167 in the US ) and therefore is not eligible to be used to name any derivative font .
No complete , direct open @-@ source Gill Sans clone has yet been released . One of the most extensive is Gillius , a derivative by the Arkandis Digital Foundry project and designer Hirwen Harendal , which includes bold , italic , condensed and condensed bold styles . It is not a pure clone , but rather partly created by modifying Bitstream Vera , and adds influences from geometric fonts particularly visible in the design of the " w " . K22 , a foundry in Quezon City operated by the designer " Toto G " , has released two Gill Sans shadowed variants as K22 EricGill Shadow ( digitising the Gill Sans Shadow 338 design ) and K22 EricGill Shadow Line , an inline variant , for free for " personal , private and non @-@ commercial purposes " and for sale for commercial use . A direct clone of the medium weight , Sans Guilt , was released by Brussels open source design group OSP in 2011 , but it contains several obvious glitches such as misaligned " w " and " x " characters . As a pioneering example of the humanist sans @-@ serif style , many other designs are influenced by Gill Sans to some extent .
= Think of the children =
" Think of the children " ( also " What about the children ? " ) is a phrase which evolved into a rhetorical tactic . Literally it refers to children 's rights ( as in discussions of child labor ) . In debate , however , as a plea for pity , used as an appeal to emotion , it is a logical fallacy .
Art , Argument , and Advocacy ( 2002 ) argued that the appeal substitutes emotion for reason in debate . Ethicist Jack Marshall wrote in 2005 that the phrase 's popularity stems from its capacity to stunt rationality , particularly discourse on morals . " Think of the children " has been invoked by censorship proponents to shield children from perceived danger . Community , Space and Online Censorship ( 2009 ) noted that classifying children in an infantile manner , as innocents in need of protection , is a form of obsession over the concept of purity . A 2011 article in the Journal for Cultural Research observed that the phrase grew out of a moral panic .
It was an exhortation in the 1964 Disney film Mary Poppins , when the character of Mrs. Banks pleaded with her departing nanny not to quit and to " think of the children ! " The phrase was popularized as a satiric reference on the animated television program The Simpsons in 1996 , when character Helen Lovejoy pleaded " Won 't somebody please think of the children ! " during a contentious debate by citizens of the fictional town of Springfield .
In the 2012 Georgia State University Law Review , Charles J. Ten Brink called Lovejoy 's use of " Think of the children " a successful parody . The appeal 's subsequent use in society was often the subject of mockery . After its popularization on The Simpsons , the phrase has been called " Lovejoy 's Law " , the " Helen Lovejoy defence " , the " Helen Lovejoy Syndrome " , and " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
= = Background = =
Sociologist Joel Best wrote in 1993 that during the late 19th century , adults developed an increased concern for the welfare of children . Best noted that societies experienced decreasing birth rates after industrialization , with parents focusing their attention on fewer children . According to him , at that time adults began to view childhood as a sacred period of development and children as invaluable , adorable , guiltless beings . During the 1970s and 1980s , Best wrote , adults saw children as potential victims and sought to eliminate perceived threats .
In the 1995 compilation Children and the Politics of Culture , anthropologist Vivienne Wee analyzed the perception of children by adults and how it supported the concept of children 's rights . Wee wrote that in this model ( which she called the European pattern ) , children were seen as defenseless , unadulterated , and in need of protection by authoritative adults . According to Wee , this European pattern led to the idea that children required the sanctuary of the United Nations Charter and the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
Wee wrote : " Alternatively , children 's vulnerability could be interpreted as purity and innocence , needing the protection of responsible adults . It is this second , protective mode of interpretation that underlies the very idea of children 's rights , needing the protection of a UN charter – hence the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child . " She observed that the view of youth as weak and innocent focused on what might occur if children 's rights were not shielded .
Wee argued that this behavior towards children was not entirely positive . According to her , this mindset may lead to hypocrisy by adults who assume that all their actions intend to protect children and creates the risk that adults may wield power " for the children 's own good " . Noting that adult authority may be masked as empathy , Wee concluded : " These alternative cultural interpretations of the vulnerability of children would thus generate their own respective political and psychological consequences . "
= = Child advocacy = =
" Think of the children " has been used in its literal sense to advocate for the rights of children . Early usage during the 20th century included writings in 1914 by the National Child Labor Committee criticizing child labor standards in the United States . U.S. President Bill Clinton used the phrase in a 1999 speech to the International Labour Organization , asking his audience to imagine a significant reduction in child labor : " Think of the children ... freed of the crushing burden of dangerous and demeaning work , given back those irreplaceable hours of childhood for learning and playing and living . "
The phrase 's literal use extends into the 21st century , with Sara Boyce of the Children 's Law Centre in Northern Ireland drawing on it to advocate for the legal rights of the region 's children . The 2008 book Child Labour in a Globalized World used the phrase to call attention to the role of debt bondage in child labor . Sara Dillon of Suffolk University Law School used the phrase " What about the children " in her 2009 book , International Children 's Rights , to focus on child @-@ labor program conditions . Benjamin Powell used the phrase differently in his book , Out of Poverty : Sweatshops in the Global Economy , writing that in the absence of child labor some youth faced starvation . In a 2010 book on human rights , Children 's Rights and Human Development , child psychiatrist Bruce D. Perry used the phrase " think of the children " to urge clinicians to incorporate a process sensitive to developmental stages when counseling youth .
= = Debate tactic = =
= = = Logical fallacy = = =
In their 2002 book , Art , Argument , and Advocacy : Mastering Parliamentary Debate , John Meany and Kate Shuster called the use of the phrase " Think of the children " in debate a type of logical fallacy and an appeal to emotion . According to the authors , a debater may use the phrase to emotionally sway members of the audience and avoid logical discussion . They provide an example : " I know this national missile defense plan has its detractors , but won 't someone please think of the children ? " Their assessment was echoed by Margie Borschke in an article for the journal Media International Australia incorporating Culture and Policy , with Borschke calling its use a rhetorical tactic .
Ethicist Jack Marshall described " Think of the children ! " as a tactic used in an attempt to end discussion by invoking an unanswerable argument . According to Marshall , the strategy succeeds in preventing rational debate . He called its use an unethical manner of obfuscating debate , misdirecting empathy towards an object which may not have been the focus of the original argument . Marshall wrote that although the phrase 's use may have a positive intention , it evokes irrationality when repeatedly used by both sides of a debate . He concluded that the phrase can transform the observance of regulations into an ethical quandary , cautioning society to avoid using " Think of the children ! " as a final argument .
In his 2015 syndicated article " Think Of The Children " , Michael Reagan criticized the phrase 's use by politicians . According to Reagan , politicians needed to stop using children as tools when arguing for favored governmental programs . He called the tactic an illogical argument , an act of desperation by those who felt they had a weaker case with reason @-@ based arguments . Noting that it has been used by Democrats and Republicans alike in the United States , Reagan called the tactic " obvious political BS " .
= = = Moral panic = = =
The Journal for Cultural Research published an article in 2010 by Debra Ferreday , which was republished in the 2011 book Hope and Feminist Theory . According to Ferreday , media use of " Won 't someone think of the children ! " had become common in a climate of moral panic . She suggested that the phrase was becoming so common that it could become another Godwin 's law .
In a 2011 article for the journal Post Script , Andrew Scahill wrote about the power of children in rhetoric to create an untenable stance for an opposing viewpoint . According to Scahill , an individual arguing " for the children " makes it extremely difficult for an opponent to hold a " not for the children " position . Cassandra Wilkinson discussed the impact of " think of the children " rhetoric in a 2011 article for IPA Review . Wilkinson cited research by No Fear : Growing Up in a Risk @-@ Averse Society author Tim Gill that hypersensitivity in defending children from potential harm has the adverse effect of contributing to the inability of youth to own their choices and react to dangerous situations . In the New Statesman , Laurie Penny characterized the tactic as a political belief system and called it " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
Elizabeth Stoker Bruenig wrote in a 2014 article for First Things that moralizing with the phrase was commonly seen in discussions of sexuality , attributing this to society 's increasing perception of morality as a feminine domain . Bruenig also cited the labeling of NBC 's refusal to broadcast a movie trailer about abortion as " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
= = = Censorship = = =
Scott Beattie wrote in his 2009 book , Community , Space and Online Censorship , that the question " Will no one think of the children ? " was often raised by individuals advocating censorship out of a concern that youth might view material deemed inappropriate . According to Beattie , youngsters were cast as potential casualties of online sexual predators to increase regulation of the Internet ; characterizing children as infantile evoked a concept of innocence which was a form of obsession over the concept of purity .
For Make magazine , Cory Doctorow wrote in a 2011 article that " Won 't someone think of the children ? ! " was used by irrational individuals to support arguments about the dangers to youth of the " Four Horsemen of the Infocalypse " : " pirates " , terrorists , organized crime , and child pornographers . According to Doctorow , the phrase was used to stifle discussion of underlying issues and halt rational analysis . He observed its frequent use when society was determining an appropriate approach to the legal aspects of computing .
In his 2013 book , Fervid Filmmaking , Mike Watt discussed the history of censorship relative to the United Kingdom 's Obscene Publications Act 1959 and noted that films banned during that period became known as " video nasties " . Watt called a current interpretation of such censorship the " Think of the Children " characterization . Brian M. Reed wrote in his book , Nobody 's Business ( also published that year ) , that the phrase was devoid of substance and could be replaced for comic effect with " How many kittens must die ? "
For Reason in 2015 , journalist Brendan O 'Neill wrote that Marjorie Heins ' Not in Front of the Children : Indecency , Censorship , and the Innocence of Youth cited the centuries @-@ long use by governments of the prevention of " harm to minors " as an excuse to increase censorship and control . According to O 'Neill , the use of " Won 't somebody please think of the children ? " in contemporary culture had greatly increased and was a means of exerting moral authority with emotional blackmail .
= = Popularization = =
= = = Film and television = = =
According to Kathryn Laity , early use of the phrase may have stemmed from its appearance in the 1964 Walt Disney Pictures film Mary Poppins . In an opening scene , the character of Mrs. Banks pleads with her nanny not to quit by begging her to " think of the children ! " . Laity wrote that the popular use of the phrase evokes strong feelings in those who object to a nanny state , pointing out the conflict in the United States between the country 's conservatism ( derived from the Puritans ) and its capitalist desire to use sex in advertising .
" Think of the children " was popularized largely by character Helen Lovejoy , wife of Reverend Lovejoy , on the television program The Simpsons . Lovejoy ( who first appeared in 1990 ) repeatedly exclaimed , " Think of the children ! " in several episodes of the series . She first used the phrase in the episode " Much Apu About Nothing " by David X. Cohen , which aired in 1996 . Lovejoy 's exhortation became increasingly overwrought with each subsequent use .
Simpsons writer Bill Oakley said in the 2005 DVD commentary on the episode that the motivation for the phrase on the show was to emphasize how " think of the children " was used in debate ; irrelevant , it sidetracked discussion from the original issues . Lovejoy used variations of the phrase , including " Oh , won 't somebody please think of the children " and " What about the children " , shrieking it most often when residents of the fictional town of Springfield debated a contentious problem or argued about politics and logic failed . Lovejoy 's comic use of the phrase on The Simpsons satirized its use in public discourse .
= = = Lovejoy 's Law = = =
After the popularization of the phrase on The Simpsons , its use in society was often ridiculed . In the Toronto Star , journalist Edward Keenan referred to it as " Lovejoy 's Law " . Keenan defined " Lovejoy 's Law " as a warning that the phrase is a probable diversion from a weak logical stance , writing that true empathy toward children involved rational argument rather than manipulation . In an article for Ireland 's Sunday Independent , Carol Hunt called the use of the phrase in political debate the " Helen Lovejoy defence " and wrote that it is also known as the " Helen Lovejoy syndrome " . According to Hunt , it is often invoked in reference to hypothetical children rather than real children affected by a problem .
In a Georgia State University Law Review article , Michigan State University College of Law professor Charles J. Ten Brink wrote that Helen Lovejoy 's signature phrase was an adept and effective parody . According to The Canberra Times , the phrase 's 2009 use to support Internet censorship by the Department of Communications of the government of Australia was evocative of Helen Lovejoy .
In his book , The Myth of Evil , Phillip A. Cole wrote that Helen Lovejoy 's plea assumed that children were pure , unadulterated potential casualties who required constant defense from danger . Cole contrasted this notion with character Bart Simpson , who prefers creating disorder to conformity and adherence to regulations . According to Cole , this exemplifies the dual perception of children by society : guileless potential prey and malevolent entities to be distrusted . Cole wrote that throughout history , the child has represented humanity 's savage past and its optimistic future . Jo Johnson contributed a chapter , " Won 't Somebody Think of the Children ? " , to the book Mediating Moms , in which she analyzed the phrase 's use in animated media ( including The Simpsons ) . According to Johnson , the phrase was a key example of popular cultural depictions of mothers as neurotic and filled with anxiety about moral values .
= The Broken Ear =
The Broken Ear ( French : L 'Oreille cassée ) , also published as Tintin and the Broken Ear , is the sixth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from December 1935 to February 1937 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who pursue the thieves of a South American fetish identifiable by its broken ear . In doing so , he ends up in the fictional nation of San Theodoros , where he becomes embroiled in a civil war and discovers the Arumbaya tribe deep in the forest .
The Broken Ear was a commercial success and was published in book form shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Black Island , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1943 , The Broken Ear was coloured and reformatted for republication by Casterman . The Broken Ear introduces the recurring character General Alcazar , and was the first to include fictional countries . The story was adapted for both the 1956 Belvision animation , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin investigates when a fetish created by the Arumbaya tribe of South America is stolen from Brussels ' Museum of Ethnography , only to be returned the following day . Tintin realises that the replacement is a fake , and draws a connection to a local sculptor Jacob Balthazar , who has recently been murdered . Balthazar 's parrot — a witness to the murder — is obtained by two Hispanic men , Alonso Pérez and Ramón Bada , who try to kill Tintin when he begins to investigate their connection to the crime . From the parrot , Alonso and Ramón discover that Balthazar was murdered by Rodrigo Tortilla , and they follow him aboard a ship bound for South America . There , they murder Tortilla , but find that he did not have the original fetish . Tintin arranges their arrest when the ship docks at Los Dopicos , capital of San Theodoros .
In the city , Tintin is framed as a terrorist , arrested , and sentenced to death by firing squad ; but survives when a revolution topples the government , and the new leader , General Alcazar , appoints Tintin his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Alonso and Ramón capture Tintin , and interrogate him in the hope of locating the missing fetish , but he escapes and apprehends them .
As aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Tintin opposes Alcazar 's decision to go to war with neighbouring Nuevo Rico over the oil @-@ rich Gran Chapo , and is framed as a traitor by the international oil and weapon companies . He escapes imprisonment with the aid of the mercenary Pablo ; and decides to enter the forest and find the Arumbayas , in the hope that they can explain to him why people wish to steal the fetish . From a British explorer , Ridgewell , living among the Arumbaya , Tintin learns that a diamond was stolen and hidden inside the statue .
Returning to Belgium , Tintin discovers that Balthazar 's brother has produced a range of replicas of the fetish , which he had discovered among his deceased brother 's belongings , and learns that the original has been purchased by a wealthy American , Mr. Goldbarr ; now aboard a ship to the United States . Catching up to the boat , Tintin finds that Alonso and Ramón are aboard , and they struggle for the possession of the fetish . It smashes on the deck , with the diamond falling into the sea . Tintin , Alonso and Ramón struggle , and fall overboard . Tintin is rescued , but Alonso and Ramón drown and are shown en route to Hell . Goldbarr gives Tintin the stolen fetish to return to the museum , where it is repaired and put back on display .
= = History = =
= = = Background and research = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels which was run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez . In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , revolving around the exploits of fictional Belgian reporter Tintin . Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union as anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) , to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) , and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ( Tintin in America ) . Wallez was subsequently removed from the paper 's editorship following a scandal , although Hergé was convinced to stay on the condition of a salary increase . In preparing The Broken Ear , Hergé developed the new habit of keeping plot notes and ideas in a notebook . He also began making cuttings of photographs and other images from magazines and newspapers , filing them away for future use ; he used them as a basis for many of the drawings in The Broken Ear .
Hergé used The Broken Ear to allude to real events that had recently taken place in South America . The fictional countries of San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico were based on the real countries Bolivia and Paraguay , while the Gran Chapo War depicted in the strip was an allusion to the Gran Chaco War ( 1932 – 35 ) that was waged between Bolivian and Paraguayan forces over lucrative oil fields in the Gran Chaco region . The name " Gran Chapo " was a pun on the French grand chapeau , meaning " big hat " , while the name Nuevo Rico was a pun on nouveau riche and the name of the Nuevo Rican capital city , Sanfación , was a pun on sans façon , meaning " without manners " . Hergé 's character Basil Bazarov , of the Vicking Arms Company Ltd ( Basil Mazaroff in the 1937 edition ) , was a thinly veiled allusion to the real @-@ life Greek weapons seller Basil Zaharoff of Vickers Armstrong , who profited from the conflict by supplying arms to both Paraguay and Bolivia . Hergé had learned about the conflict and the western corporations profiting from it through two issues of anti @-@ conformist Belgian magazine La Crapouillot ( The Mortar Shell ) , which covered news stories ignored by the mainstream media . It is also likely that he had read Richard Lewinsohn 's 1930 book Zaharoff , l 'Européen mystérieux ( Zaharoff , the Mysterious European ) , which had been referenced in La Crapouillot .
Hergé 's Arumbaya fetish was based on the design of a genuine Peruvian statue in Brussels ' Royal Museums of Art and History ; a pre @-@ Columbian Chimu statue , it was made of wood and dated to between 1200 and 1438 CE . Whereas Hergé had access to speakers of Mandarin when creating The Blue Lotus , he had no access to speakers of indigenous Amerindian languages , and as such , the Arumbaya language that he developed was entirely fictitious . He based its structure largely on the Brusselier dialect spoken in the Marolles area of Brussels , mixed with Spanish endings and constructions . In developing the Arumbaya 's rivals , the Bibaros , he was influenced by anthropological accounts of head shrinking among the Jibaros tribes ; when Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper and Michael Turner translated the book into English , they renamed the Bibaros as the Rumbabas , a pun on the rum baba pudding . In crafting the story , Hergé was possibly influenced by The Maltese Falcon , as there are similarities in their plots .
= = = Original publication = = =
The Broken Ear was first serialised in Le Petit Vingtième from December 1935 under the title Tintin et Milou chez les Arumbayas ( Tintin and Snowy among the Arumbayas ) . From 7 February 1937 , the story was also serialised in the French Catholic newspaper , Cœurs Vaillants . In 1937 , it was collected in a single hardcover volume and published by Éditions Casterman under the title L 'Oreille cassée ( The Broken Ear ) . For this collected edition , one small change was made ; the minor character of Carajo was renamed Caraco , because the word carajo is Spanish slang for penis .
The Broken Ear introduced the character General Alcazar to the series , who went on to become a recurring character who appeared in three further Adventures . It was the first in the series to begin and end in Belgium , the first to deal with the hunt for a specific object , and the last in which Tintin is seen taking part in journalistic activity . It was also the first time that the Adventures featured Tintin 's flat at 26 Labrador Road , in which Chinese mementos from The Blue Lotus are visible . Influenced by the films of Alfred Hitchcock , Hergé inserted an illustration of himself into the second frame . He also made reference to contemporary news stories in the book , having a radio announcer discuss the ongoing Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War at the start of the story ; this was removed in the colour edition . At the end of the story , Hergé killed off Ramón and Alonso and depicted them being dragged to Hell by devils ; the killing of the story 's antagonists was something not repeated in future stories . This upset the editors of Cœurs Vaillants , who asked Hergé to change the scene ; annoyed at their request , he later commented , " On the surface it cost me nothing , but that kind of addition was really difficult for me . " For their serialisation of the story , he replaced that particular frame with one in which Tintin vouchsafed the souls of Ramón and Alonso for God .
= = = Second version , 1943 = = =
In the 1940s and 1950s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew and coloured many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created . The Broken Ear was the first of these early Adventures to undergo the reformatting and colouration , and this second edition was published as a 62 @-@ page volume by Casterman in 1943 . Unlike some of the earlier adventures , The Broken Ear was not redrawn , save for a few minor revisions . To reduce the length of the book , various sections were excised , including a dream sequence that appeared in the original . As the colouration process was new to the series , the use of colour in The Broken Ear is more basic than in later volumes ; as the book progresses , it is evident that Hergé lost interest and rushed the task , for instance , resorting to using block colour backgrounds without any detail .
= = = Later publications and legacy = = =
Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version in 1979 in a French @-@ language collected volume with Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus , the second part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1986 , Casterman published a facsimile version of the original .
Hergé returned to creating fictional nations as allusions to real countries in subsequent Adventures , such as Syldavia and Borduria ( based largely on Yugoslavia and Nazi Germany ) in King Ottokar 's Sceptre and Sondonesia ( based on Indonesia ) in Flight 714 to Sydney . He also re @-@ used other elements pioneered in The Broken Ear in his later Adventures : a parrot in The Castafiore Emerald , a ravine crash in The Calculus Affair , a fireball and vivid dream in The Seven Crystal Balls , and a firing squad in Tintin and the Picaros . Tintin returned to San Theodores in Tintin in the Picaros , in which the characters Pablo and Ridgewell also made a reappearance .
In 1979 , the Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels held an exhibition marking fifty years of The Adventures of Tintin . As part of this , they included artefacts that featured in the series , with the broken @-@ eared Peruvian statue that inspired Hergé 's Arumbaya fetish as the centre piece of the show ; however , they feared that it might be stolen , so a replica was exhibited rather than the genuine article . Imitating the events of The Broken Ear , a thief broke in and stole the statue . A letter was then sent to Le Soir in which an individual alleging to be the thief stated that the item would be returned if Hergé returned to the scene of the crime at a certain time with a copy of the book under his right arm . Hergé did so , but carried the book under his left arm ; the thief never appeared , and the replica fetish was never recovered .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier described The Broken Ear as " a Blue Lotus @-@ lite " , noting that it shared many elements with the previous Adventure , although they also considered it to be " more reminiscent of the earlier , more caricatured books " like Tintin in the Congo and Tintin in America with the inclusion of comical natives and absurdist elements like " comical bombs " . They nevertheless thought that it exhibited a " marked improvement " in Hergé 's use of plotting , noting that the story was clearly structured , praising the " very effective , dramatic story , with plenty of twists " . Overall , they awarded The Broken Ear two stars out of five . Harry Thompson felt that The Broken Ear had a " slightly lacklustre quality " to it , and was " disappointing " due to the fact that the " various elements don 't gel well together . " He believed that the artistic quality and the use of research deteriorated as the Adventure progressed , although it had " the most complex plot yet , by a long way " . Philippe Goddin asserted that in the story , Tintin develops from a " classic reporter to an investigative journalist . "
Michael Farr described The Broken Ear as a " moral condemnation of capitalism , imperialism and war " , although felt that it was " not as perfectly constructed " as The Blue Lotus , being " less detailed and realistic " . He thought that the image in which Ramón and Alonso drown in the sea and are dragged to Hell by demons was " truly medieval " and represented the " most fanciful image " in the entire series . He also opined that Hergé 's depiction of South American military juntas was " full of humour " and that the detail was " generally very accurate " . Biographer Benoît Peeters thought that The Broken Ear was a return to " pure adventure " from the " quasi @-@ documentary realism " of The Blue Lotus , and that in this Adventure , politics remains " in the second line " , and that instead Hergé let " the narrative rip and succeeds marvellously . " Elsewhere , he praised the work as having a " formidable dynamism " and an " unequaled vitality " , containing a " revolution " in narrative structure . He thought that it served as a " perfect metaphor " for the theories of German philosopher Walter Benjamin published in The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction ( 1936 ) , which Hergé had not read . Literary critic Tom McCarthy thought that Balthazar was an example of the interesting minor characters that imbue the Adventures , commenting that his " down @-@ at @-@ heel garret speaks volumes of loneliness and semi @-@ realised artistry . " He also opined that the diamond within the fetish was the clitoris of the Arumbaya , describing it as " their pleasure , wrapped up in a fetish " . He also thought that there was a homosexual subtext between Ramón and Alonso , believing that the scene in which a bullet was fired into Ramón 's buttocks was symbolic of anal sex .
Writing in Libération , the philosopher Michel Serres opined that The Broken Ear was " a treatise on fetishism " . Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University believed that The Broken Ear established a " tintinian " anthropology that would remain throughout the rest of the series . As part of this , Apostolidès argued , Hergé distances himself from western values and looks at his own society as an outsider , accomplishing what Roger Caillois called " sociological revolution " . He felt that the comic was " more contrived " and " more superficial " than the previous Adventures , and that here Tintin loses his position as " the sole point of identification " for the reader , with the other characters becoming more identifiable . Opining that there was a constant theme of twos throughout the story ( i.e. the real and the fake fetish , Alonso and Ramón ) , he thought that the character of Ridgewell was " a kind of Tintin , grown old among the natives , solitary and ill humored " , noting that Ridgewell 's position among the Arumbayas was akin to Tintin 's position among the Ba Baorom in Congo . Apostolidès also argued that in the comic , Alcazar was a religious figure , who attained a " sacred " quality through the spilling of blood in his revolt against General Tapioca 's government . As part of this , he argued that the threats of assassination would make him a martyr , or a " holy king . "
= = Adaptations = =
The Broken Ear is one of The Adventures of Tintin that were adapted for the first series of the animated Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin by the Belgian studio Belvision in 1957 , directed by Ray Goossens and written by Michel Greg The Broken Ear was divided up into a six 5 @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white episodes that diverted from Hergé 's original plot in a variety of ways .
It was also adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin .
= Robert Schmertz ( artist ) =
Robert Watson " Bob " Schmertz ( March 4 , 1898 – June 7 , 1975 ) was a Pittsburgh @-@ based architect and folk musician whose music has been covered by Pete Seeger , Burl Ives , Tennessee Ernie Ford , Bill and Gloria Gaither , The Statler Brothers , The Cathedrals , Dailey & Vincent , the River City Brass Band , and Ernie Haase & Signature Sound . Born in Squirrel Hill , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Schmertz attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he wrote the Carnegie Tartans ' fight song , " Fight for the Glory of Carnegie , " and played the banjo in a jazz orchestra ; after he graduated with an architecture degree in 1921 , Schmertz designed buildings . He taught at Carnegie for more than thirty @-@ five years before his retirement .
As a folk musician , Schmertz released four albums , with his third , Sing Oh ! The City Oh ! : Songs of Early Pittsburgh , in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of Pittsburgh 's founding ; a reviewer for Keystone Folklore Quarterly called it " tuneful and well @-@ done in the folk tradition " . Before his death , Schmertz completed a book of his songs , but died before it published . Ten days after he suffered a stroke , Schmertz died on June 7 , 1975 .
= = Early life = =
Schmertz was born on March 4 , 1898 , in Squirrel Hill , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . After he completed studies at Peabody High School , where he met his future wife , Mildred , Schmertz attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology ( today , Carnegie Mellon University ) . In May 1917 Schmertz , dressed in " light flannel trousers , a girl 's middy blouse and a small white hat , " was arrested after he stood outside a theater and encouraged persons exiting the theater to join the navy as , according to Schmertz , a part of an initiation ritual to join a fraternity ; he was charged with mocking the uniform but a magistrate later dismissed the charge .
At Carnegie , Schmertz wrote the Carnegie Tartans ' fight song , " Fight for the Glory of Carnegie " , wrote college musicals , led a dance band , played the banjo in a jazz orchestra , and worked on the Carnegie yearbook staff . In 1921 , he graduated with a degree in architecture .
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= Architecture and professorship = =
As an architect , Schmertz designed the St. Michael 's of the Valley Church in Rector , Pennsylvania , and the renovation of the Unity Chapel in Latrobe , Pennsylvania . In 1930 , the Common Brick Manufacturers ' Association of America in Cleveland , Ohio , awarded Schmertz an honorable mention in a " houses already built " contest . Three years later , Schmertz served on a Pittsburgh @-@ based American Institute of Architects executive committee that sought to identify western Pennsylvanian buildings constructed before 1860 . Schmertz worked as a member of Fisher and Schmertz , and , later , headed the firm of Schmertz , Erwin and Associates . According to George Swetnam of The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine , " many " of the buildings Schmertz designed were homes .
Schmertz taught design at the Carnegie Institute of Technology for more than thirty @-@ five years . At Carnegie , Schmertz worked on a team that designed a cyclotron for the university in Saxonburg , Pennsylvania . Schmertz retired from his professorship in 1965 ( named a professor emeritus ) , but was teaching at the university in 1973 .
= = Folk musician = =
In 1949 , Schmertz , who played the banjo in college , recorded an LP , Songs by Robert Schmertz , after his friends bought him studio time . Schmertz 's second studio album , Robert Schmertz Sings His Songs , was released in 1955 : from the album , Burl Ives covered " Angus McFergus McTavish Dundee " on the Captain Kangaroo show .
By 1958 , a writer for the Deadwood Pioneer @-@ Times in Deadwood , South Dakota , wrote that Schmertz was " rapidly gaining national prominence as an interpreter of American musical and lyrical idiom " after Schmertz wrote a song , " Swing Away , Pearly Gates , " for Edmund Karlsrud and the Concertmen , who performed it as a part of their 1957 – 1958 tour . In 1958 , composer Elie Seigmeister and lyricist Edward Mabley cited Schmertz 's " Monongahela Sal " and " Lock No . Ten " as inspiration for The Mermaid in Lock No. 7 , a musical " in the folk idiom , expanded by modern , sophisticated treatment " that debuted at the American Wind Symphony Orchestra .
Schmertz 's third album , Sing Oh ! the City Oh ! : Songs of Early Pittsburgh , released on Folkways Records in 1959 , featured folk songs , such as " Celeron " , named after Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville , and " The Battle of Bushy Run " , after the battle of the same name , in commemoration of the bicentennial of Pittsburgh 's founding . A reviewer for Keystone Folklore Quarterly described the album , to which two of his children , Gretchen Schmertz Jacob and John Schmertz , contributed , as " tuneful and well @-@ done in the folk tradition " . A reviewer for Billboard magazine called it a " fascinating package of songs " that " will appeal to folklorists , educational groups , and , of course , residents of Pittsburgh particularly " . Schmertz released his final album , Ladies Beware of an Architect : Songs for Architects and Their Girlfriends , in 1960 .
Schmertz 's music has been covered by Pete Seeger , who called Schmertz a " very good songwriter " , Burl Ives , Tennessee Ernie Ford , Bill and Gloria Gaither , The Statler Brothers , The Cathedrals , Dailey & Vincent , the River City Brass Band , and Ernie Haase & Signature Sound .
= = Later life = =
In 1970 , Schmertz retired from his position at Schmertz , Erwin and Associates . In 1973 , he resided in Ben Avon , Pennsylvania . With his wife , Mildred Floyd , an art teacher , Schmertz had four children : Gretchen Schmertz Jacob , John , Jack , and Mildred .
Before his death , Schmertz compiled a book on his songs , though he died before it published . Ten days prior to his death , Schmertz sustained a stroke , and , on June 7 , 1975 , died after a long illness .
= International airport =
An international airport is an airport that offers customs and immigration facilities for passengers travelling between countries . International airports are typically larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel . International airports often also host domestic flights . Some , such as Frankfurt Airport in Germany are very large ; others such as Fa 'a'ā International Airport in Tahiti , are quite small .
Buildings , operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid 20th century , when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights . Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency . The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among the most complex and interconnected in the world . By the second decade of the 21st century , there were over 1 @,@ 200 international airports and almost two billion international passengers along with 50 million metric tonnes of cargo were passing through them annually .
= = History = =
In August 1919 , Hounslow Heath Aerodrome , in London , England was the first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services . It was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920 . In the United States , Bisbee @-@ Douglas International Airport in Arizona became the first international airport of the Americas in 1928 .
The precursors to international airports were airfields or aerodromes . In the early days of international flights , there was limited infrastructure , " although if engine problems arose there were plenty of places where aircraft could land " . Four @-@ engined land planes being unavailable for over @-@ water operations to international destinations , thus / therefore flying boats became part of the solution . At the far end of the longest international route ( which became the Kangaroo Route ) , on @-@ water landing areas were found in places such as Surabaya and in the open sea off Kupang . In Sydney , Rose Bay , New South Wales , was chosen as the airport landing area .
International airports sometimes serve military as well as commercial purposes and their viability is also affected by technological developments . Canton Island Airport , for example , in the Phoenix Islands ( Kiribati ) , after serving as a military airport during World War II , was used as a refuelling stop by commercial aircraft such as Qantas which stationed ground crew there in the late 1950s . The advent in the early 1960s of jet aircraft such as the Boeing 707 with the range to fly non @-@ stop between Australia or New Zealand and Hawaii , meant that a mid @-@ Pacific stop was no longer needed and the airport was closed to regular commercial use . Other international airports , such as Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong , have been decommissioned and replaced when they reached capacity or technological advances rendered them inadequate .
= = Design and construction = =
The construction and operation of an international airport depends on a complicated set of decisions that are affected by technology , politics , economics and geography as well as both local and international law . Designing an airport even for domestic traffic or as " non @-@ hub " has , from the beginning , required extensive co @-@ ordination between users and interested parties – architects , engineers , managers and staff all need to be involved . Airports may also be regarded as emblematic of national pride and so the design may be architecturally ambitious . An example is the planned New Mexico City international airport , intended to replace an airport that has reached capacity .
Airports can be towered or non @-@ towered , depending on air traffic density and available funds . Because of high capacity and busy airspace , many international airports have air traffic control located on site .
Some international airports require construction of additional infrastructure outside of the airport , such as at the Hong Kong International Airport , which included the construction of a high @-@ speed railway and automobile expressway to connect the airport to the urban areas of Hong Kong . Construction of the expressway included the construction of two bridges ( the Tsing Ma suspension bridge and Kap Shui Mun cable bridge ) and the Ma Wan viaduct on Ma Wan island to connect the bridges . Each bridge carries rail and automobile traffic .
= = Operations and management = =
International airports have commercial relationships with and provide services to airlines and passengers from around the world . Many also serve as hubs , or places where non @-@ direct flights may land and passengers may switch planes , while others serve primarily direct point @-@ to @-@ point flights . This affects airport design factors , including the number and placement of terminals as well as the flow of passengers and baggage between different areas of the airport . An airport specializing in point @-@ to @-@ point transit can have international and domestic terminals , each in their separate building equipped with separate baggage handling facilities . In a hub airport , however , spaces and services are shared .
Airport management have to take into account a wide range of factors , among which are the performance of airlines , the technical requirements of aircraft , airport @-@ airline relationships , services for travelling customers , security and environmental impacts .
= = = Standards = = =
Technical standards for safety and operating procedures at international airports are set by international agreements . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) , formed in 1945 , is the association of the airline companies . The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) is a body of the United Nations succeeding earlier international committees going back to 1903 . These two organizations served to create regulations over airports which the airports themselves had no authority to debate . This eventually sparked an entire subject of air travel politics . In January 1948 , 19 representatives from various US commercial airports met for the first time in New York City to seek resolution to common problems they each faced , which initiated the formation of the Airport Operators Council , which later became Airports Council International – North America ( ACI @-@ NA ) . This group included representatives from Baltimore , Boston , Chicago , Cleveland , Dallas , Denver , Detroit , Jacksonville , Kansas City , Los Angeles , Memphis , Miami , Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul , New York @-@ Newark , Philadelphia , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , San Francisco and Washington .
= = = Flight logistics = = =
International airports have extensive operations in managing flight logistics , such as air traffic control . The latter service is provided by ground @-@ based controllers who coordinate and direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace . Air traffic control also provides advisory services to aircraft in non @-@ controlled airspace .
= = = Customs and immigration = = =
Airports with international flights have customs and immigration facilities , which allow right of entry . These change over time but are generally designated by law . However , as some countries have agreements that allow connecting flights without customs and immigrations , such facilities do not define an international airport .
= = = Security and safety = = =
The current trend of enhancing security at the cost of passenger and baggage handling efficiency at international airports is expected to continue in the future . This places financial burden on airports , risks the flow of servicing processes , and has implications for the privacy of passengers . International flights often require a higher level of physical security than do domestic airports , although in recent years , many countries have adopted the same level of security for both .
Most international airports feature a " sterile lounge " , an area after security checkpoints within which passengers are free to move without further security checks . This area can have services such as duty @-@ free shops that sell goods that have been selected and screened with safety in mind , so that purchasing and bringing them on board flights poses no security risks . In addition to employees , only processed passengers with a valid ticket are allowed inside the sterile lounge . Admittance into the sterile area is done in centralized security checkpoints in contrast to e.g. individual checkpoints at each gate . This allows for more efficient processing of passengers with fewer staff , as well as makes it possible to detect both delays and security threats well ahead of boarding .
To ensure the viability of airport operations , new and innovative security systems are being developed . For instance , the old security checkpoints can be replaced by a " total security area " encompassing an entire airport , coupled with automatic surveillance of passengers from the moment they enter the airport until they embark on a plane .
Passengers connecting to domestic flights from an international flight generally must take their checked luggage through customs and re @-@ check their luggage at the domestic airline counter , requiring extra time in the process . In some cases in Europe , luggage can be transferred to the final destination even if it is a domestic connection .
In some cases , travelers and the aircraft can clear customs and immigration at the departure airport . As one example of this , are airports in Canada with United States border preclearance facilities . This allows flights from those airports to fly into US airports that do not have customs and immigration facilities . Luggage from such flights can also be transferred to a final destination in the U.S. through the airport of entry .
A crucial safety aspect of international airports is medical facilities and practices . In particular , controlling transmissible disease , such as SARS , is deemed important at international airports . While these standards are regulated by ICAO Standards And Recommended Practices ( SARPs ) and WHO 's International Health Regulations ( IHR ) , local authorities have considerable say in how they are implemented .
= = = Transportation = = =
Among the most important airport services are further transportation connections , including rail networks , taxi and shuttle services at curbside pick @-@ up areas , and public buses . Large areas for automobile parking , often in co @-@ located multi @-@ storey car parks , are also typical to find at airports . Some airports provide shuttle services to parking garages for passengers and airport employees . Due to the very large scale of international airports , some have constructed shuttle services to transport passengers between terminals . Such systems operate for example , in Singapore Changi Airport and Zurich Airport .
At some U.S. international airports , such as O 'Hare International Airport in Chicago , some seating and waiting areas are located away from the terminal building , with passengers being shuttled to terminals . These areas may be referred to as ground transportation centers or intermodal centers . Amenities at ground transportation centers typically include restrooms and seating , and may also provide ticket counters , food and beverage sales and retail goods such as magazines . Some ground transportation centers have heating and air conditioning and covered boarding areas ( to protect passengers from the elements ) .
= = = Services and amenities = = =
Standard amenities include public restrooms , passenger waiting areas and retail stores for dining and shopping , including duty @-@ free shops . Dining establishments may be consolidated in food courts . Some international airports may offer retail sales of luxury goods at duty @-@ free stores , such as at Terminal 3 at Indira Gandhi International Airport in India . This terminal has been described as having become a significant retail destination in India . Wi @-@ Fi service and access , offices for bureau de change ( currency exchange ) and tourism advice are common , although the availability of service varies across airports . Some international airports provide secure areas for stranded passengers to rest and sleep . The more usual service is hotels that are available on the premises .
= = = = Customer satisfaction awards = = = =
The World Airport Awards are voted by consumers in an independent global customer satisfaction survey . Singapore Changi Airport has been the first @-@ place winner in 2006 , 2010 , 2013 and 2014 . Other winners include Incheon International Airport ( South Korea ) and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol ( The Netherlands ) .
= = Airport names = =
Toponymy is one of the most common sources for the naming of airports . A number of areas close to them have lent their names , including villages , estates , city districts , historical areas and regions , islands and even a waterfall . Cataratas del Iguazú International Airport and Foz do Iguaçu International Airport are named after the Iguazu Falls in Argentina . Domodedovo International Airport is named after the town of Domodedovo . Sometimes the toponym is combined with or renamed to incorporate another name from another source such as from one of the following :
Aviators , such as pilots ( civil and military ) and others who played a role in the development of aviation . Sydney Airport is also known as Kingsford Smith Airport , named after Charles Kingsford Smith ; and Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport , in Chile , is named after Arturo Merino Benítez .
Cultural leaders ( poets , artists , writers , musicians ) such as Leonardo da Vinci – Fiumicino Airport , named after Leonardo da Vinci ; Liverpool John Lennon Airport , named after The Beatles member and Liverpool local John Lennon ; Tom Jobim Airport , at Rio de Janeiro named after the composer Antonio Carlos Jobim . Václav Havel Airport Prague , named after writer / philosopher / statesman Václav Havel . Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport and Warsaw Chopin Airport were both renamed after musicians , the former after Franz Liszt on the 200th anniversary of his birth and the latter after Frédéric Chopin .
Ethnic groups , such as Minangkabau International Airport in Padang , Indonesia , named after the local Minangkabau people .
Ideals in combination with toponyms , such as Newark Liberty International Airport .
Mythology and religion , such as heroes of epics and myths , church hierarchs and saints and similar names . Manas International Airport ( or Bishkek ) in Kyrgyzstan is named after Manas in the Kyrgyz national epic poem .
Politicians and statesmen , such as Heads of State , Members of parliament and leaders of political parties as well as high @-@ ranking military personnel . Examples include : Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle Airport , named after Charles de Gaulle , John F. Kennedy International Airport ( in New York City ) , named after John F. Kennedy , the 35th President of the U.S. There are two international airports named after Simón Bolívar , one in Venezuela , and one in Colombia ; Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport , formerly known as Dum Dum Airport , is named after Subhas Chandra Bose and Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport , named after former premier Jean Lesage .
Public figures ( advocates , engineers , doctors , teachers , journalists or sportpeople ) , such as George Best Belfast City Airport , named after footballer George Best , who came from the city .
Royalty , such as King Fahd International Airport at Dammam , Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport at Mumbai , Tribhuvan International Airport at Kathmandu are all named after royalty .
Scientists such as Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport , named after Guglielmo Marconi .
A study concluded that an average of 44 percent of the world 's airports are named by toponyms . Thirty percent for politicians and only seven percent for aviators . Mythology and religion ( three percent ) , public figures ( two percent ) , people of science ( two percent ) and other ( one percent ) .
= = Notable airports = =
= = = By historical event = = =
1919 ( August ) Hounslow Heath Aerodrome begins operating scheduled international commercial services from England to France .
1933 Douglas International Airport in Arizona is honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as " the first international airport of the Americas " , having reached this capacity in 1928 .
= = = By passenger numbers = = =
As of 2012 , Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta International had the greatest number of travelers of all international airports with a total of 95 @,@ 462 @,@ 867 passengers , 13 @.@ 5 million more than the next busiest airport which was Beijing Capital International with 81 @,@ 929 @,@ 359 passengers . The following year , Hartsfield retained its place as the busiest airport but with only 94 @.@ 4 million passengers .
Los Angeles International Airport ( LAX ) is considered to have the greatest number of passengers who start or end their travel there as opposed to continuing on to a connecting flight . Overall , LAX is considered to be the 7th busiest airport in the world .
London Heathrow is the busiest airport in Europe , with 73 @,@ 405 @,@ 330 counted passengers in 2014 , almost 10 million more than the second busiest , Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle Airport . It is also the second busiest in the world when measured by international passengers , beaten only by Dubai International Airport .
= = = Other = = =
Svalbard Airport in Svalbard , Norway is the northern @-@ most airport to which tourists can book tickets . It is primarily used for transporting miners to and from a cluster of islands with a heavy mining industry .
King Fahd International Airport , Dammam , Saudi Arabia is the largest airport in the world , encompassing over 300 square miles ( 780 km2 ) .
= Gospel of the Ebionites =
The Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given by scholars to an apocryphal gospel extant only as seven brief quotations in a heresiology known as the Panarion , by Epiphanius of Salamis ; he misidentified it as the " Hebrew " gospel , believing it to be a truncated and modified version of the Gospel of Matthew . The quotations were embedded in a polemic to point out inconsistencies in the beliefs and practices of a Jewish Christian sect known as the Ebionites relative to Nicene orthodoxy .
The surviving fragments derive from a gospel harmony of the Synoptic Gospels , composed in Greek with various expansions and abridgments reflecting the theology of the writer . Distinctive features include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus ; an Adoptionist Christology , in which Jesus is chosen to be God 's Son at the time of his Baptism ; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus ; and an advocacy of vegetarianism . It is believed to have been composed some time during the middle of the 2nd century in or around the region east of the Jordan River . Although the gospel was said to be used by " Ebionites " during the time of the early church , the identity of the group or groups that used it remains a matter of conjecture .
The Gospel of the Ebionites is one of several Jewish – Christian gospels , along with the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Nazarenes ; all survive only as fragments in quotations of the early Church Fathers . Due to their fragmentary state , the relationships , if any , between the Jewish – Christian gospels and a hypothetical original Hebrew Gospel are uncertain and have been a subject of intensive scholarly investigation . The Ebionite gospel has been recognized as distinct from the others , and it has been identified more closely with the lost Gospel of the Twelve . It shows no dependence on the Gospel of John and is similar in nature to the harmonized gospel sayings based on the Synoptic Gospels used by Justin Martyr , although a relationship between them , if any , is uncertain . There is a similarity between the gospel and a source document contained within the Clementine Recognitions ( 1 @.@ 27 – 71 ) , conventionally referred to by scholars as the Ascents of James , with respect to the command to abolish the Jewish sacrifices .
= = Background = =
Epiphanius is believed to have come into possession of a gospel that he attributed to the Ebionites when he was bishop of Salamis , Cyprus . He alone among the Church Fathers identifies Cyprus as one of the " roots " of the Ebionites . The gospel survives only in seven brief quotations by Epiphanius in Chapter 30 of his heresiology the Panarion , or " Medicine Chest " , ( c . 377 ) as a polemic against the Ebionites . His citations are often contradictory and thought to be based in part on his own conjecture . The various , sometimes conflicting , sources of information were combined to point out inconsistencies in Ebionite beliefs and practices relative to Nicene orthodoxy , possibly to serve , indirectly , as a polemic against the Arians of his time .
The term Gospel of the Ebionites is a modern convention ; no surviving document of the early church mentions a gospel by that name . Epiphanius identifies the gospel only as " in the Gospel used by them , called ' according to Matthew ' " and " they call it ' the Hebrew [ gospel ] ' " . As early as 1689 the French priest Richard Simon called the text " Gospel of the Ebionites " . The name is used by modern scholars as a convenient way to distinguish a gospel text that was probably used by the Ebionites from Epiphanius ' mistaken belief that it was a Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew . Its place of origin is uncertain ; one speculation is that it was composed in the region east of the Jordan where the Ebionites were said to have been present , according to the accounts of the Church Fathers . It is thought to have been composed during the middle of the 2nd century , since several other gospel harmonies are known to be from this period .
= = Composition = =
According to scholars Oskar Skarsaune and Glenn Alan Koch , Epiphanius incorporated excerpts from the gospel text at a late stage in the composition of Panarion 30 , primarily in chapters 13 and 14 As Epiphanius describes it , " The Gospel which is found among them ... is not complete , but falsified and distorted ... " ( 13 @.@ 1 – 2 ) . In particular , it lacked some or all of the first two chapters of Matthew , which contain the infancy narrative of the virgin birth of Jesus and the Davidic genealogy via Solomon , " They have removed the genealogies of Matthew ... " ( 14 @.@ 2 – 3 ) .
There is general agreement about the seven quotations by Epiphanius cited in the critical edition of " Jewish Christian gospels " by Philipp Vielhauer and Georg Strecker , translated by George Ogg , in Schneemelcher 's New Testament Apocrypha . The translations of Bernhard Pick ( 1908 ) , with the sequence of four fragments arranged in the order of Vielhauer & Strecker from the beginning of the gospel are as follows :
It came to pass in the days of Herod , King of Judaea under the high priest Caiaphas , that John came and baptized with the baptism of repentance in the river Jordan ; he is said to be from the tribe of Aaron and a son of Zacharias the priest and of Elizabeth and all went out to him . ( 13 @.@ 6 ) And it came to pass when John baptized , that the Pharisees came to him and were baptized , and all Jerusalem also . He had a garment of camels ' hair , and a leather girdle about his loins . And his meat was wild honey , which tasted like manna , formed like cakes of oil . ( 13 @.@ 4 ) The people having been baptized , Jesus came also , and was baptized by John . And as he came out of the water the heavens opened , and he saw the Holy Spirit descending under the form of a dove , and entering into him . And a voice was heard from heaven : ' Thou art my beloved Son , and in thee am I well pleased ' . And again : ' This day have I begotten thee ' . And suddenly shone a great light in that place . And John seeing him , said , ' Who art thou , Lord ' ? Then a voice was heard from heaven : ' This is my beloved Son , in whom I am well pleased ' . Thereat John fell at his feet and said : ' I pray thee , Lord , baptize me ' . But he would not , saying ' Suffer it , for so it behoveth that all should be accomplished ' . ( 13 @.@ 7 )
" There was a man named Jesus , and he was about thirty years old ; he has chosen us . And He came into Capernaum and entered into the house of Simon , surnamed Peter , and He opened His mouth and said , ' As I walked by the Sea of Tiberias , I chose John and James , the sons of Zebedee , and Simon and Andrew and Thaddaeus and Simon Zelotes , and Judas Iscariot ; thee also , Matthew , when thou wast sitting at the receipt of custom , did I call and thou didst follow me . According to my intention ye shall be twelve apostles for a testimony unto Israel ' . " ( 13.2b – 3 )
The three quotations by Epiphanius in Panarion 30 @.@ 13 @.@ 6 , 4 , and 7 , respectively , form the opening of the gospel narrative , including the mission of John the Baptist , his appearance and diet , and the baptism of Jesus by John . The beginning of the gospel ( 13 @.@ 6 ) has parallels to the Gospel of Luke but in abbreviated form . The text shows a familiarity with the infancy narrative of Luke 1 : 5 despite lacking a birth narrative of its own . Quoting from the text regarding the diet of John ( 13 @.@ 4 ) , Epiphanius complains that the Ebionites have falsified the text by substituting the word " cake " ( egkris ἐγκρίς ) for " locust " ( akris ἀκρίς , in Matthew 3 : 4 ) . The similarity of the wording in Greek has led scholars to conclude that Greek was the original language of composition . In the narrative of the baptism of Jesus by John ( 13 @.@ 7 ) , the voice of God speaks three times in close parallels to the Gospel of Mark 1 : 11 , Luke 3 : 23 ( Western text @-@ type ) , and Matthew 3 : 17 , respectively . The presence of multiple baptismal theophanies has led to a consensus among modern scholars that the text quoted by Epiphanius is a gospel harmony of the Synoptic Gospels . The appearance of a great light on the water may be an echo of St. Paul 's conversion or an additional harmonization of the Gospel of the Hebrews to this work .
Epiphanius begins his description of the gospel text ( 13.2b – 3 ) with a quotation which has the apostle Matthew narrating directly to the reader . Jesus recalls how the twelve apostles were chosen and addresses Matthew in the second person as " you also Matthew " . Although twelve apostles are mentioned , only eight are named . They are said to be chosen by Jesus , " for a testimony to Israel " . The phrase " who chose us " has been interpreted as evidence that the text may be the lost Gospel of the Twelve mentioned by Origen . However , the identification of the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius with this otherwise unknown gospel is disputed . The position of this quotation was tentatively assigned based on a parallel to the Synoptic Gospels .
The fifth and sixth quotations ( following Vielhauer & Strecker 's order ) are associated with a Christological controversy . The polemics of Epiphanius along with his quotations of the gospel text ( in italics ) are shown in parallel :
" Moreover they deny that he was a man , evidently on the ground of the word which the Savior spoke when it was reported to him : ' Behold , thy mother and thy brethren stand without ' , namely : ' Who is my mother and who are my brethren ' ? And he stretched forth his hand towards his disciples and said : ' These are my brethren and mother and sisters , which do the will of my Father ' . " ( 14 @.@ 5 )
" They say that he was not begotten of God the Father , but created as one of the archangels ... that he rules over the angels and all the creatures of the Almighty , and that he came and declared , as their Gospel , which is called according to the Hebrews , reports : ' I am come to abolish the sacrifices , if ye cease not from sacrificing , the wrath will not cease from you ' . " ( 16 @.@ 4 – 5 )
The fifth quotation ( 14 @.@ 5 ) appears to be a harmony of Matthew 12 : 47 – 48 and its Synoptic parallels . However , Jesus ' final proclamation shows a closer agreement to 2 Clement 9 : 11 than any of the Synoptics . The unity of this quotation with the gospel text in Chapter 13 has been questioned . The command to abolish the sacrifices in the sixth quotation ( 16 @.@ 5 ) is unparalleled in the Canonical Gospels , and it suggests a relationship to Matthew 5 : 17 ( " I did not come to abolish the Law " ) that is echoed in the Clementine literature .
Referring to a parallel passage in Luke 22 : 15 , Epiphanius complains that the Ebionites have again falsified the gospel text :
" They destroyed the true order and changed the passage ... they made the disciples say , ' Where wilt Thou that we prepare for Thee to eat the Passover ' ? To which He replied : ' I have no desire to eat the flesh of this Paschal Lamb with you ' . " ( 22 @.@ 4 )
thereby making Jesus declare that he would not eat meat during the Passover . The immediate context suggests the possible attribution of the quotation to a Clementine source ; however a linkage between the gospel fragments and the Clementine literature remains uncertain .
= = Christology = =
The baptismal scene of the gospel text ( 13 @.@ 7 ) is a harmony of the Synoptic Gospels , but one in which the Holy Spirit is said to descend to Jesus in the form of a dove and enter into him . This divine election at the time of his baptism is known as an Adoptionist Christology , and it is emphasized by the quotation of Psalm 2 : 7 , as found in the " Western text " of Luke 3 : 22 , " You are my son , this day I have begotten you . " The Spirit entering into Jesus and the great light on the water are thought to be based on the prophecies of Isaiah 61 : 1 and 9 : 1 , respectively . His Adoptionist son @-@ ship is characterized by the belief that Jesus was a mere man , who , by virtue of his perfect righteousness , was imbued with the divinity of the eternal Christ through his Baptism in order to carry out the prophetic task for which he had been chosen .
The absence of any reference to a Davidic son @-@ ship in the gospel text suggests that Jesus has been elected to be the end @-@ time prophet , the Chosen One , sent to abolish the Jewish sacrifices . The Prophet @-@ Christology of the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius is more at home with the Clementine literature than the Christology of the Ebionites known to Irenaeus . According to scholars Richard Bauckham and Petri Luomanen , Jesus is understood in this gospel as having come to abolish the sacrifices rather than substituting for them ; thus it is unlikely that it contained the same institution of the Eucharist as practiced by Nicene orthodox Christianity . However , scholars have yet to reach a consensus over the sacrificial significance of Jesus ' mission as depicted in the Ebionite gospel .
= = Vegetarianism = =
The change in wording of the gospel text from " locust " ( akris ) to " cake " ( egkris ) for John the Baptist 's diet ( 13 @.@ 4 ) has been interpreted as evidence of Jewish vegetarianism . However , the association of the diet of John the Baptist with vegetarianism has been questioned . Epiphanius gives no indication of concern for vegetarianism in this part of the Gospel text , and it may instead be an allusion to the manna in the wilderness of Exodus 16 : 31 and Numbers 11 : 8 , or , according to scholar Glenn Alan Koch , to 1 Kings 19 : 6 where Elijah eats cakes in oil .
Further evidence has been found in the quotation based on Luke 22 : 15 ( 22 @.@ 4 ) , where the saying has been modified by insertion of the word " flesh " to provide a rationale for vegetarianism . The immediate context of the quotation suggests that it may be closely related to a Clementine source , the Journeys of Peter . Reading from the same source , Epiphanius states that the Ebionites abstained from " meat with soul in it " ( 15 @.@ 3 ) , and he attributes this teaching to Ebionite interpolations " they corrupt the contents and leave a few genuine items " . Due to the close association of this saying with the Clementine literature of the 3rd and 4th century , the earlier practice of vegetarianism by the 2nd @-@ century Ebionites known to Irenaeus has been questioned . The strict vegetarianism of the Ebionites known to Epiphanius may have been a reaction to the cessation of Jewish sacrifices and a safeguard against the consumption of unclean meat in a pagan environment .
= = Relationship to other texts = =
Epiphanius incorrectly refers to the gospel in his possession as the Gospel of Matthew and the gospel " according to the Hebrews " , perhaps relying upon and conflating the writings of the earlier Church Fathers , Irenaeus and Eusebius , respectively . His 4th century colleague Jerome remarks that the Nazarenes and Ebionites both used the Gospel of the Hebrews , which was considered the original Matthew by many of them . Jerome 's report is consistent with the prior accounts of Irenaeus and Eusebius .
The relationship between the Gospel of the Ebionites , the Gospel of the Hebrews , and the Gospel of the Nazarenes remains unclear . All the Jewish – Christian gospels survive only as fragments in quotations , so it is difficult to tell if they are independent texts or variations of each other . Scholar Albertus Klijn established the modern consensus , concluding that the gospel harmony composed in Greek appears to be a distinctive text known only to Epiphanius . Scholar Marie @-@ Émile Boismard has claimed the Ebionite gospel is partly dependent upon a hypothetical Hebrew gospel as a source ; however this conjecture remains a minority view . Its putative relationship to the gospel text known to Origen as the Gospel of the Twelve remains a subject of scholarly debate .
The Ebionite gospel is one example of a type of gospel harmony that used the Gospel of Matthew as a base text but did not include the Gospel of John ; it is believed to pre @-@ date Tatian 's Diatessaron ( c . 170 ) which included all four canonical gospels . The gospel has a parallel to a quotation in a mid @-@ 2nd @-@ century homily known as 2 Clement , suggesting that both may be dependent on a harmonizing tradition from an earlier 2nd century source . The harmonized gospel sayings sources used by Justin Martyr to compose his First Apology and Dialogue with Trypho were similarly based on the Synoptic Gospels . According to scholar George Howard , harmonization was a widely used method of composition in the early Patristic period . Many of the heterodox variants found in the Gospel of the Ebionites may have been adopted from a larger pool of variants that were in circulation ; an example is the appearance of a great light that shone during Jesus ' Baptism which is also found in the Diatessaron .
The Recognitions of Clement contains a source document ( Rec . 1 @.@ 27 – 71 ) , conventionally referred to by scholars as the Ascents of James , which is believed to be of Jewish – Christian origin . The Ascents shares a similarity to the Gospel of the Ebionites with regard to the baptism of the Pharisees by John ( Pan . 30 @.@ 13 @.@ 4 ; Rec . 1 @.@ 54 @.@ 6 – 7 ) and the command to abolish the Jewish sacrifices , adding that a Christian water baptism is to be substituted for the remission of sins . Based on these similarities , scholars Richard Bauckham and F. Stanley Jones have postulated a direct dependence of the Ascents of James on the Gospel of the Ebionites .
= = Inferences about the Ebionites = =
The gospel Epiphanius attributed to the Ebionites is a valuable source of information that provides modern scholars with insights into the distinctive characteristics of a vanished branch of Jewish Christianity . However , scholars disagree on whether the information contained within the seven fragments preserved by Epiphanius accurately reflects the traditions of the second @-@ century Ebionite sect known to Irenaeus , or if their belief system changed , perhaps greatly , over a span of 200 years compared to this early group . The Ebionites known to Irenaeus ( first mentioned in Adversus Haereses 1 @.@ 26 @.@ 2 , written around 185 ) and other Church Fathers prior to Epiphanius were described as a Jewish sect that regarded Jesus as the Messiah but not as divine . They insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites and they used only the Jewish – Christian gospel . The Ebionites rejected the epistles of Paul of Tarsus , whom they regarded as an apostate from the Law .
In Epiphanius ' polemic against the Ebionites found in Panarion 30 , a complex picture emerges of the beliefs and practices of the 4th century Ebionites that cannot easily be separated from his method of combining together disparate sources . While scholars such as Hans @-@ Joachim Schoeps literally interpreted Epiphanius ' account as describing a later syncretic development of Ebionism , more recent scholarship has found it difficult to reconcile his report with those of the earlier Church Fathers , leading to a conjecture by scholar Petri Luomanen that a second group of Hellenistic @-@ Samaritan Ebionites may also have been present . The rejection of the Jewish sacrifices and the implication of an end @-@ time prophet Christology due to the lack of a birth narrative lend support for the association of the Gospel of the Ebionites with a group or groups different from the Ebionites known to Irenaeus .
Scholarship in the area of Jewish Christian studies has tended to be based on artificial constructs similar to those developed by the early Christian heresiologists , with the underlying assumption that all of the beliefs and practices of these groups were based on theology . This has led to the perpetuation of ideological definitions that fail to take into account the pluriformity of these groups , reflecting differences in geography , time periods in history , and ethnicity . With respect to Epiphanius , and the Ebionites in particular , insufficient attention has been paid to the highly speculative nature of his theological constructs and his mixing together of disparate sources , including his use of a gospel harmony that may have had nothing to do with the Ebionite sect known to Irenaeus . In the end , he presents an enigmatic picture of the Ebionites and their place in early Christian history . These gospel fragments offer one of the few glimpses into their world .
= Scouting =
Scouting or the Scout Movement is a movement that aims to support young people in their physical , mental and spiritual development , that they may play constructive roles in society , with a strong focus on the outdoors and survival skills . During the first half of the 20th century , the movement grew to encompass three major age groups for boys ( Cub Scout , Boy Scout , Rover Scout ) and , in 1910 , a new organization , Girl Guides , was created for girls ( Brownie Guide , Girl Guide and Girl Scout , Ranger Guide ) . It is one of several worldwide youth organizations .
In 1906 and 1907 Robert Baden @-@ Powell , a lieutenant general in the British Army , wrote a book for boys about reconnaissance and scouting . Baden @-@ Powell wrote Scouting for Boys ( London , 1908 ) , based on his earlier books about military scouting , with influence and support of Frederick Russell Burnham ( Chief of Scouts in British Africa ) , Ernest Thompson Seton of the Woodcraft Indians , William Alexander Smith of the Boys ' Brigade , and his publisher Pearson . In the summer of 1907 Baden @-@ Powell held a camp on Brownsea Island in England to test ideas for his book . This camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement .
The movement employs the Scout method , a programme of informal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities , including camping , woodcraft , aquatics , hiking , backpacking , and sports . Another widely recognized movement characteristic is the Scout uniform , by intent hiding all differences of social standing in a country and making for equality , with neckerchief and campaign hat or comparable headwear . Distinctive uniform insignia include the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis and the trefoil , as well as badges and other patches .
The two largest umbrella organizations are the World Organization of the Scout Movement ( WOSM ) , for boys @-@ only and co @-@ educational organizations , and the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) , primarily for girls @-@ only organizations but also accepting co @-@ educational organizations . The year 2007 marked the centenary of Scouting worldwide , and member organizations planned events to celebrate the occasion .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Scouting virtually started itself , but the trigger that set it going was the 1908 publication of Scouting for Boys written by Robert Baden @-@ Powell . At Charterhouse , one of England 's most famous public schools , Baden @-@ Powell had an interest in the outdoors . Later , as a military officer , Baden @-@ Powell was stationed in British India in the 1880s where he took an interest in military scouting and in 1884 he published Reconnaissance and Scouting .
In 1896 , Baden @-@ Powell was assigned to the Matabeleland region in Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) as Chief of Staff to Gen. Frederick Carrington during the Second Matabele War , and it was here ( in June , 1896 ) that he first met and began a lifelong friendship with Frederick Russell Burnham , the American @-@ born Chief of Scouts for the British Army in Africa . This was a formative experience for Baden @-@ Powell not only because he had the time of his life commanding reconnaissance missions into enemy territory , but because many of his later Boy Scout ideas took hold here . During their joint scouting patrols into the Matobo Hills , Burnham augmented Baden @-@ Powell 's woodcraft skills , inspiring him and sowing seeds for both the programme and for the code of honour later published in Scouting for Boys . Practised by frontiersmen of the American Old West and Indigenous peoples of the Americas , woodcraft was generally little known to the British Army but well @-@ known to the American scout Burnham . These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft , the fundamentals of Scouting . Both men recognised that wars in Africa were changing markedly and the British Army needed to adapt ; so during their joint scouting missions , Baden @-@ Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men , rich in exploration , tracking , fieldcraft , and self @-@ reliance . It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden @-@ Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham , and it was here that Baden @-@ Powell acquired his Kudu horn , the Ndebele war instrument he later used every morning at Brownsea Island to wake the first Boy Scouts and to call them together in training courses .
Three years later , in South Africa during the Second Boer War , Baden @-@ Powell was besieged in the small town of Mafeking by a much larger Boer army ( the Siege of Mafeking ) . The Mafeking Cadet Corps was a group of youths that supported the troops by carrying messages , which freed the men for military duties and kept the boys occupied during the long siege . The Cadet Corps performed well , helping in the defense of the town ( 1899 – 1900 ) , and were one of the many factors that inspired Baden @-@ Powell to form the Scouting movement . Each member received a badge that illustrated a combined compass point and spearhead . The badge 's logo was similar to the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis shaped arrowhead that Scouting later adopted as its international symbol . The Siege of Mafeking was the first time since his own childhood that Baden @-@ Powell , a regular serving soldier , had come into the same orbit as " civilians " - women and children - and discovered for himself the usefulness of well @-@ trained boys .
In the United Kingdom , the public , through newspapers , followed Baden @-@ Powell 's struggle to hold Mafeking , and when the siege was broken , he had become a national hero . This rise to fame fuelled the sales of the small instruction book he had written in 1899 about military scouting and wilderness survival , Aids to Scouting , that owed much to what he had learned from discussions with Burnham .
On his return to England , Baden @-@ Powell noticed that boys showed considerable interest in Aids to Scouting , which was unexpectedly used by teachers and youth organizations as their first Scouting handbook . He was urged to rewrite this book for boys , especially during an inspection of the Boys ' Brigade , a large youth movement drilled with military precision . Baden @-@ Powell thought this would not be attractive and suggested that the Boys ' Brigade could grow much larger were Scouting to be used . He studied other schemes , parts of which he used for Scouting .
In July 1906 , Ernest Thompson Seton sent Baden @-@ Powell a copy of his 1902 book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians . Seton , a British @-@ born Canadian @-@ American living in the United States , met Baden @-@ Powell in October 1906 , and they shared ideas about youth training programs . In 1907 Baden @-@ Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols . In the same year , to test his ideas , he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds ( from boy 's schools in the London area and a section of boys from the Poole , Parkstone , Hamworthy , Bournemouth , and Winton Boys ' Brigade units ) and held a week @-@ long camp in August on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour , Dorset , England . His organizational method , now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training , allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader .
In the autumn of 1907 , Baden @-@ Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher , Arthur Pearson , to promote his forthcoming book , Scouting for Boys . He had not simply rewritten his Aids to Scouting ; he omitted the military aspects and transferred the techniques ( mainly survival ) to non @-@ military heroes : backwoodsmen , explorers ( and later on , sailors and airmen ) . He also added innovative educational principles ( the Scout method ) by which he extended the attractive game to a personal mental education .
At the beginning of 1908 , Baden @-@ Powell published Scouting for Boys in six fortnightly parts , setting out activities and programmes which existing youth organisations could use . The reaction was phenomenal , and quite unexpected . In a very short time , Scout Patrols were created up and down the country , all following the principles of Baden @-@ Powell 's book . In 1909 , the first Scout Rally was held at Crystal Palace in London , to which 11 @,@ 000 Scouts came - and some girls dressed as Scouts and calling themselves " Girl Scouts " . Baden @-@ Powell retired from the Army and , in 1910 , he formed The Boy Scouts Association and , later , The Girl Guides . By the time of The Boy Scouts Association 's first census in 1910 , it had over 100 @,@ 000 Scouts .
Scouting for Boys was published in England later in 1908 in book form . The book is now the fourth @-@ bestselling title of all time , and was the basis for the later American version of the Boy Scout Handbook .
At the time , Baden @-@ Powell intended that the scheme would be used by established organizations , in particular the Boys ' Brigade , from the founder William A. Smith . However , because of the popularity of his person and the adventurous outdoor games he wrote about , boys spontaneously formed Scout patrols and flooded Baden @-@ Powell with requests
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chosen to fight . The default one uses the DualShock 2 's analog sticks exclusively ; the left one being pressed for movements and the right one for attacks . Pins are executed by tilting both sticks up ; and pressing both sticks grabs the opponent , who can then be attacked or thrown depending on the way the right stick is tilted . The second type of controls , called " Type B " , is closer to other fighting games and assigns pinning to the triangle button , grabbing to the square button , and punches and moves to the cross button . With Type B , the power of each move is determined by the level of pressure applied on the buttons . In both modes , the precise techniques available depend on the position and distance of the opponent , as well as a personal " tension meter " which builds up during battle . At any time , the D @-@ pad can be used to change the angle of the camera .
Wrestlers return to full health after each match , and the game keeps track of the time of victories and records with the PlayStation 2 internal clock . A memory card can be used to save progress , battle snapshots , and match videos ; the latter of which can either be ten @-@ second long instant replays or up to three entire " Best Bout " matches . Hidden features include collectible autograph pictures of the defeated wrestlers ; and a few unlockable characters , among whom are two female models in bikinis .
= = Development = =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling was announced in January 1999 as part of Square 's desire to expand into more diverse game genres on the PlayStation 2 than their usual role @-@ playing games . While DreamFactory developed most of Square 's previous fighting games ( namely Tobal No. 1 , Tobal 2 , and Ehrgeiz ) , Square decided to develop a wrestling game internally as Dream Factory was already working on The Bouncer , another Square title . The game was produced by Yusuke Hirata of Parasite Eve 2 fame , head of Square 's Osaka @-@ based fifth production team . The score , which was never released in album form , consists mostly of rock music and was composed by Tsuyoshi Sekito , Kenichiro Fukui , and Kumi Tanioka .
Square 's aim with the title was to create some of the most realistic wrestlers seen in video games , with accurate details such as a faithful replication of body @-@ muscle physics and facial expressions . Screenshots of the game were shown during the Square Millennium Event in Japan in 2000 ; and a battle was played in demonstration by Yusuke Hirata and a young Japanese idol later in the same year at the Tokyo Game Show .
= = Reception = =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling topped the Japanese sale charts in its week of release with 107 @,@ 331 copies sold , and continued to top the charts for the rest of the month of June . It was the 63rd best @-@ selling video game of 2000 in Japan , with 185 @,@ 616 copies . The game scored 31 out of 40 in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu , with the four reviewers highly praising the graphics but feeling that the controls , while not bad , could have been better implemented .
The American gaming website GameSpot rated the game 4 out of 10 , and criticized the battle system more severely along with IGN , which stated that the default analog controls are " mind @-@ boggling " ; with pins being very difficult to execute whereas some other maneuvers can be chained with single button presses . The second type of controls was judged easier to play with by IGN , although one reviewer felt that it wears out the thumb quickly . On the contrary , GameSpot felt that the second type is even more difficult to use than the default one . The amount of moves available has been described as low even compared to lackluster titles such as WWF Attitude . Regarding the game 's fluidity , GameSpot and one IGN critic compared it to the speed of an " underwater soccer match " , with smooth moves coexisting with simple , three @-@ second long movements . The second IGN critic noted that the game is more of a wrestling simulation than an arcade title focused on entertainment .
Still , both GameSpot and IGN lauded the realism of the wrestlers ' appearances , their faithfulness to those of their real @-@ life counterparts , and the efficient use of the PlayStation 2 Emotion Engine . The spectacular ring entrance scenes and the amount of blood visible during battles was also appreciated . One IGN critic noted that the referee is always present on @-@ screen , unlike many other wrestling games . However , the other one stated that the outdoor arenas " look like they were ripped out of a [ Sega ] Saturn game " . He also criticized the presence of only two facial expressions for each wrestler ; and both IGN reviewers criticized the inconsistent collision detection and the lack of diversity in the crowd , who sometimes " look like they were made out of Legos " . GameSpot added that the walking looks particularly unrealistic , in contrast with the other animations .
While both IGN reviewers noted the sparcity of the audio commentary and crowd shouting , one critic felt the sound was adequate albeit less impressive than the graphics . GameSpot called the sound decent and well executed . Finally , the omission of features such as weapons and modes such as " create @-@ a @-@ wrestler " , steel cage match , battle royal , and multiplayer tag team , was felt as a very noticeable weak point compared to American wrestling games present on the market .
= = Sequels = =
A sequel titled All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling II was released on November 22 , 2001 for the PlayStation 2 . It addressed the controls issue by replacing it with a new , more standard battle system , and included wrestlers from three real @-@ life Japanese wrestling federations : New Japan Pro Wrestling , Pro Wrestling Noah , and Pro Wrestling Zero @-@ One . The game also scored 31 out of 40 in Famitsu . A third installment , All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling III was released by Square Enix on August 7 , 2003 for the same platform . It included a create @-@ a @-@ wrestler feature .
Both sequels added multiplayer tag team and battle royal modes , playable using a multitap with up to 5 players at a time ( 4 wrestlers and the referee ) . Tsuyoshi Sekito returned to score the two soundtracks . The All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling II Original Soundtrack was published by DigiCube on January 23 , 2002 , while the third game 's soundtrack was not published in album form .
= Cyclone Nancy =
Cyclone Nancy ( RSMC Nadi designation : 09F , JTWC designation : 18P ) was the second in a series of four severe tropical cyclones to impact the Cook Islands during February 2005 . Forming out of an area of low pressure on February 10 , Nancy quickly organized into a small , but intense , cyclone . By February 14 , the storm explosively intensified into a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with winds peaking at 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 935 hPa ( mbar ) . Over the following day , increasing wind shear rapidly weakened the cyclone and by February 17 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone shortly before being absorbed by Cyclone Olaf .
Already impacted by Cyclone Meena in early February , the Cook Islands sustained significant damage from Cyclone Nancy . Several homes were damaged and destroyed throughout the islands . Downed trees and power lines blocked roads and cut power and minor flooding was reported along coastal areas . Following the impact of the storm , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Nancy in May 2006 and replaced it with the name Nat .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Nancy originated out of a broad area of low pressure within a monsoonal trough northeast of Samoa on February 10 . Initially , the system was nearly stationary within an area of weak steering currents , low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . On February 11 , a trough briefly increased shear over the system and its nearby twin , the precursor to Cyclone Olaf . By 0600 UTC on February 12 , the system 's outflow improved and a small area of deep convection , known as the central dense overcast , developed over the center of circulation . Later that day , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji upgraded the system to a Category 1 cyclone and gave it the name Nancy while it was located about 485 km ( 300 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Pago Pago , American Samoa . By this time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) had also begun issuing advisories on the storm , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 18P .
The storm had undertaken a slow northeast motion early on February 13 before turning southeast in response to a mid @-@ level ridge located northeast of the cyclone . Convective banding features developed close to the center of circulation as the storm began to undergo explosive intensification . Around 1200 UTC , the storm attained Severe Tropical Cyclone status as winds reached 120 km / h ( 75 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a small , irregularly shaped , eye began to develop . The JTWC , however , assessed Nancy to have been substantially weaker until 0000 UTC on February 14 , at which time they reported a 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) increase in winds , attaining minimal Category 3 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale .
By 1200 UTC on February 14 , Nancy attained its peak intensity with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 935 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly after , the JTWC assessed Nancy to have peaked with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . Increasing forward motion to the southeast and increasing wind shear caused Nancy to weaken . Early on February 15 , the storm passed directly over Manuae . Continued weakening took place as a trough approached from the southwest . By February 16 , Nancy weakened below hurricane intensity and turned to the southwest as it began to undergo a Fujiwhara interaction with Cyclone Olaf to the north .
Strong shear associated with the outflow of Cyclone Olaf caused all convection associated with Nancy to be displaced to the southwest on February 16 . Early on February 17 , Nancy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical cyclone warning centre ( TCWC ) in Wellington , New Zealand . Shortly after , the low was absorbed into the larger circulation of Olaf . However , TCWC Wellington continued to monitor Nancy as a separate system until 1200 UTC on February 18 .
= = = Differences among warning centers = = =
The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds for its tropical cyclone tracking information , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses 1 @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . RSMC Nadi 's peak intensity for Nancy was 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Nancy was 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained , or 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations = =
Upon being named Nancy on February 13 , a gale warning was put in place for American Samoa . Later that day , four additional countries were placed under watches and warnings . A gale watch was declared for Samoa and strong wind warnings were raised in Tuvalu , Tokelau and the Cook Islands . On February 14 , a tropical cyclone alert was declared for the southern Cook Islands . Additionally , Niue was placed under a strong wind warning . Later that day , Wallis and Futuna were placed under a strong wind warning . On February 15 , a hurricane warning was issued for the southern Cook Islands as Nancy tracked through the archipelago .
Already impacted by Cyclone Meena just a week prior , residents in the Cook Islands heeded warnings and evacuated to emergency shelters . Coastal areas where seawalls had been damaged or destroyed by Meena were of particular interest to warning centers and urged all people in the vicinity of them to evacuate to a nearby shelter . On Aitutake , all preparations were completed by February 15 . Tourists were relocated from hotels to one of six shelters set up throughout the island . An estimated 100 people reportedly evacuated to shelters out of the 2 @,@ 000 that live on the island . Radio broadcasts urging people to move to shelters were broadcast all day and the local cyclone center had all staff on standby . Eight shelters were opened on Rarotonga by this time . All residents were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas as large swells were anticipated to inundate those areas . Schools throughout the Cook Islands were closed prior to the cyclone and would remain closed for several more days . Many of the south Pacific islands were in a " critically dangerous situation " due to the quick succession of cyclones .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Cyclone Nancy caused substantial damage throughout the Cook Islands . On Atiu , all communication to the island was cut as power lines were downed throughout the island . Winds on the island gusted up to 241 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Four homes were destroyed on the island and at least 80 trees were downed , blocking all roads . Several homes had their roofs blown off , coconut trees were downed , road were covered in debris and heavy rains fell throughout all the islands . Numerous trees were downed across Manuae and Mauke by the storm 's high winds . Four homes were destroyed on Mauke . Three homes were destroyed on Mitiaro and trees blocked all roads on the island .
On Rarotonga , several bridges were damaged by high waves produced by the cyclone . Schools , churches , and restaurants were damaged by wind gusts up to 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) throughout the island . Fifteen temporarily shelters constructed after Cyclone Meena were also destroyed . Damages caused by the storm to the Avana Marina Condominiums forced the owners to close them until mid @-@ April to allow for reconstruction and renovation . The highest winds were recorded in the southern portions of the island chain , with a wind gust of 259 km / h ( 161 mph ) being recorded on Mangaia . Up to 100 % of the seasonal crop harvest was lost due to Cyclone Nancy .
In the wake of all four cyclones , the Cook Islands requested international assistance . Funding to repair damages from the storms reached $ 7 @.@ 87 million . The Red Cross provided relief items , such as blankets and lanterns worth $ 35 @,@ 200 ; the Pacific Forum provided food , fuel , and logistical support worth $ 32 @,@ 000 ; the Government of China donated $ 19 @,@ 200 in post @-@ disaster funds ; $ 32 @,@ 000 in funding was provided by the United Nations Development Programme ; contributions from the Australian Agency for International Development and the New Zealand Agency for International Development amounted to $ 862 @,@ 570 , consisting of fuel , shelter , relief items , and disaster funds ; the Government of Australia provided $ 128 @,@ 000 wort of fuel and equipment ; lastly , the Government of France deployed military teams with recovery supplies and tents . The European Union also supplied £ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 280 @,@ 000 ) in relief funds .
Since Nancy caused substantial damage throughout the Cook Islands , the name was retired from " Naming List A " for the South Pacific basin and was replaced with Nat . The three other cyclones that impacted the region , Meena , Olaf and Percy , were also retired and replaced by Mal , Olof and Pita respectively .
= Italian battleship Roma ( 1940 ) =
Roma , named after two previous ships and the city of Rome , was the fourth Vittorio Veneto @-@ class battleship of Italy 's Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The construction of both Roma and her sister ship Impero was planned due to rising tensions around the world and the navy 's fear that two Vittorio Venetos and the older pre @-@ First World War battleships were not enough to counter the British and French Mediterranean Fleets . As Roma was laid down almost four years after the first two ships of the class , some small improvements were made to the design , including additional freeboard added to the bow .
Roma was commissioned into the Regia Marina on 14 June 1942 , but a severe fuel shortage in Italy at that time prevented her from being deployed ; instead , along with her sister ships Vittorio Veneto and Littorio , she was used to bolster the anti @-@ aircraft defenses of various Italian cities . In this role , she was severely damaged twice in June 1943 from bomber raids on La Spezia . After repairs in Genoa through all of July and part of August , Roma was deployed as the flagship of Admiral Carlo Bergamini in a large battle group that eventually comprised the three Vittorio Venetos , eight cruisers and eight destroyers . Their stated intent was attacking the Allied ships approaching Salerno to invade Italy ( Operation " Avalanche " ) but , in reality , the Italian fleet was sailing to Malta to surrender following Italy 's 8 September 1943 armistice with the Allies .
While the force was in the Strait of Bonifacio , Dornier Do 217s of the German Luftwaffe 's specialist wing KG 100 — armed with Fritz X radio @-@ controlled bombs — sighted the force . The first attack failed , but the second dealt Italia ( ex @-@ Littorio ) and Roma much damage . The hit on Roma caused water to flood two boiler rooms and the after engine room , leaving the ship to limp along with two propellers , reduced power , and arc @-@ induced fires in the stern of the ship . Shortly thereafter , another bomb slammed into the ship which detonated within the forward engine room , causing catastrophic flooding and the explosion of the # 2 main turret 's magazines , throwing the turret itself into the sea . Sinking by the bow and listing to starboard , Roma capsized and broke in two , carrying 1 @,@ 253 or 1 @,@ 393 men — including Bergamini — down with her .
= = Background = =
For additional information , see Littorio @-@ class battleship
The Italian leader Benito Mussolini did not authorize any large naval rearmament until 1933 . Once he did , two old battleships of the Conte di Cavour class were sent to be modernized in the same year , and Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid down in 1934 . In May 1935 , the Italian Naval Ministry began preparing for a five @-@ year naval building program that would include four battleships , three aircraft carriers , four cruisers , fifty @-@ four submarines , and forty smaller ships . In December 1935 , Admiral Domenico Cavagnari proposed to Mussolini that , among other things , two more battleships of the Littorio class be built to attempt to counter a possible Franco @-@ British alliance — if the two countries combined forces , they would easily outnumber the Italian fleet . Mussolini postponed his decision , but later authorized planning for the two ships in January 1937 . In December , they were approved and money was appropriated for them ; they were named Roma and Impero ( " Empire " ) .
Laid down nearly four years after Vittorio Veneto and Littorio , Roma was able to incorporate a few design improvements . Her bow was noticeably redesigned to give Roma additional freeboard ; partway into construction , it was modified on the basis of experience with Vittorio Veneto so that it had had a finer end at the waterline . She was also equipped with thirty @-@ two rather than twenty @-@ four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 caliber Breda guns .
= = Description = =
Roma was 240 @.@ 68 meters ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) . She was designed with a standard displacement of 40 @,@ 992 long tons ( 41 @,@ 650 t ) , a violation of the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty ; at full combat loading , she displaced 45 @,@ 485 long tons ( 46 @,@ 215 t ) . The ship was powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and a range of 3 @,@ 920 mi ( 6 @,@ 310 km ; 3 @,@ 410 nmi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Roma had a crew of 1 @,@ 830 to 1 @,@ 950 if she had been completed .
Roma 's main armament consisted of nine 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets ; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft . Her secondary anti @-@ surface armament consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) / 55 Model 1934 / 35 guns in four triple turrets amidships . These were supplemented by four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 Model 1891 / 92 guns in single mounts ; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells . Roma was equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) / 50 Model 1938 guns in single mounts , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 54 guns in eight twin and four single mounts , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 guns in eight twin mounts .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 280 mm ( 11 in ) with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main deck was 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in less critical areas . The main battery turrets were 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick . The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm ( 10 in ) thick sides . Roma was fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters .
= = Service history = =
Roma 's keel was laid by the Italian shipbuilder Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico on 18 September 1938 and she was launched on 9 June 1940 . After just over two years of fitting @-@ out , the new battleship was commissioned into the Regia Marina on 14 June 1942 . She arrived in the major naval base of Taranto on 21 August of the same year and was assigned to the Ninth Naval Division . Although Roma took part in training exercises and was moved to various bases including Taranto , Naples and La Spezia , in the next year , she did not go on any combat missions as the Italian Navy was desperately short of fuel . In fact , by the end of 1942 , the only combat @-@ ready battleships in the navy were the three Vittorio Venetos because the fuel shortage had caused the four modernized battleships to be removed from service . When combined with a lack of capable vessels to escort the capital ships , the combat potential of the Italian Navy was virtually non @-@ existent .
Roma and her two sisters were moved from Taranto to Naples on 12 November in response to the Allied invasion of North Africa ; while en route , the three battleships were attacked by the British submarine HMS Umbra , though no hits were made . On 4 December , the United States launched a major air raid on Naples in an attempt to destroy the Italian fleet ; one cruiser was destroyed and two others were damaged in the attack , as were four destroyers . Two days later , Roma was transferred with Vittorio Veneto and Littorio to La Spezia , where she became the flagship of the Regia Marina . They remained here through the first half of 1943 without going on any operations .
During this time , La Spezia was attacked many times by Allied bomber groups . Attacks on 14 and 19 April 1943 did not hit Roma , but an American raid on 5 June severely damaged both Vittorio Veneto and Roma . B @-@ 17 aircraft carrying 908 kg ( 2 @,@ 002 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs damaged the stationary battleships with two bombs each . Roma suffered from two near hits on either side of her bow . The starboard @-@ side bomb hit the ship but passed through the side of the hull before exploding . The ship began taking on water through leaks from frames 221 to 226 — an area covering about 32 square feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m2 ) — and through flooding from the bow to frame 212 . The second bomb missed but exploded in the water near the hull . Leaks were discovered over a 30 sq ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m2 ) area ranging from frames 198 and 207 . Approximately 2 @,@ 350 long tons ( 2 @,@ 630 short tons ; 2 @,@ 390 t ) of water entered the ship .
Roma was damaged again by two bombs in another raid on 23 – 24 June . One hit the ship aft and to starboard of the rear main battery turret and obliterated several staterooms , which were promptly flooded from broken piping . The second landed atop the rear turret itself , but little damage was suffered due to the heavy armor in that location . This attack did not seriously damage Roma or cause any flooding , but she nevertheless sailed to Genoa for repairs . Roma reached the city on 1 July and returned to La Spezia on 13 August once repairs were complete .
= = = Loss = = =
Along with many of the principal units of the Italian fleet — including Vittorio Veneto and Italia ( the ex @-@ Littorio ) — the cruisers Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli , and Emanuele Filiberto Duca d 'Aosta , and eight destroyers — Roma sailed from La Spezia with Adone Del Cima as captain and also as the flagship of Admiral Carlo Bergamini on 9 September 1943 , a day after the proclamation of the 1943 Italian armistice . Joined by three additional cruisers from Genoa , Duca degli Abruzzi , Giuseppe Garibaldi , and Attilio Regolo , the fleet first sailed towards Salerno in a deliberate diversion to convince the Germans that they were going to attack the Allied ships sailing to invade Italy as part of Operation " Avalanche " . However , the Italian fleet was actually intending to break course and steam towards the British island of Malta to surrender . When Germany learned of the defection , the Luftwaffe sent Dornier Do 217s armed with Fritz X radio @-@ controlled bombs to attack the ships . These aircraft caught up with the force when it was in the Strait of Bonifacio .
The Do 217s trailed the fleet for some time , but the Italian fleet did not open fire upon sighting them ; they were trailing the fleet at such a distance that it was impossible to identify them as Allied or Axis , and Bergamini believed that they were the air cover promised to them by the Allies . However , an attack upon Italia and Roma at 1537 spurred the fleet into action , as the anti @-@ aircraft batteries onboard opened fire and all ships began evasive maneuvers . About fifteen minutes after this , Italia was hit on the starboard side underneath her fore main turrets , while Roma was hit on the same side somewhere between frames 100 and 108 . This bomb passed through the ship and exploded beneath the ships ' keel , damaging the hull girder and allowing water to flood the after engine room and two boiler rooms . The flooding caused the inboard propellers to stop for want of power and started a large amount of arcing , which itself caused many electrical fires in the aft half of the ship .
Losing power and speed , Roma began to fall out of the battle group . Around 16 : 02 , another Fritz X slammed into the starboard side of Roma 's deck , between frames 123 and 136 . It most likely detonated in the forward engine room , sparking flames , and causing heavy flooding in the magazines of main battery turret number two and the fore port side secondary battery turret , and putting even more pressure upon the previously stressed hull girder . Seconds after the initial blast , the number two 15 in turret was blown over the side by a massive explosion , this time from the detonation of that turret 's magazines .
This caused additional catastrophic flooding in the bow , and the battleship began to go down by the bow while listing more and more to starboard . The ship quickly capsized and broke in two . According to the official inquest conducted after the sinking , the ship had a crew of 1 @,@ 849 when she sailed ; 596 survived with 1 @,@ 253 men going down with Roma . According to naval historian Francesco Mattesini , who cites the research of Pier Paolo Bergamini , the son of Admiral Bergamini , around two hundred men from Bergamini 's staff were aboard Roma , and were mistakenly not included in the official inquiry . These men increased the total number aboard to 2 @,@ 021 and the total fatalities to 1 @,@ 393 . In her 15 @-@ month service life , Roma made 20 sorties , mostly in transfers between bases ( none were to go into combat ) , covering 2 @,@ 492 mi ( 4 @,@ 010 km ) and using 3 @,@ 320 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 270 long tons ; 3 @,@ 660 short tons ) of fuel oil in 133 hours of sailing .
= = Wreck discovery = =
The sunken vessel was found in June 2012 by the underwater robot ' Pluto Palla ' , designed by Italian engineer Guido Gay . It was discovered about 30 km ( 19 mi ) off the northern coast of Sardinia at a depth of around 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) . On 10 September 2012 a memorial ceremony was held on an Italian frigate over the spot where Roma went down . Giampaolo Di Paola , himself a former naval officer and at the time defence minister , at the ceremony described the dead sailors as " unwitting heroes who found their place in history because they carried out their duty right until the end " .
= New York State Route 41 =
New York State Route 41 ( NY 41 ) is a north – south state highway in Central New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 17 in the town of Sanford . Its northern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the village of Skaneateles . The route is almost 100 miles ( 161 km ) long and passes through Broome , Chenango , Cortland , and Onondaga counties . NY 41 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , replacing New York State Route 70 from Homer to Skaneateles . The route initially extended as far north as Jordan ; however , NY 41 was cut back to its current northern terminus c . 1933 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Sanford to Greene = = =
NY 41 begins at NY 17 exit 82 in McClure , a hamlet within the town of Sanford . The route heads north , following Oquaga and Cornell Creeks through a series of valleys in the rural eastern portion of Broome County . It intersects only minor highways of local importance before crossing into Chenango County . Now in the town of Afton , NY 41 passes under Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) just south of an intersection with County Route 26 ( CR 26 ) . The highway turns northeast , paralleling I @-@ 88 into the village of Afton .
In Afton village , NY 41 connects to I @-@ 88 by way of an eastward extension of Maple Avenue . NY 41 turns northwest at this junction , following Maple Avenue across the Susquehanna River and into the center of the village . Here , NY 41 briefly overlaps with NY 7 before exiting the village and heading northwestward through two more river valleys to the town of Coventry , where it meets NY 206 in the hamlet of Coventryville .
The two routes converge here and head west to the hamlet of Coventry , where they intersect the northern end of NY 235 . NY 41 and NY 206 continue on , following Wheeler Brook westward into the town of Greene and the village of Greene located within . In the eastern portion of the village , the highway intersects CR 32 , which joins the two state highways for two blocks before splitting off to the south at a junction on the eastern bank of the Chenango River . NY 41 and NY 206 continue west across the river into the village center , where the two routes meet NY 12 . Here , NY 41 leaves NY 206 and follows NY 12 northward through the western portion of the village . The concurrency lasts for just 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before NY 41 splits from NY 12 and exits Greene village .
= = = Greene to Cortland = = =
The route continues north through the towns of Greene and Smithville to the hamlet of Smithville Flats , where it meets the western terminus of NY 220 . NY 41 heads northwest from this junction , passing by Long Pond and Cincinnatus Lake before crossing into Cortland County and the town of Willet . In the hamlet of the same name , NY 41 intersects NY 26 . It joins NY 41 here , and the two routes proceed northwest from the hamlet and across the Otselic River to a junction with the east end of NY 221 . Past this point , NY 26 and NY 41 head due north along the river 's west bank into the town of Cincinnatus .
The overlap comes to an end near the hamlet of Gee Brook , where NY 41 splits from NY 26 and veers northwestward into a rural valley surrounding a small stream that gives the hamlet of Gee Brook its name . NY 41 crosses through the northeastern corner of the town of Freetown and the southern portion of the town of Solon on its way to the town of Cortlandville , where it intersects I @-@ 81 and US 11 west of the village of McGraw . US 11 and NY 41 come together here and parallel I @-@ 81 westward toward the city of Cortland . Just east of the city line , I @-@ 81 veers north to avoid downtown Cortland while US 11 and NY 41 continue west across the Tioughnioga River and into the city .
US 11 and NY 41 follow Port Watson Street into downtown Cortland , where they meet NY 13 at Church Street . All three routes turn north here , following Church Street for three blocks to Groton Avenue . Here , NY 13 turns east to follow Groton Avenue ( which becomes Clinton Road ) out of the city while US 11 and NY 41 turns west onto Groton , joining NY 222 , which begins at the junction of Groton Avenue and Church Street . Here , maintenance of the route shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the city of Cortland . The overlap between NY 41 and NY 222 ends two blocks later when US 11 and NY 41 turn north onto Main Street . The two routes remain on Main Street up to Homer Avenue , at which point the two routes veer onto Homer Avenue and follow it out of the city , at which point maintenance of NY 41 becomes the responsibility of NYSDOT once more .
= = = Cortland to Skaneateles = = =
Now in the adjacent village of Homer , US 11 and NY 41 meet I @-@ 81 once more by way of a lengthy exit ramp internally designated as NY 930Q by NYSDOT . The two routes continue on into the village center , where they meet the southern terminus of NY 90 . The overlap between US 11 and NY 41 ends three blocks later when NY 41 leaves US 11 and follows Clinton Street to the northwest . NY 41 intersects with NY 281 before leaving Homer village .
Just over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of the Homer village limits in the town of Homer , NY 41 intersects with NY 41A , its only suffixed route . While NY 41A heads off to the west , NY 41 heads north through the town of Scott and into the Onondaga County town of Spafford , where it becomes East Lake Road and begins to parallel Skaneateles Lake . NY 41 heads northwest through Spafford , running atop a long , narrow hill bounded by Skaneateles Lake to the west and Otisco Lake to the east . At Borodino , a hamlet in northern Spafford , NY 41 meets the southern terminus of NY 174 . North of Borodino , NY 41 follows a more lakeside routing through the towns of Spafford and Skaneateles to the village of Skaneateles , where NY 41 ends at a junction with US 20 .
= = History = =
From the mid @-@ 1920s to 1930 , the road connecting the village of Skaneateles to the village of Homer via the east side of Skaneateles Lake was designated as NY 70 , a numbered state highway 26 miles ( 42 km ) long . Further south , the road leading southeast from the city of Cortland , through Greene at the Chenango River , to Afton at the Susquehanna River ( a distance of 54 miles or 87 kilometres ) was an unnumbered road . In the 1930 state highway renumbering , the entire length of old NY 70 was incorporated into the newly established NY 41 . This new route was , at the time , designated from McClure ( beginning at an intersection with NY 17 ) through Afton and Greene to Cortland , where it met US 11 . NY 41 overlapped US 11 through Cortland to Homer , from where NY 41 used old NY 70 to reach US 20 in Skaneateles . The new Route 41 continued further north to the village of Jordan ( at NY 31 ) . The portion of the Skaneateles – Jordan highway between Elbridge and Jordan was previously known as NY 31A prior to 1930 . When initially created in 1930 , NY 41 was 112 miles ( 180 km ) long . A pair of state routes in the vicinity of Jordan were renumbered as spur routes of NY 31 c . 1933 . One of these was the portion of NY 41 north of Elbridge , which became NY 31C . NY 41 was truncated on its northern end to Skaneateles as part of the change . The south end of NY 41 was shifted slightly with the opening of the Quickway c . 1960 .
= = NY 41A = =
NY 41A ( 25 @.@ 49 miles or 41 @.@ 02 kilometres ) is a western alternate route of NY 41 which runs from Homer to Skaneateles along the west shore of Skaneateles Lake . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hurricane Debby ( 1982 ) =
Hurricane Debby was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , with winds peaking at 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . The fourth named storm , second hurricane , and the only major hurricane on the season , Debby developed near the north coast of Hispaniola from a westward moving tropical wave on September 13 . Forming as a tropical depression , it headed northwestward , and eventually strengthened into Tropical Storm Debby the following day . Thereafter , Debby rapidly intensified into a hurricane early on September 15 . The hurricane then curved northeastward and grazed Bermuda as a Category 2 hurricane on September 16 . It continued to strengthen , and by September 18 , Debby briefly peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , with winds at 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity , Debby slowly weakened , and was between Category 2 and 1 when it passed south of Newfoundland early on September 19 . Thereafter , the storm accelerated and was moving at roughly 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) towards the east . Debby was rapidly approaching the British Isles on September 20 , shortly before it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Overall , impact was minor in the Lesser Antilles , with only light to moderate rainfall in Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico , and the United States Virgin Islands . On Bermuda , high winds caused some power outages and knocked over trees , though damage on the island was minimal . In addition , Debby dropped rainfall and produced moderately strong winds on Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weather system moved off the coast of Africa on September 3 . The disturbance was small and became unidentifiable within 24 hours of formation . Satellite imagery indicated that the disturbance may have acquired a circulation on September 7 , but the circulation was gone by the next day . The remaining tropical wave moved into the Lesser Antilles on September 11 and a reconnaissance aircraft was deployed . The aircraft found circulation ; however , by the next day , only a strong wave was detected . Atmospheric conditions became more favorable for development , yielding lower wind shear near Hispaniola for several days . The system moved into this area as the latest Reconnaissance aircraft was deployed , declaring it a tropical depression on September 13 near the Dominican Republic .
The next Reconnaissance aircraft that investigated the system discovered a minimal pressure of 1005 mbar ( 28 @.@ 67 inHg ) and winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) in the depression 's center , prompting an upgrade to Tropical Storm Debby on the morning of September 14 . Uncertainty arose as to whether Debby would interact with an approaching trough or enter the influence of a ridge over the southeastern United States . The storm was later picked up by the trough , moving away from land and moved to the north . Debby strengthened further , becoming a minimal hurricane late on September 14 . The hurricane deepened further , reaching maximum winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , a Category 2 storm . Debby approached Bermuda in this time , and on September 16 , Debby passed 80 miles ( 130 km ) west of the island and continued north .
Debby began to slow down to 5 mph ( 10 km / h ) early on September 17 as another trough in the westerlies arrived and the system entered it . As the hurricane entered the trough , its forward speed picked up from 5 mph ( 10 km / h ) to 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . During this time , Debby reached Category 4 strength , reaching a peak intensity of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimal pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Early on September 19 , Debby passed just south of Cape Race , Newfoundland and started accelerating to the east at 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) on the following day . Debby remained a tropical cyclone while crossing the North Atlantic Ocean and weakened to a tropical storm at 0600 UTC September 20 . Debby was rapidly approaching the British Isles on September 20 shortly before it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
The remains of Debby maintained plenty of intensity over northern Europe , and on September 21 it struck northern parts of Finland ( where it was named storm Mauri ) as one of the most powerful windstorms in the country 's recorded history . Winds over 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) felled millions of cubic miles of forest , and a storm surge severely damaged the cities of Kemi and Tornio , claiming two lives .
Starting in the 1982 season ( with Debby ) , the Hurricane Hunter Aircraft ( also known as P @-@ 3s ) began running a new mission for NOAA 's Hurricane Research Division . The mission was to drop dropwindsondes that deployed very @-@ low Omega frequency signals . These signals were to estimate the sonde 's motion compared to the aircraft in certain areas in a storm .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Rainfalls from Debby in Puerto Rico ranged between 3 inches ( 76 mm ) around the northern end of the island to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in the southern ridge of the island . Rains on the island peaked at 12 @.@ 86 inches ( 326 mm ) in Penuelas . The U.S. Virgin Islands reported rain of about 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , while about 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation fell in Dominican Republic . The United States Navy removed its 700 personnel on Bermuda 's Air Force Base , placing them in a gymnasium nearby . Thousands of tourists took last @-@ minute flights out of Bermuda on September 16 as Debby drew near . Some of the airlines had pulled back the number of flights going in and out of the island . Eastern Airlines dropped from five flights to two , with them going to only New York City , Newark , New Jersey and Boston , Massachusetts .
The storm had sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) winds , and forecasters were predicting that the hurricane 's eye would be over the island the next day . Airlines canceled flights , buildings boarded up , and cruise liners were hurried out of their harbors in the time before Debby arrived . Rescue teams evacuated workers from Mobil oil rigs in Debby 's path as it neared . Bermuda experienced heavy gusts of wind , which caused minor damage with no injuries or fatalities . Power outages were reported on the island , though electricity was quickly restored . Numerous trees were knocked down on the island due to high winds . As the storm was approaching Canada , some oil rigs offshore of Newfoundland were evacuated and a science expedition off Grand Banks was discontinued . Onshore , Debby produced light rainfall in the southeastern portions of Newfoundland , with precipitation peaking at approximately 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) . In addition , a few areas experienced tropical storm forces winds , though damage was minimal .
= Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy =
The Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy involved more than 3 @,@ 000 military personnel serving under British command . The majority of these personnel were members of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , though smaller numbers of Australians serving with the Royal Navy and British Army also participated in the fighting prior to and after the Allied landings on 6 June 1944 . While all the RAAF units based in the United Kingdom ( UK ) took part in the battle , Australians made up only a small portion of the Allied force .
The Australians who supported the D @-@ Day invasion included between 2 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 500 RAAF airmen in Australian squadrons and British Royal Air Force units , and approximately 500 members of the Royal Australian Navy serving on Royal Navy vessels , as well as a small number of Australian Army officers and merchant seamen . The army personnel and thousands of Australian airmen also took part in the subsequent Battle of Normandy between June and August 1944 , and an RAAF fighter squadron operated from airfields in Normandy . Throughout the campaign , Australian airmen provided direct support to the Allied ground forces by attacking German military units and their supply lines , as well as forming part of the force that defended the beachhead from air attack and manning transport aircraft . Australians also indirectly supported the campaign by attacking German submarines and ships that threatened the invasion force . The 13 Australian Army officers who took part in the campaign filled a variety of roles in British units in order to gain experience that they could take back to Australia .
Australian personnel also took part in the invasion of Southern France in August 1944 , and RAAF airmen continued to operate against German forces until the end of the war in May 1945 . However , the relatively low casualties suffered by the Allied air forces during the fighting in Normandy and subsequent campaigns resulted in an over @-@ supply of trained Australian aircrew in the UK , hundreds of whom were never assigned to a combat role . Australia 's contribution to the fighting in Normandy is commemorated in memorials and cemeteries in London and Normandy .
= = Background = =
In 1944 Australia 's war effort was focused on the Pacific War , and most elements of the country 's military were in Australia and the islands to its north . Nevertheless , substantial numbers of RAAF personnel , most of whom had been trained through the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , were stationed in the United Kingdom ( UK ) and took part in operations against Germany . The Australian Government had very little influence over where Australian graduates of EATS were posted , and many were assigned directly to British units . As of 6 June 1944 , 1 @,@ 816 Australian airmen ( including 584 pilots ) were posted to RAF squadrons . Many of the thousands of Australian ground crew in the UK at this time were also serving with RAF units . In addition , ten RAAF flying squadrons were stationed in the UK . These included one regular RAAF unit , No. 10 Squadron , and nine temporary Article XV squadrons , which had been formed under the agreement that underpinned EATS . While the Article XV squadrons were nominally Australian , most included a substantial proportion of personnel from Britain and other Commonwealth countries ; as of 1 June 1944 they were manned by 796 Australian aircrew and 572 airmen from other countries . Owing to an over @-@ supply of aircrew trained through the Empire Air Training Scheme , there were also hundreds of RAAF airmen in the UK who were assigned to personnel depots while they waited to be posted to a combat unit ; prior to the invasion these unattached airmen were considered an asset by the Allied air forces as they could rapidly replace casualties .
The Australian air units were under the command of the RAF , which had 306 squadrons located in the UK at the time of the landings in Normandy . Two RAAF squadrons were assigned to the Second Tactical Air Force ( 2TAF ) , which was to provide direct support to the Allied armies during the campaign ; No. 453 Squadron operated Spitfire fighters as part of No. 125 Wing and No. 464 Squadron flew Mosquito light bombers as part of No. 140 Wing . Four Australian heavy bomber squadrons formed part of RAF Bomber Command ; No. 460 , No. 463 and No. 467 Squadrons were equipped with Lancasters and No. 466 Squadron flew Halifaxes . No. 456 Squadron , which was a specialist night fighter unit equipped with Mosquitos , formed part of Air Defence of Great Britain and was assigned to protect the invasion force . Three other RAAF squadrons in the UK would also support operations in Normandy as part of Coastal Command ; No. 10 and No. 461 Squadrons were equipped with Sunderland flying boats and flew patrols of the waters around the UK and France , while No. 455 Squadron operated against German surface shipping using Beaufighter strike aircraft .
In addition to the RAAF airmen operating as part of the RAF in the UK , hundreds of Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) personnel were serving with the Royal Navy ( RN ) at the time of the Battle of Normandy . No Australian warships took part in the operation , however . Most of the Australian officers serving with the RN were members of the Royal Australian Naval Volunteer Reserve ( RANVR ) . Four RAN sub @-@ lieutenants who had been sent to the UK to undergo training were also assigned to RN landing craft units to help address a shortage of officers capable of coordinating operations by these vessels .
Thirteen Australian Army officers were attached to the British Army units that fought in Normandy . These officers had been posted to the UK to gain experience in planning and conducting large @-@ scale amphibious operations , which would improve the army 's procedures ahead of Australian landings in the Pacific . A single officer represented each of the Army 's corps , and the personnel sent to the UK included some of the most talented and experienced members of the service .
= = Pre @-@ invasion preparations = =
Few Australians were involved in planning the invasion . Some of those who had planning responsibilities included Lieutenant Colonel Ronald McNicoll , who served on the Operations Staff of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ; Air Commodore Frank Bladin , Senior Air Staff Officer for No. 38 Group RAF ; Lieutenant Commander Victor Smith , Flag Officer for British Assault Area 's air planning officer ; and Major Douglas Vincent , a signals officer attached to the headquarters of the British XXX Corps . Australian @-@ born Air Commodore Edgar McCloughry , who had served with the RAF since 1919 , headed the Allied Expeditionary Air Force Bombing Committee , which prepared air plans for the invasion .
During April and May the Allied air forces struck at German airfields as well as aircraft factories and repair facilities in France . No. 463 and No. 467 Squadrons participated in raids on airfields and factories near Toulouse on the nights of 5 / 6 April and 1 / 2 May , and bombed an airfield near Lanvéoc on the night of 8 / 9 May . The first of these raids involved
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combat over France on D @-@ Day . The three Australian squadrons assigned to Coastal Command flew only a small number of sorties on 6 June as few German submarines or E @-@ boats put to sea .
About 500 RAN personnel served on board RN ships involved in the operation . While most formed part of the crew of RN warships , several Australian officers led flotillas of landing craft and others commanded individual craft . For instance , Sub @-@ Lieutenant Dean Murray commanded a force of six RN Landing Craft Assault that landed soldiers of the British 3rd Infantry Division at Sword Beach . Hudspeth also took X20 across the channel to mark the edge of Juno Beach during the landings there ; he received his third DSC for completing this mission . Some of the warships with Australian crew members that supported the landings were HMS Ajax ( which had three RANVR officers on board ) , Ashanti , Enterprise , Eskimo , Glasgow , Mackay and Scylla . Australian members of the Merchant Navy also participated in the D @-@ Day landings , though the number of sailors involved is not known .
Few of the Australian Army officers attached to British units landed on D @-@ Day . Major Jo Gullett , who was the second in command of an infantry company in the 7th Battalion , Green Howards , came ashore on Gold Beach as part of the invasion force . In his memoirs , Gullett described the landing as " easily the most impressive occasion of my life " . He subsequently led a company of the Royal Scots until he was wounded by German machine gun fire on 17 July . Most of the other Australian officers served in staff positions ; for instance Lieutenant Colonel Bill Robertson was the chief of staff of the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division when that unit arrived in Normandy and was later posted to the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division where he served in the same role . Vincent came ashore on 7 June and served with XXX Corps , 7th Armoured and 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Divisions during the campaign .
Due to the lack of a nominal roll or other records listing the Australians who took part in the D @-@ Day landings , it is not possible to determine the exact number involved . However , it has been estimated that about 3 @,@ 000 Australian military personnel and merchant seamen participated in the operation . The total number of Australians killed on 6 June was 14 , of whom 12 were RAAF airmen and two were members of the RAN .
= = Subsequent fighting = =
The fighting in Normandy continued until August 1944 , when the Allies broke out of the region and rapidly advanced to the German border . This campaign dominated the activities of eight of the ten Australian squadrons in the UK , as well as most of the airmen posted to RAF units . During July and August the RAAF units operated at or near their highest level of activity in the war to that point , but morale remained high as the airmen perceived that the contribution of air power to the campaign would be decisive . Large numbers of Australian airmen who were undergoing training or awaiting a posting on D @-@ Day were assigned to combat units during the fighting to replace casualties of the Normandy campaign .
In addition to the military personnel involved in the fighting , several Australian war correspondents reported on the Battle of Normandy . Chester Wilmot landed with the 6th Airborne Division on D @-@ Day , and his coverage of the fighting for the BBC soon made him one of the best @-@ known Allied war correspondents . Other Australian journalists in Normandy included John Hetherington , Geoff Hutton and Ronald Monson .
= = = June = = =
Australian airmen were involved in Allied efforts to delay German reinforcements from reaching Normandy throughout June . On the night of 6 / 7 June , 20 Mosquitos from No. 464 Squadron were dispatched to attack German road convoys and trains in northern France . The four Australian heavy bomber squadrons also participated in raids on French towns on this night . While No. 463 , No. 466 and No. 467 Squadrons mainly targeted railway facilities , No. 460 Squadron formed part of an attack on Vire , which sought to destroy the town to prevent the Germans from using the roads through it . Following these initial raids , Bomber Command continued to target railway infrastructure in France in an attempt to disrupt the movement of German reinforcements to Normandy . The command operated intensively during the week after the invasion , and some Australian aircrew flew raids on consecutive nights during this period . Overall , Bomber Command made 16 raids against railway facilities in France between 13 and 30 June , of which six included at least one of the RAAF squadrons . The RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and Australians in RAF units also took part in several attacks on German supply dumps and airfields during this period . Bomber Command made fewer raids on these targets than had been planned prior to the invasion , however , as its units were frequently assigned to strike facilities associated with the V @-@ 1 flying bombs the Germans were launching against the UK . No. 464 Squadron also operated against German vehicles travelling at night and bombed railway yards , and flew 75 sorties between the nights of 7 / 8 and 12 / 13 June . Overall , the squadron conducted attacks on 19 nights during June , during which five of its aircraft were destroyed . The Australians in 2TAF 's other light and medium bomber units also attacked the German lines of communication in France and occasionally provided direct support for the Allied ground forces throughout this period .
During June , Australians also contributed to the defence of the Allied beachhead against German air and naval attacks . No. 453 Squadron and the RAAF fighter pilots in RAF units continued to fly patrols over the beachhead in the week after D @-@ Day , but only rarely encountered German aircraft . From 11 June the Australian squadron 's aircraft frequently operated from airfields built at Normandy , and on the 25th of the month it and the other units of No. 125 Wing moved from the UK to Advanced Landing Ground B11 within the beachhead near Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer . By late June , No. 453 Squadron and the other RAF Spitfire units were regularly attacking German positions in Normandy as well as providing air defence for the Allied forces in the area ; during the month the squadron flew more than 700 sorties . A small number of Australians posted to RAF squadrons equipped with Hawker Typhoon fighter @-@ bombers also attacked German vehicles and positions in direct support of the Allied ground troops throughout the month . No. 456 Squadron , which was one of four night fighter squadrons assigned to protect the beachhead , frequently met German aircraft and shot down twelve of them in the week after the landing . Australian fighter ace Flight Lieutenant Nicky Barr , who had escaped from German custody in Italy during 1943 , also briefly served in an air support control unit in Normandy . Barr landed at Omaha Beach on 9 June , but returned to the UK three days later as his commanding officer believed that German forces would execute Barr if they recaptured him .
German submarines and surface warships sortied to attack the Allied invasion fleet , and the Australian members of Coastal Command participated in attacks on these vessels . The two RAAF flying boat squadrons operated intensively throughout June , but did not sink any German ships or submarines . The aircrew of two of the British B @-@ 24 Liberators that sank German submarines during this period included Australian personnel , however , and Australians were on board several of the other RAF aircraft flying anti @-@ submarine and anti @-@ shipping patrols . In addition , No. 455 Squadron took part in several attacks on E @-@ boats operating near Normandy as well as German shipping travelling through the English Channel . No. 460 Squadron and Australians in other Bomber Command units also participated in raids on E @-@ Boat bases at Le Havre and Boulogne on the nights of 14 / 15 June and 15 / 16 June respectively .
= = = July and August = = =
By July the Allied armies were having difficulty advancing against the German forces in Normandy . In an attempt to create a breakthrough , the Allied air commanders decided to use heavy bombers to attack German positions . The first of these attacks was made on 7 July by 467 Bomber Command aircraft and targeted German forces near Caen , as well as the city itself . The Australian contribution to this raid included 20 Lancasters from No. 460 Squadron and 14 Halifaxes from No. 466 Squadron as well as aircrew in RAF units . One of No. 460 Squadron 's aircraft made a crash landing within the Allied beachhead after being damaged by German anti @-@ aircraft guns , but its crew survived and were evacuated to the UK . While the attack devastated Caen , the ground troops were only able to capture the northern half of the city when they advanced on 8 July . All four Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in a series of attacks on German positions on 18 July as part of Operation Goodwood , but this offensive also failed to result in a breakthrough . On 30 July , No. 463 , No. 466 and No. 467 Squadrons contributed aircraft to another major bombardment of German positions near Caumont ahead of Operation Bluecoat ; 693 heavy bombers took part in this attack , of which 39 were from the Australian squadrons , but many did not drop their bombs as cloud obscured the aiming markers in the target area . All four Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in the next major attack , which took place on the night of 7 / 8 August to support Operation Totalize , but cloud and smoke again prevented many of the bombers from attacking the target area . The four squadrons also attacked German Army positions on 14 August in support of Operation Tractable ; visibility was clear over most of the target area , and the raids were considered successful . By this time the Allied armies had successfully broken out of Normandy , and no further heavy bomber attacks were required .
Australians also continued to be involved in Allied air attacks aimed at disrupting movement of German troops and supplies to Normandy during July and August . As well as supporting the ground forces in Normandy and continuing to bomb V @-@ 1 flying bomb launch facilities in northern France , Bomber Command attacked railway facilities in France during July and August , and at least one of the Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in 15 of the 25 raids conducted against these targets . No. 464 Squadron also flew more than 350 sorties during July and 400 in August against transport infrastructure in France and convoys of German vehicles . These operations , which were generally conducted at night , cost the unit three aircraft . The only interruption to No. 464 Squadron 's attacks on transportation came on the night of 14 / 15 July , when four aircraft piloted by highly experienced airmen conducted a successful precision strike on the Gestapo barracks at Bonneuil @-@ Matours . Australian aircrew assigned to other 2TAF medium bomber and fighter @-@ bomber units also participated in attacks on bridges and railways throughout July .
No. 453 Squadron operated from Normandy during July and August , and mainly patrolled behind the German front line in search of motor transport to attack . It occasionally encountered German aircraft during this period and shot down several Me 109 and Fw 190 fighters . The squadron flew 727 sorties during July , but lost several of its Spitfires to German anti @-@ aircraft guns . No. 453 Squadron continued to operate against German transport during August , and moved to an airfield near Lingèvres on the 13th of the month . This airfield was attacked by a German aircraft the next day , resulting in the death of one Australian pilot and another three wounded . The squadron experienced considerable success during the Allied break @-@ out , and claimed to have destroyed a large number of German vehicles during August . Overall , No. 453 Squadron flew more than 1 @,@ 300 combat sorties during July and August . While No. 456 Squadron 's night fighters conducted patrols over Normandy in early July and shot down four German bombers on the 5th of the month , the unit — in common with almost all the Mosquito @-@ equipped night fighter squadrons stationed in the UK — was tasked with intercepting V @-@ 1 flying bombs from 6 July onwards .
The Australian flying boat squadrons assigned to Coastal Command also continued to support the invasion during July and August . On 8 July a No. 10 Squadron Sunderland sank the German submarine U @-@ 243 130 miles ( 210 km ) south @-@ west of Brest . Overall , No. 10 Squadron flew 56 patrols during July and No. 461 Squadron conducted 67 , most of which were made at night . One of No. 461 Squadron 's Sunderlands damaged the submarine U @-@ 385 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Brest on 10 August , and it was sunk the next day by HMS Starling . On 13 August another No. 461 Squadron Sunderland attacked and sank U @-@ 270 . No. 10 Squadron flew almost as many patrols throughout August as it had during July , but did not encounter any submarines . No. 455 Squadron took part in attacks on German shipping travelling off the Netherlands and in the North Sea during July and August , but these operations were not directly related to supporting the invasion .
= = Aftermath = =
RAAF personnel also participated in the Allied invasion of southern France ( Operation Dragoon ) during August 1944 . No. 458 Squadron , which was equipped with Wellington bombers , flew anti @-@ submarine patrols and attacked targets in northern Italy and southern France ahead of the landings , which took place on the 15th of the month . The squadron continued these duties until the end of August . The Spitfire @-@ equipped No. 451 Squadron escorted Allied invasion convoys on 14 August and patrolled over the Allied beachhead as troops came ashore the next day . From 25 August the squadron was based at an airfield near Cuers in France and provided air defence for the region until October . Few German aircraft were encountered throughout this period , however .
The low casualties the Commonwealth air forces incurred during the Battle of Normandy led to an over @-@ supply of trained aircrew . While the number of pilots and other airmen undergoing training through the EATS had begun to be reduced in early 1944 , by 30 June there were thousands of qualified airmen — including 3 @,@ 000 Australians — in the UK waiting for posts in operational units . This number greatly exceeded the requirements of the Allied air forces . Accordingly , the flow of airmen from EATS training facilities in Canada to the UK was greatly cut back , and Australia ceased sending airmen overseas for training under the scheme in August . While 1 @,@ 245 Australian airmen arrived in the UK during the last six months of 1944 ( a reduction from the 5 @,@ 181 who had arrived in the first six months of the year ) , only those who were qualified as air gunners were typically ever assigned to combat units . It was not possible to find flying positions for most of the remaining unattached airmen who arrived after June 1944 , and some were posted back to Australia ; the remainder spent the rest of the war in training courses and various non @-@ flying roles .
Australian military personnel in Europe remained in action until the end of the war . At the time of the German surrender in May 1945 , there were 15 @,@ 500 members of the RAAF in the UK and western Europe , of whom 12 @,@ 300 were qualified aircrew . Most members of the small party of Australian Army officers who had been posted to the UK ahead of D @-@ Day also remained in Europe until the end of the war .
= = Commemoration = =
Overall , 1 @,@ 177 Australian military personnel were killed in western Europe and Britain during the lead @-@ up to the invasion of France and the subsequent Normandy Campaign . These losses were higher than those suffered by Australian forces in the Pacific during this period . A total of 44 Australians are buried in Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in the Normandy region . These include men killed in the region prior to the invasion and those who died during the fighting in 1944 . Of the Australian graves , 17 are located at the Bayeux War Cemetery , six at Saint @-@ Désir de Lisieux , five at Banneville @-@ la @-@ Campagne , four at the Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize Canadian War Cemetery , three at both Douvres la Délivrande and Hermanville @-@ sur @-@ Mer , two in Ranville and one each at Ryes @-@ Nazenville , Saint @-@ Manvieu @-@ Norrey , Bolbec and Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . The Bayeux Memorial , which lists the names of Commonwealth personnel killed in Normandy with no known grave , does not include any Australians . The most recent burial of an Australian serviceman in Normandy took place in April 2011 when No. 453 Squadron pilot Flight Lieutenant Henry Lacy Smith was interred at Ranville War Cemetery . Smith drowned when his Spitfire crash @-@ landed in the River Orne on 11 June 1944 , but his body was not recovered until November 2010 .
Australia 's involvement in the Battle of Normandy has also been commemorated through memorials and official state visits . Many of the RAAF squadrons that fought in the campaign were awarded battle honours after the war in recognition of their contribution . " Normandy " is also one of the 47 battle sites recorded on the Australian War Memorial , London , which was dedicated in 2003 . In 2004 , Australian Prime Minister John Howard attended the ceremonies in France that marked the 60th anniversary of the Normandy invasion . The French Government also awarded the Legion of Honour to ten of the surviving Australian veterans of the landings to commemorate this anniversary . In 2014 , Prime Minister Tony Abbott and a party of seven Australian veterans of the campaign attended ceremonies held to commemorate the 70th anniversary of D @-@ Day . When the Mémorial de Caen opened in 1988 , the flagpoles outside the museum commemorating the countries that participated in the battle did not include an Australian flag . Former No. 453 Squadron fighter pilot Colin Leith campaigned to have an Australian flag added , and this was achieved on 1 May 1998 . Despite these commemorations , there is only limited awareness among modern Australians of their country 's role in the fighting in Normandy , and the campaigns fought in the Pacific have a much more prominent place in the public memory of World War II .
= Buncefield fire =
The Buncefield fire was a major conflagration caused by a series of explosions on 11 December 2005 at the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal , an oil storage facility located near the M1 motorway by Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire , England . The terminal was the fifth largest oil @-@ products storage depot in the United Kingdom , with a capacity of about 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel . The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited ( 60 % ) and Texaco ( 40 % ) .
The first and largest explosion occurred at 06 : 01 UTC near tank 912 , which led to further explosions which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks . The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06 : 08 and a fire fighting effort began . The cause of the explosion seems to have been a fuel @-@ air explosion of unusually high strength . Latest evidence suggests this may have been caused by hedgerows of deciduous trees accelerating the flame front to such a degree its pressure wave caused remaining air fuel to detonate . The British Geological Survey monitored the event , which measured 2 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . News reports described the incident as the biggest of its kind in peacetime Europe and certainly the biggest such explosion in the United Kingdom since the 1974 Flixborough disaster . The flames had been extinguished by the afternoon of 13 December 2005 . However , one storage tank re @-@ ignited that evening , which the fire @-@ fighters left to burn rather than attempting to extinguish it again .
The Health Protection Agency and the Major Incident Investigation Board provided advice to prevent incidents such as these in the future . The primary need is for safety measures to be in place to prevent fuel escaping the tanks in which it is stored . Added safety measures are needed for when fuel does escape , mainly to prevent it forming a flammable vapour and stop pollutants from poisoning the environment .
= = Incident = =
= = = Explosion and fire = = =
The first and largest explosion occurred at 06 : 01 UTC on Sunday , 11 December 2005 near container 912 . Further explosions followed which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks . From all accounts , it seems to have been an unconfined vapour cloud explosion of unusually high strength — also known as a fuel @-@ air explosion . Because of an inversion layer , the explosions were heard up to 125 miles ( 200 km ) away ; there were reports that they were audible in Belgium , France , and the Netherlands .
The British Geological Survey monitored the event , which measured 2 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . It was reported that people were woken in south London , and as far west as Wokingham ( about 28 miles ( 45 km ) ) , where in its southern suburb , Finchampstead , numerous people felt the shockwave after the initial explosion . Subsequent explosions occurred at 06 : 27 and 06 : 28 .
Witnesses many miles from the terminal observed flames hundreds of feet high ; the smoke cloud was visible from space , and from as far north as Lincolnshire ( about 70 miles ( 110 km ) ) away . Damage from the blasts included broken windows at various buildings including the Holy Trinity church and Leverstock Green School , blown @-@ in or warped front doors , and an entire wall being removed from a warehouse more than half a mile ( 800 m ) from the site . Buildings in neighbouring St Albans also suffered ; Townsend School had serious blast damage , and a window was blown out of St Albans Abbey ( about 5 miles ( 8 km ) ) .
Several nearby office blocks were hit so badly that almost every window , front and back , was blown in as the explosion ripped through them . During the working day , these offices would have been full of people , and many deaths may have resulted . Reports also indicated that cars in nearby streets caught fire . The roof of at least one house was blown off . Buildings in the vicinity were evacuated by police , not only because of the smoke and possibility of more explosions , but because of the danger of structural damage making the buildings unstable .
There were 43 reported injuries ; two people were deemed to be seriously injured enough to be kept in hospital , one in Watford General Hospital , with breathing difficulties , and another in Hemel Hempstead Hospital , although they were not in a life @-@ threatening condition . Some early media reports spoke of eight fatalities , but these may have been persons missing . All members of staff from the terminal were accounted for .
Hertfordshire police & fire services and the member of parliament for the area , Mike Penning , said that there were seven fuel tanks on the site which , as of 14 : 00 on 12 December , had not been affected . These tanks were at risk of exploding if the fire were to spread .
= = = Tackling the blaze = = =
The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06 : 08 and a huge fire fighting effort began . At peak times this effort consisted of 25 fire engines , 20 support vehicles and 180 fire fighters . Around 150 firefighters were called immediately to the incident , and began tackling the blaze at 08 : 20 on the morning of 12 December , putting in containment measures before applying a large quantity of foam . The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway , which led to its closure and the setting up of a public exclusion area . It was estimated that this incident would be the largest " single @-@ seat " fire in the world ever to be fought by a fire brigade , and foam supplies from sites all over the UK were drawn upon .
Plans had been in place to start using foam at midnight on 11 December , but were delayed by last @-@ minute concerns over possible pollution of local rivers and underlying water sources . Six high volume pumps were used to extract 25 @,@ 000 litres ( 5 @,@ 499 imp gal ) of water per minute — 417 litres ( 92 imp gal ) per second — from a reservoir 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from the fire , with six more high volume pumps deployed at various locations to serve as boosters . Thirty @-@ two thousand litres ( 7 @,@ 039 imp gal ) of fire fighting foam per minute were directed against the fire for just over four hours , after which the pumping rate was reduced . Half of the 20 individual fires were reported extinguished by midday .
By 16 : 30 on Monday 12 December , it was reported that a further two tank fires had been extinguished , but that one of the tanks extinguished earlier had ruptured and re @-@ ignited , and was now threatening to cause the explosion of an adjacent tank . This led to the M1 motorway being closed again ; the public exclusion area was widened , and firefighters were temporarily withdrawn until the risk posed by the threatened tank could be assessed .
Firefighting operations were resumed at about 20 : 00 , and it was anticipated that all fires could be extinguished during the night . Further damage occurred to one of the storage tanks in the early hours of Tuesday morning , causing firefighters to be withdrawn once again , but operations resumed at 08 : 30 . By midday on 13 December , all but three fires had been extinguished , although the largest tank was still burning . Bronze command — operations on the ground — was visited by the Bishop of St Albans , the local vicar , and the industrial chaplain supporting the fire crews , to see how they were coping .
Firefighters were confident that the remaining fires could be extinguished during the day — Tuesday 13 December . The smoke plume had been considerably reduced and was more grey , indicating the amount of vapourised water now combining with the smoke . It was reported at 16 : 45 that all tank fires had been extinguished , although some smaller fires persisted . 75 % of firefighters for Hertfordshire were involved in fighting the fire , supported by 16 other brigades . The entire gold command operation , involving many agencies as well as all the emergency services , was run from Hertfordshire Constabulary 's headquarters in Welwyn Garden City , some distance from the fire .
A further fire broke out during the early morning of 14 December . Firefighters were of the view that extinguishing it would leave the risk of petroleum vapour re @-@ igniting or exploding , so it would be better to allow the fire , which was well contained , to burn itself out . Hertfordshire Fire Service 's deputy chief Mark Yates stated that escaping petroleum vapour was the most likely cause of the original explosion and fire .
= = = Smoke cloud = = =
The black smoke cloud , which was visible from satellite photographs , drifted at a high altitude , around 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , towards Reading and Swindon , and could be seen across much of South East England .
The small particles in the smoke contained hydrocarbons , which can be an irritant but have a low toxicity and were not expected to cause any long @-@ term harm . The Met Office issued warnings that the smoke in the atmosphere could come down in rainfall during the night of 11 December .
The fire resulted in 244 people requiring medical aid — mainly on the first day of the fire . From those 117 had symptoms attributable to the incident , of whom 38 were members of the public . The majority of those visiting hospitals were from the rescue services and attended for precautionary check ups . Most of them had no symptoms , except for 63 emergency workers who suffered respiratory complaints , of which half were sore throats .
For the first two days of the fire , the high thermal energy made the plume highly buoyant ; this , together with settled weather conditions , allowed the plume to rise to a great height with little cross @-@ mixing . When the fire was reduced in intensity it was reported to be possible that the plume would be less buoyant and that ground @-@ level smoke concentrations could then rise significantly . By 12 December , it was reported that the smoke cloud had reached northern France ; it was expected to arrive in northern Spain by the weekend .
To investigate the smoke cloud the Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements , a research aircraft operated jointly by NERC and the Met Office , made two flights on 12 and 13 December . In the first flight the edge of the plume was followed along the south coast of England . Carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and ozone concentrations were found to be low with soot particles being the major component in the cloud . The second flight went into the centre of the plume to obtain data to help forecasting and emergency teams .
= = Reactions and response = =
= = = Evacuations and closures = = =
Hundreds of homes in the Hemel Hempstead area were evacuated , and about 2 @,@ 000 people had to find alternative accommodation ; emergency services asked residents of the smoke @-@ affected areas to close their windows and doors and to stay inside .
Hertfordshire Constabulary advised people who had houses with smashed windows to seek refuge with friends or family nearby if possible . Some people whose homes were damaged by the blast were placed in hotels , while others stayed in a nearby shopping centre . Total , the operator of the Buncefield depot , set up a helpline for people whose properties had been damaged by the explosion , and called in local authorities and the Salvation Army to provide accommodation or other help .
Concerns for public safety resulted in about 227 schools , libraries , and other public buildings across Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire closing on 12 and 13 December . Police and local authorities advised residents to consult the Hertfordshire Direct website for up @-@ to @-@ date information .
Seventy @-@ eight schools in Luton borough were closed on 13 December , along with a limited number of schools in Bedfordshire , on the advice of Hertfordshire 's Health Protection Agency that all schools within a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius of the incident site should be closed because of concerns surrounding the effect of the smoke plume on children 's health . Schools reopened as normal on 14 December .
= = = Transport disruption = = =
The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway . The motorway was shut between junctions 12 and 6a — about 18 miles ( 29 km ) — shortly after the incident . Other roads in the vicinity , including the short M10 motorway ( now part of the A414 road ) , were also closed .
Some local petrol stations reported long queues as people started panic buying . A spokesman for the Department of Trade and Industry gave assurances that no petrol shortage was likely to result from the incident .
The oil terminal supplied 30 % of Heathrow Airport 's fuel , and because of the fire , the airport had to start rationing fuel . Some long @-@ haul flights to Australia , the Far East , and South Africa had to make an intermediate stop at Stansted Airport or other European airports to refuel , while short @-@ haul operators were asked to fuel their aircraft for the round trip before flying to Heathrow . Some aircraft were only allowed 40 % of the fuel they would normally take on board . Fuel shortages continued for months after the explosion .
= = = Business disruption = = =
In the Maylands industrial area the worst affected buildings were the Northgate Information Solutions headquarters and the Fujifilm building . These buildings were so badly damaged they were rendered completely unusable . Demolition of the Fujifilm building began soon afterwards , and by June 2006 it had been completely removed from the site . Although the Northgate and Fujifilm buildings were closest to the blast , the surrounding Catherine House ( to the north ) , Keystone Distribution building ( to the west ) , 3Com Corporation and RO buildings ( to the south ) , were also extensively damaged . In all , six buildings were designated for demolition and 30 more required major repairs before they could be reoccupied .
As a result of the destruction of the equipment in the Northgate building several websites hosted there were inaccessible — including that of the Labour Party . Addenbrooke 's Hospital in Cambridge was also affected ; its IT system dealing with admissions and discharges had to be replaced for several days by a manual system .
A number of companies were affected by inability to reach their premises even where the premises themselves were largely unaffected by the blast . Criticism was expressed by local citizens and the local MP that originally the depot had been constructed away from other buildings , but that developmental pressures had led to both houses and commercial premises being built near the depot .
= = = Groundwater pollution = = =
In May 2006 Three Valleys Water announced that it had detected the persistent , bioaccumulative , and toxic fluorosurfactant perfluorooctane sulfonate ( PFOS ) — which is used in fire fighting foam — in a ground water bore hole close to the Buncefield site . It stated that no water from this well entered the public water supply and that a nearby well and pumping station had been closed since the fire as a precaution . The chemical is a known health risk and the UK government had been about to ban its use .
However just before the announcement , the Drinking Water Inspectorate announced that it was increasing the safe level of the chemical in drinking water . Hemel Hempstead MP , Mike Penning accused the government of changing the rules to suit the situation in which PFOS levels in drinking water in the area may rise in the future . Most of the fuel burned out — rather than spilling into the soil , so the impact on surrounding land and the water table was limited .
= = Inquiry = =
A government inquiry held jointly by the Health and Safety Executive ( HSE ) and the Environment Agency was started , but calls for a full public inquiry were declined . The Board included Lord Newton of Braintree ; Prof Dougal Drysdale , an authority on fire safety ; and Dr Peter Baxter , a medical expert . Environment Agency and HSE staff were also on the board . Its aim was to identify the immediate causes of the explosion , rather than consider who was to blame for any deficiencies , so as not to prejudice further legal proceedings .
An initial progress report by the Major Incident Investigation Board on 21 February 2006 did not go into the causes of the explosion , but summed up the event and the immediate reaction from the emergency services . A second progress report , published on 11 April 2006 , looked at the environmental impact .
A further announcement was made on 9 May 2006 about the sequence of events which caused the explosion . Starting at 19 : 00 on the evening of 10 December 2005 , Tank 912 , towards the north west of the main depot , was filled with unleaded petrol — from the Coryton Refinery located in Essex , England . At midnight the terminal closed , and a check was made of the contents of tanks , which found everything normal . Normally the gauges monitor the level of the fuel in the tank as it fills from the particular pipeline . From about 03 : 00 the level gauge for Tank 912 began to indicate an unchanging level reading , despite it being filled at 550 cubic metres ( 19 @,@ 423 cu ft ) per hour .
Calculations show that the tank would have begun to overflow at about 05 : 20 . There is evidence suggesting that a high @-@ level switch , which should have detected that the tank was full and shut off the supply , failed to operate . The switch failure should have triggered an alarm , but it too appears to have failed . Forty @-@ one minutes later , an estimated 300 tonnes of petrol would have spilled down the side of the tank through the roof vents onto the ground inside a bund wall — a semi @-@ enclosed compound surrounding several tanks .
An overflow such as this results in the rapid formation of a rich fuel and air vapour . CCTV footage showed such a vapour flowing out the bund wall from around 05 : 38 . By 05 : 50 the vapour started flowing off the site , near the junction of Cherry Tree and Buncefield Lane . Around 05 : 50 the rate at which fuel was being pumped into the tank increased dramatically . Initially the fuel was pumped in at 550 cubic metres ( 19 @,@ 423 cu ft ) per hour , but it increased to about 890 cubic metres ( 31 @,@ 430 cu ft ) per hour . By 06 : 01 , when the first explosion occurred , the cloud which was initially about 1 metre ( 3 ft ) deep , thickened to 2 metres ( 7 ft ) and had spread beyond the boundaries of the site .
The extent of the damage meant it was not possible to determine the exact source of ignition , but possibilities include an emergency generator and the depot 's fire pump system . The investigators did not believe that it was caused either by the driver of a fuel tanker , as had been speculated , or by anyone using a mobile phone . It was felt unlikely that the explosion had a widespread effect on air quality at ground level .
= = Legal action = =
= = = Civil liability = = =
A total of 2 @,@ 700 claims were filed by residents , businesses and insurers . A group of 146 claimants were hoping to bring a class action against Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd . On 17 March 2006 a High Court official , Senior Master Turner , adjourned a hearing on whether to permit the class action until October 2006 . Claimants including insurance companies , small businesses and about 280 families whose properties were damaged or destroyed were claiming up to £ 1 billion in damages .
Several court cases resulted from the explosion , although the main trial to determine who was liable for the damage commenced at the High Court in October 2008 . An example of loss is Cheetah Couriers — which suffered a 20 % drop in turnover because of the explosions , resulting in losses of around £ 300 @,@ 000 to £ 400 @,@ 000 . The company was located in offices on an industrial estate 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 312 ft ) from the depot .
An initial trial concluded on 23 May 2008 when Mr Justice David Steel issued a summary judgment after hearing that both Total and Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd ( HOSL ) had agreed that negligence was the cause . In the main trial , Total UK claimed that the duty supervisor at the time was responsible for the explosion , but refused to admit either civil or criminal liability for the incident . Total UK argued that it should not be liable for damages because it could not reasonably have foreseen that it would cause the destruction it did . On 20 March 2009 the High Court found Total liable for the blast , saying that it was satisfied that Total had control of tank filling operations at the Buncefield depot . The judgement left the company facing damage claims of around £ 700 million .
Total appealed the judgement , but the appeal was dismissed in a hearing on 4 March 2010 .
= = = Criminal liability = = =
The site is covered by the COMAH regulations . The Control of Major Accidents and Hazards Regulations are jointly enforced by the " competent authority " which is formed of the Environment Agency and the Health and Safety Executive . They carried out an investigation during and following the fire .
In April 2010 the five companies accused of causing the explosion faced a criminal prosecution brought by the Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency . Two defendants , Total UK and British Pipeline Agency Limited , had already pleaded guilty to offences under the Health and Safety at Work Act . The remaining three , Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd , TAV Engineering Ltd , and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty in June 2010 . TAV Engineering Ltd and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty of failing to protect their employees . Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd was found guilty of failing to prevent major accidents and limit their effects and then pleaded guilty to causing pollution to enter controlled waters underlying the vicinity around the site , contrary to the Water Resources Act .
Sentencing took place in July 2010 . Total UK was fined £ 3.6m , plus £ 2.6m in costs . Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited was fined £ 1.45m and £ 1m in costs . The British Pipeline Agency was fined £ 300 @,@ 000 plus £ 480 @,@ 000 costs . Motherwell Control Systems and TAV Engineering were fined £ 1 @,@ 000 each . Local MP Mike Penning called the modest fines " insulting " .
= = The terminal = =
The Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal ( HOSL – Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd ) , generally known as the Buncefield complex , was the fifth largest oil @-@ products storage depot in the UK , with a capacity of about 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 270 ML ) of fuel , although it was not always full . This was about 8 % of UK oil storage capacity .
The HOSL is a major hub on the UK 's oil pipeline network ( UKOP ) with pipelines to Humberside and Stanlow Refinery and is an important fuel source to the British aviation industry , providing aircraft fuel for local airports including London Gatwick , London Heathrow and Luton airports . About half of the complex is dedicated to the storage of aviation fuel . The remainder of the complex stores oil , kerosene , petrol and diesel fuel for petrol stations across much of the South @-@ East of England . The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited ( 60 % ) and Texaco 40 % .
The seat of the fire , and the worst damaged section , was " HOSL West " , used by Total and Texaco to store a variety of fuels , and the neighbouring British Pipeline Agency area .
= = Causes = =
The final report of the Major Incident Investigation Board ( MIIB ) was written in 2008 and released in February 2011 . The investigation found that Tank 912 at the Buncefield oil storage depot was being filled with petrol . The tank had a level gauge that employees used to monitor the level manually , and an independent high @-@ level switch which would shut off inflow if the level got above a certain setpoint . On Tank 912 , the manual gauge was stuck and the independent shut @-@ off switch was inoperative , meaning that the tank was being " filled blind " with petrol ( i.e. , being filled without a clear indication of the level ) . Eventually Tank 912 filled up completely , the petrol overflowed through vents at the top , and formed a vapour cloud near ground level , which ignited and exploded . The fires from the explosion then lasted for five days .
The investigation found that the level gauge had stuck at random times after a tank service in August 2005 , but it did not concern maintenance contractors or site management . The independent shut @-@ off switch was not fitted with a critical padlock to allow its check lever to work . Secondary containment ( meant to trap the petrol in a retaining wall around the tank ) failed and allowed petrol to flow out . Tertiary containment ( drains and catchment areas to prevent release of spilled chemicals to the environment ) also failed , and fuel and firefighting foam entered groundwater supplies . The investigation found secondary and tertiary containment to be inadequately designed and poorly maintained .
Wider management failings were found by the investigation to have contributed to the explosion : management safety checks at the site were found to be deficient and not properly followed . Site staff did not have control over the flow rates and timing of two of the three inlet sources , meaning that they did not have enough information to properly manage the storage of incoming fuel . Further , overall throughput had increased , reducing wait times further and shifting the emphasis to process operations instead of process safety .
= = Aftermath = =
Soon after the incident the Health Protection Agency was stripped of its remit to provide air quality data and it was passed on to the Environment Agency which forms part of the Major Accident Investigation Board .
= = = Remembrance = = =
An anniversary service was held in Holy Trinity Church Leverstock Green on Sunday , 10 December 2006 , at which the Bishop of St Albans spoke , calling again for a full public inquiry , for assurances that the local hospital would maintain its accident and emergency department , and for the community to continue to build on good relationships formed because of the blast .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
To rebuild the damaged parts of the site , the relevant approval from Dacorum Borough Council would be needed . The BP section of the site is a good way from the explosion and survived with very little damage , but it was inoperative as of 2009 . BP is exploring plans for the future use of this part of the site , and has indicated a number of priorities , including the reopening of the fuel pipelines to Heathrow . It is considering using its section to store aviation fuel and as a distribution centre for motor fuel , but at a much @-@ reduced level . In late 2009 , Total UK submitted plans for the reconstruction of the oil depot .
= Either / Or =
Either / Or ( Danish : Enten – Eller ) is the first published work of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard . Appearing in two volumes in 1843 under the pseudonymous authorship of Victor Eremita ( Latin for " victorious hermit " ) it outlines a theory of human development in which consciousness progresses from an essentially hedonistic , aesthetic mode to one characterized by ethical imperatives arising from the maturing of human conscience .
Either / Or portrays two life views , one consciously hedonistic , the other based on ethical duty and responsibility . Each life view is written and represented by a fictional pseudonymous author , with the prose of the work reflecting and depending on the life view being discussed . For example , the aesthetic life view is written in short essay form , with poetic imagery and allusions , discussing aesthetic topics such as music , seduction , drama , and beauty . The ethical life view is written as two long letters , with a more argumentative and restrained prose , discussing moral responsibility , critical reflection , and marriage . The views of the book are not neatly summarized , but are expressed as lived experiences embodied by the pseudonymous authors . The book 's central concern is the primal question asked by Aristotle , " How should we live ? " His book was certainly informed by Epictetus ; " Consider first , man , what the matter is , and what your own nature is able to bear . If you would be a wrestler , consider your shoulders , your back , your thighs ; for different persons are made for different things . Do you think that you can act as you do and be a philosopher , that you can eat , drink , be angry , be discontented , as you are now ? You must watch , you must labor , you must get the better of certain appetites , must quit your acquaintances , be despised by your servant , be laughed at by those you meet ; come off worse than others in everything — in offices , in honors , before tribunals . When you have fully considered all these things , approach , if you please — that is , if , by parting with them , you have a mind to purchase serenity , freedom , and tranquillity . If not , do not come hither ; do not , like children , be now a philosopher , then a publican , then an orator , and then one of Caesar ’ s officers . These things are not consistent . You must be one man , either good or bad . You must cultivate either your own reason or else externals ; apply yourself either to things within or without you — that is , be either a philosopher or one of the mob . " His motto comes from Plutarch , " The deceived is wiser than one not deceived . ”
The aesthetic is the personal , subjective realm of existence , where an individual lives and extracts pleasure from life only for his or her own sake . In this realm , one has the possibility of the highest as well as the lowest . The ethical , on the other hand , is the civic realm of existence , where one 's value and identity are judged and at times superseded by the objective world . In simple terms , one can choose either to remain oblivious to all that goes on in the world , or to become involved . More specifically , the ethic realm starts with a conscious effort to choose one 's life , with a choice to choose . Either way , however , an individual can go too far in these realms and lose sight of his or her true self . Only faith can rescue the individual from these two opposing realms . Either / Or concludes with a brief sermon hinting at the nature of the religious sphere of existence , which Kierkegaard spent most of his publishing career expounding upon . Ultimately , Kierkegaard 's challenge is for the reader to " discover a second face hidden behind the one you see " in him / herself first , and then in others . Johann Goethe said the same .
The Middle Ages are altogether impregnated with the idea of representation , partly conscious , partly unconscious ; the total is represented by the single individual , yet in such a way that it is only a single aspect which is determined as totality , and which now appears in a single individual , who is because of this , both more and less than an individual . By the side of this individual there stands another individual , who , likewise , totally represents another aspect of life ’ s content , such as the knight and the scholastic , the ecclesiastic and the layman . Either / Or Part I p . 86 @-@ 87 Swenson
Goethe 's poem
Life I never can divide , ... Inner and outer together you see . ... Whole to all I must abide , ... Otherwise I cannot be . ... Always I have only writ ... What I feel and mean to say . ... Thus , my friends , although I split , ... Yet remain I one alway .
= = Historical context = =
After writing and defending his dissertation On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates ( 1841 ) , Kierkegaard left Copenhagen in October 1841 to spend the winter in Berlin . The main purpose of this visit was to attend the lectures by the German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling , who was an eminent figure at the time . The lectures turned out to be a disappointment for many in Schelling 's audience , including Mikhail Bakunin and Friedrich Engels , and Kierkegaard described it as " unbearable nonsense " . During his stay , Kierkegaard worked on the manuscript for Either / Or , took daily lessons to perfect his German and attended operas and plays , particularly by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . He returned to Copenhagen in March 1842 with a draft of the manuscript , which was completed near the end of 1842 and published in February 1843 .
According to a journal entry from 1846 , Either / Or " was written lock , stock , and barrel in eleven months " , although a page from the " Diapsalmata " section in the ' A ' volume was written before that time .
The title Either / Or is an affirmation of Aristotelian logic , particularly as modified by Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant . Is the question , " Who am I ? " a scientific question or one for the single individual to answer for him or her self ?
Fichte wrote in The Science of Knowledge “ The question has been asked , What was I before I became self @-@ conscious ? The answer is , I was not at all , for I was not I. The Ego is only in so far as it is conscious of itself . … . The proposition not A is not A will doubtless be recognized by every one as certain , and it is scarcely to be expected that any one will ask for its proof . If , however , such a proof were possible , it must in our system be deduced from the proposition A = A. But such a proof is impossible . ”
Law of identity ( A = A ; a thing is identical to itself )
Law of excluded middle ( either A or not @-@ A ; a thing is either something or not that thing , no third option )
Law of noncontradiction . ( not both A and not @-@ A ; a thing cannot be both true and not true in the same instant )
In Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's work , The Science of Logic ( 1812 ) , Hegel had criticized Aristotle 's laws of classical logic for being static , rather than dynamic and becoming , and had replaced it with his own dialectical logic . Hegel formulated addendums for Aristotle 's laws :
Law of identity is inaccurate because a thing is always more than itself
Law of excluded middle is inaccurate because a thing can be both itself and many others
Law of non @-@ contradiction is inaccurate because everything in existence is both itself and not itself
Kierkegaard spoke of Hegel 's Logic metaphorically in 1844 :
Thus when an author entitles the last section of the Logic “ Actuality , ” he thereby gains the advantage of making it appear that in logic the highest has already been achieved , or if one prefers , the lowest . In the meantime , the loss is obvious , for neither logic nor actuality is served by placing actuality in the Logic . Actuality is not served thereby , for contingency , which is an essential part of the actual , cannot be admitted within the realm of logic . ... If anyone would take the trouble to collect and put together all the strange pixies and goblins who like busy clerks bring about movement in Hegelian logic a later age would perhaps be surprised to see that what are regarded as discarded witticisms once played an important role in logic , not as incidental explanations and ingenious remarks but as masters of movement , which made Hegel ’ s logic something of a miracle and gave logical thought feet to move on , without anyone ’ s being able to observe them . Concept of Anxiety , Søren Kierkegaard , Nichol translation , p . 9 @-@ 10 , note 12
Kierkegaard argues that Hegel 's philosophy dehumanized life by denying personal freedom and choice through the neutralization of the ' either / or ' . The dialectic structure of becoming renders existence far too easy , in Hegel 's theory , because conflicts are eventually mediated and disappear automatically through a natural process that requires no individual choice other than a submission to the will of the Idea or Geist . Kierkegaard saw this as a denial of true selfhood and instead advocated the importance of personal responsibility and choice @-@ making .
= = Structure = =
The book is the first of Kierkegaard 's works written pseudonymously , a practice he employed during the first half of his career . In this case , four pseudonyms are used :
" Victor Eremita " - the fictional compiler and editor of the texts , which he claims to have found in an antique escritoire .
" A " - the moniker given to the fictional author of the first text ( " Either " ) by Victor Eremita , whose real name he claims not to have known .
" Judge Vilhelm " - the fictional author of the second text ( " Or " ) .
" Johannes " - the fictional author of a section of ' Either ' titled " The Diary of a Seducer " and Cordelia his lover .
I have half a mind to write a counter @-@ piece to “ The Seducer ’ s Diary . ” It would be a feminine figure : “ The Courtesan ’ s Diary . ” It would be worth the trouble to depict such a character . Journals and Papers of Kierkegaard , 4A 128
Kierkegaard published the second edition of Either / Or on May 14 , 1849 , the very same day he published The Lily of the Field and the Bird of the Air . Three devotional Discourses . He published three books on the same day October 16 , 1843 .
= = Either = =
The first volume , the " Either " , describes the " aesthetic " phase of existence . It contains a collection of papers , found by ' Victor Eremita ' and written by ' A ' , the " aesthete . "
The aesthete , according to Kierkegaard 's model , will eventually find himself in " despair " , a psychological state ( explored further in Kierkegaard 's The Concept of Anxiety and The Sickness Unto Death ) that results from a recognition of the limits of the aesthetic approach to life . Kierkegaard 's " despair " is a somewhat analogous precursor of existential angst . The natural reaction is to make an eventual " leap " to the second phase , the " ethical , " which is characterized as a phase in which rational choice and commitment replace the capricious and inconsistent longings of the aesthetic mode . Ultimately , for Kierkegaard , the aesthetic and the ethical are both superseded by a final phase which he terms the " religious " mode . This is introduced later in Fear and Trembling .
= = = Diapsalmata = = =
The first section of Either is a collection of many tangential aphorisms , epigrams , anecdotes and musings on the aesthetic mode of life . The word ' diapsalmata ' is related to ' psalms ' , and means " refrains " . It contains some of Kierkegaard 's most famous and poetic lines , such as " What is a poet ? " , " Freedom of Speech " vs. " Freedom of Thought " , the " Unmovable chess piece " , the tragic clown , and the laughter of the gods .
If one were to read these as written they would show a constant movement from the outer poetic experience to the inner experience of humor . The movement from the outer to the inner is a theme in Kierkegaard 's works .
= = = The Immediate Stages of the Erotic , or Musical Erotic = = =
An essay discussing the idea that music expresses the spirit of sensuality . ' A ' evaluates Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro , The Magic Flute and Don Giovanni , as well as Goethe 's Faust . ' A ' has taken upon himself the task of proving , through the works of Mozart , that " music is a higher , or more spiritual art , than language " . During this process he develops the three stages of the musical @-@ erotic .
Here he makes the distinction between a seducer like Don Juan , who falls under aesthetic categories , and Faust , who falls under ethical categories . " The musical Don Juan enjoys the satisfaction of desire ; the reflective Don Juan enjoys the deception , enjoys the cunning . " Don Juan is split between the esthetic and the ethical . He 's lost in the multiplicity of the " 1 @,@ 003 women he has to seduce " . Faust seduces just one woman . Kierkegaard is writing deep theology here . He 's asking if God seduces 1 @,@ 003 people at one time or if he seduces one single individual at a time in order to make a believer . He also wrote about seducers in this way :
Achim v. Arnim tells somewhere of a seducer of a very different style , a seducer who falls under ethical categories . About him he uses an expression which in truth , boldness , and conciseness is almost equal to Mozart ’ s stroke of the bow . He says he could so talk with a
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eight or nine least abundant elements in the earth 's crust . There are a few dozen tellurate minerals and telluride minerals , and tellurium occurs in some minerals with gold , such as sylvanite and calaverite . Tellurium makes up 9 parts per billion of the universe by weight .
Polonium only occurs in trace amounts on earth , via radioactive decay of uranium and thorium . It is present in uranium ores in concentrations of 100 micrograms per metric ton . Very minute amounts of polonium exist in the soil and thus in most food , and thus in the human body . The earth 's crust contains less than 1 part per billion of polonium , making it one of the ten rarest metals on earth .
Livermorium is always produced artificially in particle accelerators . Even when it is produced , only a small number of atoms at a time are synthesized .
= = = Chalcophile elements = = =
Chalcophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they combine readily with chalcogens other than oxygen , forming compounds which do not sink into the core . Chalcophile ( " chalcogen @-@ loving " ) elements in this context are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with the heavier chalcogen sulfur as sulfides . Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by lithophile elements , chalcophile elements separated below the lithophiles at the time of the first crystallisation of the Earth 's crust . This has led to their depletion in the Earth 's crust relative to their solar abundances , though this depletion has not reached the levels found with siderophile elements .
= = Production = =
Approximately 100 million metric tons of oxygen are produced yearly . Oxygen is most commonly produced by fractional distillation , in which air is cooled to a liquid , then warmed , allowing all the components of air except for oxygen to turn to gases and escape . Fractionally distilling air several times can produce 99 @.@ 5 % pure oxygen . Another method with which oxygen is produced is to send a stream of dry , clean air through a bed of molecular sieves made of zeolite , which absorbs the nitrogen in the air , leaving 90 to 93 % pure oxygen .
Sulfur can be mined in its elemental form , although this method is no longer as popular as it used to be . In 1865 a large deposit of elemental sulfur was discovered in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Texas , but it was difficult to extract at the time . In the 1890s , Herman Frasch came up with the solution of liquefying the sulfur with superheated steam and pumping the sulfur up to the surface . These days sulfur is instead more often extracted from oil , natural gas , and tar .
The world production of selenium is around 1500 metric tons per year , out of which roughly 10 % is recycled . Japan is the largest producer , producing 800 metric tons of selenium per year . Other large producers include Belgium ( 300 metric tons per year ) , the United States ( over 200 metric tons per year ) , Sweden ( 130 metric tons per year ) , and Russia ( 100 metric tons per year ) . Selenium can be extracted from the waste from the process of electrolytically refining copper . Another method of producing selenium is to farm selenium @-@ gathering plants such as milk vetch . This method could produce three kilograms of selenium per acre , but is not commonly practiced .
Tellurium is mostly produced as a by @-@ product of the processing of copper . Tellurium can also be refined by electrolytic reduction of sodium telluride . The world production of tellurium is between 150 and 200 metric tons per year . The United States is one of the largest producers of tellurium , producing around 50 metric tons per year . Peru , Japan , and Canada are also large producers of tellurium .
Until the creation of nuclear reactors , all polonium had to be extracted from uranium ore . In modern times , most isotopes of polonium are produced by bombarding bismuth with neutrons . Polonium can also be produced by high neutron fluxes in nuclear reactors . Approximately 100 grams of polonium are produced yearly . All the polonium produced for commercial purposes is made in the Ozersk nuclear reactor in Russia . From there , it is taken to Samara , Russia for purification , and from there to St. Petersburg for distribution . The United States is the largest consumer of polonium .
All livermorium is produced artificially in particle accelerators . The first successful production of livermorium was achieved by bombarding curium @-@ 248 atoms with calcium @-@ 48 atoms . As of 2011 , roughly 25 atoms of livermorium had been synthesized .
= = Applications = =
Steelmaking is the most important use of oxygen ; 55 % of all oxygen produced goes to this application . The chemical industry also uses large amounts of oxygen ; 25 % of all oxygen produced goes to this application . The remaining 20 % of oxygen produced is mostly split between medical use , water treatment ( as oxygen kills some types of bacteria ) , rocket fuel ( in liquid form ) , and metal cutting .
Most sulfur produced is transformed into sulfur dioxide , which is further transformed into sulfuric acid , a very common industrial chemical . Other common uses include being a key ingredient of gunpowder and Greek fire , and being used to change soil pH . Sulfur is also mixed into rubber to vulcanize it . Sulfur is used in some types of concrete and fireworks . 60 % of all sulfuric acid produced is used to generate phosphoric acid .
Around 40 % of all selenium produced goes to glassmaking . 30 % of all selenium produced goes to metallurgy , including manganese production . 15 % of all selenium produced goes to agriculture . Electronics such as photovoltaic materials claim 10 % of all selenium produced . Pigments account for 5 % of all selenium produced . Historically , machines such as photocopiers and light meters used one @-@ third of all selenium produced , but this application is in steady decline .
Tellurium suboxide , a mixture of tellurium and tellurium dioxide , is used in the rewritable data layer of some CD @-@ RW disks and DVD @-@ RW disks . Bismuth telluride is also used in many microelectronic devices , such as photoreceptors . Tellurium is sometimes used as an alternative to sulfur in vulcanized rubber . Cadmium telluride is used as a high @-@ efficiency material in solar panels .
Some of polonium 's applications relate to the element 's radioactivity . For instance , polonium is used as an alpha @-@ particle generator for research . Polonium alloyed with beryllium provides an efficient neutron source . Polonium is also used in nuclear batteries . Most polonium is used in antistatic devices . Livermorium does not have any uses whatsoever due to its extreme rarity and short half @-@ life .
Organochalcogen compounds are involved in the semiconductor process . These compounds also feature into ligand chemistry and biochemistry . One application of chalcogens themselves is to manipulate redox couples in supramolar chemistry ( chemistry involving non @-@ covalent bond interactions ) . This application leads on to such applications as crystal packing , assembly of large molecules , and biological recognition of patterns . The secondary bonding interactions of the larger chalcogens , selenium and tellurium , can create organic solvent @-@ holding acetylene nanotubes . Chalcogen interactions are useful for conformational analysis and stereoelectronic effects , among other things . Chalcogenides with through bonds also have applications . For instance , divalent sulfur can stabilize carbanions , cationic centers , and radical . Chalcogens can confer upon ligands ( such as DCTO ) properties such as being able to transform Cu ( II ) to Cu ( I ) . Studying chalcogen interactions gives access to radical cations , which are used in mainstream synthetic chemistry . Metallic redox centers of biological importance are tunable by interactions of ligands containing chalcogens , such as methionine and selenocysteine . Also , chalcogen through @-@ bonds can provide insight about the process of electron transfer .
= = Biological role = =
Oxygen is needed by almost all organisms for the purpose of generating ATP . It is also a key component of most other biological compounds , such as water , amino acids and DNA . Human blood contains a large amount of oxygen . Human bones contain 28 % oxygen . Human tissue contains 16 % oxygen . A typical 70 @-@ kilogram human contais 43 kilograms of oxygen , mostly in the form of water .
All animals need significant amounts of sulfur . Some amino acids , such as cysteine and methionine contain sulfur . Plant roots take up sulfate ions from the soil and reduce it to sulfide ions . Metalloproteins also use sulfur to attach to useful metal atoms in the body and sulfur similarly attaches itself to poisonous metal atoms like cadmium to haul them to the safety of the liver . On average , humans consume 900 milligrams of sulfur each day . Sulfur compounds , such as those found in skunk spray often have strong odors .
All animals and some plants need trace amounts of selenium , but only for some specialized enzymes . Humans consume on average between 6 and 200 micrograms of selenium per day . Mushrooms and brazil nuts are especially noted for their high selenium content . Selenium in foods is most commonly found in the form of amino acids such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine . Selenium can protect against heavy metal poisoning .
Tellurium is not known to be needed for animal life , although a few fungi can incorporate it in compounds in place of selenium . Microorganisms also absorb tellurium and emit dimethyl telluride . Most tellurium in the blood stream is excreted slowly in urine , but some is converted to dimethyl telluride and released through the lungs . On average , humans ingest about 600 micrograms of tellurium daily . Plants can take up some tellurium from the soil . Onions and garlic have been found to contain as much as 300 parts per million of tellurium in dry weight .
Polonium has no biological role , and is highly toxic on account of being radioactive .
= = Toxicity = =
Oxygen is generally nontoxic , but oxygen toxicity has been reported when it is used in high concentrations . In both elemental gaseous form and as a component of water , it is vital to almost all life on earth . Despite this , liquid oxygen is highly dangerous . Even gaseous oxygen is dangerous in excess . For instance , sports divers have occasionally drowned from convulsions caused by breathing pure oxygen at a depth of more than 10 meters ( 33 feet ) underwater . Oxygen is also toxic to some bacteria . Ozone , an allotrope of oxygen , is toxic to most life . It can cause lesions in the respiratory tract .
Sulfur is generally nontoxic and is even a vital nutrient for humans . However , in its elemental form it can cause redness in the eyes and skin , a burning sensation and a cough if inhaled , a burning sensation and diarrhea if ingested , and can irritate the mucous membranes . An excess of sulfur can be toxic for cows because microbes in the rumens of cows produce toxic hydrogen sulfide upon reaction with sulfur . Many sulfur compounds , such as hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) and sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) are highly toxic .
Selenium is a trace nutrient required by humans on the order of tens or hundreds of micrograms per day . A dose of over 450 micrograms can be toxic , resulting in bad breath and body odor . Extended , low @-@ level exposure , which can occur at some industries , results in weight loss , anemia , and dermatitis . In many cases of selenium poisoning , selenous acid is formed in the body . Hydrogen selenide ( H2Se ) is highly toxic .
Exposure to tellurium can produce unpleasant side effects . As little as 10 micrograms of tellurium per cubic meter of air can cause notoriously unpleasant breath , described as smelling like rotten garlic . Acute tellurium poisoning can cause vomiting , gut inflammation , internal bleeding , and respiratory failure . Extended , low @-@ level exposure to tellurium causes tiredness and indigestion . Sodium tellurite ( Na2TeO3 ) is lethal in amounts of around 2 grams .
Polonium is dangerous both as an alpha particle emitter and because it is chemically toxic . If ingested , polonium @-@ 210 is a billion times as toxic as hydrogen cyanide by weight ; it has been used as a murder weapon in the past , most famously to kill Alexander Litvinenko . Polonium poisoning can cause nausea , vomiting , anorexia , and lymphopenia . It can also damage hair follicles and white blood cells . Polonium @-@ 210 is only dangerous if ingested or inhaled because its alpha particle emissions cannot penetrate human skin . Polonium @-@ 209 is also toxic , and can cause leukemia .
= Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar =
The Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar was a fifty @-@ cent piece struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint . Bearing portraits of former presidents James Monroe and John Quincy Adams , the coin was issued in commemoration of the centennial of the Monroe Doctrine and was produced at the San Francisco Mint in 1923 . Sculptor Chester Beach is credited with the design , although the reverse closely resembles an earlier work by Raphael Beck .
In 1922 , the motion picture industry was faced with a number of scandals , including manslaughter charges against star Roscoe " Fatty " Arbuckle . Although Arbuckle was eventually acquitted , motion picture executives sought ways of getting good publicity for Hollywood . One means was an exposition , to be held in Los Angeles in mid @-@ 1923 . To induce Congress to issue a commemorative coin as a fundraiser for the fair , organizers associated the exposition with the 100th anniversary of the Monroe Doctrine , and legislation for a commemorative half dollar for the centennial was passed .
The exposition was a financial failure . The coins did not sell well , and the bulk of the mintage of over 270 @,@ 000 was released into circulation . Beach faced accusations of plagiarism because of the similarity of the reverse design to a work by Beck , though he and fellow sculptor James Earle Fraser denied any impropriety . Many of the pieces that had been sold at a premium and saved were spent during the Depression ; most surviving coins show evidence of wear .
= = Background = =
In the early 1820s , the United States deemed two matters untoward interference by European powers in its zone of influence . The first was the Russian Ukase of 1821 , asserting exclusive territorial and trading rights along much of what is today Canada 's Pacific coast . The United States considered this area to be part of the Oregon Country and hoped to eventually gain control of it . The second was possible European threats against the Latin American nations , newly independent from Spain . United States officials feared that a Quadruple Alliance of Prussia , Austria , Russia , and France would restore Spain to power in the Americas .
British foreign minister George Canning was concerned that in the event of a Spanish restoration in Latin America , his nation would lose the trade which it had gained there since the Spanish had been ousted . In 1823 , he proposed to the American minister to Great Britain , Richard Rush , that their two nations issue a joint statement against the retaking of the former Spanish colonies by force . Rush asked for instructions from President James Monroe . The President consulted with his predecessors , Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , who favored the joint statement , as an alliance with Britain would protect the United States . Nevertheless , Monroe 's Secretary of State , future president John Quincy Adams , felt that if the United States was going to set forth its principles , it should speak for itself and not seem to be following the lead of powerful Britain . Accordingly , Rush was instructed to decline the opportunity to enter into a joint statement , although he was to inform the British that the two nations agreed on most issues .
The policy which would , some 30 years later , come to be called the " Monroe Doctrine " was contained in the President 's annual message to Congress on December 2 , 1823 . It warned European nations against new colonial ventures in the Americas , and against interference with Western Hemisphere governments . The doctrine had little practical effect at the time , as the United States lacked the ability to enforce it militarily and most European powers ignored it , considering it beneath their dignity even to respond . When Britain and other powers seized additional land in the Guianas in the 1830s , the United States did not issue a formal protest . The Mexican – American War of 1846 – 1848 increased Latin American suspicions over the doctrine , as many south of the border felt that the American purpose in warning European powers to keep out was to reserve the land for itself . Nevertheless , the Monroe Doctrine became an important part of United States foreign policy in the second half of the 19th and into the 20th century .
= = Inception = =
By 1922 , the Hollywood film industry was in serious trouble . Established in the Los Angeles area during the 1910s after moving from such eastern venues as Fort Lee , New Jersey , the industry had been rocked by a number of scandals . These included the mysterious shooting death of film director William Desmond Taylor , and the subsequent evasive testimony concerning it by actress Mabel Normand , which helped destroy her career . Another notorious scandal of the early 1920s was the death of actress Virginia Rappe following an orgy at a San Francisco hotel . Actor Roscoe " Fatty " Arbuckle was , after three trials , acquitted of manslaughter , but the negative publicity ended his career as well . These scandals , together with the death of romantic lead Wallace Reid from a drug overdose and a number of instances of onscreen sexual explicitness , led to nationwide calls for a boycott of Hollywood films .
Film moguls sought means of damage control . They hired former Postmaster General Will H. Hays as censor to the industry ; the Hays Code would govern how explicit a motion picture could be for decades to come . Another idea was an exposition and film festival to give good publicity to the industry , with the profits to be used for the making of educational films . Planning for this fair , to be held in Los Angeles in mid @-@ 1923 , began in 1922 . As other fairs , such as the World 's Columbian Exposition and the Panama – Pacific Exposition , had procured the issuance of commemorative coins as a fundraiser , organizers sought a piece for the film fair . The city of Los Angeles was wanted to use the fair to show it had come of age , as had Chicago for the Columbian Exposition and San Francisco with the Panama @-@ Pacific event .
Realizing that Congress might not pass legislation for a coin to commemorate a film industry celebration , the organizers sought a historical event with a major anniversary to occur in 1923 , which could be honored both at the fair and on the coin . The obvious candidate was the Boston Tea Party of 1773 , but according to numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen in their volume on U.S. commemorative coins , that episode " could not be tortured into even the vaguest relevance to California , let alone to Los Angeles " . On December 18 , 1922 , California Congressman Walter Franklin Lineberger introduced a bill to strike a half dollar in commemoration of the centennial of the Monroe Doctrine , with the Los Angeles Clearing House ( an association of banks ) given the exclusive right to purchase the pieces from the government at face value . Lineberger claimed that Monroe 's declaration had kept California , then owned by Mexico , out of the hands of European powers . The bill was questioned in the House of Representatives by Michigan Congressman Louis Cramton , and in the Senate by Vermont 's Frank Greene , who stated , " it seems to me that the question is not one of selling a coin at a particular value or a particular place . The question is whether the United States government is going to go on from year to year submitting its coinage to this — well — harlotry . " Despite these objections , the bill was enacted on January 24 , 1923 ; a mintage of 300 @,@ 000 pieces was authorized .
= = Preparation = =
The fair organizers did not await congressional approval to begin planning the coin . According to Swiatek and Breen , the fair 's director general Frank B. Davison came up with the concept for the designs . On December 7 , 1922 , Commission of Fine Arts chairman Charles Moore wrote to Buffalo nickel designer and sculptor member of the commission James Earle Fraser , " The Los Angeles people are planning to celebrate the Monroe Doctrine Centennial . They are going to have a 50 @-@ cent piece and have decided that on the obverse shall be the heads of President Monroe and John Quincy Adams ... On the reverse will be the western continents from Hudson Bay to Cape Horn with some dots for the West Indies and some indication of the Panama Canal ... It strikes me that the designs having been settled upon , the [ plaster ] models could be worked out quite readily and that a pretty swell thing could be made . "
Fraser contacted fellow New York sculptor Chester Beach , who agreed to do the work . On December 27 , Moore wrote to Davison , informing him of Beach 's hiring , and that Fraser and Beach had decided to change the reverse . Moore quoted Beach 's description of the revised design :
Map of North and South America . North America is in the form of a draped figure , with the laurel of Peace [ an olive branch ] , reaching to South America , also a draped figure carrying a Horn of Plenty . Their hands to touch at the Panama Canal . The West Indies are indicated . The current of the oceans are lightly shown . Between the dates 1823 – 1923 are a scroll and a quill pen , symbolizing the " Treaty " .
Moore informed Davison that the commission had concurred with the revision , and that Beach had been instructed to complete work as quickly as possible so as to have the coins available at an early date . On February 24 , 1923 , commission secretary Hans Caemmerer showed the completed models to Assistant Director of the Mint Mary Margaret O 'Reilly , who was pleased with them . O 'Reilly suggested that if Beach was certain there would be no further changes , that he send photographs of the models to the commission 's offices , to be forwarded with its endorsement to the Bureau of the Mint in Washington . This was done , and the designs were approved by both Mint Director Frank Edgar Scobey and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon on March 8 . Moore was enthusiastic about the designs , writing to Davison on March 21 that " I feel great exultation over the way the model ... has turned out ... I do not know of a memorial [ commemorative ] coin which for sheer beauty equals this ... "
= = Design = =
William E. Pike , in his 2003 article in The Numismatist about the coin , deems the design " uninspired " and complains that the low relief of the coin leaves it without sufficient detail . Coin dealer and numismatic historian Q. David Bowers states that because of the shallow relief , " newly minted coins had an insipid appearance . Few if any observers called them attractive . " Art historian Cornelius Vermeule also complained about the relief , stating that it made the allegorical figures on the reverse " seem like mounted cut @-@ outs ... the way the females are contoured to achieve their appearance of continents is a clever tour de force of calligraphic relief but an aesthetic monstrosity , a bad pun in art . " He had no more praise for the obverse , " Adams , with his staring eye , is scarcely a portrait , and Monroe would not be recognized even by an expert . "
The faint lines in the field around the continents represent various ocean currents , with the Gulf Stream to the upper right of the reverse . Swiatek and Breen speculate that the reason ocean currents were shown was to symbolize the trade routes between the continents . They also consider the design to have an Art Deco look , though noting that the lettering has more of an older , Art Nouveau appearance . Beach 's monogram , CB made into a circle , is found at lower right of the reverse .
On July 23 , 1923 , Raphael Beck , who had designed the seal for the 1901 Pan @-@ American Exposition , wrote to Mint Director Scobey to complain that the reverse design resembled his seal , which he had copyrighted in 1899 , and that Beach should be given no further credit for it . The letter was forwarded to the Commission of Fine Arts for comment . In October , Fraser wrote to Beck , stating that he had suggested to Beach that he use figures to represent the continents instead of maps , and that he had never seen the Pan @-@ American seal until Scobey forwarded the letter . According to Bowers , " A comparison of the 1901 and 1923 designs , however , shows that this was highly unlikely . "
= = Distribution and collecting = =
In May and June 1923 , 274 @,@ 077 of the new half dollars were struck at the San Francisco Mint . Most of these were sent to the Los Angeles Clearing House , though 77 pieces were set aside for transmission to Philadelphia and examination by the 1924 United States Assay Commission .
The American Historical Revue and Motion Picture Industry Exposition was open from July 2 to August 4 , 1923 . The fair was located off of Figueroa Street in Exposition Park , just to the east of the brand @-@ new Los Angeles Coliseum , where every evening a complimentary show for exposition visitors , " Montezuma and the Fall of the Aztecs " , was given . Admission to the fair was fifty cents , though fairgoers could purchase a coin for a dollar at the box office and enter without further charge . After the first week , organizers realized the public was not interested in the historical theme , but was there to see favorite movie stars . Exhibitors accordingly greatly expanded the space devoted to movie attractions , but the exposition was a financial failure . Those in charge of the fair had hoped to attract a million visitors ; the actual attendance was about 300 @,@ 000 , many of whom were teenagers given complimentary admission in the final two weeks of the fair . With the fair flirting with insolvency throughout its run , officials hoped the planned visit of President Warren Harding on August 6 would increase gate receipts , but Harding fell ill in San Francisco and died on August 2 . According to Pike in his article , " its effect on the industry [ was ] hard to measure . However , if Hollywood owes its current status in any way to the event , then it was quite a success indeed . "
Approximately 27 @,@ 000 half dollars were sold at the price of $ 1 , by mail , at banks , and at the fair . Sales continued after it closed , but by October 1923 , they had dropped off to almost nothing , and the banks holding them released the remaining nine @-@ tenths of the mintage into circulation , which accounts for the wear on most surviving specimens . Of those set aside , thousands more were spent during the Depression . The 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists it at $ 75 in uncirculated MS @-@ 60 . Swiatek , in his 2012 volume on commemoratives , notes that many specimens have been treated to make them appear brighter or less worn ; these , like other circulated pieces , are worth less . An exceptional specimen , certified in MS @-@ 67 condition , sold at auction for $ 29 @,@ 900 in 2009 .
= Drive ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Drive " is the second episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Drive " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 0 , being watched by 18 @.@ 5 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder is trapped in a car by a seemingly deranged man , and Scully races to determine if the man is suffering from a deadly illness — and if Mulder is in danger of becoming the next victim of some sort of government conspiracy .
The episode was written by Vince Gilligan , directed by Rob Bowman , and featured a guest appearance by Bryan Cranston . Gilligan cast Cranston to play the antagonist because he felt he could successfully humanize the role . Cranston 's success in " Drive " later led to his casting as Walter White in Gilligan 's AMC series Breaking Bad .
= = Plot = =
Via a live news report , a high @-@ speed car chase comes to an end in the Nevada desert . Assuming it to be a kidnapping , the female passenger is pulled from the vehicle and placed into the protective custody of a police vehicle . The driver , Patrick Crump ( Bryan Cranston ) , is pushed to the asphalt and handcuffed . The woman in the police car begins violently banging her head against the car window . As the news chopper catches all of this on film , the woman 's head explodes , sending a spray of blood across the window .
Mulder and Scully get wind of this bizarre car chase as they 're doing work in Buhl , Idaho investigating possible domestic terrorism . Mulder coerces Scully into taking a detour to Elko , Nevada on a hunch that this may be an X @-@ File . Crump , who has started to develop symptoms of a sickness , is put in an ambulance . Mulder , wishing to speak to Crump , follows the ambulance , and ends up being kidnapped by Crump , who has escaped from the police .
Mulder realizes that Crump is in a considerable amount of pain and that the only way to ease the pain is to drive west . At first , Scully believes that Crump is suffering from some sort of biological contagion , but after investigating the Crumps ' home , she discovers a U.S. Navy antenna array emitting ELF waves stretches beneath their property . Scully deduces that an abnormal surge in these waves somehow caused a rising pressure in the inner ear of the nearby inhabitants . Westward motion and an increase in speed seems to be the only thing to help ease the pain of the increasing pressure .
Initially , Crump , thinking that Mulder is in on some sort of government conspiracy , forces Mulder to drive by brandishing a gun . He further infuriates Mulder by calling him antisemitic slurs . Eventually , Mulder and Crump make amends and attempt to work out a solution before it is too late . Mulder explains to Crump that Scully will meet them at the Pacific Coast , the end of the highway . There she will insert a needle into Crump 's inner ear , hopefully relieving the pressure . Unfortunately , when Scully arrives , it is too late and the pressure in Crump 's ear has already exploded , killing him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception , writing , and filming = = =
The idea for the episode can be traced back to an early idea Vince Gilligan , the writer of the episode , had . His original idea featured a man holding an individual hostage on a Tilt @-@ A @-@ Whirl . Gilligan pitched this idea at several meetings and it soon became a recurring joke . Most of the comments Gilligan received noted that his premise lacked an explicit mystery to investigate and so Gilligan decided that after the ride was shut off , the man 's head would explode . Researching various government experiments , Gilligan discovered the controversial use of low @-@ frequency waves . The secret military experiment featured in this episode is based on two real @-@ life military experiments , Project HAARP and Project ELF . The former is a U.S. Army experiment dealing with electromagnetic radiation in the Earth 's ionosphere , and the second is a U.S. Navy experiment dealing with long wavelengths . Thus , a script was crafted that featured an individual that , due to a secret experiment , could not slow down for fear of rupturing his head .
Gilligan admitted that the episode was partially an homage to the 1994 film Speed , and the episode even features an explicit reference to the film : when Crump and Mulder discover that speed is the key to success , Mulder mentions that he thinks he " saw this movie . " The opening teaser footage is done in the style of a news report , a stylistic direction that IGN suggested was intended to echo the O.J. Simpson incident of just a few years earlier .
= = = Casting = = =
Vince Gilligan , the writer of the episode , wanted Bryan Cranston to play the antagonist because he felt he would humanize the role . “ We needed a guy who could be scary and kind of loathsome but at the same time had a deep , resounding humanity , " he later said . In an interview with The New York Times , Gilligan stated , " We had this villain , and we needed the audience to feel bad for him when he died . Bryan alone was the only actor who could do that , who could pull off that trick . And it is a trick . I have no idea how he does it . ” Rick Millikan , the casting director for The X @-@ Files noted that Cranston was nearly not chosen for this episode . Initially , the part of Crump had been assigned to a different actor , but Cranston came prepared to audition for the part . Although the character had already been cast , Millikan allowed him to audition and was very pleased with his performance and chose him for the part instead .
Cranston 's work on this episode later impacted his career ; Gilligan cast him in the series Breaking Bad , but AMC executives were initially unsure of this decision as they were familiar only with Cranston 's work on the sitcom Malcolm in the Middle . They were convinced after viewing his performance in " Drive " . Gilligan , a fan of country musician Junior Brown , cast Brown as Virgil Nokes , the farmer who Mulder and Scully investigate at the beginning of the episode . Brown was flown in at the request and personal expense of Gilligan , and would later perform a song on the trailer for the Breaking Bad spin @-@ off Better Call Saul .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Drive " first aired in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 0 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 50 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on March 14 , 1999 and was watched by 0 @.@ 70 million viewers , making it the sixth most viewed episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " He 'll stop at nothing . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Drive " received largely positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club wrote positively of the episode , awarding it an A , and writing that the entry was " a great example of the engine that keeps great television moving . " Handlen noted that the climax of the episode was " as moving as it is suspenseful " and drew parallels between Bryan Cranston 's portrayal of Mr. Crump and his eventual portrayal of Walter White from Breaking Bad , noting that both illustrate the idea that " you have to keep moving . If you stop , you die . " Review website IGN named it the ninth best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series and complimented the interaction between Crump and Mulder , writing " it 's the interplay between Mulder and Crump that makes this episode a standout . [ ... ] Crump here is an antagonistic yet heartbreaking character , and as he and Mulder become unlikely allies in their ' drive , ' ' Drive ' in turn becomes a memorably scary X @-@ Files episode [ ... ] because of the perhaps most frightening element of the show 's world ever : mankind itself , and the governments that supposedly protect us . "
Colin Ellis from The Dashing Fellows called " Drive , " " arguably one of the best episodes post @-@ Fight the Future of [ The X @-@ Files ] . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying " [ T ] hank God for ' Drive ' , which taps into the idea of Speed , the hit movie starring [ Keanu ] Reeves , but pushes it in an excitingly different direction . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Although she slightly criticized the case being investigated as " pure hokum " , Vitaris praised Mulder and Scully 's teamwork , and their ability to work together despite being separated .
= = = Awards = = =
" Drive " earned an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography – Regular Series .
= Lactifluus piperatus =
Lactifluus piperatus ( synonym Lactarius piperatus ) , commonly known as the peppery milk @-@ cap , is a semi @-@ edible basidiomycete fungus of the genus Lactifluus . Despite being edible , it is not recommended because of its poor taste , though can be used as seasoning when dried . The fruiting body is a creamy @-@ white mushroom which is funnel @-@ shaped when mature , with exceptionally crowded gills . It bleeds a whitish peppery @-@ tasting milk when cut . Widely distributed across Europe and eastern North America , Lactifluus piperatus has been accidentally introduced to Australia . Mycorrhizal , it forms a symbiotic relationship with various species of deciduous tree , including beech , and hazel , and fruiting bodies are found on the forest floor in deciduous woodland .
= = Systematics and taxonomy = =
The species was one of the many species named by Linnaeus who officially described it in Volume Two of his Species Plantarum in 1753 as Agaricus piperatus , the specific epithet deriving from the Latin adjective piperatus meaning " peppery " . For many years , Tyrolian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli had been considered the author of the first description ; however , a recent revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in 1987 changed the rules regarding the starting date and primary work for names of fungi . Previously , the starting date had been set as January 1 , 1821 , the date of the works of the ' father of mycology ' , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , but now names can be considered valid as far back as May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus ' seminal work .
Lactifluus piperatus was the original type species of the genus Lactarius . However , after the finding that Lactarius actually represented more than one genus , the species Lactarius torminosus was conserved as type for that genus . Thus , L. piperatus is now the type species of Lactifluus , which was split from Lactarius and contains mainly tropical milk @-@ caps , but also some species of the north temperate zone . Phylogenetic research showed that L. glaucescens , sometimes considered only a variety of L. piperatus , is a distinct species in Europe . Furthermore , the existence of at least ten lineages worldwide , with no overlap among continents , was shown for the group around L. piperatus , suggesting that populations in North America might actually be distinct species .
It is commonly known as the peppery milk cap , pepper milkcap , peppery Lactarius , peppery milk mushroom , white peppery milk @-@ cap , or other similar names . Similarly , in German it is known as the Pfeffermilchling ( " pepper milk cap " ) .
= = Description = =
Lactifluus piperatus has a cap that varies from 6 – 16 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 in ) across and is convex with a widely funnel @-@ shaped center . The cap is creamy @-@ white in colour , glabrous and not glossy ; its surface may become cracked in dry locales . The stipe is white in colour , smooth , 3 – 7 cm ( 1 – 3 in ) long by 2 – 3 cm ( 1 – 1 in ) thick and is cylindrical , sometimes tapering towards the base . There is a thick layer of firm white flesh , and the decurrent gills are particularly crowded and narrow , sharing the white colouration of the stem but becoming creamy with age . As with other species of Lactarius , there is abundant milk ( latex ) , which is white , and dries olive @-@ green . It has a white spore print with elongate , elliptic or amyloid spores which are ornamented , as with L. vellereus . The spores measure from 6 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 by 5 – 8 μm , and have tiny warts .
L. vellereus is larger with a thick stipe , woolly cap and less crowded gills , but is not as tall . Russula delica is similar in colour and shape , though has adnate blue @-@ green tinged gills and no milk . L. deceptivus is also similar , but is differentiated by its less crowded gills , firmer cap margin and less acrid milk . Close to L. piperatus is L. glaucescens , which is differentiated by its milk that dries with a greenish colour .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Lactifluus piperatus in the wide sense , i.e. including probably several species , is found in Europe , the Black sea region in northeastern Turkey , and eastern and central North America east of Minnesota . It has been accidentally introduced into Australasia , where it is found under introduced and native trees . It is found on the floor in deciduous woodland , particularly under beech ( Betula ) , and can be found throughout summer and autumn and into early winter . It is relatively common , though not as common as the similar species L. vellereus . L. piperatus is found solitarily or in scattered groups . It is sometimes found growing together with Russula cyanoxantha .
= = Edibility = =
Despite being described by some mycologists as inedible or even poisonous , Lactifluus piperatus is generally considered edible . However , it is not recommended , because of its unpleasant taste . It is difficult to digest when eaten raw , but is used as a seasoning when dried , or sometimes is eaten fresh after parboiling , though its taste is still unappetising . Some recommend frying in butter with bacon and onion or pickling , or baking in a pie or pastry as other ways to prepare it . The milk has a very hot and acrid taste , which is removed if boiled . The mushroom used to be highly regarded in Russia , where it would be picked in dry seasons when other edible species were less available . The mushroom is also popular in Finland , where cooks boil it repeatedly , disposing of the water each time , and then store it in salt water and keep it refrigerated , after which it is pickled or served in salads . When eaten fresh and raw , the mushroom has been known to cause an irritant reaction on the lips and tongue , which subsides after an hour . The close L. glaucescens has been reported to be poisonous , but it has been speculated that the " poisonings " were caused by the extremely strong , peppery taste , rather than by the presence of actual poisons .
Lactifluus piperatus forms part of an unusual and highly regarded dish in North America , being one of several species parasitized by the lobster mushroom Hypomyces lactifluorum . Once colonized by the parasite , an orange @-@ red crust forms over the surface of the mushroom , and the taste becomes delicious as the parasite infiltrates its host 's tissues . It is also a common source of food among red squirrels .
= = Other uses = =
Because of the presence of auxins in Lactifluus piperatus metabolites , it can be applied as a rooting hormone to aid the growth of seedlings of various species of plants , including hazel , beech and oak . In the 19th century , it was used as a folk cure for tuberculosis , though it had no effect . In more recent times , it has been found that L. piperatus can be used as an antiviral agent , and the latex has been used against viral warts .
= Johannes S. Andersen =
Johannes Sigfred Andersen ( 9 July 1898 – 29 July 1970 ) was a Norwegian resistance fighter during the Second World War , a member of the Norwegian Independent Company 1 ( NOR.I.C.1 ) . He was nicknamed " Gulosten " ; ' The Yellow Cheese ' . He also used the surname Ostein during the war . Andersen was a controversial character , because of his pre @-@ war life as a well @-@ known career criminal and a series of incidents that occurred during the war years . These incidents included Andersen working as an assassin during the war , and shortly after the war killing two German prisoners of war during a drinking binge . After the war , Andersen started a wood furniture business . He was supported financially by King Haakon VII of Norway , whose friendship he had gained during the war . Andersen was repeatedly accused of crimes after the war , and on one occasion convicted .
= = Early life = =
Andersen was born on 9 July 1898 in Kristiania ( now Oslo ) , and had a difficult childhood , the latter part of it in an orphanage . He was the son of construction worker Ole Andersen and Josefine Hansen . Soon after Johannes was born , Norway entered a period of economic difficulties , with little construction work available . This led to his father having to change jobs from mason to milkman . Johannes ' mother became obsessed with religion .
= = = Institutionalization = = =
At age 10 Johannes was declared a ward of court and sent to the school institution Toftes gave on the island Helgøya in the lake Mjøsa . While at the strict institution Johannes received parcels from home , with yellow cheese . The cheese was needed because of the meagre rations given the boys at Toftes gave . The parcels with yellow cheese led to Johannes being given the nickname " Gulosten " ( English : " The Yellow Cheese " ) by the other boys at the institution , a name that stuck with him for the rest of his life . After four years on Helgøya he was transferred to Bastøy school home for maladjusted boys , an equally harsh institution . When 29 boys rebelled at Bastøy in 1915 , police officers and the Norwegian Armed Forces were employed to crush the riot , and the leaders taken away in handcuffs . Physical punishment was common at Bastøy , including being locked away in a dark cellar , a punishment Johannes had to endure . When Johannes was 15 his mother died , and he was not informed until several days after her funeral . This led to him making suicide threats , and going amok at the warden 's office , for which he was punished with a stay in the dark cell .
= = = Leaving Helgøya = = =
Andersen went to sea at age 15 , and later found work as a mason 's assistant . On 7 November 1916 he married Lovise Kristine Klausen , who worked as a waitress at a restaurant frequented by Andersen . They soon got an apartment at Torshov and had a son . Andersen got a better @-@ paid job , laying the foundation for the headquarters of Oslo Lysverker , but when that job was done he had to seek day @-@ to @-@ day work at the harbour . When Norway 's financial situation again turned for the worse after the upturn of the First World War , no @-@ one would hire a man with an institutional background , and he was out of work . He made a last @-@ ditch attempt to make money ; he bought liquor in Tønsberg and sold it on the black market in Kristiania , but this was not enough for his wife , who left him to pursue a more financially secure future .
It has been written that the marriage did not end until 1931 . In the meantime , Andersen befriended a woman named Nancy . She helped hide him when he was wanted by the authorities , she lied during a police interrogation at Møllergata 19 to cover for him and she also helped him with practical things such as acquiring a passport . They agreed to part ways when Andersen was set to pursue a trapper career in Canada ; when going to visit her one last time he stumbled upon a police officer who recognized him and arrested him . Also , when frequenting Hamburg , Andersen spent time with two prostitutes . They were described as " not [ ... ] extraordinarily beautiful " , and Andersen helped them with buying food .
= = Criminal career = =
Norway 's prohibition from 1916 onwards opened up possibilities for a lucrative criminal career , and Andersen joined up in 1921 with old friends from his days at Toftes gave in grand @-@ scale smuggling operations . Using ingenious methods for hiding the spirits , they smuggled alcohol into Norway by sea . In his smuggling years Andersen cooperated with future award @-@ winning author Arthur Omre , serving as both crew and skipper on Omre 's boats before getting his own smuggling vessel . Eventually his cover was blown , and being a wanted man in Norway he had to flee to Germany . While in Germany he worked for one of the biggest suppliers of spirits for the illegal Norwegian market . In 1925 Norway requested that Germany extradite him , and he was arrested in the harbour of Hamburg . Prison life was harsh , but Andersen managed to get transferred to a hospital when faking syphilis by burning his member with a cigarette . He was then deported under police escort back to Norway on the steamship Kong Dag , but when the ship entered the Oslofjord , Andersen escaped by jumping overboard near Spro . For several months he was on the run before being recaptured . In the years that followed he was in and out of prison repeatedly . He gained considerable renown for his elegantly executed burglaries , being labelled by the media " gentleman @-@ forbryter i Grünerløkka @-@ utgave " ( English : gentleman criminal , Grünerløkka edition ) . He was also well known for his safe @-@ cracking skills . Andersen once more tried to evade justice when he fled a crowded court room in Drammen in 1929 , jumping out a window as the sentence was being proclaimed . He was then smuggled from Drammen inside a chest of drawers which was to undergo reparation in Oslo . He was recaptured shortly before intending to board a cargo ship bound for Canada .
His criminal escapades made Andersen a national celebrity in pre @-@ war Norway , and his nickname " Gulosten " a household name . Between 1919 and 1937 he was sentenced to prison terms nine times , spending a total of around seven years behind bars . During the mid @-@ 1930s Andersen attempted to end his criminal career , became engaged , and started a furniture repair business . He remarried on 18 March 1939 , wedding Ruth Johanne ( born 1905 ) , née Nilsen . They had one son . In 1935 Andersen attempted to get a children 's book published , but it was rejected because of its inclusion of a number of " brutal scenes , unsuited for youths " . The nature scenes in the book were , however , commended by the reviewer . After yet another spell in prison , Andersen was released on 9 April 1940 , the day Germany invaded Norway as a part of World War II .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Early resistance work = = =
The German invasion of Norway in 1940 led to Andersen 's life once more taking a turn into illegal activities . His furniture workshop was used as a weapons depot by the Norwegian resistance movement , and he took part in looting German military stores . He was first arrested by the Germans after he had responded to rumours that he was a Nazi by writing the Norwegian national socialist party Nasjonal Samling 's official publication Fritt Folk and stating that " although I have done many wrong things in my life , a Nazi I am not . Yours sincerely Johs . S. Andersen " . The letter was published unedited by the newspaper , although Andersen was later arrested by the occupying authorities and sentenced to one year in prison , after spending half a year in detention . Using techniques he had learned during his earlier criminal career , Andersen managed to be transferred to prison hospital during his time in detention . While there he acquired false x @-@ ray images and tuberculosis germs to fake illnesses in other captured resistance men who were on their way to interrogation . He also infected a German interrogator with malaria by contaminating his insulin . At night , he would sneak out of the hospital and operate in Oslo , amongst other activities breaking into Nasjonal Samling offices and stealing documents , copying them and having them shipped to the United Kingdom together with evidence of torture in Nazi @-@ run prisons . He served the last part of his sentence in Fuhlsbüttel near Hamburg , Germany . His wife was also active in resistance work , dealing with propaganda and espionage . Author Egil Ulateig doubts the veracity of Andersen 's prison exploits , which are based mostly on Andersen 's own testimony .
= = = Assassin , SOE agent and naval rating = = =
After his return to Norway in 1942 , Andersen carried out the assassination of well @-@ known informer Raymond Colberg and then made good his escape to Sweden . Colberg had been active in the Sandefjord area , uncovering an illegal radio transmitter . This led to the arrest of eight resistance members in March 1941 , three of whom were executed ( Øivind Ask , Andreas Bertnes and Johan Midttun were shot 4 December 1941 ) . Andersen carried out the assassination of the Abwehr agent together with his wife and two acquaintances , kidnapping him and killing him at the animal hospital Chevals kjeller . According to Ruth Andersen 's later interrogation records , the killing was carried out by crucifying him with four knives and crushing his bones with iron pipes , then dismembering the body , putting it in a container for animal carcasses and dumping it in the river Akerselva . The confession may have been made under torture , and included no reference to the bullet holes found on Colberg 's corpse when it was recovered . According to historian and leader of Norway 's Resistance Museum , Arnfinn Moland , the claims of Colberg having been tortured and mutilated are fabrications . Moland cites autopsy reports and German archives to back up his claims . Colberg 's body was discovered by a Norwegian civilian on 15 June 1942 with two 7 @,@ 62 mm calibre bullet holes in the head , and was identified through Colberg 's dental records . The killing was , according to Ulateig , also motivated by Andersen 's personal feelings towards Colberg , and Moland states that Andersen " may have had " such motives , a claim that is refuted by history professor Tore Pryser .
Andersen then fled to Sweden , and travelled on to the United Kingdom , where he was recruited by Professor Leif Tronstad for work with the British Special Operations Executive . In this context he used the surname
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Bulacan , Cavite , Laguna , and Rizal ) of Greater Manila , the population is around 21 million .
Metro Manila 's gross regional product was estimated as of 2009 to be ₱ 468 @.@ 4 billion ( at constant 1985 prices ) and accounts for 33 % of the nation 's GDP . In 2011 Manila ranked as the 28th wealthiest urban agglomeration in the world and the 2nd in Southeast Asia .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
According to the 2000 census , 28 @.@ 1 % of Filipinos are Tagalog , 13 @.@ 1 % Cebuano , 9 % Ilocano , 7 @.@ 6 % Bisaya / Visayans , 7 @.@ 5 % Hiligaynon , 6 % Bikol , 3 @.@ 4 % Waray , and 25 @.@ 3 % as " others " , which can be broken down further to yield more distinct non @-@ tribal groups like the Moro , the Kapampangan , the Pangasinense , the Ibanag , and the Ivatan . There are also indigenous peoples like the Igorot , the Lumad , the Mangyan , the Bajau , and the tribes of Palawan .
Filipinos generally belong to several Asian ethnic groups classified linguistically as part of the Austronesian or Malayo @-@ Polynesian speaking people . It is believed that thousands of years ago Austronesian @-@ speaking Taiwanese aborigines migrated to the Philippines from Taiwan , bringing with them knowledge of agriculture and ocean @-@ sailing , eventually displacing the earlier Negrito groups of the islands . Negritos , such as the Aeta and the Ati , are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the islands .
Being at the crossroads of the West and East , the Philippines is also home to migrants from places as diverse as China , Spain , Mexico , United States , India , South Korea , and Japan . Two important non @-@ indigenous minorities are the Chinese and the Spaniards .
The Chinese , mostly descendants of immigrants from Fujian , China after 1898 , number 2 million , although there are an estimated 18 to 27 million Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry , stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese migrants . Intermarriage between the groups is evident in the major cities and urban areas .
At least one @-@ third of the population of Luzon as well as a few old settlements in the Visayas and Zamboanga City at Mindanao , have partial Hispanic ancestry ( from varying points of origin and ranging from Latin America to Spain ) . Recent genetic studies confirm this partial European and Latin @-@ American ancestry .
Other important non @-@ indigenous minorities include Indians , Anglo @-@ Americans , Britons , and Japanese people . Descendants of mixed couples are known as mestizos .
= = = Languages = = =
Ethnologue lists 186 individual languages in the Philippines , 182 of which are living languages , while 4 no longer have any known speakers . Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo @-@ Polynesian languages , which is itself a branch of the Austronesian language family . The only language not classified as an Austronesian language is Chavacano which is a creole language of Mexican Spanish and is classified as a Romance language .
Filipino and English are the official languages of the country . Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog , spoken mainly in Metro Manila and other urban regions . Both Filipino and English are used in government , education , print , broadcast media , and business . However , most people outside cities do not speak much English . In most towns , the local indigenous language is spoken . The Philippine constitution provides for the promotion of Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary and optional basis , although neither are used on as wide a scale as in the past . Spanish , which was widely used as a lingua franca in the late nineteenth century , has since declined greatly in use , but is experiencing revival due to government promotions , while Arabic is mainly used in Islamic schools in Mindanao . However , Spanish loanwords are still present today in many of the indigenous Philippine languages .
Nineteen regional languages act as auxiliary official languages used as mediums of instruction : Aklanon , Bikol , Cebuano , Chavacano , Hiligaynon , Ibanag , Ilocano , Ivatan , Kapampangan , Kinaray @-@ a , Maguindanao , Maranao , Pangasinan , Sambal , Surigaonon , Tagalog , Tausug , Waray , and Yakan . Other indigenous languages such as , Cuyonon , Ifugao , Itbayat , Kalinga , Kamayo , Kankanaey , Masbateño , Romblomanon , Malay , and several Visayan languages are prevalent in their respective provinces .
Languages not indigenous to the islands are also taught in select schools . Mandarin is used in Chinese schools catering to the Chinese Filipino community . Islamic schools in Mindanao teach Modern Standard Arabic in their curriculum . French , German , Japanese , Korean , Spanish are taught with the help of foreign linguistic institutions . The Department of Education began teaching the Malay languages of Indonesian and Malaysian in 2013 .
= = = Religion = = =
The Philippines is an officially secular state , although Christianity is the dominant faith . Catholic Church data from 2015 found that about 82 @.@ 9 % of the population professed Catholicism . Around 37 % regularly attend Mass and 29 % identify as very religious . Protestants are 1 @.@ 8 % of the total population . The Philippine Independent Church is a notable independent Catholic denomination . Iglesia ni Cristo is a notable Restorationist denomination in the country .
Islam is the second largest religion . The Muslim population of the Philippines was reported as about 5 % of the total population according to census returns in 2000 and as of 2011 , and as 11 % in a 2012 report by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos . The majority of Muslims live in the Bangsamoro region . Most practice Sunni Islam under the Shafi 'i school .
An unknown number of Filipinos are irreligious but may form as much as 10 % of the population . Catholicism 's historic dominance is steadily declining , with about 9 % of adherents considering leaving their church .
An estimated 2 % of the total population practice Philippine traditional religions , whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam . Buddhism is practiced by around 2 % of the population , and is concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent . The remaining population is divided between a number of religious groups , including Hindus , Jews , and Baha 'is .
= = Health = =
There are an increasing number of private health providers and , as of 2009 , 67 @.@ 1 % of healthcare came from private expenditures while 32 @.@ 9 % was from government . In 2013 , total expenditures on the health sector was 3 @.@ 8 % of GDP , below the WHO target of 5 % . Health expenditure represented about 6 @.@ 1 % of total government spending . Per capita total expenditure at average exchange rate was USD52 . The budget allocation for Healthcare in 2010 was ₱ 28 billion ( about USD597 million ) or ₱ 310 ( $ 7 ) per person but had an increase in budget in 2014 with a record high in the collection of taxes from the House Bill 5727 ( commonly known as Sin tax Bill ) .
There are an estimated 90 @,@ 370 physicians or 1 per every 833 people , 480 @,@ 910 nurses , 43 @,@ 220 dentists , and 1 hospital bed per every 769 people . Retention of skilled practitioners is a problem . 70 % of nursing graduates go overseas to work . The Philippines is the biggest supplier of nurses for export .
In 2001 there were about 1 @,@ 700 hospitals , of which about 40 % were government @-@ run and 60 % private . Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 25 % of all deaths . According to official estimates , 1 @,@ 965 cases of human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) were reported in 2003 , of which 636 had developed acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) . Despite the increase of HIV / AIDS cases from 12 @,@ 000 in 2005 to 17 @,@ 450 as of April 2014 with 5 @,@ 965 people that were under anti @-@ retroviral therapy , the country is still a low @-@ HIV @-@ prevalence country with less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the adult population estimated to be HIV @-@ positive .
= = Education = =
The Philippines has a simple literacy rate of 95 @.@ 6 % , with 95 @.@ 1 % for males and 96 @.@ 1 % for females . The Philippines has a functional literacy rate of 86 @.@ 45 % , with 84 @.@ 2 % for males and 88 @.@ 7 % for females in 2008 . Literacy in females is greater than in males . Education spending accounts for 16 @.@ 11 % in the proposed 2015 national budget .
The Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) lists 2 @,@ 180 higher education institutions , 607 of which are public and 1 @,@ 573 private . Classes start in June and end in March . The majority of colleges and universities follow a semester calendar from June to October and November to March . There are a number of foreign schools with study programs . A 6 @-@ year elementary and 4 @-@ year high school education is mandatory with an additional two years being added in 2013 .
Several government agencies are involved with education . The Department of Education covers elementary , secondary , and nonformal education . The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority ( TESDA ) administers the post @-@ secondary middle @-@ level education training and development . The Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) supervises the college and graduate academic programs and degrees as well as regulate standards in higher education .
In 2004 , madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions nationwide , mainly in Muslim areas in Mindanao under the auspices and program of the Department of Education . Public universities are all non @-@ sectarian entities , and are further classified as State Universities and Colleges ( SUC ) or Local Colleges and Universities ( LCU ) . The University of the Philippines is the national university of the Philippines .
= = Culture = =
Philippine culture is a combination of Eastern and Western cultures . The Philippines exhibits aspects found in other Asian countries with a Malay heritage , yet its culture also displays a significant number of Spanish and American influences .
Traditional festivities known as barrio fiestas ( district festivals ) to commemorate the feast days of patron saints are common . These community celebrations are times for feasting , music , and dancing and the Moriones and Sinulog festivals are a couple of the most well @-@ known .
Some traditions , however , are changing or gradually being forgotten due to modernization . The Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company has been lauded for preserving many of the various traditional folk dances found throughout the Philippines . They are famed for their iconic performances of Philippine dances such as the tinikling and singkil that both feature clashing bamboo poles .
= = = Cosmopolitanism = = =
Vigan in Ilocos Sur is also known for the many Hispanic @-@ style houses and buildings preserved there .
One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames among Filipinos ; a Spanish name and surname , however , does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry . This peculiarity , unique among the people of Asia , came as a result of a colonial edict by Governor @-@ General Narciso Clavería y Zaldua , which ordered the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of Hispanic nomenclature on the population . The names of many streets , towns , and provinces are also in Spanish . Spanish architecture has left an imprint in the Philippines in the way many towns were designed around a central square or plaza mayor , but many of the buildings bearing its influence were demolished during World War II . Some examples remain , mainly among the country 's churches , government buildings , and universities . Four Philippine baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites : the San Agustín Church in Manila , the Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte , the Nuestra Señora de la Asunción ( Santa María ) Church in Ilocos Sur , and the Santo Tomás de Villanueva Church in Iloilo .
In Iloilo , a lot of the colonial edifices constructed during the American occupation in the country can still be seen . Commercial buildings , houses and churches in that era are abundant in the city and especially in Calle Real .
However , certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of life assimilated differently due to the climate there and limestone and coral were used as building materials . Idjangs or Ivatan castles were the primary shelter of the people prior to the Spanish conquest of the whole Philippines .
The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Philippine society . It has contributed to the ready acceptance and influence of American pop cultural trends . This affinity is seen in Filipinos ' love of fast food and American film and music . Fast food outlets are found on many street corners . American global fast food chain stalwarts have entered the market , but local fast food chains like Goldilocks and most notably Jollibee , the leading fast food chain in the country , have emerged and compete successfully against their foreign rivals .
= = = Music = = =
Philippine music has evolved rapidly due to the different influences stemming from colonialism under other countries . Before the Spanish conquest of the islands , most music was reminiscent of , or heavily influenced by , nature . Some examples of this tribal music is Koyu No Tebulul of the T 'boli and Ambo Hato of the Ifugao . This genre is often accompanied by gong music and one well known instrument is the Kulintang .
During the Spanish era Rondalya music , where traditional string orchestra mandolin type instruments were used , was widespread . In the Philippines , Rondalya refers to any group of stringed instruments that are played using a plectrum or pick . Filipino instruments are made from indigenous Philippine wood ; plectrums , or picks , are made from tortoise @-@ shell . Other stringed instruments composing the standard Filipino rondalla are the 14 @-@ string bandurria found only in the Philippines , the laúd , the octavina , the Twelve @-@ string guitar , the Ukulele , the bajo de uñas or double bass , the Guitarrón mexicano , and other Filipino @-@ made instruments modeled and developed after the guitar . Harana and Kundiman are prevalent during this time wherein these songs are often used in courtship rituals .
Marcelo Adonay ( organist ) , Simplicio Solis ( organist ) , Diego C. Perez ( pianist ) , Jose Conseco ( pianist ) and Doña Dolores Paterno ( composer ) were some of the recognized musicians in this era . Nowadays , American pop culture has a heavy hold on the Filipinos that evolved from the Spanish times when the American occupation happened . Along with Korean pop , these two are dominating the recent music scene in media . However , the revival of Spanish @-@ influence folk music has been done due to the different choir groups in and out of the country like the Philippine Madrigal Singers .
= = = Visual art = = =
Pottery and weaving are among the very first art forms showcasing Filipino artistic design and are evident from cave dwellings all over the country . Among these are mostly anthropomorphic earthenware jars dating from c . 5 BC to 225 AD . Weaving was mostly done by women , using fibers from abaca , pineapple , cotton , and bark to make clothes , rugs and hats . Baskets were mostly utilized to carry grain and other foods .
Early Philippine sculpture is characterized by frontal nudity . One of the earliest forms are the bulols by the Ifugao peoples which serve as an assurance for bountiful harvests . The original function of these sculptures are related to the ceremonies and beliefs of the tribes who created them . Arab and Russian missionaries also brought beveled type of carvings in the form of Okkil . The beginnings of this sculpture type started with the Islamization of Sulu . The Spanish colonization of the country did not hinder Filipinos creating sculptures for objects of adoration . During this time , sculptures of deities and saints were used to teach Filipinos Christian doctrines . During the American colonialism , worshippers of faith were not discouraged to sculpt in order to adorn churches .
Filipinos ' first exposure to painting happened when Spain conquered the Philippines and these were used as religious propaganda often displayed in churches . However , as education progressed and wealth increased , more and more artists started to shift from the traditional religious motifs to a more secular pattern of imagery .
Paintings of early modernist painters such as Damián Domingo often still had a religious association but the art of Juan Luna and Félix Hidalgo showed a trend towards political statement . The first Philippine national artist Fernando Amorsolo used post @-@ modernism to produce paintings that illustrated aspects of Philippine culture , while other artists such as Fernando Zóbel used both realistic and abstract techniques .
In the modern period , the integration of architecture in the Art Deco style happened . Many of these examples can be seen in statues all over the country especially in public parks and spaces .
= = = Values = = =
As a general description , the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems , especially those based in kinship , obligation , friendship , religion ( particularly Christianity ) , and commercial relationships .
Filipino values are , for the most part , centered around maintaining social harmony , motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group . The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of " Hiya " , roughly translated as ' a sense of shame ' , and " Amor propio " or ' self @-@ esteem ' . Social approval , acceptance by a group , and belonging to a group are major concerns . Caring about what others will think , say or do , are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos .
Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future , pessimism about present situations and events , concern and care for other people , the existence of friendship and friendliness , the habit of being hospitable , religious nature , respectfulness to self and others , respect for the female members of society , the fear of God , and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery .
While in most of the world the popularity of formal female beauty contests has diminished , they remain both popular and widespread in the Philippines . Binibining Pilipinas is a closely followed event throughout the country along with other major national pageants such as Miss Philippines Earth and Miss World Philippines . Filipinas have garnered one Miss World , three Miss Universe , five Miss International , three Miss Earth , and one Miss Supranational titles .
= = = Dance = = =
Just like the evolution of Philippine music , dance as well has been in constant change . Prior to colonial rule , the Philippines has a wide array of ethnic dances from different tribal groups . This is due mainly to the fact that Philippines is an island thus the different varieties of dance developed . Both Luzon and Visayas , at first , were more akin to tribal movements until the Spanish came . Mindanao represents more of an array of Muslim inspired dances and Spanish influence was minimal in the region of Zamboanga .
Universal dances in the Philippines are found at societal functions such as rituals , mimicry , life cycle and parties . During the Spanish era , most dances are accompanied by Rondalya music usually with 14 @-@ string bandurrias that the Filipinos invented or by other type of stringed instruments that locally evolved in to the culture as well .
One famous dance that is well known is called the Tinikling , where a band of Rondalya musicians play along with the percussive beat of the two bamboo poles . It usually starts with men and women acting a scene about " How rural townsfolk mingle " . The dancers then graze thru the clashing of the bamboo poles held on opposite sides . The end displays the paired bamboo poles crossing each other . The Muslim version of this where bamboo poles are also used is called the Singkil . Nowadays , in the Modern and Post @-@ Modern time periods , dances vary from the delicate ballet up to the more street @-@ oriented styles of breakdancing to name a few .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Philippine cuisine has evolved over several centuries from its Malayo @-@ Polynesian origins to become a mixed cuisine with many Hispanic , Chinese , American , and other Asian influences that have been adapted to local ingredients and the Filipino palate to create distinctively Filipino dishes . Dishes range from the very simple , like a meal of fried salted fish and rice , to the elaborate , such as the paellas and cocidos created for fiestas .
Popular dishes include lechón , adobo , sinigang , kare @-@ kare , tapa , crispy pata , pancit , lumpia , and halo @-@ halo . Some common local ingredients used in cooking are calamondins , coconuts , saba ( a kind of short wide plantain ) , mangoes , milkfish , and fish sauce . Filipino taste buds tend to favor robust flavors , but the cuisine is not as spicy as those of its neighbors .
Unlike many of their Asian counterparts , Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks ; they use Western cutlery . However , possibly due to rice being the primary staple food and the popularity of a large number of stews and main dishes with broth in Philippine cuisine , the main pairing of utensils seen at the Filipino dining table is that of spoon and fork , not knife and fork .
The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan ( using the washed right hand for bringing food to the mouth ) was previously more often seen in the less urbanized areas . However , due to the various Filipino restaurants that introduced Filipino food to people of other nationalities as well as to Filipino urbanites , kamayan fast became popular . This recent trend also sometimes incorporates the " Boodle Fight " concept ( as popularized and coined by the Philippine Army ) , wherein banana leaves are used as giant plates on top of which rice portions and Filipino viands are placed all together for a filial , friendly and / or communal kamayan feasting .
= = = Literature = = =
Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people . While each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell , Hindu and Spanish influences can nonetheless be detected in many cases . Philippine mythology mostly consists of creation stories or stories about supernatural creatures , such as the aswang , the manananggal , the diwata / engkanto , and nature . Some popular figures from Philippine mythologies are Maria Makiling , Lam @-@ Ang , and the Sarimanok .
Philippine literature comprises works usually written in Filipino , Spanish , or English . Some of the most known were created from the 17th to 19th century . Adarna , for example , is a famous epic about an eponymous magical bird allegedly written by José de la Cruz or " Huseng Sisiw " . Francisco Balagtas the poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura is recognized as a preeminent writer in the Filipino language . José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere ( Touch Me Not ) and El Filibusterismo ( The Filibustering , also known as The Reign of Greed ) . He is considered a national hero . His depiction of the injustices of Spanish rule , and his death by firing squad , inspired other Philippine revolutionaries to seek independence . Several Filipino writers were awarded National Artist of the Philippines such as N. V. M. Gonzalez , Amado V. Hernandez , Francisco Arcellana , Nick Joaquín , F. Sionil José and many more .
= = = Media = = =
Philippine media uses mainly Filipino and English . Other Philippine languages , including various Visayan languages are also used , especially in radio due to its ability to reach remote rural locations that might otherwise not be serviced by other kinds of media . The dominant television networks ABS @-@ CBN , GMA and TV5 also have extensive radio presence .
The entertainment industry is vibrant and feeds broadsheets and tabloids with an unending supply of details about celebrities and sensationalist daily scandals . Drama and fantasy shows are anticipated as are Latin telenovelas , Asianovelas , and anime . Daytime television is dominated by game shows , variety shows , and talk shows such as Eat Bulaga and It 's Showtime . Philippine cinema has a long history and is popular domestically , but has faced increasing competition from American , Asian and European films . Critically acclaimed directors and actors include Lino Brocka and Nora Aunor for films like Maynila : Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag ( Manila : In the Claws of Light ) and Himala ( Miracle ) . In recent years it has become common to see celebrities flitting between television and movies and then moving into politics provoking concerns .
= = = Sports = = =
Various sports and pastimes are popular in the Philippines including basketball , boxing , cockfighting , volleyball , football ( soccer ) , American football , both codes of Rugby football , badminton , karate , taekwondo , billiards , ten @-@ pin bowling , chess , and sipa . Motocross , cycling , and mountaineering are also becoming popular . Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines . In 2010 , Manny Pacquiao was named " Fighter of the Decade " for the 2000s ( decade ) by the Boxing Writers Association of America ( BWAA ) , World Boxing Council ( WBC ) , and World Boxing Organization ( WBO ) . The national martial art and sport of the country is Arnis , Eskrima or Kali in some regions
The Philippines has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1924 and was the first country in Southeast Asia to compete and win a medal . The country had competed in every Summer Olympic Games since then , except when they participated in the American @-@ led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics . The Philippines is also the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games debuting in the 1972 edition .
Internationally , Philippines has been well documented for its successes in beauty pageants . Binibining Pilipinas is a closely followed event throughout the country , and Philippines has received 1 Miss World , 3 Miss Universe , 5 Miss International , 3 Miss Earth , and 1 Miss Supranational titles making it the first country to complete all five major titles .
= = = Games = = =
Traditional Philippine games such as luksung baka , patintero , piko , and tumbang preso are still played primarily as children 's games among the youth . Sungka is a traditional native Philippine board game . Card games are popular during festivities , with some , including pusoy and tong @-@ its , being used as a form of illegal gambling . Mahjong is played in some Philippine communities .
Sabong or cockfighting is another popular entertainment especially among Filipino men , and existed prior to the arrival of the Spanish . Antonio Pigafetta , Magellan 's chronicler , first documented this pastime in the kingdom of Taytay . The yo @-@ yo , a popular toy in the Philippines , was introduced in its modern form by Pedro Flores with its name coming from the Ilokano language .
= Vera Katz ( sculpture ) =
Vera Katz , also known as Mayor , Vera Katz , is an outdoor bronze sculpture depicting Vera Katz created by American artist Bill Bane . Unveiled in 2006 , it is located along the Eastbank Esplanade in Portland , Oregon . Katz , a former mayor of the city between 1993 and 2005 , supported arts and culture during her tenure and established Oregon 's Percent for Art program . She was also instrumental in developing the Eastbank Esplanade , which is named after her . The sculpture has received a mostly positive reception and has inspired people to adorn it with clothing , flowers and makeup .
= = Description and history = =
The statue was financed by a " group of generous Portlanders " and its commission was managed by the Regional Arts & Culture Council ( RACC ) with assistance from members of Katz 's former staff . It was unveiled on June 2 , 2006 , on the plaza at the south end of the Esplanade , just north of the Hawthorne Bridge and Main Street marker . It measures 53 inches ( 130 cm ) x 18 inches ( 46 cm ) x 18 inches ( 46 cm ) and rests on an orange triangular base . Portland State University 's Daily Vanguard described Katz as : " leaning close to a small body with legs crossed and hands in , squeezed together in her lap as if she 's cold , too . The teeth are also bared and unusually straight , creating the impression that Katz might snap at passers @-@ by . But overall , the face is open and the hair is particularly lifelike . " She is depicted wearing a Portland rose on her lapel . According to The Oregonian , the sculpture provides a lap on which children can pose and sometimes frightens passersby at night . It is part of the collection of the Regional Arts & Culture Council . The organization has said : " it seems fitting that [ Katz 's ] political leadership and love for the arts should come together in a public tribute to her " .
Katz attended the statue 's surprise unveiling during an event organized by the Regional Arts & Culture Council and funded by friends . Also in attendance were Mayor Tom Potter , three city commissioners , Bill Bane , friends , and former staff members . Wearing a lei brought by her son , Katz said the statue looked " far more beautiful than [ her ] " and encouraged city officials to continue expanding the Eastbank Esplanade south .
The statue went missing temporarily in October 2013 , prompting an investigation by then Mayor Sam Adams . In 2013 , RACC 's public art collections manager said the work has received mostly " positive attention " and has been outfitted with hats , flowers and " yarn @-@ bombed " sweaters . It has also attracted books , hats , lipstick , paint and even a " mohawk of cake frosting " .
Bane 's study for the sculpture , called Vera , is a bronze bust measuring 18 inches ( 46 cm ) x 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . The bust is part of a private collection .
= = Reception = =
In 2006 , Willamette Week included the sculpture in its annual " Best of Portland " list , under the category " Best Mayoral Monument " . According to the paper :
... Bane managed to capture much of the ex @-@ mayor 's character : Her eyes are friendly and her hair as wild as ever . But Katz 's signature grin is a little stiff , a little too aggressive . Leaning forward , she looks as if she might take a bite out of the next passerby . Which by the way , seems appropriate when you look back on her days behind the mayoral desk . Maybe monochromatic bronze just isn 't the right medium for a woman as colorful as ol ' Vera . Where 's the red blazer ? Our suggestion : Get this lady some accessories ! The right hat or scarf could make that brown pantsuit really work .
Daily Vanguard 's Celina Monte called the sculpture " fabulously strange " and said it illustrated the " straightforward , tactile and symmetrical properties " of some of Bane 's other work . The work has been included in at least one published walking tour of Portland , which noted its function as a meeting location for bicyclists and pedestrians .
= Kitefin shark =
The kitefin shark or seal shark ( Dalatias licha ) is a species of dogfish shark in the family Dalatiidae , and the only species in its genus . It is found sporadically around the world , usually close to the sea floor at depths of 200 – 600 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) . With a sizable oil @-@ filled liver to maintain neutral buoyancy , this shark is able to cruise slowly through the water while expending little energy . The kitefin shark has a slender body with a very short , blunt snout , large eyes , and thick lips . Its teeth are highly differentiated between the upper and lower jaws , with the upper teeth small and narrow and the lower teeth large , triangular , and serrated . Its typical length is 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) .
Armed with large teeth and a strong bite , the kitefin shark is a powerful , solitary predator that takes many different types of prey , ranging from bony fishes , sharks and rays , to cephalopods , crustaceans , polychaete worms , siphonophores , and possibly carrion . It also takes bites out of animals larger than itself , similar to its smaller relative , the cookiecutter shark ( Isistius brasiliensis ) . This shark is aplacental viviparous and gives birth to 10 – 14 young . The kitefin shark is fished commercially for its meat , skin , and liver oil , primarily by Portugal and Japan . A fishery targeting this species existed off the Azores from the 1970s to the 1990s , but collapsed due to overfishing and falling liver oil prices ; the rapid depletion of the Azores stock is often cited as an example of the susceptibility of deep @-@ sea sharks to human exploitation . The low reproductive rate of this species renders it susceptible to overfishing and , coupled with known population declines , has led it to be assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The kitefin shark was originally described as Squalus licha by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre , in his 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois regnes de la nature ; the type specimen from " Le cap Breton " has since been lost . This species was later placed in its own genus , Dalatias , which came from the synonymy of Constantine Rafinesque 's 1810 Dalatias sparophagus with S. licha . However , some authorities dispute this on the grounds that D. sparophagus is a nomen dubium , and prefer to use the next available genus name Scymnorhinus . The genus name Dalatias is derived from the Greek dalos or dalou , meaning " torch " . The specific epithet licha comes from la liche , the French name for this shark . Additional common names used for the kitefin shark include black shark and darkie Charlie .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Cladistic studies have consistently found that the closest relatives of the kitefin shark are the cookiecutter sharks ( Isistius ) , with which they share several dentitional , skeletal , and muscular similarities . Dalatias and Isistius are believed to have evolutionarily diverged shortly after the transition between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods ( 65 @.@ 5 Ma ) , as part of a larger adaptive radiation of dogfish sharks from the deep sea into relatively shallower habitats .
The oldest fossil teeth that definitively belong to the kitefin shark date to the Middle Eocene epoch , such as those recovered from Bortonian @-@ stage deposits ( 43 @.@ 0 – 37 @.@ 0 Ma ) in New Zealand . Dalatias fossil teeth dating to various ages have also been discovered in Europe , the former USSR , Japan , and western India . The fossil material now recognized as belonging to this species were historically described under a multitude of different names .
= = Description = =
The kitefin shark has a moderately elongated body with a very short , rounded snout . The eyes and spiracles are large . The lips are thick with pleats or fringes , though are not modified to be suctorial . There are 16 – 21 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 17 – 20 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The upper teeth are small and spike @-@ shaped , curving slightly towards the corners of the mouth . The lower teeth are very large , knife @-@ shaped , and serrated , with their bases interlocking to form a continuous cutting surface .
The first dorsal fin is slightly smaller and shorter @-@ based than the second , and neither has spines . The first dorsal fin originates behind the free rear tip of the pectoral fins , while the second originates above the middle of the pelvic fin bases . The pectoral fins are short and rounded . The caudal fin has a prominent upper lobe with a well @-@ developed notch near the tip , and a barely present lower lobe . The form and arrangement of the fins is similar to the Portuguese dogfish ( Centroscymnus coelolepis ) , from which this species can be distinguished by the lack of fin spines . The dermal denticles are small and flat , with a single horizontal ridge ending in a point .
The coloration is a uniform dark brown or gray , sometimes with faint black spots on the back . The fins have white or translucent trailing edges , and the tip of the caudal fin is black . An 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long kitefin shark with partial albinism , lacking pigment on 59 % of its body , was caught in the Gulf of Genoa in 2003 . Unlike in a previous case of an albino Portuguese dogfish , the abnormal coloration of this individual had not diminished its ability to capture prey . Most kitefin sharks are 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weigh 8 kg ( 18 lb ) ; the maximum reported length is 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , possibly 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The kitefin shark has an almost circumglobal range in tropical and warm @-@ temperature waters , consisting of a number of widely separated populations with likely little interchange between them . This shark has not been reported from the eastern Pacific and northern Indian Oceans . In the northern Atlantic , it occurs in the Georges Bank and the northern Gulf of Mexico , and from the North Sea to Cameroon , including around the British Isles , in the western and central Mediterranean Sea , and off Madeira and the Azores . In the Indian Ocean , it is found off South Africa and Mozambique . In the Pacific , it occurs off Japan , Java , Australia and New Zealand , and the Hawaiian Islands . There is a single record of this species in the southern Atlantic , from off southern Brazil .
An offshore , deepwater species , the kitefin shark is most common at a depth of 200 – 600 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) , but has been captured from the surface to as deep as 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . Off the Azores this shark segregates by sex , with females most common around a depth of 230 m ( 750 ft ) and males most common around 412 – 448 m ( 1 @,@ 352 – 1 @,@ 470 ft ) . The kitefin shark inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper continental slopes , and is also found around oceanic islands and seamounts . It is the only member of its family that tends to be found close to the sea floor as opposed to in the middle of the water column , though on occasion it has been captured well above the bottom .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Relatively common where it occurs , kitefin sharks are usually solitary in nature but may form small groups . It is a slow swimmer with a large liver filled with squalene , a lipid less dense than water , allowing it to maintain neutral buoyancy and hover above the bottom with little effort . Studies off the coast of North Africa and in the Gulf of Genoa have found males outnumbering females by 2 : 1 and 5 : 1 respectively ; this imbalanced sex ratio has not been observed off South Africa and may reflect sampling bias . The kitefin shark is preyed upon by larger fishes and sharks , as well as by sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) . Parasite data on this species is limited ; an examination of two sharks caught off Ireland found three nematodes in the stomach lumen . One could be identified as Anisakis simplex L3 , while another may have been a larval Raphidascaris .
A powerful and versatile deepwater predator , the short , robust jaws of the kitefin shark give it an enormously strong bite . It feeds mainly on bony fishes ( including deepwater smelts , viperfishes , scaly dragonfishes , barracudinas , greeneyes , lanternfishes , bristlemouths , cod and other gadids , grenadiers , deepwater scorpionfishes , bonito , snake mackerels , deepwater cardinalfishes , and sea toads ) , but also takes a wide variety of other animals , including skates , smaller sharks ( Galeus , Squalus , Etmopterus and Centrophorus ) , squid and octopus , crustaceans ( amphipods , isopods , shrimp and lobsters ) , polychaete worms , and siphonophores . Like the related cookiecutter shark , the kitefin shark is also capable of excising chunks of flesh from animals larger than itself , including other sharks and whales . The presence of fast @-@ swimming fishes in its diet suggests the kitefin shark may scavenge , or have some other means of capturing faster prey . In the Mediterranean , bony fishes are the most important food year @-@ round , with the second @-@ most important prey being sharks in the winter and spring , crustaceans in the summer , and cephalopods in the fall . Captured males are more likely to have full stomachs than females for unknown reasons .
Reproduction in the kitefin shark is aplacental viviparous , with the embryos hatching inside the uterus and being sustained to term by yolk . Adult females have two functional ovaries and two functional uteruses ; the uterus is not divided into compartments . In the Mediterranean , breeding occurs throughout the year with peaks in spring and fall ; females may have a year of rest in between pregnancies . The litter size is 10 – 16 , increasing with female size . The young are born at a length of 30 – 45 cm ( 12 – 18 in ) , varying by geographic location , after a possible gestation period of two years . The males mature sexually at a length of 77 – 121 cm ( 2 @.@ 53 – 3 @.@ 97 ft ) , and the females at a length of 117 – 159 cm ( 3 @.@ 84 – 5 @.@ 22 ft ) . There is no relationship between an individual 's size at birth , size at maturity , and maximum size .
= = Human interactions = =
The kitefin shark inhabits depths too great for it to be a danger to humans . Its upper teeth have been found lodged in underwater fiberoptic cables . This species has a long history of human exploitation : the meat is consumed in the eastern Atlantic and Japan , and the offal processed into fishmeal . The liver oil is utilized in Portugal , Japan , and South Africa . The skin is made into a type of shagreen useful in the making of furniture and jewelry , and is also favored for the manufacture of " boroso " , a Spanish polished leather . This shark has no commercial value in the western Atlantic .
The continuing expansion of commercial fisheries into the deep sea has raised concerns about the vulnerability of this and other deepwater shark species to overfishing , as these sharks have slow growth and reproductive rates . This is exemplified by the rapid stock depletion and collapse of the Azores kitefin shark fishery . This targeted fishery began in the early 1970s for the production of liver oil . In the early 1980s , the fishing fleet was enlarged with the addition of industrial vessels equipped with demersal gillnets , resulting in a fishery peak in 1984 of 937 tons landed . After 1991 , kitefin shark catches declined precipitously to under 15 tons annually which , along with a drop in the global price of liver oil , led to the fishery becoming unprofitable by the end of the decade . A population assessment has suggested that the northeastern Atlantic stock had fallen to 50 % of the pre @-@ exploitation biomass .
Fisheries operating off Portugal and Japan are responsible for most commercial landings of the kitefin shark , generally as bycatch in bottom trawls and on hook @-@ and @-@ line . Portugal reported a kitefin shark bycatch of 282 tons in 2000 and 119 tons in 2003 . In other areas of the northeastern Atlantic this shark is rare and reported catches are likely confounded by misidentifications of other species ; some are caught by mixed @-@ species gillnet fisheries operating in deep water west of the British Isles , where surveys suggest that kitefin shark numbers
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= The Manchester Rambler =
" The Manchester Rambler " , also known as " I 'm a Rambler " and " The Rambler 's Song " , is a song written by the English folk singer Ewan MacColl . It was inspired by his participation in the Kinder trespass , a protest by the urban Young Communist League of Manchester , and was the work that began MacColl 's career as a singer @-@ songwriter .
Since the 1950s , the song has become a standard among folk musicians , as it was for MacColl himself . It has been covered many times , including by The Dubliners and The Houghton Weavers . It has been sung both in clubs and in the open air on a variety of occasions , including at Kinder Downfall in 2009 when Kinder was designated as a National Nature Reserve .
= = Context = =
The Kinder mass trespass was a deliberate act of civil disobedience ( the law of trespass having already been repealed ) by men of the Young Communist League of Manchester , and others from Sheffield . The protest was intended to secure free access to England 's mountains and moorlands . The ' ramblers ' , led by Benny Rothman , walked from Bowden Bridge Quarry , near Hayfield to climb the hill called Kinder Scout in the Derbyshire Peak District on 24 April 1932 . A young man called James Henry Miller , better known as Ewan MacColl , was a keen rambler and an enthusiastic member of the Young Communist League . He played a major part in organising the publicity for the trespass , duplicating and handing out leaflets , though this role is disputed . He took part in the trespass , and was shocked by the violent reaction of the gamekeepers who met the ramblers on the hill , and the extremely harsh sentences handed down by the magistrates to the five ramblers who were arrested that day . What MacColl did not know was that the protest was to have a powerful long @-@ term effect , leading to improved access to the countryside in the shape of national parks ( from 1949 ) , long @-@ distance footpaths starting with the Pennine Way ( opened in 1965 ) and various forms of the desired ' right to roam ' ( such as with the CRoW Act , 2000 ) .
In his biographer Ben Harker 's view , " It would be difficult to overstate the extent to which MacColl was shaped by the 1930s . " MacColl was a keen rambler , travelling out of Manchester by bus into the Peak District , like thousands of other young unemployed people with time on their hands . For MacColl , rambling was integral to his politics ; he did not simply find nature beautiful and the urban world ugly : instead , it was an objective of the hoped @-@ for revolution :
to create a world that would harmonize with that other one that you enjoyed so much ... If the bourgeoisie had had any sense at all they would never have allowed the working class into that kind of countryside . Because it bred a spirit of revolt .
Groups of ramblers often sang songs such as " I 'm Happy When I 'm Hiking " , as well as bawdy songs , ballads and radical American protest songs at their camps . MacColl published the " Manchester Youth Song " in 1933 , singing of " Workers in Cheetham , who slave every day / In waterproof factories at starvation pay " . He also wrote the song " Mass Trespass 1932 " , setting words like " For the mass trespass is the only way there is / To gain access to the mountains once again " to the old Scottish tune of " The Road to the Isles " . His friends used to sing it as they rambled in the hills .
= = Folk song = =
" The Manchester Rambler " , written in 1932 not long after the Kinder trespass and inspired by that event , was Ewan MacColl 's first important song , according to Harker , who argues that it " marks a departure from the [ singer 's ] leaden @-@ footed and slogan @-@ heavy juvenilia " . It is also the first song that still survives for which he wrote the melody as well as the lyrics . Its swinging , jaunty melody demonstrates MacColl 's ability to combine musical forms and popular rhythms to create a song which is at once familiar and unique . Like the melody , the lyrics are witty and playful . They put out a defiant political message with " I may be a wage slave on Monday / But I am a free man on Sunday " . MacColl plays with and updates traditional English folksong phraseology with " I once loved a maid , a spot @-@ welder by trade / She was fair as the Rowan in bloom " . The lyrics are suitably comical on the confrontation between the ramblers and the gamekeepers in the style of musical theatre , argues Harker , with lines such as " He called me a louse and said ' Think of the grouse ' " . The song has 5 verses , each of 8 lines , and a 4 @-@ line chorus .
The song names the following places : Snowdon ( North Wales ) ; Crowden ( by the Woodhead pass road in Derbyshire ) ; the Wainstones ( on the Bleaklow plateau in Derbyshire ) ; Kinder Scout ; Manchester ; Grindsbrook and Upper Tor ( both Edale , Derbyshire ) .
" The Manchester Rambler " is published by Green Linnet on Ewan MacColl 's 1996 CD " Black and White : The Definitive Collection " , also released by Cooking Vinyl Records ; the recording lasts 4 minutes 42 seconds , and MacColl is assisted on vocals by his wife , the folk singer Peggy Seeger .
= = Reception and influence = =
Ben Harker said of " The Manchester Rambler " that
Rambler is the song where it all comes together . He 'd written these rather earnest agitprop pieces prior to that , but in Rambler , he manages to pull together a political perspective with a more lyrical style ... It crystallises his songwriting and that 's the first time it happens .
MacColl performed the song as a standard all his life . Cover versions were performed and recorded by dozens of folk musicians from the 1950s onwards , including by The Dubliners on " Alive Alive @-@ O " and 30 Years A @-@ Greying . Kirsty MacColl ( daughter of Ewan ) covered the song on her 1991 album The One And Only , while Casey Neill covered it on his eponymous album in 1999 . The Houghton Weavers covered it on their 2005 album Sit Thi Deawn , and in the same year Mick Groves performed it on his album " Fellow Journeyman " . Patterson Jordan Dipper covered it on their album " Flat Earth " in 2010 , and Danny and Mary O 'Leary covered it in 2014 .
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography writes of MacColl that " One of his first and finest protest songs , ‘ The Manchester Rambler ’ , dealt with the ‘ mass trespass ’ campaigns of the 1930s , in which hikers fought pitched battles with gamekeepers when they invaded privately owned grouse moors . " The Encyclopaedia of Contemporary British Culture describes Ewan MacColl as " a crucial figure " in the folk revival of the 1950s and 1960s , and names " The Manchester Rambler " as one of his " more famous songs " .
The comedian and folk singer Mike Harding , in The Guardian , wrote that
When I was a young lad walking in the hills for the first time , camping out on the Pots and Pans stone on Saddleworth Moor , getting the last bus back from Hayfield , crawling up Jack 's Rake , in Langdale , we sang that song and meant every word of it .
Harding was running a Manchester folk club on Sunday nights at that time , and
on those nights the lobby would be choked with the rucksacks of the people who had just come off the hill and were looking forward to a night of beer and songs ... Most nights in the pub we would sing the Manchester Rambler , only too aware that it was people like Rothman and Stephenson who had fought to get the hills opened up for us . We knew that Rothman had gone to jail for walking on Kinder Scout during the mass trespass in 1932 .
The song was sung at Kinder Downfall ( the waterfall on Kinder Scout ) in 2009 when Kinder was designated as a National Nature Reserve ( NNR ) ; in attendance were establishment figures including three Members of Parliament , the Chief Executive Officers of three National Parks and the leaders of Natural England . The British Mountaineering Council 's booklet issued in 2012 to commemorate 80 years of the Kinder mass trespass reproduced the lyrics of " The Manchester Rambler " in full .
= New York State Route 428 =
New York State Route 428 ( NY 428 ) was a north – south state highway located within Chautauqua County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 39 in Forestville . Its northern terminus was at a junction with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Silver Creek . The route passed through mostly rural areas and crossed over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) without connecting to the highway .
NY 428 was assigned c . 1932 and removed in 1980 after ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Although the swap took effect on April 1 , the NY 428 designation was not removed until September 9 . The former routing of NY 428 is now the northernmost section of County Route 85 ( CR 85 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 428 began at an intersection with NY 39 and CR 87 in Forestville . It headed north through the village on Center Street , passing by several blocks of homes and intersecting CR 89 before it exited Forestville . Outside of Forestville in Hanover , NY 428 continued northward as Bennett State Road through farmland , paralleling both CR 89 and Walnut Creek to the hamlet of Keaches Corners , where it met CR 84 .
The highway continued onward through open fields , intersecting CR 86 just before passing over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) . Past the Thruway , NY 428 continued north along Silver Creek into the village of Silver Creek , where it became known as Division Street at the village line . It followed Division Street for two blocks through a lightly populated area before turning west onto Burgess Street for another two blocks through a more densely populated portion of the community . NY 428 ended at an intersection with US 20 south of the village center .
= = History = =
NY 428 was assigned c . 1932 to a previously unnumbered roadway between Forestville and Silver Creek . The route remained intact until 1980 when the roadway was given to Chautauqua County as part of a large @-@ scale maintenance swap of routes within the county . Under the terms of the deal , NY 428 was transferred to the county along with NY 424 , the segment of NY 380 between NY 424 and US 20 , and two reference routes in the vicinity of Dunkirk and Fredonia . In exchange , NYSDOT assumed control over NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in Westfield , US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 east of Jamestown , and Forest Avenue ( unsigned reference route NY 952P ) from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown . Although the swap was officially conducted on April 1 , NY 428 was not removed until September 9 . CR 85 , which ran from CR 66 in Thornton to NY 39 in Forestville at the time , was then extended northward over the former routing of NY 428 to Silver Creek .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Chautauqua County .
= Stupid Girl ( Garbage song ) =
" Stupid Girl " is a song recorded by alternative rock band Garbage for the band 's self @-@ titled debut studio album . The song was composed and produced by bandmembers Duke Erikson , Shirley Manson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig . " Stupid Girl " features lyrics about female empowerment , and a musical arrangement centered on both a repetitive bassline and a drum sample from The Clash 's 1980 hit " Train in Vain " .
The song was released by Almo Sounds in North America and Mushroom Records worldwide as the band 's fourth international single in 1996 . " Stupid Girl " became their biggest hit in United States and the United Kingdom , with its performance on the charts driven by an innovative music video and remixes which gained massive airplay across the world . The success of " Stupid Girl " propelled sales of its parent album Garbage into the top twenty of the Billboard 200 and into the top ten of the UK Albums Chart .
Reviews of the song were positive , with praise to the production . " Stupid Girl " was nominated for two Grammy Awards , Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group , as well as the Danish Grammy for Best Rock Song , an MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist and an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
" Stupid Girl " began as a rough demo around January 1994 . It was recorded during informal studio sessions between Duke Erikson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig in Marker 's home basement recording studio in Madison , Wisconsin prior to Shirley Manson joining the group . The band had been jamming using an ADAT eight @-@ track , AKAI samplers and a small drum kit . Vig took a loop from the drum introduction from The Clash 's " Train In Vain " and added further percussion . Afterwards , Marker created the bassline , under the request of doing something like Creedence Clearwater Revival 's " Suzie Q " , " something that 's almost like a Motown feel " . Erikson finished off what became the song 's core with a jangly guitar riff .
After Marker saw Manson 's group Angelfish on 120 Minutes , the band invited her to Vig and Marker 's Smart Studios to sing on a couple of songs , but after a " dreadful " first audition , she returned to Angelfish . Manson eventually returned to Smart for a successful second time , where she began to work on the then @-@ skeletal " Queer " , " Vow " and " Stupid Girl " . Working on the lyrics , " Stupid Girl " became an " anthem for a girl who won 't settle for less than what she wants " . Later she added , " [ " Stupid Girl " is ] really about squandering potential , [ it 's ] our version of Madonna 's ' Express Yourself ' , but a little more subversive " . Manson aimed the song as a rebuke towards a friend 's foolish behaviour : " A lot of females still find it difficult to find their own voice in society . It 's just that women have a different set of problems from men ... make the most of your potential . " Manson added that " Stupid Girl " was " a song of reproach to a lot of people we know " , both male and female , and that " we could have called it ' Stupid Guy , ' but we thought another song about a strident female dissing a guy would be tedious . "
Garbage wanted to write a song that incorporated a very thumpy and repetitive bass line ; this would act as a hook . Continuing to develop the demo throughout the recording process for what would eventually become the band 's debut album , the group decided to add textures , guitars , and keys to make " Stupid Girl " dynamic rather than built on complicated chord changes . Marker and Vig then added in elements of ambient sound effects throughout the audio mix ; including the " glitchy " sound of a broken DAT player used during the pre @-@ chorus . Marker had been dubbing between audio tracks , resulting in scratchy feedback ; he sampled the sound and tuned it to fit the song , unintentionally created by an alternative hook . When Manson recorded her first vocals for " Stupid Girl " , the band realised that the key that the song had been arranged in was too low , but instead of re @-@ recording the guitars , Vig re @-@ printed them through a pitch @-@ change patch on an effects unit . Erikson commented that the effects are " just ear candy , but they contribute to the character of the song , make the listener think in a certain way about the song " . Additional percussion on " Stupid Girl " was performed by Madison musician Pauli Ryan , while the bass guitar line was played on record by Milwaukee session bassist Mike Kashou , both of whom performed on a number of tracks on the band 's debut album .
Reflecting on the success of the song in 2002 , Vig admitted : " People still ask us who the ' Stupid Girl ' is , and that 's impossible to answer . The song is sort of meant to be a wake up call . It could be about an ex @-@ girlfriend . It could be about a rock diva that we all know , it could be about your sister . It could also be called ' Stupid Boy ' . " Looking back , he also stated , " It 's impossible to predict what will be a hit . But subconsciously , I knew the song was good when I kept playing the same rough mix over and over again on my car stereo for months . "
= = = Composition = = =
" Stupid Girl " is a moderately alternative rock fast song with touches of electronica , set in common time . It is built on a I @-@ IV change in F ♯ , with both chords , F ♯ 7 and B7 .
The tonal function of a " dominant " seventh chord is to resolve up a perfect fourth . In non @-@ classical harmony , the chord is often used similarly , but also , especially in blues , funk , and early rock music , it is used commonly for its color that seems to mesh major and minor together with its major third , minor seventh , and the dissonant interval between the two . When the F ♯ 7 chord is played , it should traditionally resolve to B , which would expectedly be a B major 7th chord , the M7 being the major 3rd of the tonic .
Instead , on the B note is another dominant seventh . Such chords are the basis of the twelve @-@ bar blues , and are used in this way to give " Stupid Girl " a bluesy , rock- ' n ' -roll feel , the chord change is manipulated to emphasize the B 's flatted seventh ( a minor third from the tonic ) , giving the song a sulky mood . This chord change is used for the intro , verse , chorus and the instrumental sections , with exception to the pre @-@ chorus , which is in the relative key of D ♯ minor . Overall , even regardless of the chord progression , the song seems to fall somewhere between major and minor , and the use of four @-@ note seventh chords ( as opposed to " three @-@ note " chords ) help to form a rich atmosphere . " Stupid Girl " is mainly carried by this arrangement , along with drum beats , sampled from " Train In Vain " .
On the intro , four bars set the rhythm , adorned by only a guitar pick @-@ slide and audio effects . The verse adds Manson 's vocals and a bass riff which uses flattened blue notes to give " Stupid Girl " an funky , unsettled feel . The eight @-@ bar prechorus abruptly cuts in with minor chords and sampled feedback replaces the bass which drops out . This , coupled with Manson singing high in her range , creates tension and enables the presence of the bass to be felt when it re @-@ enters on the chorus . The guitar figures in the bridge include a phrase played low and rhythmic guitar stabs on the opposite side of the audio mix . On the chorus , Manson 's main vocal is answered by an " aah @-@ ah " of voice and guitar together . The word " girl " lands on a flattened bass note ( A against the F ♯ note , instead of A ♯ ) .
= = Single release = =
= = = Release and promotion = = =
The first single release of " Stupid Girl " occurred in Australia and New Zealand on January 22 , 1996 , when White issued on both CD and cassette , backed with " Trip My Wire " ( previously released on the " Queer " single in the United Kingdom ) and remixes of " Queer " by Adrian Sherwood and Martin Gore . A week later , White issued a second CD featuring a cover version of The Jam 's " Butterfly Collector " and a further two " Queer " mixes produced by Danny Saber and Rabbit In the Moon ( also previously released in the UK ) . In July , White released a limited edition EP titled Stupid Girl – The Remixes collecting together the UK b @-@ sides and remixes for the Australian market . BMG released " Stupid Girl " across Europe on February 28 . The single was issued as a CD maxi backed with both " Butterfly Collector " and " Trip My Wire " . When Garbage returned to tour Europe 's rock festivals in August , BMG reissued " Stupid Girl " in France and Germany
Mushroom Records serviced " Stupid Girl " to radio stations in the United Kingdom a month in advance of the release ; it was A @-@ listed at Radio One , Virgin and Capital . Mushroom issued " Stupid Girl " on March 11 as a 2 × CD single set and limited edition 7 " vinyl packaged in two differing colours of fabric . The song was backed with " Driving Lesson " , a new version of " Dog New Tricks " and a remix of " Stupid Girl " produced by Red Snapper on the first disc ; " Alien Sex Fiend " and two versions of " Stupid Girl " remixed by Dreadzone on the second . The vinyl was backed with the mix of " Dog New Tricks " . The single was supported by Garbage 's first ever UK tour , which launched on March 19 . During the middle of the live shows , Garbage performed the single on Top of the Pops , and a live showcase performance of " Stupid Girl " and " Only Happy When It Rains " on TFI Friday .
In North America , where " Only Happy When It Rains " had been the band 's breakthrough single , Almo Sounds planned either " Stupid Girl " or a re @-@ release of their debut single " Vow " to follow it up . On May 25 , Almo serviced " Stupid Girl " to alternative radio , simultaneous with Garbage joining The Smashing Pumpkins ' North American arena tour as the opening act throughout June and July . The tour was halted after Smashing Pumpkins keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin fatally overdosed – the Pumpkins resumed without Garbage a month later . Almo re @-@ serviced " Stupid Girl " with a remix of the song produced by Todd Terry to Top 40 radio . On July 9 , Almo released " Stupid Girl " to record stores on CD and cassette single , backed with " Driving Lesson " and the Todd Terry version . Almo serviced remixes of the song to clubs . On July 11 , Garbage performed " Stupid Girl " on the Late Show with David Letterman , and in October performed the song at the VH1 Fashion Awards – which earned attention as Manson had a wardrobe malfunction . On August 6 , Almo released a 12 " vinyl format commercially featuring " Driving Lesson " and remixes of " Stupid Girl " produced by Todd Terry , Danny Saber , Rabbit In the Moon and Jason Bentley ,
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Stupid Girl " first charted on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart dated week ending February 4 , 1996 , debuting at # 99 and peaking at # 47 on March 24 , 1996 . The single charted for two non @-@ consecutive weeks on the New Zealand Top 40 – peaking at # 32 in February . In Iceland , " Stupid Girl " debuted at 18th at the start of April , and shot up to 4th in the second week , where it remained for three weeks . In Spain , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 40th on the airplay chart . In Ireland , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 16th . In France , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 38th on the French singles chart , and Garbage re @-@ charted to peak at # 16 on the album chart .
At the start of March , " Stupid Girl " debuted at 48th on the UK airplay chart , and the band 's debut album re @-@ charted at # 27 on the album chart . Later , " Stupid Girl " debuted as the highest new entry on the UK Singles Chart at 4th , which remains the band 's highest charting single . On its second week , " Stupid Girl " dropped to 10th , as Garbage broke into the albums top ten for the first time . On the airplay chart , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 5th , and spent the entire following month within the top ten . " Stupid Girl " clocked up seven weeks in the top 75 and sold 120 @,@ 000 copies .
In North America , after a week on air in April , " Stupid Girl " debuted on Modern Rock Tracks at 38th . Two weeks later , it broke into the Modern Rock top twenty – with an " Airpower " rating , meaning the song had registered over 900 detections for the first time on alternative radio - and debuted at 66th on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . At the end of the month " Stupid Girl " reached the top ten at Modern Rock - peaking at number 2 in August , and only leaving the top ten in September - as Garbage ascended into the top forty of the Billboard 200 for the first time . The remixes were rated Hot Dance Break @-@ outs as " Stupid Girl " debuted at 46th on the Hot 100 .
By August , " Stupid Girl " continued to chart , debuting at 68th on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , at 47th on the Top 40 Mainstream chart and at 46th on the Hot Dance / Club Play chart . The success also led the album Garbage to peak at 20th on the Billboard 200 , double its sales to shifting around 40 @,@ 000 units each week , and receive a platinum certification by the RIAA for shipping a million units . The remixes album peaked on 30 on the Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart . In mid @-@ August , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 26th on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , and picked up enough mainstream rock airplay to spend two weeks at 39th on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . At the start of September , " Stupid Girl " became a crossover hit , having built up at both alternate and contemporary hit radio , where it reached 25th on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . Two weeks later , " Stupid Girl " earned Garbage 's highest position on the Hot 100 with a number 24 ; it also peaked at 33rd on the Single Sales chart , and hit 5th on the Club Play chart . " Stupid Girl " continued to gain a larger crossover audience throughout October , debuting on the Adult Top 40 . " Stupid Girl " bowed off of the Modern Rock chart in mid @-@ November after twenty @-@ five weeks , and remained on the Hot 100 until the start of December , clocking twenty weeks .
= = = Remixes = = =
In 1996 , Mushroom released a white label to clubs featuring the Red Snapper and Dreadzone mixes in advance of the UK release of " Stupid Girl " . The Red Snapper mix was later released in Europe on the b @-@ side to " Only Happy When it Rains " , while White Records released this mix along with the Dreadzone mixes on a Stupid Girl – The Remixes extended play . Almo Sounds commissioned additional remixes from Danny Saber , Rabbit In the Moon , Jason Bentley and Todd Terry for the North American release of the single . One of Todd Terry 's mixes was also serviced to Top 40 radio . Mushroom later released this version , along with the Danny Saber mix in the UK on the b @-@ side of " Milk " , while White included the Todd Terry mix on the bonus disc of the Garbage : Australian Tour Edition . In 1997 , Mushroom released four Todd Terry mixes on a set of 12 " vinyls ( Stupid Girl Remixes ) in the UK . An instrumental version of the Red Snapper mix was also included on the compilation album Big Beat Elite . In 2007 , Todd Terry 's radio mix was remastered and included on the Absolute Garbage bonus disc Garbage Mixes .
Danny Saber 's remix brief for his version of " Stupid Girl " was to create a version of the song for radio airplay on K @-@ Rock new wave / alternative rock stations . Garbage 's management wanted Saber to retain the original 's " Train in Vain " loop , as it had cost the band significantly to license . Saber opted for a Soft Cell / house music combination ; incorporating the original vocal line , tempo , key and feedback . Saber created a new bassline for the remix , arranging the mix around that . Saber completed the remix in a single day , with one further day required to mix .
= = = B @-@ sides = = =
Garbage recorded a number of tracks for the b @-@ side of " Stupid Girl " in January 1996 during rehearsals for their first full @-@ length concert tour . During the rehearsals , Garbage remixed their album track " Dog New Tricks " , wrote and recorded " Driving Lesson " and " Alien Sex Fiend " and finally , recorded their own take " Kick My Ass " , a Vic Chesnutt cover for inclusion on charity album Sweet Relief II : Gravity of the Situation . Daniel Shulman plays bass on all four tracks . On October 14 , 1998 , Garbage , Electronic Arts , AT & T and Broadcast.com linked up to promote a live webcast from Garbage 's headline show at Dallas Bronco Bowl by offering a free .a2b file format digital download of " Driving Lesson " , which registered over 6 @,@ 000 downloads .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Stupid Girl " was filmed on January 16 , 1996 in Los Angeles by director Samuel Bayer . The video for " Only Happy When It Rains " was shot at the same time , and received a higher budget as Almo Sounds believed that that it would be a bigger hit than " Stupid Girl " . According to Manson , " Stupid Girl " had the other bandmembers drunk and all of Garbage exhausted after three days shooting the other video .
The video debuted internationally on February 1 , 1996 , and in North America on May 5 . MTV certified " Stupid Girl " a Buzz @-@ clip , the band 's third video in a row to be guaranteed heavy airplay on the network , while VH1 added the video at the start of September and incorporated it into a Pop Up Video episode .
The video for " Stupid Girl " is a performance piece , inspired by the title sequence from David Fincher 's 1995 movie Se7en . The clip was shot in just four hours entirely within a warehouse decorated with plexiglas sheets on which the song lyrics were written . Bayer cut the film into pieces , and soaked it in his bath , applying deliberate fingerprints and abrasions to the footage before putting it back together by hand . Vig would compliment the video for mirroring the band 's sound : " some of it looked beautiful , some of it looked distorted , and kinda fucked up - and it sorta described some of our music visually " . Bayer later re @-@ edited a second version of the video , with alternative footage from the original shoot for a remix version of " Stupid Girl " by Todd Terry .
The " Stupid Girl " video was nominated in the Best New Artist in a Video category at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards , losing to the Stéphane Sednaoui @-@ directed video for Alanis Morissette 's " Ironic " .
The " Stupid Girl " video was first commercially released on VHS and Video @-@ CD on 1996 's Garbage Video , along with " making of " out @-@ take footage . A remastered version was later included on Garbage 's 2007 greatest hits DVD Absolute Garbage , and made available as a digital download via online music services the same year .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
" Stupid Girl " received an overwhelmingly positive response from music critics both upon the release of Garbage and on its eventual single release . Select 's Ian Harrison called the song " Duran @-@ like " , describing it as " mighty doomy pop neatly tailored to enhance one 's natural discontentment " . Vox magazine 's Craig McLean called it " malignant , dirty , devious , sneering pop " , while Metal Hammer 's Pippa Lang compared Manson 's " ever @-@ so @-@ sexy , sibilant " vocals to Trent Reznor 's . Kerrang ! described " Stupid Girl " as " a classy piece of predatory pop perfection that wields an iron punch beneath it 's [ sic ] velvet glove " .
The song was nominated for two Grammy Awards , Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group , but lost to Tracy Chapman 's " Give Me One Reason " and Dave Matthews Band 's " So Much to Say " , respectively . " Stupid Girl " was also up for the Danish Grammy for Best Rock Song , and the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song . In 1997 , Broadcast Music Incorporated awarded " Stupid Girl " a Citation of Achievement for Best Pop Song , meaning it was among the year 's most performed songs . Erikson said the song was " a crowd favorite " that improves the setlist 's mood whenever it gets played , and Vig added that " we 've played ' Stupid Girl ' on stage more than a thousand times and I 'm still not sick of it . "
In 2005 , " Stupid Girl " was featured in Curtis Hanson 's film In Her Shoes , while later that year , Alexz Johnson recorded a cover version of the track for the soundtrack album Songs from Instant Star . In 2011 , it was nominated for a place on the final track listing of STV 's Scotland 's Greatest Album .
= = Charts = =
= Mash Off =
" Mash Off " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fiftieth overall . The episode was written by Michael Hitchcock and directed by Eric Stoltz , and originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 15 , 2011 . Special guest star Idina Menzel is featured as rival glee club director Shelby Corcoran , and she and Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) hold a mash @-@ up competition between the Troubletones and the New Directions . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) mercilessly taunts rival glee club member Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , who ultimately responds by publicly accusing her of cowardice in her relationship with Brittany , thereby revealing to their fellow students that she is a lesbian . Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) starts a propaganda campaign against Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , her chief rival in the special election for congress .
Principal photography for " Mash Off " occurred in October 2011 . The episode features four mash @-@ ups , including the show 's 300th musical number , Adele 's " Someone Like You " and " Rumour Has It " , which sold 160 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 . All songs from the episode were released as singles available for digital download .
" Mash Off " was met with a mostly positive reception from critics , and its musical performances and cover versions were also well received by reviewers . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 08 million American viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up from the previous episode , " The First Time " .
= = Plot = =
Puck ( Mark Salling ) fantasizes about his substitute teacher , Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , whom he recently kissed and has since fallen in love with . He sings " Hot for Teacher " by Van Halen , with Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Blaine ( Darren Criss ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) . Puck tries to convince Shelby , who adopted the child he fathered with Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) , to start a relationship with him , but she rejects the idea . Quinn still wants to get Beth , her birth daughter , back from Shelby , and tries to join Shelby 's glee club , the Troubletones , to get closer to Shelby . After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions , Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life .
Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and Shelby agree to hold a mash @-@ up competition between the New Directions and the Troubletones . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) takes the rivalry very seriously , and taunts and derides her former New Directions teammates — particularly Finn . He challenges Santana and the other Troubletones to a game of dodgeball . Finn and Santana are the last two people standing , until Santana whips a ball at Finn 's face , and wins the game . Despite having won , Santana violently targets Rory ( Damian McGinty ) , and makes his nose bleed .
Cheerleading coach Sue ( Jane Lynch ) starts a campaign against Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , her main rival in the election for congress . When Burt 's son Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) accuses her of lying , Sue defends her tactics , and tells Kurt that his own campaign for senior class president is boring and lacks edge . When the presidential candidates make their assembly speeches , Kurt pledges to ban dodgeball , a sport he says is too often used to bully . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) withdraws her candidacy and urges everyone to vote for Kurt . Rachel later confesses to Kurt that she quit so that he could have something important to put on his college application , and because she missed being his friend . The two make up , and go to work on Kurt 's campaign .
Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) is elected president of the Troubletones , and tells Santana that she should play fair against New Directions from now on . Santana makes a rare apology to Finn in the school hallway , but her so @-@ called apology consists of a series of insults . As she walks away , Finn retaliates by telling her to come out of the closet , and calls her a coward for constantly tearing others down while not accepting herself and her relationship with Brittany . A couple of days later , Santana is told by Sue and Burt that the niece of one of their opponents in the election overheard the conversation between her and Finn , and said opponent is about to release an attack ad that criticizes Sue for choosing a lesbian as head cheerleader . Santana runs out of the office in tears , saying that her parents do not yet know she is gay . The episode concludes with the Troubletones ' mash @-@ up of Adele songs . The moment the performance ends , Santana jumps down from the stage , blames Finn for outing her to the world and slaps him in the face .
= = Production = =
" Mash Off " was written by Michael Hitchcock and directed by Eric Stoltz . Principal photography for the episode commenced on October 6 , 2011 , while the fifth episode , " The First Time " was still shooting ; It was initially filmed in parallel with that episode , which continued through October 14 , 2011 , and also with the seventh episode , which began filming on October 13 , 2011 . This episode marked the 300th musical number Glee has filmed , which was a mash @-@ up of two Adele songs : " Rumour Has It " and " Someone Like You " , with lead vocals by Amber Riley and Naya Rivera . The performance was filmed with great fanfare " in front of an audience of press and crew members " on October 26 , 2011 , and included a press briefing afterward . Riley revealed during the briefing that she suggested the idea that she perform Adele to co @-@ creators Brad Falchuk and Ryan Murphy after finding out that Adele was hoping Riley would sing her music on the show : " Someone actually e @-@ mailed me a video of Adele saying that she wanted me to sing her song , so I e @-@ mailed it to Brad and Ryan . "
The episode was to contain a flashback to a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Sue , played by Colby Minifie , singing the title song of the musical Oklahoma ! in a scene that would have explained Sue 's antipathy to music in the schools . Series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan said " we wanted to show that Sue at one point had Broadway dreams " , and Lynch reveals , " Will tells Sue , ' Poor little Susie Sylvester was told she wasn 't good , and now she 's got to punish the world . ' Like a lot of angry people out there , Sue 's a wannabe . " However , the scene was not broadcast because it was , according to Murphy , " too long for the episode " ; he also stated that the footage , with the title " How Sue Sylvester Became a Bitch " , would be released in the future , " either as a DVD extra or online " .
Three other mash @-@ ups beyond the Adele one are performed in the episode : a Hall & Oates mash @-@ up of " I Can 't Go for That " and " You Make My Dreams " performed by New Directions , a mash @-@ up of Lady Gaga 's " You and I " and Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle 's " You and I " , performed by Morrison and Menzel , and one of Pat Benatar 's " Hit Me with Your Best Shot " and Blondie 's " One Way or Another " , performed by competing glee clubs New Directions and the Troubletones . Van Halen 's " Hot for Teacher " , performed by Mark Salling , is also included . Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include teacher Shelby Corcoran ( Menzel ) , Kurt 's father and new congressional candidate Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , rival glee club member Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , and exchange student Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Mash Off " was first broadcast on November 15 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 08 million American viewers during its initial airing , which tied with " Pot o ' Gold " for the lowest rating of the third season . While the show 's viewership was up slightly from the 6 @.@ 91 million viewers for the previous episode , " The First Time " , which was broadcast on November 8 , 2011 , the rating in the 18 – 49 demographic decreased slightly from the 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share received by that episode .
Viewership was also up slightly in Australia , but decreased in Canada and hit a season low in the United Kingdom , where " Mash Off " was watched on Sky1 by 900 @,@ 000 viewers , down over 7 % compared to " The First Time " the previous week , when
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cm ( 31 to 39 in ) .
The black wildebeest has a dark brown or black coat which is slightly paler in summer and coarser and shaggier in the winter . Calves are born with shaggy , fawn @-@ coloured fur . Males are darker than females . They have bushy and dark @-@ tipped manes that , as in the blue wildebeest , stick up from the back of the neck . The hairs which compose this are white or cream @-@ coloured with dark tips . On its muzzle and under its jaw it has black bristly hair . It also has long , dark @-@ coloured hair between its forelegs and under its belly . Other physical features include a thick neck , a plain back , and rather small and beady eyes .
Both sexes have strong horns that curve forward , resembling hooks and are up to 78 cm ( 31 in ) long . The horns have a broad base in mature males , and are flattened to form a protective shield . In females , the horns are both shorter and narrower . They become fully developed in females in the third year , while it is not before the age of four or five that horns are fully grown in males . The black wildebeest normally has 13 thoracic vertebrae , though specimens with 14 have been reported , and this species shows a tendency for the thoracic region to become elongated . There are scent glands that secrete a glutinous substance in front of the eyes , under the hair tufts and on the forefeet . Females have two nipples . Apart from the difference in the appearance of the tail , the two species of wildebeest also differ in size and colour , with the black being smaller and darker than the blue .
The black wildebeest can maintain its body temperature within a small range in spite of large fluctuations in external temperatures . It shows well @-@ developed orientation behaviour towards solar radiation which helps it thrive in hot , and often shadeless , habitats . The erythrocyte count is high at birth and increases till the age of two to three months , while in contrast , the leucocyte count is low at birth and falls throughout the animal 's life . The neutrophil count is high at all ages . The haematocrit and haemoglobin content decreases till twenty to thirty days after birth . There is a peak in the content of all these haemological parameters at the age of two to three months , after which the readings gradually decline , reaching their lowest values in the oldest individuals . The presence of fast @-@ twitch fibres and the ability of the muscles to use large amounts of oxygen help explain the rapid running speed of the black wildebeest and its high resistance to fatigue . Individuals may live for about twenty years .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
The black wildebeest is particularly susceptible to anthrax , and rare and widely scattered outbreaks have been recorded and have proved deadly . Ataxia related to myelopathy and low copper concentrations in the liver have also been seen in the black wildebeest . Heartwater ( Ehrlichia ruminantium ) is a tick @-@ borne rickettsial disease that affects the black wildebeest and , as the blue wildebeest is fatally affected by rinderpest and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , it is believed that the black wildebeest is also likely to be susceptible to these . Malignant catarrhal fever is a fatal disease of domestic cattle caused by a gammaherpesvirus . It seems that , like the blue wildebeest , the black wildebeest acts as a reservoir for the virus and that all animals are carriers , being persistently infected but showing no symptoms . The virus is transmitted from mother to calf during the gestation period or soon after birth .
Black wildebeest act as hosts to a number of external and internal parasites . A study of the animal in Karroid Mountainveld ( Eastern Cape Province , South Africa ) revealed the presence of all the larval stages of the nasal bot flies Oestrus variolosus and Gedoelstia hässleri . The first instar larvae of G hässleri were found in large numbers on the dura mater of wildebeest calves , specially between June and August , and these later migrated to the nasal passages . Repeated outbreaks of mange ( scab ) have led to large @-@ scale extinctions . The first study of the protozoa in blue and black wildebeest showed the presence of 23 protozoan species in the rumen , with Diplodinium bubalidis and Ostracodinium damaliscus common in all the animals .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Black wildebeest are mainly active during the early morning and late afternoon preferring to rest during the hottest part of the day . The animals can run at speeds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . When a person approaches a herd to within a few hundred metres , the wildebeest snort and run a short distance before stopping and looking back , repeating this behaviour if further approached . They communicate with each other using pheromones detected by flehmen and several forms of vocal communication . One of these is a metallic snort or an echoing " hick " , that can be heard up to 1500 metres ( 1 mile ) away . They are preyed on by animals like lion , spotted hyena , Cape hunting dog , leopard , cheetah and crocodile . Of these the calves are targeted manly by the hyenas , while lions attack the adults .
The black wildebeest is a gregarious animal with a complex social structure comprising three distinct groups : firstly , the female herds , consisting of adult females and their young ; secondly , the bachelor herds , consisting only of yearlings and older males ; thirdly , the territorial bulls . The number of females per herd is variable , generally ranging from 14 to 32 , but is highest in the densest populations and also increases with forage density . There is a strong attachment among members of the female herd , many of whom are related to each other . Large herds often get divided into smaller groups . While small calves stay with their mothers , the older ones form groups of their own within the herd . These herds have a social hierarchy , and the females are rather aggressive towards others trying to join the group . Young males are generally repelled by their mothers before the calving season starts . Separation of a young calf from its mother can be a major cause of calf mortality . While some male yearlings stay within the female herd , the others join a bachelor herd . These are usually loose associations and , unlike the female herds , the individuals are not much attached to each other . Another difference between the female and bachelor herds is the lesser aggression on the part of the males . These bachelor herds move widely in the available habitat and act as a refuge for males that have been unsuccessful as territorial bulls , and also as a reserve for future breeding males .
Mature bulls , generally more than four years old , set up their own territories through which female herds often pass . These territories are maintained throughout the year , with animals usually separated by a distance of about 100 – 400 m ( 330 – 1 @,@ 310 ft ) , but this can vary according to the quality of the habitat . In favourable conditions , this distance is as little as 9 m ( 30 ft ) , but can be as large as 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in poor habitat . Each bull has a patch of ground in the centre of his territory in which he regularly drops dung , and in which he performs acts of display . These include urinating , scraping , pawing and rolling on the ground and thumping it with his horns - all of which demonstrate his prowess to other bulls . An encounter between two bulls involves elaborate rituals . Estes coined the term " Challenge Ritual " to describe this behaviour for the blue wildebeest , but this is also applicable to the black wildebeest , owing to the close similarity in the behaviour in both species . The bulls approach each other with their heads lowered , resembling a grazing position ( sometimes actually grazing ) . This is usually followed by movements like standing in a reverse @-@ parallel position , in which one male urinates and the opponent smells and performs flehmen , after which they may reverse the procedure . During this ritual or afterwards the two can toss their horns at each other , circle one another , or even look away . Then begins the fight , which may be of low intensity ( consisting of interlocking the horns and pushing each other in a standing position ) or high intensity ( consisting of their dropping to their knees and straining against each other powerfully , trying to remain in contact while their foreheads are nearly touching the ground ) . Threat displays like shaking the head may also take place .
= = Diet = =
Black wildebeest are predominantly grazers , preferring short grasses but also feeding on other herbs and shrubs , especially when grass is scarce . Shrubs can comprise as much as 37 % of the diet but grasses normally forms more than 90 % . Water is essential , though they can exist without drinking water everyday . The herds graze either in line or in loose groups , usually walking in single file when moving about . They are often accompanied by cattle egrets , which pick out and consume the insects hidden in their coats or disturbed by their movements .
Before the arrival of Europeans in the area , wildebeest used to roam widely , probably in relation to the arrival of the rains and the availability of good forage . They never made such extensive migrations as the blue wildebeest but at one time , they used to cross the Drakensberg Range , moving eastwards in autumn , searching for good pastures . Then they returned to the highvelds in the spring and moved towards the west , where sweet potato and Karoo vegetation were abundant . They also moved from north to south as the sourgrass found north of the Vaal River matured and became unpalatable , the wildebeest only consuming young shoots of sourgrass . Nowadays , almost all black wildebeest are in reserves or on farms and the extent of their movements is limited .
In a study of the feeding activities of a number of female black wildebeest living in a shadeless habitat , it was found that they fed mostly at night . They were observed at regular intervals over a period of one year and it was observed that with an increase in temperature , the number of wildebeest feeding at night also increased . During cool weather they lay down to rest but in hotter conditions they rested while standing up .
= = Reproduction = =
Male black wildebeest reach sexual maturity at the age of three years but may mature at a younger age in captivity . Females first come into season and breed as yearlings or as two @-@ year @-@ olds . They breed only once in a year .
A dominant male black wildebeest will have a harem of females and will not allow other males to mate with them . The breeding season occurs at the end of the rainy season and lasts a few weeks between February and April . When one of his females comes into oestrus the male concentrates on her and mates with her several times . Sexual behaviour by the male at this time includes stretching low , ears down , sniffing of the female 's vulva , performing ritual urination and touching his chin to the female 's rump . At the same time , the female keeps her tail upwards ( sometimes vertically ) or swishes it across the face of the male . The pair usually separates after copulation , but the female occasionally follows her mate afterwards , touching his rump with her snout . During the breeding season , the male loses condition as he spends little time grazing . Males are known to mount other males .
The gestational period lasts for about eight and a half months , after which a single calf is born . Females in labour do not move away from the female herd and repeatedly lie down and get up again . Births normally take place in areas with short grass when the cow is in the lying position . She stands up immediately afterwards which causes the umbilical cord to break , vigorously licks the calf and chews on the afterbirth . In spite of regional variations , around 80 % of the females give birth to their calves within a period of two to three weeks after the onset of the rainy season - from mid @-@ November to the end of December . Seasonal breeding has also been reported among wildebeest in captivity in European zoos . Twin births have not been reported .
The calf has a tawny , shaggy coat and weighs about 11 kilograms ( 24 lb ) . By the end of the fourth week , the four incisors have fully emerged and about the same time , two knob @-@ like structures , the hornbuds , appear on the head . These later develop into horns which reach a length of 200 – 250 mm ( 8 – 10 in ) by the fifth month and are well developed by the eighth month . The calf is able to stand and run shortly after birth , a period of great danger for animals in the wild . It is fed by its lactating mother for six to eight months , begins nibbling on grass blades at four weeks and remains with her until her next calf is born a year later .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black wildebeest is native to southern Africa . Its historical range included South Africa , Swaziland and Lesotho , but in the latter two countries it was hunted to extinction in the 19th century . It has now been reintroduced to them and also introduced to Namibia where it has become well established .
The black wildebeest inhabits open plains , grasslands and Karoo shrublands in both steep mountainous regions and lower undulating hills . The altitudes in these areas varies from 1 @,@ 350 – 2 @,@ 150 m ( 4 @,@ 430 – 7 @,@ 050 ft ) . The herds are often migratory or nomadic , otherwise they may have regular home ranges of 1 km2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Female herds roam in home ranges around 250 acres ( 100 ha ; 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) in size . In the past , black wildebeest occurred in the highveld temperate grasslands during the dry winter season and the arid Karoo region during the rains . However , as a result of massive hunting of the animal for its hide , they vanished from their historical range , and are now largely limited to game farms and protected reserves in southern Africa . In most reserves , the black wildebeest shares its habitat with the blesbok and the springbok .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Where it lives alongside the blue wildebeest , the two species can hybridise , and this is regarded as a potential threat to the maintenance of the species . The black wildebeest was once very numerous and was present in southern Africa in vast herds but by the end of the nineteenth century , it had nearly been hunted to extinction and fewer than 600 animals remained . A small number of individuals was still present in game reserves and at zoos and it is from these that the population was rescued .
There are now believed to be more than 18 @,@ 000 individuals , 7 @,@ 000 of which are in Namibia , outside its natural range , and where it is farmed . Around 80 % of the wildebeest occur in private areas , while the other 20 % are confined in protected areas . The population is now trending upward ( particularly on private land ) and for this reason the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , in its Red List of Threatened Species , rates the black wildebeest as being of " Least Concern " . Its introduction into Namibia has been a success and numbers have increased substantially there from 150 in 1982 to 7 @,@ 000 in 1992 .
= = Uses and interaction with humans = =
The black wildebeest is depicted on the coat of arms of the Province of Natal in South Africa . Over the years the South African authorities have issued stamps displaying the animal and the South African Mint has struck a five rand coin with a prancing black wildebeest .
Though they are not present in their natural habitat in such large numbers today , black wildebeest were at one time the main herbivores in the ecosystem and a main prey item for large predators such as the lion . Nowadays they are economically important for human beings as they are a major tourist attraction as well as providing animal products such as leather and meat . The hide makes good quality leather and the flesh is coarse , dry and rather hard . Wildebeest meat is dried to make biltong , an important part of South African cuisine . The meat of females is more tender than that of males , and is at its best during the autumn season . The wildebeest can provide ten times as much meat as the Thomson 's gazelle . The silky , flowing tail is used to make fly @-@ whisks or " chowries " .
However , black wildebeest can also affect human beings negatively . Wild individuals can be competitors of commercial livestock , and can transmit fatal diseases like rinderpest and cause epidemics among animals , particularly domestic cattle . They can also spread ticks , lungworms , tapeworms , flies and paramphistome flukes .
= In the Middle ( Sugababes song ) =
" In the Middle " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released on 22 March 2004 as the third single from their third studio album , Three ( 2003 ) . The Sugababes were inspired to compose the song based upon the different situations experienced on a night out ; they wrote it in collaboration with Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner and Michael Bellina . Higgins , Xenomania and Jeremy Wheatley produced the song . " In the Middle " is a dance @-@ pop , R & B and funk @-@ influenced record that contains a sample of German DJ Moguai 's song " U Know Y " .
The song received rave reviews from critics , who commended its production and appeal , and was nominated for Best British Single at the 2005 BRIT Awards . The single reached the top ten on the charts in Hungary , Netherlands and the United Kingdom . It also peaked within the top forty on the charts in Australia , Austria , Germany , Ireland and Switzerland . Matthew Rolston directed the song 's music video , which was filmed at Pinewood Studios , London . It features the green screen effect and magical settings for the video 's environments . The Sugababes performed the song on their tours in support of Three , Overloaded : The Singles Collection ( 2006 ) and Change ( 2007 ) .
= = Development and release = =
The Sugababes wrote " In the Middle " in collaboration with Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner and Michael Bellina , for their third studio album , Three ( 2003 ) . Group member Heidi Range revealed that the band wanted to write a song with which they could have fun ; it was inspired by different situations experienced during a night out . Keisha Buchanan , another member of the Sugababes , told Digital Spy that she wrote 90 % of the song but could not comprehend the meaning of the lyrics : " I think it 's because as I 've got older I don 't really relate to the lyrics . It was more of a fun song but I just don 't really feel that attached to it any more . " Higgins , Xenomania and Jeremy Wheatley produced the song ; the latter mixed it at the Town House Studios , London . " In the Middle " was programmed by Matt Duguid , Nick Coler , Tim Powell and Tim Larcombe .
The Sugababes confirmed through their official website in February 2004 that " In the Middle " would be the released as the album 's third single . Island Records released it on 22 March 2004 as a CD single and digital download . The song 's release coincided with the commencement of the group 's UK tour in March 2004 . The CD single and digital download releases contain a B @-@ side titled " Disturbed " . A maxi single was released ; it includes the B @-@ side " Colder in the Rain " , and two remixes of the track , including one by DJ Hyper , which appears on his remix album , Wired ( 2004 ) . " In the Middle " is featured on the Sugababes ' greatest hits album Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" In the Middle " is a dance @-@ pop song with elements of R & B and funk . The Jerusalem Post 's Harry Rubenstein described it as a " club @-@ style experimental " . According to the digital sheet music published by Hal Leonard Publishing , " In the Middle " was composed in the key of B minor using common time , with a tempo of 128 beats per minute . It is reminiscent of the group 's singles " Round Round " and " Hole in the Head " , both of which were also produced by Xenomania . " In the Middle " contains a sample of " U Know Y " by German DJ Moguai , and features guitar and keyboard instrumentation . The song contains a low bassline that derives from a synthesised trombone . The lyrical content of " In the Middle " is about finding a man after a night out , in which the chorus is opened with the lines , " I 'm caught up in the middle , jumping through the riddle , I 'm falling just a little tonight " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" In the Middle " received rave reviews from critics . Natasha Perry of Contactmusic.com named the song one of Three 's " instant winners " ; Harry Rubenstein from the Jerusalem Post similarly considered it one of the album 's best tracks . The Guardian writer Andrew Mueller regarded " In the Middle " as " vastly superior " , while Alan Braidwood of BBC described it as quality pop . Ben Hogwood of musicOMH questioned the number of songwriters it took to write the track , although cited this as reasons for the " polished production and slicker than slick chorus " . Writing for the Daily Mirror , Gavin Martin commended the Sugababes ' attitude in the song , which he described as " colourful and explosive " . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music characterised " In the Middle " as a " retro hip @-@ shake " . A critic from the Daily Record regarded the song as " addictive and dancey " and wrote that it highlights the group 's " considerable charms " . The writer noted that it echoes the appeal of their number @-@ one singles , " Freak Like Me " and " Round Round " . Daily Mail writer Adrian Thrills commented that the song replicates " the swaggering grandeur " of the group 's older material .
James Mortlock of the Eastern Daily Press described " In the Middle " as a pop classic from the Sugababes , while Hot Press magazine 's Phil Udell considered it one of the finest pop songs of the 2000s . " In the Middle " earned the Sugababes a 2005 BRIT Award nomination for Best British Single . However , the song was added to the category after the BRIT Awards organisers had made an error with the original list , as it was drawn up with the incorrect timescale .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" In the Middle " made its first chart appearance on the Irish Singles Chart on 25 March 2004 in which it peaked at number thirteen . It spent seven weeks on the chart , and was their second consecutive single to peak at this position . The song debuted and peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated 3 April 2004 and became the group 's third consecutive top @-@ ten hit in the UK . It spent eight weeks on the chart . The single 's highest chart peak was on the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 chart , where it debuted at number thirty @-@ one and reached number seven three weeks later . It became the chart 's 70th best @-@ performing single of 2004 . " In the Middle " peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Swiss Singles Chart , number twenty @-@ nine on the German Singles Chart , number thirty @-@ three on the Austrian Singles Chart , and number forty on the Belgian ( Flanders ) Ultratop chart . The single reached number nine on the Hungarian Dance Chart and number thirty @-@ three on the Hungarian Radio Chart . " In the Middle " charted at number thirty @-@ three on Australian Singles Chart , becoming the Sugababes ' third consecutive top @-@ forty hit in Australia .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " In the Middle " was directed by Matthew Rolston , who directed the video for the group 's previous single " Hole in the Head " . It was filmed at Pinewood Studios , London in February 2004 . The photography was completed by Martin Ahlgren . Buchanan refrained from revealing details about the video before its release , saying : " The shoot went very well but what actually happens in the video is being kept a secret until it 's shown . We ’ re all really excited and can 't wait to hear what our fans think about it ! " It aired on the Sugababes ' official website , and on television , on 20 February 2004 and was included on the single 's CD release .
Rolston used the green screen effect to produce the video , while the designs and effects for its environments were created by Jerry Steele . Rolston conceptualised a " prism @-@ like " glass room with six sides and large glass walls , in which Steele was inspired to enhance it with effects including reflections and lights . The video was developed in magical settings , as STEELE VFX created " glamorous virtual environments " such as a sparkling glass room . Buchanan wore a bikini , covered in chains and spikes , for the video . She is featured in a blue room and has rainbow @-@ coloured sparkles on her face . Buena , who is seen pole dancing in a green @-@ coloured room , is shown controlling " smoke elements " with her hands . Range is shown in a pink room , and dances around a chair and against a wall . Throughout the video , each group members ' name appears on screen , Mutya 's formed by smoke , Keisha 's formed by diamonds and Heidi 's formed by metallic cubes .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed an extended version of " In the Middle " during their UK tour in March and April 2004 to promote Three , in which they were supported by a four @-@ piece band . The group performed the single , along with " Hole in the Head " and " Too Lost in You " , at Birmingham 's Party in the Park festival on 10 July 2004 . " In the Middle " was included in the set list for the band 's 2007 tour in support of Overloaded : The Singles Collection . In addition , it was performed as part of the group 's 2008 Change Tour , in which the performances featured the group in large , mirrored skirts , while rays of light were reflecting around the venue . Kat Keogh of The Journal praised their performance at the Newcastle City Hall as one of the show 's highlights , while a critic from The Scotsman described their performance at the Edinburgh Playhouse as " ridiculously camp " , although admitted that the light effect was " simple yet fantastically effective " . The Sugababes performed " In the Middle " on 10 July 2009 at the Riverside Ground in County Durham , England , as part of a set list .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner , Michael Bellina
Production – Brian Higgins , Xenomania , Jeremy Wheatley
Additional production – MOGUAI , Phil Fuldner , Michael Bellina
Mixed by Jeremy Wheatley at the Townhouse Studios , London
Programming – Matt Duguid , Nick Coler , Tim Powell , Tim Larcombe
Keyboards – Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Tim Larcombe
Guitar – Nick Coler , Shawn Lee
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
= Russian cruiser Rossia =
Rossia ( Russian : Россия ) was an armored cruiser of the Imperial Russian Navy built in the 1890s . She was designed as a long @-@ range commerce raider and served as such during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . She was based in Vladivostok when the war broke out and made a number of sorties in search of Japanese shipping in the early months of the war without much success .
Rossia , along with the other armored cruisers of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron , attempted to rendezvous in the Strait of Tsushima with the main portion of the Pacific Fleet sailing from Port Arthur in August 1904 , but were delayed and had to return to port without them . They encountered a Japanese squadron of four armored cruisers between them and their base shortly after they turned around . The Japanese sank the oldest Russian ship , Rurik , and damaged Rossia and Gromoboi during the Battle off Ulsan , but both Russian ships were repaired within two months .
After the end of the war Rossia returned to Kronstadt where she underwent a three @-@ year refit that strengthened her armament . She was fitted with mine rails in 1914 and laid one minefield during World War I that damaged two German light cruisers . She was reconstructed beginning in late 1915 to further strengthen her armament , but played no part during the rest of the war as her crew became involved in revolutionary activities in 1917 . She was taken over by the Bolsheviks in late 1917 , but was put into reserve in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Rossia was originally intended to be a repeat of the armored cruiser Rurik , but the Director of the Naval Ministry wanted the armor to cover more of the ship 's side . However the design went through a number of changes during late 1892 and early 1893 and incorporated a number of technological advances that had recently become available . One notable change was the deletion of Rurik 's sailing rig .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Rossia was 485 feet ( 147 @.@ 8 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 68 @.@ 6 feet ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 26 @.@ 2 feet ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 195 long tons ( 12 @,@ 391 t ) , only 65 long tons ( 66 t ) more than designed . Rossia was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce fouling . She was considered to be a good sea boat with a smooth roll — attributable to her tumblehome sides .
= = = Propulsion = = =
In an effort to extend her range , Rossia was built with an unusual machinery arrangement . One large vertical triple expansion ( VTE ) steam engine drove each of the outer propeller shafts while a small cruising VTE engine drove the center shaft . At full speed the center propeller had to be uncoupled as there was not enough steam to drive all three engines simultaneously ; the outer propellers were uncoupled when cruising . The two main engines were designed for a total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 813 kW ) , but they developed 15 @,@ 523 ihp ( 11 @,@ 575 kW ) on trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 74 knots ( 36 @.@ 56 km / h ; 22 @.@ 72 mph ) . The cruising engine developed 2 @,@ 500 ihp ( 1 @,@ 864 kW ) . Thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines .
She could carry a maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 235 t ) of coal . This gave her a radius of action of 7 @,@ 740 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 330 km ; 8 @,@ 910 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . In 1898 , some of the first large warship trials of oil fuel were carried out .
= = = Armament = = =
Rossia 's main armament consisted of four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber Pattern 1892 guns , one at each end of the ship on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . They were protected by gun shields . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 18 ° . They fired 193 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 900 m / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at 13 ° elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 Pattern 1892 guns . One gun was mounted under the forecastle and another in the stern ; neither gun could fire to the side . The remaining guns were mounted in hull embrasures . In their pivot mounts the guns could depress to -6 ° and elevate to + 20 ° . They fired 91 @.@ 4 @-@ pound ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) Pattern 1907 high explosive projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 feet per second ( 790 m / s ) . This gave a range of 12 @,@ 600 yd ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) at maximum elevation . Rossia carried 210 rounds per gun .
Defense against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ caliber weapons . Twelve 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 ° with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute .
A total of twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were carried . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . Eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were also carried . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Five above @-@ water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes were mounted . The exact type of torpedo carried likely changed over Rossia 's lifetime : the original fifteen @-@ inch Whitehead torpedo only had a maximum range of 440 yards ( 402 @.@ 3 m ) at a speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) and a 57 @-@ pound ( 25 @.@ 9 kg ) warhead . These were later replaced by an improved model with two speed / range settings and a 141 @-@ pound ( 64 @.@ 0 kg ) warhead . Its maximum range was 980 yards ( 896 @.@ 1 m ) at a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
Rossia used newly developed Harvey armor which saved considerable weight over the steel armor used by Rurik for the same amount of protection . Her waterline belt extended from the stern to 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) short of the bow . It extended 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) above the waterline and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below the waterline . It was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to six inches fore and abaft the machinery spaces and to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at the stern . The belt tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) at its lower edge . It was closed off at the forward end by a 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkhead . A protective 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @-@ inch ( 64 – 76 mm ) deck ran forward from the bulkhead to the bow . The main armored deck was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick , but a five @-@ inch glacis projected above it to protect the tops of the engine cylinders . The conning tower had walls 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick . The funnel uptakes were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor between the lower and middle decks .
= = Operational history = =
Rossia was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Construction began in October 1893 although she was not formally laid down until 20 May 1895 and launched on 30 April 1896 . After her launch , she was towed to Kronstadt for fitting @-@ out , but she was pushed onto a sandbar by a storm and required a month to free her . Rossia entered service in late 1896 and participated in Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee Fleet Review in June 1897 at Spithead . She returned to Kronstadt to finish her trials before sailing for the Far East in October . She reached Nagasaki , Japan on 10 March 1898 and remained in the Pacific until the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Rossia was under the command of Captain Andrei Parfenovich Andreev , and was the flagship of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron under the overall command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen . The other ships in the squadron were the armored cruisers Gromoboi and Rurik as well as the protected cruiser Bogatyr . The squadron made a number of sorties against Japanese shipping early in the war , but only one was reasonably successful when the transport Hitachi Maru , carrying eighteen 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege howitzers and over 1000 troops intended for the siege of Port Arthur , was sunk in June 1904 . On an earlier sortie in May 1904 Rossia flew an observation balloon off her quarterdeck to ( unsuccessfully ) locate Japanese shipping ; the first use of an aerial device by a warship on the high seas during a time of war .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
During the war the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was located in Port Arthur where they were blockaded by the Japanese . On 10 August 1904 the ships at Port Arthur attempted breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Admiral Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed and his ships had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . Bogatyr had been damaged earlier when she grounded and did not sail with the squadron . By dawn he had reached the island of Tsushima in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan . He turned back for Vladivostok when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered the Japanese squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō tasked to patrol the Tsushima Strait . The Japanese force had four modern armored cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Tokiwa , and Azuma . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting the other and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Admiral Jessen turned to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 5 : 00 a.m. and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Admiral Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 Admiral Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Admiral Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma developed engine problems around this time so the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment so that she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Admiral Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Admiral Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Admiral Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . Iwate was hit around this time which knocked out three six @-@ inch and one twelve @-@ pounder guns , killing 32 and wounding 43 . The Japanese squadron opened the range again when it made a 180 ° another turn to port . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself . Her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Admiral Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Admiral Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Admiral Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Admiral Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could expend his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho which had closed to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of Rurik in order to finish her off . They had radioed Admiral Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs .
Rossia suffered only 44 dead and 156 wounded ; far less than Gromoboi 's 87 dead and 170 wounded . This was attributable to Rossia 's captain 's policy of ordering the gun crews for his quick @-@ firing guns on the engaged side to lay down and those on the unengaged side to go below , in contrast to the other ship keeping her light guns manned at all times . Rossia had been hit nineteen times on the starboard side of her hull and nine on her port side , plus other hits in her funnels , boats and decks . She had half of her guns knocked out and a fire caused by the ignition of excess propellant charges . Despite this number of hits , she was not badly damaged because her waterline belt was not penetrated by any hit . She was repaired within two months by the rudimentary facilities available at Vladivostok . Rossia made no further effort to interfere with Japanese shipping during the war .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Rossia returned to Kronstadt , arriving on 8 April 1906 , where she was given a lengthy refit that was finished in 1909 . Her engines and boilers were reconditioned , her mainmast was removed and she received additional six @-@ inch guns . Six more guns in lightly armored casemates were added on the upper deck , positioned on each side in the intervals between the main @-@ deck six @-@ inch guns . In addition the bow gun was moved to the upper deck to allow it to fire to each side . This increased the ship 's broadside by four guns .
Rossia represented Russia at King George V 's Coronation Fleet Review in June 1911 . She departed Kronstadt in September 1912 for a training cruise to the Canaries and the Virgin Islands , returning to the Baltic in time to visit Copenhagen in March 1913 in company with the protected cruisers Aurora and Oleg . She left for another training cruise to the Azores in September 1913 and was cruising in the Mediterranean in April 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
Rossia served as the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Brigade of the Baltic Fleet during World War I. She was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with a capacity of one hundred naval mines before the war . In January 1915 she laid a minefield in company with Oleg and Bogatyr between Kiel and the Mecklenburg coast that damaged the German light cruisers SMS Augsburg and SMS Gazelle . She was reconstructed beginning in October 1915 at Kronstadt to increase her armament . Her forecastle deck was removed as well as the fore and aft six @-@ inch guns . They were replaced by two eight @-@ inch guns mounted on the centerline forward and another pair was mounted on the quarterdeck . These additions increased her broadside to six eight @-@ inch , but only seven six @-@ inch guns .
Rossia 's crew took an active part in the revolutionary movements in 1917 and came under control of the Soviet Red Fleet in September 1917 . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Rossia sailed to Kronstadt in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' and was placed into reserve shortly after her arrival . She was sold to a German company for scrapping on 1 July 1922 . While being towed to Germany , she grounded on the coast of Estonia , but was subsequently towed to Kiel and broken up .
= KaDee Strickland =
Katherine Dee " KaDee " Strickland ( born December 14 , 1975 ) is an American actress known for her role as Charlotte King on the ABC drama Private Practice .
Well known in her hometown of Patterson , Georgia , when she was a child , she began acting during high school . Strickland studied the profession in Philadelphia and New York City , where she obtained mostly small roles in film , television and theater projects , among them The Sixth Sense ( 1999 ) . Her participation in the 2003 Hollywood films Anything Else and Something 's Gotta Give led to her receiving significant parts in the horror pictures Anacondas and The Grudge ( both 2004 ) . In the period they were released , Strickland was referred to as " the pride of Patterson " and the horror fandom 's " newest scream queen " , though her performances in both films received mixed critical reviews .
In 2005 , Strickland garnered positive critical comment for the romantic comedy Fever Pitch , and in 2007 , she was a cast regular in the television show The Wedding Bells and subsequently was added to the cast of Private Practice . Strickland has spoken against the emphasis placed on beauty in the Los Angeles acting community , in which she says her Southern U.S. background has helped to distinguish herself from other blonde @-@ haired actors . She has spoken of an affinity for her strong female characters and a desire to avoid sexualizing or sensationalizing her self @-@ presentation as a woman . She also has worked closely with the Rape , Abuse , and Incest National Network ( RAINN ) after participating in a storyline in which her Private Practice character Charlotte King was raped .
= = Early life and education = =
Strickland was born in Blackshear , Georgia to Susan Strickland , a nurse , and Dee Strickland , a high school football coach , principal and superintendent . KaDee 's birthname is Katherine Dee ; her parents combined the K in Katherine with her father 's name to make KaDee . She was raised in Patterson , Georgia , which she said is a " one @-@ stoplight town " , and she had a job picking tobacco on a local farm for eight years . When she was a child , Strickland watched the Woody Allen film Annie Hall ( 1975 ) and was , as she put it , " wanting to be in that place , and being completely taken with the energy of those people . I wanted to be in it " . During her childhood , she was well known locally as a member of the Strickland family and for her extracurricular activities and achievements ( she was the Homecoming Queen in elementary , middle and high school , the student council president and a cheerleader ) . She never considered a career in the performing arts until her participation in a one @-@ act play performed by students of her high school : " [ ... ] the minute I set foot on stage , that was it . Destiny took over . There were no other options . I felt like I fit my skin , I knew what I was here to do " , Strickland said .
After graduating from high school , Strickland wanted to study drama at college in New York City , but her parents did not want her to live in such a large city so soon . Consequently , she applied instead to the University of the Arts in Philadelphia . During her studies there , she joined the Screen Actors Guild and considered using her given name , Katherine , as the first part of her stage name , before deciding she was " much too tomboy " for it . Strickland took a part @-@ time waitressing job at a local restaurant and interned at a casting agency , where one of her tasks was to read lines at auditions for small roles in local film and television projects ; the job landed Strickland her first film role . After graduating from university with a Fine Arts degree , she was schooled in New York City , and in late 2003 , she moved to Los Angeles , California . In 2006 , Strickland received the University of the Arts 's Silver Star Alumni Award .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Strickland 's career began in 1999 with a brief appearance as a mourner at a funeral after @-@ party in The Sixth Sense , a two @-@ line part that she received after impressing writer @-@ director M. Night Shyamalan when reading lines for those auditioning for the film . According to Strickland , her role in the film helped her learn to temper her fake crying . The same year , she served as an extra in the independent film The Sterling Chase , and appeared in a small role opposite Winona Ryder and Angelina Jolie in James Mangold 's drama Girl , Interrupted .
When staying in Philadelphia , Strickland had opportunities to take part in other films in production in and around the city . Those included Rel Dowdell 's Train Ride , a date rape thriller filmed in 1998 , but not commercially released until 2005 because of financing problems . She was also cast in the crime drama Diamond Men with Robert Forster and Donnie Wahlberg ; it opened to sparkling reviews , with Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times declaring it " a fantastic film , with a good cast " . After she moved to New York City , Strickland appeared in Adam Bhala Lough 's filmmaking debut , Bomb the System , which received unenthusiastic notices from critics and was not shown outside film festivals until 2005 .
Concurrent to her film work , Strickland acquired stage experience in productions such as A Requiem for Things Past in mid @-@ 1999 , and John Patrick Shanley 's Women of Manhattan . She acted in a December 2002 episode of the television show Law & Order : Criminal Intent and made nine guest appearances on All My Children , which enabled her to leave her waitressing job . In 2003 , Strickland was cast opposite Eddie Cibrian in the pilot episode for an uncommissioned small screen serial adaptation of John Grisham 's novel The Street Lawyer .
Strickland appeared in two romantic comedy films in 2003 . Anything Else , written and directed by Woody Allen , featured her as the girlfriend of Jason Biggs 's character ( whom he snubs for Christina Ricci 's Amanda Chase ) ; she said it was a " dream come true " to work with Allen , of whom she is an " obsessive diehard " fan . The film was greeted with lukewarm reviews and dismal ticket sales , though Strickland later referred to it as her " big break " . The second , Something 's Gotta Give ( starring Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton ) , was a major critical and commercial success , though Strickland 's part in the film was brief . She played the girlfriend of Keaton 's character 's ex @-@ husband ( played by Paul Michael Glaser ) , a relationship involving age disparity that raised the eyebrows of Keaton and her daughter ( Amanda Peet ) . The following year , she made brief appearances in the direct @-@ to @-@ cable independent film Knots and the poorly received satirical comedy The Stepford Wives with Nicole Kidman , playing a partygoer and a game show contestant , respectively .
= = = Major film roles = = =
Strickland 's first lead role came when producer Doug Belgrad saw the dailies of her scene in Something 's Gotta Give . He cast her opposite Johnny Messner and Morris Chestnut in the jungle @-@ set horror film Anacondas : The Hunt for the Blood Orchid , the sequel to Anaconda ( 1997 ) . Strickland played an accomplished research scientist who travels to Borneo as part of an expedition team searching for a species of plant rumored to have life @-@ extending properties . She said she initially did not want to follow a Woody Allen film with a " snake movie " , but that she changed her mind because the hero was a female Southerner who was not " a complete idiot " or " a chick in shorts about to get whacked " . Though its box office revenue tripled its production budget , Anacondas did not perform as well as its predecessor , and most reviews panned the project . The cast received positive comment from Variety magazine and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Roger Ebert , but a critic for the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said the film was " so stupidly plotted and badly acted , it becomes unintentionally funny " , and described Strickland and her co @-@ stars ' work as " garden @-@ variety bad " . Other reviews focussed on the attractiveness of Strickland and her castmates ; Slant Magazine said " [ the film is ] populated with anonymous , attractive plastic people from the Los Angeles talent pool . " During the same period , The Florida Times @-@ Union referred to her as " the pride of Patterson " .
Strickland 's next project , The Grudge , was another horror film . In Japanese director Takashi Shimizu 's U.S. remake of his film Ju @-@ on : The Grudge ( 2003 ) , Strickland played ( in a role originated by Misaki Ito ) a Tokyo @-@ based American businesswoman whose relatives emigrate from the U.S. Strickland received the role through a casting session with producer Sam Raimi , who picked her based on her work in footage for the then @-@ unreleased Anacondas , and her willingness to work away from home for extended periods . She said that Japan and Japanese cinema had always fascinated her , and that she wanted to be " a part of that world " in which filmmakers communicate the story via action rather than dialogue ; she also highlighted the importance of being " able to explore being in the wrong place at the wrong time without being a sex object / damsel in distress . " The Grudge was a number @-@ one U.S. box office hit and quickly became one of the year 's most profitable films , but reviews were lukewarm . The Charlotte Observer wrote " the cast is drab and lifeless " , and earned " nothing but demerits " . Strickland 's presence in The Grudge and Anacondas led horror fans to name her " [ their ] newest scream queen " , but she said that when deciding what film to do next , she did not focus as much on genre as she did on good characters , scripts , and directors , which she said " don 't come around that often . " For the scene in which her character hides under her bed covers , Strickland received a 2005 Teen Choice Award nomination for Choice Movie Scary Scene .
In late 2004 , Strickland embarked on what she called " the craziest job I 've ever had " : a role in the Farrelly brothers film Fever Pitch , a baseball @-@ themed romantic comedy starring Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon ( Strickland 's Anything Else co @-@ star ) and based on the Nick Hornby book . Strickland said it was " a blast " to play " such a maniac " , particularly after playing emotionally traumatised characters in Anacondas and The Grudge . On the film 's 2005 release , she received praise from PopMatters magazine , which described her as " irrepressible " in her role , and from MSNBC , which said she and JoBeth Williams " sometimes rescue [ the picture ] from its plodding moments " . The film raised Strickland 's profile further , though its critical response was mixed and it performed moderately at the box office . Strickland appeared as a lawyer and love interest in the film American Gangster , which stars Russell Crowe and Denzel Washington in 2007 .
= = = Work in television = = =
In early 2005 , Strickland was cast in the pilot episode for the fact @-@ based ABC television series Laws of Chance . It was based on the career of Kelly Siegler , a highly successful Houston , Texas @-@ based assistant district attorney . Strickland , whose co @-@ stars in the pilot included Frances Fisher and Bruce McGill , said she was " really excited to have the opportunity to portray this phenomenal lady " , but the series was dropped from development a few months later . Strickland was also cast in the independently financed 1950s @-@ set film Walker Payne as laid @-@ off stripminer Jason Patric 's love interest ; in a review of the film at the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival , Variety wrote that Strickland was " elegant " . In late 2005 , she joined the cast of The Flock , a crime drama featuring Richard Gere , Claire Danes and singer Avril Lavigne about a federal agent assigned to track down a missing girl and a paroled sex offender ( played by Strickland ) . Strickland said it was important to participate in such a story because she felt members of society need to consider and be responsible for their views on the sex offender counterculture , which she says " [ is ] actually not counter at all , it 's very real , very next door to you . "
Strickland 's first aired television project as a cast regular was the David E. Kelley @-@ produced series The Wedding Bells . According to her , she wanted to be in the series because " the subject of love and commitment is something to me that I want to walk into every day . It 's a lot better than dead bodies . " The show began airing on the Fox Network in March 2007 , and it was canceled the following month . The Baltimore Sun called it " awful in ways that make the word ' awful ' seem inadequate [ ... ] [ the cast is ] not a bad one at all , but just terrifically ill @-@ served by the material . " She joined the cast of the Grey 's Anatomy spin @-@ off Private Practice , which began airing in September 2007 ; and potrayedCharlotte King , chief of staff at the show 's local hospital and a doctor specializing in urologic surgery , and later sexology .
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77 Isobarik PMS launched .
1978 Sep Damping : Midrange enclosure and cabinet damping changed . SN . 10283 / 4
1979 The smaller Isobarik Sara launched .
1979 Nov Midrange unit : Vented . SN . 10 @,@ 800 / 1
1980 Feb Treble unit : Scan @-@ Speak treble unit replaced SN . 10 @,@ 925 / 6
1980 Mar Wiring : common earth at cannon socket . SN . 11 @,@ 035 / 6
1981 Oct Treble unit : Fitted with t @-@ nuts . SN . 2741 / 2
1982 Jan Cabinet : Changed from chipboard to medite and veneered on both sides . SN . 2859 / 60
1983 Mar Bass / Midrange units : Sound deadening material painted on bass and midrange units . SN . 3000 / 1
1984 May Crossover / Treble units : circuit board with wider tracks and improved layout . New treble units with a smoother response . Linn logo incorporated on front plate . SN . 3939 / 40
1985 Dec Cabinet : improved internal sealing and damping SN . 4825 / 6
1986 Apr Midrange units : harder rubber used for surround . SN . 4953 / 4
1987 Cabinet : Crossover moved to compartment in bottom of speaker . SN . 5575 / 6
1987 Sep Isobarik Sara 9 replaces Isobarik Sara
1988 Crossover : New 4 ohm external crossover fitted in stand . Facility for tri @-@ wiring .
1988 DMS discontinued – PMS can be driven passively ( 4 ohm ) or actively . SN . 6701 / 2
1989 Isobarik Sara 9 discontinued
1991 Dec Speaker : Addition of Ku @-@ Stone ceramic absorber , sealant changed to gaskets from silicone , improved cabinet bracing ( non @-@ retrofittable ) SN . 8293 / 4
1992 Isobarik discontinued .
Source : Linn
= = = Reception = = =
The Isobarik loudspeaker has received some polarised opinions , although Hi @-@ fi News noted that the speaker kept its promise by managing to " play the lowest bass guitar notes cleanly and give an impression of unlimited bass extension " . The Linn / Naim triamped active system , using a LP12 source , Naim amplification and electronic crossovers together with the Isobarik PMS , was regarded as the pinnacle of " flat @-@ earther " hi @-@ fi systems , and the speaker is integral to the general aura of mysticism that went with the Linn / Naim equipment .
= = Other Isobarik products = =
The Isobarik Sara is a product concurrent with the PMS for the whole of its life . This 2 @-@ way , 4 @-@ ohm , design was a physically much smaller product – measuring 425 × 332 × 244 mm ( 16 @.@ 7 × 13 @.@ 1 × 9 @.@ 6 in ) – that required tall speaker stands . Launched in 1978 , it was Linn 's entry @-@ level loudspeaker until the Kan ( a non @-@ isobaric bookshelf speaker using the same Linn D20 @-@ LP @-@ 1 and KEF B110 drive units as its big brother ) was released . The Kan was discontinued in 1990 .
In the late 1980s , Linn worked on a replacement for the Isobarik . The project bearing the codename " Isobarik LS2000 " became the Keltik . Although the final product does not bear the Isobarik name , the technology was mentioned in marketing materials and the product manual . Other products bearing the trade @-@ marked " Isobarik " name include the Melodik Active Isobarik Bass and the Majik Isobarik ( 2011 – )
= Prior Park Landscape Garden =
Prior Park Landscape Garden surrounding the Prior Park estate south of Bath , Somerset , England , was designed in the 18th century by the poet Alexander Pope and the landscape gardener Capability Brown , and is now owned by the National Trust . The garden was influential in defining the style known as the " English landscape garden " in continental Europe . The garden is Grade I listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
Around 1100 the site was part of a deer park set out by the Bishop of Bath and Wells John of Tours . In 1720s it was bought by Ralph Allen and landscaped to complement his new house . Further development was undertaken after the house became a seminary and then a Roman Catholic grammar school ( which later became Prior Park College ) . In the 1990s 11 @.@ 3 hectares ( 28 acres ) of the park and pleasure grounds were acquired by the National Trust and a large scale restoration undertaken . Features of Prior Park Landscape Garden include a Palladian architecture bridge , lake and ancillary buildings .
= = History = =
Set in a small steep valley overlooking the city of Bath a park was established on the site by John of Tours , the Bishop of Bath and Wells , in around 1100 as a deer park . It was subsequently sold to Humphrey Colles , a lawyer and member of parliament for Somerset , and then another member of parliament , Matthew Colthurst . Even before the Dissolution of the Monasteries the walls which had enclosed the deer park had fallen into disrepair and the deer had escaped . The land was then returned to agricultural use .
= = = 18th @-@ century design = = =
Purchased by the local entrepreneur and philanthropist Ralph Allen in the 1720s , Prior Park 's 11 @.@ 3 hectares ( 28 acres ) English landscape garden was laid out with advice from the poet Alexander Pope during the construction of the house , overseen by Allen between the years 1734 and his death in 1764 . During 1737 , at least 55 @,@ 200 trees , mostly elm and Scots pine , were planted , along the sides and top of the valley . The valley floor remained as grassland and drainage water was channelled to form fish ponds at the bottom of the valley .
Later work , during the 1750s and 1760s , was undertaken by the landscape gardener Capability Brown ; this included extending the gardens to the north , removing the central cascade and making the wooded hillside ( combe ) into a single sweep . " The garden was influential in defining the style of garden known as the ' English garden ' in continental Europe " . The gardens were laid out in two distinct areas : those on the east side of the house were set out as vegetable plots on either side of the serpentine path , while on the western side were statues and grottoes , trees and evergreens with climbing and scented plants . Exotic plants which had only recently arrived in Britain included Aristolochiaceae , Passiflora and Bignonia .
In 1828 the house and estate were purchased by Bishop Augustine Baines to create a seminary and then Bishop William Clifford for a Roman Catholic grammar school which later became Prior Park College . Further landscaping was carried out in the 1880s .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1993 the park and pleasure grounds were acquired by the National Trust and it was opened to the public in 1996 . In November 2002 , a large @-@ scale restoration project began on the cascade , serpentine lake and Gothic temple in the wilderness area , this is now complete . Extensive planting also took place in 2007 . Future plans include re @-@ roofing the grotto and building a replica Gothic temple .
= = Garden features = =
The garden 's features include a Palladian architecture bridge ( one of only four of this design left in the world ) , Gothic temple , gravel cabinet , Mrs Allen 's Grotto , the ice house , lodge and three pools with curtain walls as well as a serpentine lake . The curtain wall by the lake is known as the Sham Bridge and is similar to Kent 's Cascade at Chiswick House and Vunus Vale at Rousham House . Ralph Allen was also responsible for the construction of Sham Castle on a hill overlooking Bath .
The rusticated stone piers on either side of the main entrance gates are surmounted by entablatures and large ornamental vases , while those at the drive entrance have ornamental carved finials . The Porter 's Lodge was built along with the main house to designs by John Wood the Elder .
= = = Palladian bridge = = =
The Palladian bridge , which is a copy of the one at Wilton House , has been designated as a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument . It was repaired in 1936 .
= = Bath Skyline = =
A five @-@ minute walk from the garden leads on to the Bath Skyline , a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) circular walk around the city that encompasses woodlands , meadows , an Iron Age hill @-@ fort , Roman settlements , 18th @-@ century follies and views over the city .
= Aldermaston =
Aldermaston / ˈɔːldərmɑːstən / is a mostly rural , dispersed settlement , civil parish and electoral ward in Berkshire , South @-@ East England . In the United Kingdom Census 2011 , the parish had a population of 1015 . The village is in the south the mid @-@ Kennet alluvial plain and bounds to the south Hampshire . It is roughly equidistant from Newbury , Basingstoke and Reading , centred 46 miles ( 74 km ) west @-@ by @-@ south @-@ west of London .
Aldermaston may have been inhabited as early as 1690 CE ; a number of postholes and remains of cereal grains have been found in the area . Written history of the village is traced back at least as far as the 9th century AD . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicles show that the Ealdorman of Berkshire had his country estate in the village . The manor of Aldermaston was established by the early 11th century , when the village was given to the Achard family by Henry I ; the manor is documented in the Domesday survey . The village church was established in the 13th century , and some of the original Norman architecture remains in the building 's structure . The last resident Lord of the Manor , Charles Keyser , died in 1929 . The manor estate has been subsequently occupied by Associated Electrical Industries , the XIX Tactical Air Command , the Women 's Land Army , Collier Macmillan Schools , Blue Circle Industries , and the Compass Group , who ran it as a hotel and corporate venue . It was bought by the Praxis Group in 2013 for £ 4 @.@ 7 million and is now subject to plans for restoration that include 227 new homes in order to finance the restoration of the manor house and grounds .
The name " Aldermaston " is well known in connection with the UK 's nuclear weapons programme , as well as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . The Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) , which develops , maintains , and disposes of the UK 's nuclear weaponry is in the parish . Built on the site of the former RAF Aldermaston , the plant has been the destination of numerous Aldermaston Marches . Until 2006 , the village was home to the Aldermaston Pottery , which was established by Alan Caiger @-@ Smith and Geoffrey Eastop in 1955 .
= = History = =
Evidence suggests that Aldermaston was inhabited in the 12th century CE , possibly extending back to 1690 CE . Radiocarbon dating on postholes and pits in the area show activity from 1690 to 1390 , 1319 to 1214 , and 977 to 899 CE . Wheat and barley grains have been found in these excavations . Tests show that most of the barley was dehulled , but that absence of such debris may mean that the cereal was brought in from other areas .
= = = Middle ages = = =
Before the 1066 Norman conquest of England , the land and properties of Aldermaston formed part of the estates of Harold Godwinson , the Earl of Wessex , who later became King Harold II of England . Harold 's assessment of Aldermaston valued the village 's 15 hides at £ 20 a year . As with much of the land seized by William the Conqueror after his arrival in England in 1066 , Aldermaston was held in demesne . His Domesday Survey of 1086 identified the existence of a mill , worth twenty shillings , and two fisheries , worth five shillings . During the rest of William 's reign , and that of his son William Rufus , Aldermaston was owned by the Crown .
The history of the Lords of the Manor of Aldermaston Court can be traced to Achard D 'Aldermaston , who was born in 1036 . Six families have had lordship of the Aldermaston estate . In the 11th century , Henry I gave Aldermaston to Robert Achard ( or Hachard ) of Sparsholt . In the mid @-@ 12th century , the Achard family founded the church of St Mary the Virgin . In 1292 , Edward I granted the right for the lord of the manor to hold a market in the village . Another charter was granted by Henry IV , with evidence that the market existed until approximately 1900 . The Achards also established an annual fair to observe the feast of St. Thomas the Martyr on 7 July .
Aldermaston was held by the Achard family until the 14th century , when it passed through marriage to Thomas De La Mare of Nunney Castle , Somerset . The De La Mare family governed Aldermaston for approximately 120 years , until Elizabeth de la Mare — whose male relatives predeceased her — married into the Forster family . In about 1636 , the Forsters built a large manor house to the east of the church . The house incorporated parts of an earlier ( 15th century ) house , including the chimney stacks . The Forsters ' house was fronted by two porches , separated by a central section with seven bays . The porches had ornate Solomonic columns , similar to those at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford . The interior of the house featured a number of mythical statues , as well as artwork by Gaspard Dughet , portraits of William Congreve and Godfrey Kneller , and Tintoretto 's Esther Before Ahasuerus . The house 's Jacobean garden featured patterns of groves and avenues of oak , yew , Spanish chestnut and lime trees . In the early 18th century the Forsters oversaw the building of almshouses in Church Road . Built by R Dixon in 1706 , the houses became known as " Dixon 's Cottages " . The manor passed through the Forster family until 1752 , when the Forster lineage ended and the estate was inherited by Ralph Congreve , the husband of the last Forster 's grand @-@ niece .
= = = Victorian era = = =
On Ralph 's death a second @-@ cousin of dramatist William Congreve inherited the manor . The Congreve Family owned the estate at the time of the 1830 Swing Riots . The rioters marched across Aldermaston , wrecking twenty @-@ three agricultural machines . Workers were so frightened by the riots that they left their machinery in the open in an attempt to limit additional damage . Around the same time , the River Kennet ( along the north side of the estate ) was made navigable between Reading and Newbury .
In 1843 , the manor house was destroyed by fire , news of which was carried in The Illustrated London News . The estate passed into the Court of Chancery and was purchased by Daniel Higford Davall Burr . In 1848 , Burr commissioned the building of a neoclassical mansion to the south west of the original building . Burr saved the 17th @-@ century manor 's wooden staircase , though all that remains of the building is a staircase to the cellar ( which is now home to a colony of bats ) . By 1851 the new building was complete , costing £ 20 @,@ 000 and having a Tudor @-@ like appearance . Burr held the estate until his death 50 years later , when was inherited by his son , who sold it in 1893 .
The buyer was wealthy stockbroker Charles Edward Keyser , who was preoccupied with the idea of keeping the village unchanged — or , as he described it , " unspoilt " . He forbade advertisements , opposed all modernisation and refused to allow any expansion by the building of houses . He did , however , commission the building of a parish hall in 1897 and provided the village with a water supply , and the water fountain on the small village green was installed to commemorate Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . Keyser oversaw the restoration of the village almshouses in 1906 and 1924 , and defrayed the cost of a memorial oak tablet in memory of those killed in World War I. Of the 100 men from the village who served in the war , 22 were killed ( the highest percentage of town population in the country ) . The tablet bears the name of each man lost in action .
During Keyser 's lordship , John Marius Wilson 's Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales listed Adminston as a possible name for the village . On his death in 1929 , his wife , Mary , continued to occupy the house until she died in 1938 . The estate was auctioned off in September 1938 , and many lots were purchased by their occupiers . The manor house was bought by Associated Electrical Industries ( AEI ) for £ 16 @,@ 000 . One of the houses in the village is recorded as having fetched £ 1 @,@ 375 . As AEI 's chairman , Felix Pole became the de jure Lord of the Manor upon their purchase of Aldermaston Court .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
During the 1940s RAF Aldermaston was created on the parkland at the southern end of the parish , with XIX Tactical Air Command stationed at the manor house . After World War II , the manor was returned to AEI who built the MERLIN reactor on part of the land . The reactor was opened on 6 November 1959 by The Duke of Edinburgh . With the opening of the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment ( AWRE ) in 1950 , Aldermaston became synonymous with a number of CND marches .
In 1953 , Pole stepped down as Lord of the Manor and was succeeded by AEI 's senior representative , Thomas Allibone . Allibone held the position for 32 years , until Blue Circle Industries acquired the estate in 1985 . Allibone was succeeded by Tony Jackson , and the current Lord of the Manor is Andy Hall . Blue Circle could not gain planning permission in the grounds of the court , so the MERLIN reactor was demolished to make way for Portland House . With a full redevelopment of Aldermaston Manor , the £ 14 million office development became Blue Circle 's international headquarters and the complex was opened by Prince Richard , Duke of Gloucester .
= = = Toponymy = = =
The village of Aldermaston derives its name from Ældremanestone , Eldremanestune or Hedlremanestone , the Old English for " Ealdorman 's Homestead " . The Ealdorman — or Alderman — was a person of extreme importance , equating to the modern @-@ day Lord @-@ Lieutenant of the County . Although his country estate was in Aldermaston , he would have spent most of the time in the original county town of Wallingford . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle states that the first known Ealdorman of Berkshire , Aethelwulf , fought the Danes with Ethelred of Wessex at the nearby Battle of Englefield in 871 .
Other documented names include Aldermaston ad Pontem ( 11th century ) , Aldremanneston ( 12th century ) , Aldremaneston ( 13th century ) , Aldermanston and Aldermanneston Achard ( 14th century ) , and Aldmerston ( 19th century ) .
= = Government = =
Historically , Aldermaston was a hundred , though for a period it was within the Theale hundred . By the 19th century , the hundreds had been superseded by other sub @-@ divisions . From then on , Aldermaston was , at times , part of the Bradfield Poor Law Union and Sanitary District , and the registration sub @-@ districts of Mortimer ( late 19th century ) and Bucklebury ( early 20th century ) . It was at all times an ecclesiastical parish and acquired civil parish status in the 1890s .
The civil parish council is elected by every resident on West Berkshire elections . It is in the area of West Berkshire unitary authority . The electoral ward of Aldermaston includes the neighbouring parishes of Wasing , Brimpton , Midgham , and Woolhampton . The ward is the smallest in West Berkshire by population . The ward 's councillor is Dominic Boeck , who represents the Conservative Party .
Aldermaston is under the catchment of Thames Valley Police and is covered by the Brimpton Neighbourhood Policing Team . In a meeting with Aldermaston Parish Council , the police reported that 57 criminal offences were reported to have taken place in the parish between 2009 and 2010 . Of this , the majority was theft from non @-@ dwelling properties . Vehicle crime had dropped by 57 % on the previous year but violent crime had risen from four to six incidents . Five of these crimes were reported to be domestic violence . There have been no reported cases of robbery in Aldermaston since 2006 .
= = Geography = =
Aldermaston is in West Berkshire , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the Hampshire boundary . The village is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the A4 road that links the parish with Newbury and Reading . The main road in Aldermaston , The Street , is part of the A340 road and links the village with Pangbourne and Basingstoke . The course of Ermin Street , the Roman road that linked Calleva Atrebatum ( Silchester ) with Glevum ( Gloucester ) via Corinium Dobunnorum ( Cirencester ) runs south of the village , but none of the road survives in the area .
At the southern end of The Street is a small triangular village green called The Loosey — supposedly named after a " Lucy " who planted the oak tree which stands on the green . The Loosey is the site of a Roman well , discovered in 1940 by a cow that almost fell down it . The Loosey was previously home to the village maypole ( which was often climbed by Daniel Burr 's monkey ) and a drinking fountain erected by Charles Keyser to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria .
The River Kennet and River Enborne flow through the parish . The confluence of the rivers is approximately 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) north of the village . The Kennet and Avon Canal forms part of the parish 's boundaries with Woolhampton and Padworth .
Sections of Grim 's Bank are in the parish . Part of the earthwork in the AWE complex survives at a height of 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) and with a ditch 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep .
= = = Geology = = =
The landscape of Aldermaston is influenced by Paices Hill and Rag Hill , which are extremities of the chalk formation the North Wessex Downs as part of the Thames Basin Heaths . The topography of the land in the parish generally slopes northward to the River Kennet .
The soil in the parish is high in clay . Due to the parish 's location within the Kennet Valley there is a high concentration of alluvium , with the content largely determined by the London Clay Formation , the Bagshot Formation , and the Bracklesham Beds .
= = = Flooding = = =
The quite flat low clay of Aldermaston 's north has with exceptional rainfall led to flooding certain populous streets on three occasions — 1971 , 1989 , and 2007 . The flood in 1971 caused by torrential rain was exacerbated by the non @-@ porous tarmac and buildings of the Atomic Weapons Establishment which managed for the first time to overwhelm its balancing ponds . This happened again in July 1989 , when an average of 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain was deposited across the parish in two hours ; water rose 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above the ponds and broke through a brick wall . The destroyed wall was rebuilt with 17 grilles to avoid another build @-@ up of water . A donation of £ 10 @,@ 000 was given to the village by Blue Circle .
In July 2007 , torrential rain flooded some of the traditional village centre and primary school . The storm coincided with the annual Glade music festival and jeopardised the event . The festival gates were temporarily closed while organisers assessed the flooding , which submerged one of the stages . The festival 's car park was incapacitated , with thousands of revellers stranded in the village and surrounding lanes .
The floods also hit the Church of England primary school , with the Royal Berkshire Fire and Rescue Service evacuating pupils and staff from the school in life rafts . The evacuation used four rafts , rescuing pupils and teachers from the school through windows . The 165 people ( 140 pupils and 25 members of staff ) were taken uphill to the parish hall , where blankets and sleeping bags had been provided .
Ian Henderson , a police constable at Thames Valley Police stated that the emergency services were " really stretched because of what happened over the county and the Glade event " , that " the [ A340 ] junction was two or three @-@ foot under water " , and predicted that " a lot of householders [ would be ] homeless . "
= = Demography = =
The 1831 census showed that 68 % of the employed population of Aldermaston were working class or " labourers and servants " . 20 % were middle class ( " middling sorts " ) , 10 % were upper class ( " employers and professionals " ) and 2 % were unclassified .
In 1887 the population of the parish was 528 . By 1896 , the population had grown to 585 . The population fluctuated steadily around 550 until the 1950s and 1960s , when a population explosion resulted in the 1961 UK census reporting 2 @,@ 186 residents in the parish . This coincides with the opening of the Atomic Weapons Establishment in the early 1950s , and the majority of this figure counts residents in the parts of Tadley within the parish of Aldermaston — between 1901 and 1961 , 368 houses were built in the parish .
A number of parish border changes occurred in the first half of the 20th century , including the net loss of 307 acres ( 124 ha ) to Beenham and Woolhampton on 1 April 1934 alone . By 2001 , the parish population had reduced to 927 .
The 2001 United Kingdom Census identified that 99 @.@ 3 % of householders in the parish as white . In 2005 30 % of parish residents lived in the village . Of the 70 % outside the village , 30 % lived at Aldermaston Wharf , 20 % in the local mobile home parks , 10 % in the Falcon Fields development and 10 % in " other outlying areas " . Falcon Fields is a housing development on the southern border of the parish , completed in the early 2000s . Ravenswing and Pinelands are mobile home parks near the Hampshire border . Raghill is an industrial area to the east of the parish , which has some light residential developments .
The average age of residents in the parish is approximately 50 with 31 @.@ 5 % of residents in the 45 – 64 age group . The average age of residents of Aldermaston Wharf is 30 @.@ 7 , and in the mobile home parks the average age is 53 @.@ 9 . Of these , 53 @.@ 3 % were female . This is in contrast with the 2001 census data , which showed that 49 @.@ 8 % were female .
In 2005 , 3 % of the parish population were unemployed and 25 % were retired . The retirement figure increased in the Pinelands and Ravenswing areas , with a statistic of 42 % . Most residents ' places of work are in surrounding towns , with their location in the parish largely dictating where to look for work . The 2005 survey identified that residents in the south of the parish ( Falcon Fields and Ravenswing / Pinelands ) travel towards Tadley and Basingstoke whereas those further north in the parish tend to find work in Reading , Newbury and London .
= = Economy = =
Historically , the main source of industry in Aldermaston has been agriculture . According to the 1831 census , approximately 66 % of working men ( aged 20 and over ) were employed in some form of agriculture . The next highest industry by workers was " retail and handicrafts " , which employed approximately 20 % . Employment categories in the 1881 census were more discreet ; just 20 % of working men identified their employment as agriculture . 30 % however , were listed as " general or unspecified commodities " . In this census , women 's employment was also documented . Of the 137 working women in the parish , 40 ( slightly fewer than 30 % ) worked in domestic services , whereas 82 ( approximately 60 % ) were of an unknown occupation .
= = = Agriculture = = =
In about 1797 a schoolmaster living in the village cultivated the Williams pear . The schoolmaster ( either Mr Wheeler or his successor , John Stair ) was the original cultivator , but the pear ( a cultivar of the European Pear ) was named after Richard Williams of Turnham Green , who grew several grafts of the original tree . On 5 December 1956 , a plaque commemorating the tree was unveiled on the wall of the village school .
Locally @-@ farmed wheat was milled at Aldermaston Mill until the 1920s . In existence at the time of the Domesday survey , the mill was previously called the " Kingsmill " , and at one time supplied flour to Huntley & Palmers in Reading . Now known as The Old Mill , it was owned by Wasing 's Mount family throughout the 18th and 19th centuries . William Mount let the mill to Francis Webb ( 1797 – 1811 ) , Mr Sherwood ( 1811 – 1820 ) , Mr King ( 1820 – 1824 ) , Mr Waldren ( 1824 – 1828 ) , Mr Mathews ( 1828 – 1848 ) , and William Gilchrist ( 1848 – 1856 ) . Gilchrist ( Mathews ' business partner ) bought the mill from Mount in 1856 using money inherited from his brother 's death the previous year . Owning it outright for approximately a year , he drowned in the River Kennet in 1857 after visiting the Angel public house in Woolhampton . Joseph Crockett purchased the mill in an auction the same year , before it was acquired by a Richard Sisling of Godalming in 1858 . In approximately 1860 , the mill was purchased by the Kersley family . Between then and 1885 , it was operated by Anthony Kersley , a miller and maltster who employed " six men and a boy , a carter , several domestic servants and a governess " . Kersley 's son , also named Anthony , ran the mill until 1895 . That year , Walter Parson bought the mill and operated it until approximately 1897 . Charles Keyser subsequently oversaw restoration on the mill building which " had been untenanted for upwards of three years " . He let the mill out to a Mr Iremonger from 1901 . Iremonger used the mill until the late 1920s , shortly before Keyser 's death . After Keyser had died and the Aldermaston estate had been divided and sold , his widow , Mary , approached Evelyn Arlott to run the mill as a tea room and guesthouse . The Arlott family purchased the mill in approximately 1939 , after the death of Mary Keyser .
In 1939 , there were seven farms on the Aldermaston estate — Forsters Farm , Village Farm , Church Farm , Upper Church Farm , Raghill Farm , Park Farm , and Soke Farm . These accounted for approximately 75 % of the estate 's land . Aside from these , there were six smallholdings within the parish but outside the land owned by the court . These were Springhill Farm , Court Farm , Strawberry Farm , Circus Farm , Ravenswing Farm , and Frouds Farm .
Of these , Church Farm and Forster 's Farm remain in operation . Upper Church Farm was originally known as Harry 's Farm , after a William Harry who died in 1544 .
= = = Pubs and brewing = = =
The local pub is named The Hind 's Head in honour of the Forster family crest . Built in the 17th century and originally operating as a coaching inn , the establishment was named The Pack Horse during the De La Mare and Forster lordships and The Congreve Arms throughout the Congreves ' ownership .
The building has a large black and gold clock set into the gable , and a small bellturret upon which is a gilt fox @-@ shaped weather vane . The bell was intended to be rung as an air @-@ raid siren during the Second World War . In the early 19th century the pub 's signboard carried the arms of the Congreve family , as well as branding for a company named " Adams " . In the British Parliamentary Papers of 1817 , the Committee on the State of the Police in the Metropolis reported evidence of a John Adams — a Reading @-@ based distiller and hop merchant — who competed for business against Simonds ' Brewery . By 1850 , the pub brewed beer on @-@ site ; a brewery was built as an out @-@ building behind the main pub building . John Knight produced beer at the pub for 40 years , selling it for 2d . The brewery building is still in existence , with the wooden louvres still operational . The building is now the pub 's kitchen . In the 1970s , the pub was owned by Whitbread . In the mid @-@ 1990s the pub was taken over by Gales Brewery ( having previously been a free house ) , later becoming tied to Fuller 's Brewery on their acquisition of Gales in 2006 . In the 1970s , the pub was home to the Kennet Folk Club .
The pub has its own gaol @-@ house , the lock @-@ up , at the rear . Built out of red brick , the small single @-@ storey building has a shallow domed roof . The inside of the lock @-@ up measures approximately 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and is enclosed by a studded door with a grille . It was last used in 1865 and its drunk inhabitant burnt himself to death trying to keep warm . The lock @-@ up was designated as a Grade II listed building in April 1967 . On 11 September 2010 the lock @-@ up was opened to the public as part of the Heritage Open Days scheme .
Another pub in the parish , The Butt Inn , is located approximately 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) north @-@ east of the village . The pub is named after the archery butts that were located in the fields opposite the pub . The Falcon Inn was on the southern border of the parish . The pub , which closed in 2009 , was demolished in 2011 to improve traffic flow to AWE . In 2013 , the adjacent petrol station was rebuilt , extending onto the pub site .
The Aldermaston Brewery was established at Aldermaston Wharf in 1770 , and was demolished in the 1950s . It was replaced with a cable factory , which was demolished in 1990 .
= = = Cricket bats = = =
Old Village Farm ( on Fishermans Lane ) is now the location of a wood yard , used since the 1930s to prepare local willow for the production of cricket bats . The trees are grown at Harbour Hill Copse , where 70 trees are felled annually for this purpose . There are approximately 1000 trees growing at any given time . The workers at the yard cut the wood into approximate bat shapes , then cure the wood in a kiln . The clefts of wood are then shipped to India where the final manufacturing can be undertaken under moisture @-@ controlled conditions .
The yard would take on three up @-@ coming cricketers for the winter , in the hope that the hard work would " toughen them up " to get them picked for the England cricket team . One year the yard had help from Frank Tyson , Alan Moss , and Peter Loader . The following year they hosted three Davids — David Kaufman , David Spragbury , and David Gibson .
The wood yard was featured on A Question of Sport , when cricketer Graham Gooch took part in the programme 's " Mystery Guest " round . Gooch endorsed the bats made from Aldermaston willow , which were sold by Surridge . When he scored 333 runs against India at Lord 's in the 1990 test season , the Turbo 333 bat , made from Aldermaston wood , was launched in his honour .
In the 1960s , Blue Peter aired a short documentary on the cricket bat production entitled " The Life of a Cricket Bat " . It was presented by Christopher Trace .
= = = Pottery = = =
In 1955 , the Aldermaston Pottery was established on the main street by studio potters Alan Caiger @-@ Smith and Geoffrey Eastop . The pottery was renowned for tin @-@ glazed and porcelain wares , which used scrap wood from the Village Farm woodyard to fire the kiln . The pottery closed in 2006 . It had previously scaled back its output in 1993 due to Caiger @-@ Smith 's partial retirement after the 1992 recession .
= = = Atomic Weapons Establishment = = =
The Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) , for which Aldermaston has become known , is less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the village . The establishment is where the UK designs and manufactures Trident missiles , and where decommissioned and redundant nuclear weapons are dismantled . In April 1958 , the first Aldermaston March was held . The march saw around 3 @,@ 000 protesters march from London to Aldermaston over four days , with a total attendance of 12 @,@ 000 at the establishment 's gates . The 50th anniversary of the event was marked on 24 March 2008 with the " Bomb Stops Here " protest , attended by Vivienne Westwood and CND president Walter Wolfgang . The 2008 demonstration was the biggest protest staged by CND in ten years . Until 2005 , AWE discharged " pre @-@ treated waste water " into the River Thames at Pangbourne via an 11 @.@ 8 miles ( 19 @.@ 0 km ) pipeline which runs under roads and fields within the parish . A water processing facility was installed on @-@ site in 2006 , though the Pangbourne Pipeline remains in situ .
= = = Other businesses = = =
Lafarge Aggregates owns various sites in the parish . In 1974 the village won an appeal against Pioneer Concrete 's application for gravel extraction near the village . Similar events took place in March 2003 when hundreds of local residents protested against an application of gravel extraction by Lafarge . Larfarge 's initial appeal , in April 2003 , was turned down by West Berkshire Council . A further application to extract aggregate at the Wasing Estate was due to be decided in 2010 . One former extraction site , Butts Lake Quarry , is now a nature reserve and the flooded lakes have been identified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and is now operated by the Berkshire , Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust . The reserve contains specimens of trees such as alder , cherry , hawthorn , oak , and willow . Examples of reeds present include typha latifolia , phragmites australis , mentha aquatica , and lythrum salicaria . Numerous species of bird nest in the reserve , including the common teal , shoveler , warbler , kingfisher , water rail , and nightingale .
Britain 's first roadside petrol filling station was opened by The AA on the Bath Road near Aldermaston on 2 March 1919 . The following year , one villager requested that a pump be installed by his house . " Chuffer " Ford , who lived in The Forge with his wife Olive , was told by Keyser that it must be " behind a wall and recessed " . A hole was cut in the brick wall beside Ford 's yard to house the Shell @-@ branded pump . The location of this pump is marked by a square hole in the present wall . Ford 's business offered other motoring services , with signage reading " vacuum , oil , and cycles " .
There is a number of small businesses in the village , including a hairdressing salon , a software development company and the village shop . In the 1970s the hairdressers was a music shop , which was opened by Terry Wogan . Before this it was a cooperative village stores started by Charles Keyser .
There are two business parks in the parish — Calleva Business Park ( on the Berkshire / Hampshire border ) and Youngs Industrial Estate ( on Paices Hill ) . The latter opened in the early 1980s , and is the location of Paices Wood Country Parkland , a wildlife project sponsored by English Nature .
In 2007 Aldermaston won the Business Category Award in the regional final of the Calor Village of the Year competition . The judges stated that the village " has a very successful business community " and that " local businesses are well @-@ supported by villagers and in return these businesses support village activities " . In addition to the business award , the village was announced as the Overall Winner of the Calor " Berkshire Village of the Year " competition in 2006 , as well as category winners in the " Building Community Life " , " Business " , " Young People " and " ICT " categories .
= = Architecture = =
The majority of houses in the village were built between the 17th and late 19th centuries , including examples of Victorian Gothic architecture . Only one house has been built on the village 's main street since the early 20th century . The parish hall , built in 1897 , is predominantly flint and brick .
Most of the houses in the village are Grade II listed buildings , and many were built using local red and blue bricks . In total , 51 structures in the parish are listed , including gatepiers , greenhouses , a tomb , railings and a wall , the village telephone box and Aldermaston Lock .
= = Culture = =
Since the early 1800s , Aldermaston has held a candle auction every three years . The open auction starts with a horseshoe nail driven through a tallow candle an inch below the wick and lit in the parish hall . The lot is the lease of Church Acre , a plot of 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) granted to the church in 1815 after the Inclosures Act . The proceedings are overseen by the vicar and churchwardens , who drink rum punch throughout the auction . Traditionally , the churchwardens smoked clay pipes during the event .
The parish hall often holds other events , such as plays produced by the village 's own amateur dramatics society . The society , known as The Aldermaston Players , have staged fundraising events in the village 1966 . In 1976 , the parish hall hosted an episode of the BBC 's Any Questions ? .
The village , along with the neighbouring parish of Wasing , holds an annual produce show at The Old Mill . The show , which was previously held behind the Hind 's Head pub , hosts produce competitions in approximately 100 classes . In the 1990s , a team of gardeners formed from the produce show entered the Chelsea Flower Show . They won a silver gilt in the Best Courtyard Garden Award in two consecutive years , for gardens named " Calma " and " Time Lords " .
Since 1957 there has been an annual performance of the York Nativity Play from the 15th century York Mystery Cycle . The play follows a script by E. Martin Browne with carols by William Byrd , Johannes Eccard , and Michael Praetorius . The performances are at the Church of St Mary the Virgin in early December , and the actors are local people who have appeared in the play for many years . In 1964 , the play was recorded and broadcast by the BBC Home Service under the title of Star Over Aldermaston . One member of the production team was David Shute .
Aldermaston was mentioned in Plum Pie ( 1966 ) by P. G. Wodehouse — " Every now and then we march from Aldermaston , protesting like a ton of bricks ... And then we sit a good deal . " This was a reference to the demonstrations of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( the Aldermaston Marches ) which took the form of marches from Aldermaston to London ( apart from in 1958 , when the march went from London to Aldermaston ) . This was an annual march from 1958 to 1963 . Aldermaston was the original location of The Glade Festival . The 2007 event was jeopardised by torrential rains and flooding but cautiously went ahead . In 2009 , the festival moved from the area and was held near Winchester . Since 2006 , the village has held a blues festival known as " Blues on the Meadow " .
The parish of Aldermaston forms a group with the local parishes of Wasing and Brimpton . The three share a monthly Parish Magazine featuring stories from churches , organisations , schools , businesses and various miscellany .
= = Transport = =
Aldermaston railway station is in Aldermaston Wharf , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the village itself . The station is managed by National Rail and served by First Great Western services between Reading and Newbury .
The village is on the A340 road , and has nearby access to the A4 road and the M4 motorway . Newbury Buses route 104 serves the village , with services terminating in Newbury , Calcot and Reading . The 2005 Parish Plan identified a need for a relief road near the village . A report was presented in 2009 evaluating the problems caused by HGV traffic through the village , and described solutions which included support from Newbury MP Richard Benyon .
The nearest operating airstrip , Brimpton Airfield , is less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the village , within AWE 's restricted airspace . RAF Aldermaston ceased to operate as a civilian airport in 1950 .
The village is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of the Reading Marine Company 's headquarters on the Kennet and Avon Canal , which provides waterway links to London ( via the Thames ) and Bristol ( via the River Avon ) .
= = Education = =
The parish of Aldermaston has two primary schools . Aldermaston Primary School is a Local Authority @-@ run Church of England school in Wasing Lane and has about 150 pupils . It was established in 1836 and originally located in Church Road , moving to the present site in 1988 . The school uses the names of the manor 's squires in its house system .
The Cedars is a private school opened in 1992 in the former buildings of the Church of England school . The school has approximately 40 pupils enrolled .
Alder Bridge Steiner School , although located in Aldermaston Wharf , is within the parish of Padworth . Padworth College is situated on the border of Aldermaston and Padworth parishes .
= = Religious sites = =
= = = Parish church = = =
The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin and was built in the mid @-@ 12th century . The Norman building was altered throughout the following millennium , particularly in 13th , 14th , 15th and 17th centuries . The 12th @-@ century building now comprises the current nave , with additions seen in the Forster Chapel and chancel ( 13th century ) , the steeple ( 14th century ) , and vestry ( 17th century ) . The 17th @-@ century Jacobean pulpit is an unusual heptagonal design . Various additions were made to the structure in the 14th and 15th centuries , primarily to the walls and ogee windows . A scratch dial was added to the south @-@ west buttress in the 14th century .
The church features architecture by Edward Doran Webb and stained glass by Charles Eamer Kempe . The Forster Chapel , a lady chapel added to the south face in the 13th century , contains the alabaster effigial monument of Sir George Forster and his wife Elizabeth which was built in 1530 . Evidence suggests that the chapel may originally have been a chantry dedicated to St Nicholas . The roundel windows in the north wall date from the 13th century and are the oldest glass in Berkshire .
The tower has a peal of eight bells dating from 1681 to 1900 . The current organ , which has 16 stops , was installed in 1880 .
Individuals buried in the churchyard include squires Charles Keyser ( 1847 – 1929 ) and Daniel Burr ( c.1811 – 1885 ) , schoolmaster John Stair ( c.1745 – 1820 ) , and Maria Hale ( 1791 – 1879 ) .
= = Sport = =
Aldermaston has a number of sports teams . The village cricket team , Aldermaston Village CC , play at nearby Wasing Park . The club , which first played in 1786 as " The Gentlemen of Aldermaston " , originally played at a pitch at Aldermaston Court . The ground was lost when the airfield was built . Sir William Mount , 2nd Baronet , the grandfather of British Prime Minister David Cameron , allowed a cricket pitch to be established on a portion of his Wasing estate . The original football club played next to the cricket pitch . The club 's strip was sponsored by Mr. George L Heighton , the proprietor of the village shop .
Aldermaston Rugby Club and A.F.C. Aldermaston both play their home games at the Recreational Society at AWE . Tadley RFC is in the parish , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the village .
Aldermaston Raceway , a banger racing , demolition derby and stock car venue , Fleet Motor Club , is the relocation of the Aldershot Raceway which closed in 2007 . A course for off @-@ road 4x4 trials is close to the Raceway .
= = Notable people = =
Thomas Allibone , Lord of the Manor ( 1953 – 1985 )
Alan Caiger @-@ Smith , the studio potter , founded Aldermaston Pottery
Duncan Grant , painter , lived in the village with Paul Roche for the last few years of his life , and died in the village
Felix Pole , Lord of the Manor ( 1939 – 1953 )
Paul Roche , poet , lived in the village
= Major League Baseball =
Major League Baseball ( MLB ) is a professional baseball organization , the oldest of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada . A total of 30 teams now play in the American League ( AL ) and National League ( NL ) , with 15 teams in each league . The AL and NL operated as separate legal entities from 1901 and 1876 respectively . After cooperating but remaining legally separate entities since 1903 , the leagues merged into a single organization led by the Commissioner of Baseball in 2000 . The organization also oversees Minor League Baseball , which comprises about 240 teams affiliated with the Major League clubs . With the World Baseball Softball Confederation , MLB manages the international World Baseball Classic tournament .
Baseball 's first professional team was founded in Cincinnati in 1869 . The first few decades of professional baseball were characterized by rivalries between leagues and by players who often jumped from one team or league to another . The period before 1920 in baseball was known as the dead @-@ ball era ; players rarely hit home runs during this time . Baseball survived a conspiracy to fix the 1919 World Series , which came to be known as the Black Sox Scandal . The sport rose in popularity in the 1920s , and survived potential downturns during the Great Depression and World War II . Shortly after the war , baseball 's color barrier was broken by Jackie Robinson .
The 1950s and 1960s were a time of expansion for the AL and NL , then new stadiums and artificial turf surfaces began to change the game in the 1970s and 1980s . Home runs dominated the game during the 1990s , and media reports began to discuss the use of anabolic steroids among Major League players in the mid @-@ 2000s . In 2006 , an investigation produced the Mitchell Report , which implicated many players in the use of performance @-@ enhancing substances , including at least one player from each team .
Today , MLB is composed of thirty teams : twenty @-@ nine in the United States and one in Canada . Teams play 162 games each season and five teams in each league advance to a four @-@ round postseason tournament that culminates in the World Series , a best @-@ of @-@ seven championship series between the two league champions that dates to 1903 . Baseball broadcasts are aired throughout North America and in several other countries throughout the world . Games are aired on television , radio , and the Internet . MLB has the highest season attendance of any sports league in the world with more than 73 million spectators in 2015 .
= = Organizational structure = =
MLB is governed by the Major League Baseball Constitution . This document has undergone several incarnations since 1875 , with the most recent revisions being made in 2012 . Under the direction of the Commissioner of Baseball , MLB hires and maintains the sport 's umpiring crews , and negotiates marketing , labor , and television contracts . MLB maintains a unique , controlling relationship over the sport , including most aspects of Minor League Baseball . This is due in large part to the 1922 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Federal Baseball Club v. National League , which held that baseball is not interstate commerce and therefore not subject to federal antitrust law . This ruling has been weakened only slightly in subsequent years . The weakened ruling granted more stability to the owners of teams and has resulted in values increasing at double @-@ digit rates . There were several challenges to MLB 's primacy in the sport between the 1870s and the Federal League in 1916 ; the last attempt at a new major league was the aborted Continental League in 1960 .
The chief executive of MLB is the commissioner , Rob Manfred . The chief operating officer is Tony Petitti . There are six executive vice @-@ presidents in charge of the following areas : baseball development , business , labor relations and human resources , finance , administration ( whose vice @-@ president is MLB 's Chief Information Officer ) , and baseball operations . As of November 19 , 2013 , the MLB website lists only five executive VPs ; the office of executive VP for labor relations and human resources is not listed .
The multimedia branch of MLB , which is based in Manhattan , is MLB Advanced Media . This branch oversees MLB.com and each of the 30 teams ' websites . Its charter states that MLB Advanced Media holds editorial independence from the league , but it is under the same ownership group and revenue @-@ sharing plan . MLB Productions is a similarly structured wing of the league , focusing on video and traditional broadcast media . MLB also owns 67 percent of MLB Network , with the other 33 percent split between several cable operators and satellite provider DirecTV . It operates out of studios in Secaucus , New Jersey , and also has editorial independence from the league .
= = League organization = =
In 1920 , the weak National Commission , which had been created to manage relationships between the two leagues , was replaced with the much more powerful Commissioner of Baseball , who had the power to make decisions for all of professional baseball unilaterally . For 60 years , the American and National Leagues fielded eight teams apiece .
In the 1960s , MLB expansion added eight teams , including the first non @-@ U.S. team ( the Montreal Expos ) . Two teams ( the Seattle Mariners and the Toronto Blue Jays ) were also added in the 1970s . From 1969 through 1993 , each league consisted of an East and West Division . A third division , the Central Division , was added in each league in 1994 . Through 1996 , the two leagues met on the field only during the World Series and the All @-@ Star Game . Regular @-@ season interleague play was introduced in 1997 .
In March 1995 , two new franchises — the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays ( now known simply as the Tampa Bay Rays ) — were awarded by MLB , to begin play in 1998 . This addition brought the total number of franchises to 30 . In early 1997 , MLB decided to assign one new team to each league : Tampa Bay joined the AL and Arizona joined the NL . The original plan was to have an odd number of teams in each league ( 15 per league , with 5 in each division ) . In order for every team to be able to play daily , this would have required interleague play to be scheduled throughout the entire season . However , it was unclear at the time if interleague play would continue after the 1998 season , as it had to be approved by the players ' union . For this and other reasons , it was decided that both leagues should continue to have an even number of teams ; one existing club would have to switch leagues . The Milwaukee Brewers agreed in November 1997 to move from the AL to the NL , thereby making the NL a 16 @-@ team league . Later , when the Houston Astros changed ownership prior to the 2013 season , the team moved from the NL Central to the AL West , resulting in both leagues having three divisions of five teams each and allowing all teams to have a more balanced schedule . Interleague play is held throughout the season .
In 2000 , the AL and NL were dissolved as legal entities , and MLB became a single , overall league de jure , similar to the National Football League ( NFL ) , National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and National Hockey League ( NHL ) — albeit with two components called " leagues " instead of " conferences . " The same rules and regulations are used in both leagues , with one exception : the AL operates under the designated hitter rule , while the NL does not . This difference in rules between leagues is unique to MLB ; the other sports leagues of the U.S. and Canada have one set of rules for all teams .
= = Current teams = =
An asterisk ( * ) denotes a relocation of a franchise . See respective team articles for more information .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In the 1860s , aided by the Civil War , " New York " -style baseball expanded into a national game and spawned baseball 's first governing body , The National Association of Base Ball Players . The NABBP existed as an amateur league for 12 years . By 1867 , more than 400 clubs were members . Most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the northeastern U.S. For professional baseball 's founding year , MLB uses the year 1869 — when the first professional team , the Cincinnati Red Stockings , was established .
A schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers after the founding of the Cincinnati club . The NABBP split into an amateur organization and a professional organization . The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players , often known as the National Association ( NA ) , was formed in 1871 . Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years . The modern Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves franchises trace their histories back to the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players in the 1870s .
In 1876 , the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs ( later known as the National League or NL ) was established after the NA proved ineffective . The league placed its emphasis on clubs rather than on players . Clubs could now enforce player contracts , preventing players from jumping to higher @-@ paying clubs . Clubs were required to play the full schedule of games instead of forfeiting scheduled games when the club was no longer in the running for the league championship , which happened frequently under the NA . A concerted effort was made to curb gambling on games , which was leaving the validity of results in doubt . The first game in the NL — on Saturday , April 22 , 1876 ( at the Jefferson Street Grounds , Philadelphia ) — is often pointed to as the beginning of MLB .
The early years of the NL were tumultuous , with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated " reserve clause " , which restricted the free movement of players between clubs . Competitor leagues formed regularly and also disbanded regularly . The most successful was the American Association ( 1882 – 1891 ) , sometimes called the " beer and whiskey league " for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators . For several years , the NL and American Association champions met in a postseason championship series — the first attempt at a World Series . The two leagues merged in 1892 as a single 12 @-@ team NL , but the NL dropped four teams after the 1899 season . This led to the formation of the American League in 1901 under AL president Ban Johnson , and the resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract @-@ breaking and legal disputes .
The war between the AL and NL caused shock waves throughout the baseball world . At a meeting at the Leland Hotel in Chicago in 1901 , the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence . A new National Association was formed to oversee these minor leagues . While the NA continues to this day ( known as Minor League Baseball ) , at the time Ban Johnson saw it as a tool to end threats from smaller rivals who might expand in other territories and threaten his league 's dominance .
After 1902 , the NL , AL , and NA signed a new National Agreement which tied independent contracts to the reserve @-@ clause contracts . The agreement also set up a formal classification system for minor leagues , the forerunner of today 's system that was refined by Branch Rickey .
Several other early defunct baseball leagues are officially considered major leagues , and their statistics and records are included with those of the two current major leagues . These include the AA , the Union Association ( 1884 ) , the Players ' League ( 1890 ) , and the Federal League ( 1914 – 1915 ) . Both the UA and AA are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured . Some researchers dispute the major @-@ league status of the UA by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately " stacked " ; the St. Louis club was owned by the league 's president and it was the only club that was close to major @-@ league caliber .
= = = Dead @-@ ball era = = =
The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly called the " dead @-@ ball era . " Games of this era tended to be low scoring and were often dominated by pitchers , such as Walter Johnson , Cy Young , Christy Mathewson , Mordecai Brown , and Grover Cleveland Alexander . The term also accurately describes the condition of the baseball itself . The baseball used American rather than the modern Australian wool yarn and was not wound as tightly as it would become later , affecting the distance that it would travel . More significantly , balls were kept in play until they were mangled , soft and sometimes lopsided : a baseball cost three dollars , equal to $ 40 @.@ 95 today ( in inflation @-@ adjusted U.S. dollars ) , and owners were reluctant to purchase new balls . Fans were expected to throw back fouls and ( rare ) home runs . Baseballs also became stained with tobacco juice , grass , and mud , and sometimes the juice of licorice , which some players would chew for the purpose of discoloring the ball .
Also , pitchers could manipulate the ball through the use of the spitball . ( In 1921 use of this pitch was restricted to a few pitchers with a grandfather clause ) . Additionally , many ballparks had large dimensions , such as the West Side Grounds of the Chicago Cubs , which was 560 feet ( 170 m ) to the center field fence , and the Huntington Avenue Grounds of the Boston Red Sox , which was 635 feet ( 194 m ) to the center field fence , thus home runs were rare , and " small ball " tactics such as singles , bunts , stolen bases , and the hit @-@ and @-@ run play dominated the strategies of the time . Hitting methods like the Baltimore Chop were used to increase the number of infield singles . On a successful Baltimore chop , the batter hits the ball forcefully into the ground , causing it to bounce so high that the batter reaches first base before the ball can be fielded and thrown to the first baseman .
The adoption of the foul strike rule in the early twentieth century quickly sent baseball from a high @-@ scoring game to one where scoring runs became a struggle . Prior to the institution of this rule , foul balls were not counted as strikes : a batter could foul off any number of pitches with no strikes counted against him ; this gave an enormous advantage to the batter . In 1901 , the NL adopted the foul strike rule , and the AL followed suit in 1903 .
After the 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds , baseball was rocked by allegations of a game fixing scheme known as the Black Sox Scandal . Eight players — Joe Jackson , Eddie Cicotte , Claude Williams , Buck Weaver , Arnold " Chick " Gandil , Fred McMullin , Charles " Swede " Risberg , and Oscar " Happy " Felsch — intentionally lost the World Series in exchange for a ring worth $ 100 @,@ 000 . Despite being acquitted , all were permanently banned from Major League Baseball .
= = = Rise in popularity = = =
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the activities of the other ships based at Venice . San Marco later participated in the bombardment of Durazzo ( now known as Durrës ) on 2 October 1918 which sank one merchantman and damaged two others .
On 21 September 1923 , the ship transported to Taranto the bodies of the members of the Boundary Commission killed on Corfu on 27 August ( their deaths sparked the Corfu incident ) . On 1 October , San Marco ferried the last occupation troops from Corfu to Brindisi . On 16 March 1924 , she saluted King Victor Emmanuel III when he arrived in Fiume to attend the ceremony commemorating the city 's annexation by Italy . San Marco escorted Crown Prince Umberto , travelling aboard San Giorgio , during his South American tour in July – September 1924 .
San Marco was disarmed and converted into a radio @-@ controlled ( by the elderly destroyer Audace ) target ship in 1931 – 35 . Her old boilers were replaced by four oil @-@ burning Thornycroft @-@ type boilers which reduced her maximum speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 13 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) . During a naval review for Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples on 5 May 1938 , the ship was used as a target by the heavy cruisers Fiume and Zara . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied La Spezia on 9 September 1943 ; the ship was found at the end of the war sunk in the harbor there . San Marco was formally stricken from the Navy List on 27 February 1947 and broken up in 1949 .
= Tom 's Divorce =
" Tom 's Divorce " is the 11th episode of the second season of American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the seventeenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on December 3 , 2009 . In the episode , Tom gets a divorce and Leslie tries to cheer him up , unaware it was a green card marriage . Meanwhile , Andy challenges Mark to a game of pool with the hopes of winning back Ann 's affections .
The episode was written by Harris Wittels and was directed by Troy Miller . Although officially entitled " Tom 's Divorce " , it has also been referred to in some media reports as " The Fourth Floor " in reference to the pre @-@ credits sequence in which Leslie visits the horrifying and grotesque fourth floor of the Pawnee Hall , a scene that was praised by television reviews .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Tom 's Divorce " was seen by 4 @.@ 83 million viewers , an increase over the previous episode , " Hunting Trip " . The episode received generally positive reviews , particularly for the development of Tom 's character , although commentators voiced less praise for the subplot involving Ann , Mark and Andy .
= = Plot = =
Ron ( Nick Offerman ) sends Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) to run an errand at the DMV in Pawnee Hall 's fourth floor , a dark and unsettling place that includes probation offices and divorce filings . A reluctant and frightened Leslie navigates past reprobates and blood stains on the floor and spots Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) leaving the divorce office with his wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) . Unaware that their relationship was a green card marriage to prevent Wendy from being deported back to Canada , Leslie later tries to comfort Tom , who insists he is fine . Nevertheless , Leslie persists in her efforts to cheer him up , in part by ordering a singing horse telegram to cheer him up . Ron , who knows about Tom 's fake marriage , suggests Tom act sad so Leslie can feel like she cheered him up . When Leslie sets up a social event to cheer him up , Tom suggests a strip club , but Leslie follows Jerry 's ( Jim O 'Heir ) suggestion they go to the dinosaur @-@ themed restaurant , Jurassic Fork .
The parks employees eat several dinosaur @-@ themed entrees , served by a depressed waiter ( Evan O 'Brien ) , they enjoy " Tyranna @-@ Ceasar Salads " and " Surf and Turfasaurus " . Tom seems so cheery that Leslie begins to suspect he is faking being sad . Ron pulls Tom aside and asks whether he could ask Wendy on a date once the divorce is finalized . Tom consents , but is visibly disappointed . Determined to cheer him up , Leslie agrees to compromise her morals and take Tom to his favorite strip club , the Glitter Factory . Leslie is horrified by the club and tries to encourage the strippers to change their lives . Ron is also uninterested in the strippers , but happily consumes the free breakfast buffet .
Tom remains depressed even after Leslie hires a stripper ( Cheryl Texiera ) to give him a lap dance and " grind the sorrow out of him " . A drunken Tom tells Leslie that Ron plans to ask out Wendy , prompting an angry reaction from her . When Tom passes out at the bar , they take him to Wendy 's house , and Leslie is shocked to find she is on a date with another man ( James Ball ) . She storms out after expressing her disgust with Wendy and Ron . The next morning at work , Tom confesses to Leslie that it was a green card marriage , and that he only recently realized he really likes Wendy .
Meanwhile , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) continues his efforts to break up the relationship between his ex @-@ girlfriend Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and her new boyfriend Mark ( Paul Schneider ) . Andy challenges Mark to a game of pool with the hopes of hustling him , but Mark turns out to be an excellent player and wins multiple games . Mark and Andy make one final wager : if Andy wins , he gets Ann , but if Mark wins he has to leave them alone . Mark dominates the game but loses when he scratches on the 8 ball . Initially delighted , Andy becomes confused when Ann leaves with Mark anyway . The next day , he tells Mark and Ann he will no longer be bothering them , and says a final goodbye to Ann .
= = Production and cultural references = =
" Tom 's Divorce " was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Troy Miller . Although officially titled " Tom 's Divorce " , it was referred to in some media reports by the name " The Fourth Floor " . Aziz Ansari said " Tom 's Divorce " was his favorite episode of the series so far . He said , " It was really fun because there was some serious acting for me to do , compared to my usual dick jokes . "
" Tom 's Divorce " included several references to previous Parks and Recreation episodes . Tom and Wendy 's green card marriage was first identified in the episode " Practice Date " . During the final scenes of the episode " Greg Pikitis " , Tom expresses sadness when Wendy mentions that the couple will eventually get a divorce , which set the scene for this film . Television reviewer Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said this allowed the show to humanize and further develop Tom 's character . In certain shots in " Tom 's Divorce " , it appears the back of Ron 's head is missing patches of hair . This is a reference to the previous episode , " Hunting Trip " , in which he is accidentally shot in the back of the head while hunting . The episode also features scenes with Ron describing his admiration for strong women and his immense enjoyment of the strip club 's complimentary breakfast . Both of these refers to the elements of Ron 's character that were conveyed in the episode " Ron and Tammy " , which involves Ron 's romantic life and includes dialogue about his love of breakfast foods . Ron also identifies tennis player Steffi Graf and basketball player Sheryl Swoopes as ideal romantic partners . He previously declared Steffi Graf a " perfect ten " on his attractiveness scale in " Practice Date " .
The notion in " Tom 's Divorce " that the fourth floor refers to tetraphobia , the superstitious fear of the number four . Jokes about this have been featured in such pop culture works as the 1999 film Being John Malkovich and the NBC comedy series 30 Rock . The song " Unskinny Bop " , a 1990 single by the band Poison , plays during one of the strip club scene . Leslie said Tom hides his emotions behind " a very thick layer of Axe body spray " , a reference to the real @-@ life male grooming product . The Parks department employees eat at a restaurant called Jurassic Fork , a reference to the Steven Spielberg dinosaur adventure film Jurassic Park , which was adapted from a novel of the same name by Michael Crichton . During one scene , Tom refers to Ron as " Rondoleezza Rice " , a reference to former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . At the strip club , Leslie mistakenly refers to a stripper named Sierra by the name Seabiscuit , a champion thoroughbred racehorse . Reflecting on his marriage , Tom said , " At least we lasted longer than Avril Lavigne and that guy from Sum 41 " , a reference to the pop singer 's short @-@ lived marriage to Sum 41 guitarist Deryck Whibley . Tom says one of the strippers also works at Quiznos , a sandwich fast @-@ food franchise ; Tom says of her : " She 's really nice to me here , but really mean to me at Quiznos . " Andy said he has a T @-@ shirt that is " literally priceless " because he was wearing it when he tackled American singer Eddie Vedder . When Ron was commenting on how well Tom was pretending to be sad about his divorce , he tells Tom , " Take it down a notch . You 've already won your Oscar , DiCaprio , " which is a reference to the Academy Awards and the actor Leonardo DiCaprio .
= = Reception = =
On its original American broadcast on December 3 , 2009 , " Tom 's Divorce " was seen by 4 @.@ 83 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This amounted to a five percent ratings increase over the previous week 's episode , " Hunting Trip " . " Tom 's Divorce " drew a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , particularly for the development of Tom 's character and the " fourth floor " pre @-@ credits sequence , although commentators voiced less praise for the subplot involving Ann , Mark and Andy . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said the episode addressed two of the show 's more downbeat stories ( Tom 's divorce and Andy 's failed attempts to woo Ann ) but " managed to do so by keeping its plucky , upbeat sense of humor intact " . Heisler praised the growth of Tom 's character and the fourth floor joke , which he said " started with yet another delicious chapter in behind @-@ the @-@ scenes Pawnee lore " .
Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik said Ansari did " an excellent job " at showing a new side to Tom , and complimented the staging of the fourth floor sequence . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Tom 's Divorce " was " by design , more melancholy " than previous Parks and Recreation episodes , but served to develop Tom 's character and proved Aziz Ansari " could tone it down and play a quieter , sadder Tom for once " . Sepinwall said the Mark , Ann and Andy subplot was not as funny as in previous episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said she had been awaiting a storyline centering on Tom , and said the episode " makes us love the show more " . However , she said Andy 's continued obsession with Ann was growing tiresome and expressed hope his character should go in a new direction . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode further added to the strong character development that has been consistent throughout the show 's second season . Fowler also enjoyed the frightening portrayal of the fourth floor , which he said helps establish Pawnee as " a place where both the engrossingly real and the entertainingly surreal can co @-@ exist " . GQ writer Dan Fierman praised the episode , particularly Ron 's character and the singing telegram " divorce horse " .
= = DVD release = =
" Tom 's Divorce " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= Monte Pearson =
Montgomery Marcellus " Monte " Pearson ( September 2 , 1908 – January 27 , 1978 ) was an American baseball pitcher who played ten seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nicknamed " Hoot " , he played for the Cleveland Indians , New York Yankees and Cincinnati Reds from 1932 to 1941 . He batted and threw right @-@ handed and served primarily as a starting pitcher .
Pearson played minor league baseball for three different teams until 1932 , when he signed with the Cleveland Indians . After spending four seasons with the organization , Pearson was traded to the New York Yankees , where he spent the next five years . At the conclusion of the 1940 season , he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds , with whom he played his last game on August 5 , 1941 . A four @-@ time World Series champion , Pearson holds the MLB record for lowest walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) in the postseason . He is most famous for pitching the first no @-@ hitter at the original Yankee Stadium .
= = Early life = =
Pearson was born on September 2 , 1908 in Oakland , California . He was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and was one of the first Mormons to find success in the major leagues . He later moved to Fresno , California and studied at Fresno High School , where he started playing baseball at catcher and third base and was a letterman in four sports . After graduating , he attended college at the University of California , Berkeley , where he played two seasons of baseball for the California Golden Bears from 1928 – 29 . He worked as a mechanic as one of his first jobs , and his ability to sing and play the guitar helped develop his reputation as a positive influence on the clubhouse throughout his major league career .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Pearson began his professional baseball career in 1929 with the Bakersfield Bees , a Minor League Baseball team that were members of the California State League . He was signed by the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League the following year , and was optioned to the Arizona State League 's Phoenix Senators after recording a 5 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) in 24 games pitched . However , he established himself in the Oaks ' pitching rotation in 1931 and compiled a 17 – 16 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 46 ERA in 234 innings pitched . His performance that year , coupled with his heavy @-@ breaking curveball , caught the attention of the Cleveland Indians , who promptly bought his contract after the season ended .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1932 – 35 ) = = =
Pearson made his major league debut for the Indians on April 22 , 1932 , at the age of 23 , relieving Pete Appleton in the eighth inning and giving up 6 earned runs in 1 1 ⁄ 2 innings in a 16 – 3 loss against the Detroit Tigers . His subsequent games were disappointing and , after compiling a 10 @.@ 13 ERA in 8 innings from 8 games pitched , he was demoted back to the minor leagues . He played the rest of the season for the Toledo Mud Hens of the American Association ( AA ) , where continued his dismal performance with a 3 – 9 record and 3 @.@ 99 ERA . However , he improved significantly the following year , posting an 11 – 5 record and 3 @.@ 41 ERA in 148 innings with the Mud Hens , as well as leading the AA in strikeouts at the time he was called back up to the majors . His pitching during the first half of the season prompted the Indians to bring him back up to the first team in early July . He continued to pitch well in the majors and finished the season with a 10 – 5 record ; his 2 @.@ 33 ERA was the lowest in the American League ( AL ) that year and although he pitched only 135 1 ⁄ 3 innings , he is recognized as the AL ERA champion by Baseball @-@ Reference.com.
Pearson followed up his impressive 1933 season with another strong showing in 1934 . That year , he finished second in the AL in games started ( 33 ) , fifth in strikeouts ( 140 ) and complete games ( 19 ) and sixth in wins ( 18 ) . In spite of 13 losses , a 4 @.@ 52 ERA , 130 walks ( the second highest in the AL ) and 15 wild pitches ( the most in MLB ) , this was considered one of his best seasons . However , his poor performance in 1935 — where he went 8 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 90 ERA — convinced the Indians to cut their losses with their once @-@ promising prospect . Pearson was traded at the end of the season to the New York Yankees with Steve Sundra in exchange for Johnny Allen .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1936 – 40 ) = = =
Pearson 's trade to the New York Yankees was initially unpopular among fans , with Joe McCarthy receiving heavy criticism for dealing Allen — who had a 13 – 6 record in 1935 — for Pearson . However , Pearson repaid his manager 's faith in him by churning out the best statistical year in his career . His .731 winning percentage ( 19 – 7 record ) was third best in the AL ; he finished fifth in ERA ( 3 @.@ 71 ) and strikeouts ( 118 ) and sixth in wins , though he also recorded the third highest number of walks in the AL with 135 . His performance during the first half of the season resulted in him being selected for the 1936 All @-@ Star Game , though he did not pitch in it . In the postseason , the Yankees advanced to the World Series , where they defeated the New York Giants 4 – 2 . In Game 4 , Pearson — who insisted on being included in the rotation even after falling ill with pleurisy just before the Series — limited the Giants to just two runs while striking out seven in a complete game win . Offensively , he managed to get two hits , including a double . The 5 – 2 victory ended Carl Hubbell 's streak of 17 consecutive regular and postseason wins .
During spring training of 1937 , Pearson injured his right ankle after accidentally stepping onto a rolling ball . He was still able recover in time for the start the season and pitched solidly . In arguably his best start of the year , he threw a one @-@ hit shutout against the Chicago White Sox on May 10 ; he also recorded three hits and drove in two runs in the 7 – 0 win . However , other health problems and injuries — most notably a sore arm — began to affect him , limiting his season to just 144 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 20 games started and 2 games finished in relief . Despite his many ailments , he still came up clutch in Game 3 of the 1937 World Series . Facing a familiar foe in the New York Giants , Pearson stymied them to a solitary run in 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and received the win as the Yankees cruised to a 5 – 1 victory , taking a commanding 3 – 0 lead in the Series . The Yankees eventually triumphed in 5 games , giving Pearson his second World Series ring in as many years with the team .
The 1938 season saw Pearson rebound in his regular season numbers . He had the fifth highest winning percentage ( .696 ) , the sixth most wins ( 16 ) and the seventh most complete games ( 17 ) in the AL , but he struggled with his control , ending the season with 9 wild pitches ( second highest in the AL ) and 113 walks ( fifth most ) . During a June 26 road game at Briggs Stadium , he held the Detroit Tigers to three runs in a complete game , 10 – 3 Yankees win . By not giving up any home runs in the game , he halted the Tigers ' quest of breaking the MLB record for most consecutive games with a home run for a team . The highlight of his season came on August 27 , when he pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Cleveland Indians in the second game of a doubleheader . Facing his former team on only two days of rest , Pearson struck out seven , allowed just two baserunners through walks and retired the last 18 consecutive batters in a 13 – 0 victory , marking his 13th win of the season and 10th consecutive win . This was the first Yankee no @-@ hitter in fifteen years ( pitched by Sad Sam Jones ) , as well as first no @-@ hitter at Yankee Stadium .
In October , Pearson suffered from a dead arm . Doctors advised him to undergo surgery after X @-@ rays revealed a spur on his elbow . However , he was able to overcome injury once again and pitched in Game 3 of the 1938 World Series . Up against the Chicago Cubs , he kept them to two runs ( one earned ) while striking out nine in a complete game , 5 – 2 win . The Yankees completed their Series sweep over the Cubs in the next game , giving them their third straight championship .
During the 1938 – 39 offseason , Pearson became a contract holdout after he rejected the Yankees ' initial offer . Reportedly the same amount he had earned the season before ( $ 10 @,@ 000 ) , he described the contract offer as " not up to [ his ] expectations . " The two sides eventually agreed to a contract worth $ 13 @,@ 500 . He kept up his good pitching , garnering the seventh highest winning percentage ( .706 ) in the AL that year , though his ERA ballooned to 4 @.@ 49 . Throughout the season , problems in his pitching arm flared up again , restricting him to just 146 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and 20 games started . As a result , his inclusion on the postseason roster was not guaranteed ; in late September , McCarthy appeared resigned to the fact that Pearson would not " be able to help [ him ] in this series . " However , he managed to shrug off his injury woes and was penciled into the starting rotation for Game 2 of the 1939 World Series . Facing the Cincinnati Reds , he held them hitless through 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched — eventually giving up just two singles — while striking out eight and walking one in a complete game , 4 – 0 victory . Pearson 's sublime pitching performance is considered one of the greatest in World Series history ; with a game score of 90 , it is one of only eight Fall Classic starts to record a game score of 90 or above . The Yankees proceeded to sweep the Reds two games later , resulting in their fourth consecutive championship and giving Pearson the distinction of winning a World Series ring in every season of his Yankees tenure .
In 1940 , Pearson 's pitching during the first half of the season earned him his second All @-@ Star Game selection , but he was not called upon to pitch in it . About a week after the game , on July 17 , he tore his shoulder ligament which prematurely shortened his playing career . After pitching 13 innings against Bob Feller and his former team , Pearson eventually won the game but the injury — discovered after a full physical examination on his sore arm a few weeks after the game — ended his season ; he finished with a 7 – 5 record and 3 @.@ 69 ERA in only 109 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and 16 games started . He received treatment at the Union Memorial Hospital in Baltimore , and at the end of the season , he was placed on waivers and traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Don Lang and $ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cincinnati Reds and back to the minors ( 1941 ) = = =
Pearson 's final major league team was ironically the one he pitched his World Series two @-@ hitter against . Due to his history of injuries , the Yankees refused to offer a guarantee and thus , no other team was willing sign him . However , Reds manager Bill McKechnie made the gamble , remarking how Pearson " showed [ the Reds ] more that day than any National League right @-@ hander showed [ them ] that season " when he threw the two @-@ hitter against them . Pearson expressed his delight at the trade and looked forward to working with McKechnie . However , he was unable to rediscover his pre @-@ injury form ; in his first start for the Reds , Pearson was battered by the opposing team , giving up six earned runs and five walks to the Chicago Cubs before being pulled out of the game after only 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings . In a total of 7 games pitched – 4 starts and 3 games finished — for the Reds , he pitched poorly , posting a 1 – 3 record with a 5 @.@ 18 ERA in just 24 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . This dismal showing convinced the Reds to cut ties with Pearson , and he was sold to the Hollywood Stars of the Pacific Coast League on August 21 .
Pearson 's sojourn in the minor leagues was brief , lasting just one game . In his only start for the Stars , he pitched a complete game , giving up six hits and three walks in five innings . He announced his retirement from baseball the following year on August 27 .
= = Personal life = =
Pearson married Cleo Wimer in January 1931 . They had a son and a daughter . He remained with Cleo for thirty @-@ two years , before she filed for divorce in 1962 . He remarried to Nellie , with whom he had one son , Larry . Larry was signed by the Washington Senators in 1959 .
During the 1939 offseason , Pearson was nearly killed while hunting with William Rudolph , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old high school baseball player from Fresno . Rudolph accidentally fired his shotgun at the same time as Pearson . The shot penetrated Pearson 's cap and knocked it from his head . Pearson , who escaped uninjured , described the incident as " the thrill of [ his ] life . " In 1942 , during a leave of absence away from baseball to recover from injury , Pearson worked at the Fresno Air National Guard Base as a firefighter . After his Major League career ended , he planned on switching to a career in boxing , but returned to Fresno State College and graduated with a degree in chemistry . He became the chief sanitarian of Madera County . He unsuccessfully ran for a seat on the Fresno County Board of Supervisors in 1952 .
On May 15 , 1962 , Pearson was arrested and charged with accepting bribes in exchange for approving shoddy septic tanks . In November of that year , he was found guilty of one count of bribery involving $ 200 . The court sentenced him to eight months imprisonment and placed him on probation for three years . After a long battle with cancer , Pearson died on January 27 , 1978 in Fresno , California at the age of 69 and was cremated .
= = Legacy = =
Despite having mediocre statistics in the regular season , Pearson excelled in the postseason . He won all four of his World Series starts , finishing with a 4 – 0 win – loss record . His 0 @.@ 729 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) is the lowest of all @-@ time in the postseason , while he also has the second lowest hits per nine innings ( 4 @.@ 794 ) and seventh lowest ERA ( 1 @.@ 01 ) . Together with teammate Red Ruffing , they held a combined 8 – 1 record and a 1 @.@ 79 ERA spanning from the 1936 – 39 World Series , and the two are viewed as one of the most dominant postseason pitching duos of all @-@ time .
Pearson appeared on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 1958 . He received just one vote — 0 @.@ 4 % of the vote — and was not included on any subsequent ballots . He was inducted into the Fresno Athletic Hall of Fame in 1967 .
= Charlie Haas =
Charles Doyle " Charlie " Haas II ( born March 27 , 1972 ) is an American semi @-@ retired professional and amateur wrestler . He is best known for his appearances with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in the 2000s and Ring of Honor ( ROH ) in the 2010s .
Haas was an amateur wrestler in high school , and attended Seton Hall University on a wrestling scholarship , before becoming a stockbroker . He became a professional wrestler in 1996 , and teamed regularly with his brother , Russ , with the two winning numerous championships on the independent circuit , including the CZW World Tag Team Championship and the JAPW Tag Team Championship . After signing contracts with WWE , The Haas Brothers were assigned to WWE 's developmental territories , where they won the MCW Southern Tag Team Championship on three occasions . After Russ ' death in 2001 due to a heart attack , Haas began wrestling in singles competition , winning the HWA Heavyweight Championship once .
Haas formed a team with Shelton Benjamin and the two debuted on SmackDown in December 2002 . They won the WWE Tag Team Championship twice , and dubbed themselves The World 's Greatest Tag Team before they split in 2004 . Haas won the WWE Tag Team Championship once more with Rico , and gained Miss Jackie , whom he later married , as a valet . Haas then transferred into singles competition before being released from WWE in 2005 . After a short stint in Jersey All Pro Wrestling ( JAPW ) and other independent promotions , Haas was re @-@ signed to WWE in April 2006 . He formed a short @-@ lived team with Viscera , before reforming the World 's Greatest Tag Team with Benjamin . After Benjamin transferred to the ECW brand , Haas began wrestling with a comical luchador persona , before developing a character where he imitated other wrestlers and WWE Hall of Famers . In addition , Haas won the last ever match on WWE Heat when the show ended on May 30 , 2008 .
Haas was released from WWE in February 2010 . He soon returned to the independent circuit , including returning to JAPW and appearing for Ring of Honor . In September 2010 , he won the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship . On April 1 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin won the ROH World Tag Team Championship and held it until December 2011 . Haas announced his retirement from professional wrestling in March 2013 , but returned to competition in August that same year . Aside from wrestling , Haas and his wife Jackie run a nutritional store , Custom Muscle Nutrition and Smoothie Shop , in Frisco , Texas , which they opened in October 2008 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Independent circuit ( 1996 – 2000 ) = = =
After debuting in 1996 as a professional wrestler , Haas regularly teamed with his brother Russ for numerous independent promotions . On July 22 , 1998 , The Haas Brothers won the Jersey All Pro Wrestling Tag Team Championship by defeating The Skin Head Express . They lost it to The Nation of Immigration just over a month later on August 25 . They won the championship for the second time on May 21 , 1999 , by defeating The Big Unit ( Rick Silver and Dave Desire ) , and held the championship until February 25 , 2000 when they were defeated by Da Hit Squad . During 2000 they also held the Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling Tag Team Championship and the ECWA Tag Team Championship in the East Coast Wrestling Association promotion , which they won by defeating The Backseat Boyz ( Trent Acid and Johnny Kashmere ) .
The Haas brothers began competing for Combat Zone Wrestling ( CZW ) in November 1999 , losing to The King Pinz at The War Begins on November 20 , 1999 . They competed regularly for CZW throughout early 2000 , and won the CZW World Tag Team Championship on February 12 at Climbing The Ladder by defeating The Kashmerino Brothers and The Thrill Kill Kult in a three @-@ way match . On July 10 , they lost the championship to The Backseat Boyz at Caged To The End , when Johnny Kashmere defeated Russ in a singles match and was awarded the championship .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( 2000 – 2005 ) = = =
After a World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) tryout match at Madison Square Garden on August 7 , 2000 , they signed a developmental contract with WWF . The two worked their way through the tag ranks in the WWF 's developmental territories , Memphis Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) and the Heartland Wrestling Association ( HWA ) . The brothers won the MCW Southern Tag Team Championship three times during early 2001 , defeating The Dupps the first time and The Island Boyz and Joey Matthews and Christian York in a three @-@ way match on both the second and third occasions . Russ died from a heart attack due to a pre @-@ existing heart condition , on December 15 , 2001 at age 27 . The brothers fought in house shows and dark matches in the WWF up until Russ died . After Russ ' death , Charlie continue to fight in dark matches . After Russ ' death as a tribute to him , Haas wrote Russ ' name on his wrist tape , and used the name " R.C. Haas " ( standing for Russ – Charlie ) before being called up to the main WWE roster . On January 2 , 2002 , Haas won the HWA Heavyweight Championship , his first singles championship , by defeating Val Venis . He was later stripped of the title on January 29 due to a scripted contract loophole . After World Wrestling Entertainment ( renamed from the WWF ) ended its affiliation with the HWA , Haas was moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he competed until December 2002 .
Haas debuted on WWE 's main roster on the December 26 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! as a heel ( villainous character ) along with Shelton Benjamin as Team Angle . The tag team was the " contingency plan " of Paul Heyman , and were intended to help WWE Champion Kurt Angle retain his title , attacking Chris Benoit and Brock Lesnar in an attempt to soften them up . They quickly won the WWE Tag Team Championship on February 6 , 2003 , by defeating Los Guerreros ( Eddie and Chavo Guerrero ) . They held the championship for three months , including a successful title defense at WrestleMania XIX against Los Guerreros and the team of Chris Benoit and Rhyno , before losing the championship to Eddie Guerrero and his new partner Tajiri in a ladder match on May 18 at Judgment Day . On the June 12 episode of SmackDown , Angle fired Haas and Benjamin after they blamed him for losing the Tag Team Championship and began to question his leadership . The duo then dubbed themselves The World 's Greatest Tag Team , although announcers made sure to add " Self Proclaimed " to the name . Haas and Benjamin regained the championship from Guerrero and Tajiri on the July 3 episode of SmackDown , but lost it to the reformed Los Guerreros on September 18 . The team was separated when Benjamin was moved to the Raw brand as part of the 2004 Draft Lottery .
After Benjamin 's draft , Haas turned into a fan favorite and gained Miss Jackie as a valet . He teamed with Rico to win the WWE Tag Team Championship on April 22 , 2004 . The pair lost the championship to the Dudley Boyz on June 17 , and shortly afterwards , Haas became a singles wrestler , although he retained Miss Jackie as his valet . Haas lost a match to Luther Reigns at the Great American Bash .
Haas was later involved in an angle in which he was in a love triangle with Miss Jackie , who was acknowledged on @-@ screen as his fiancée , and Dawn Marie . The storyline culminated when Haas served as the special @-@ guest referee in a match at Armageddon 2004 between the two women . After the match , Haas left both women in storyline , although he continued his relationship with Miss Jackie off @-@ screen . In early @-@ 2005 , he formed a tag team with Hardcore Holly . They were involved in a feud ( scripted rivalry ) with MNM for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but never won the championship .
On July 8 , 2005 , Haas was released by World Wrestling Entertainment along with his real @-@ life wife Jackie Gayda .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2005 ) = = =
He returned to JAPW later in July 2005 , and began a feud for the JAPW Heavyweight Championship with Jay Lethal . On September 10 at JAPW Haas of Pain , Lethal defeated Haas to retain his title . In JAPW , on October 27 , 2007 , Haas was inducted along with his late brother Russ into the first class of the Jersey All Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame .
He won the New Legacy Championship at Ballpark Brawl V on August 13 , 2005 , defeating then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels and Chris Sabin in a triple threat match . He successfully defended the title the next night at Ballpark Brawl VI against Harry Smith with Mick Foley as a referee .
During his time back in the independent circuit , Haas competed in the East Coast Wrestling Association 's ( ECWA ) Super 8 Tournament in 2006 , where he advanced all the way to the finals before losing to Davey Richards .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Singles competition ( 2006 ) = = = =
Haas returned to WWE in 2006 , appearing on the April 17 , 2006 , episode of Raw as Rob Van Dam 's handpicked opponent for his former partner , Shelton Benjamin . Haas defeated Benjamin in the ensuing match . Haas continued to wrestle on the lower midcard spot , becoming a regular fixture on Heat .
On the June 5 , 2006 episode of Raw , Haas inadvertently knocked Lilian Garcia off the ring apron as he was entering the ring . It was announced on WWE 's official website that as a result , Garcia suffered a sprained wrist . As a result of the legitimate accident , Haas began a feud with Garcia 's onetime storyline love interest Viscera . Haas made advances towards Garcia , at one point forcefully kissing her and then dropping her to the ground . Haas and Viscera continued to fight for Garcia 's affection in the ring , until she told them both that she wanted to be " just friends " . Haas gave Viscera an eye rake in anger , and a blinded Viscera accidentally gave Garcia a Samoan drop . Though it was unintentional , when both Haas and Viscera had seen what had happened to their now former love interest , they simply had a laugh about it , thus making Haas a villain . After that , Viscera and Haas became a tag team , competing on both Raw and Heat until splitting in December 2006 .
= = = = Return of The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
After Shelton Benjamin won a match against Super Crazy on the December 4 , 2006 , edition of Raw , Haas came out to celebrate his win with a bewildered Benjamin . Haas and Benjamin announced the return of The World 's Greatest Tag Team on the December 11 , 2006 edition of Raw , and they defeated The Highlanders in their return match . They then started a feud with Cryme Tyme . They continued to compete on Raw through the start of 2007 , facing teams including John Cena and Shawn Michaels and Ric Flair and Carlito . In mid @-@ 2007 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team feuded briefly with The Hardys in storyline ; at the One Night Stand pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 3 , 2007 , they challenged The Hardys for the WWE World Tag Team Championship in a ladder match but were unsuccessful . The team broke up once again when Benjamin moved to the ECW brand on November 20 , 2007 .
= = = = Various gimmicks and SmackDown return ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Early in 2008 , Haas developed a gimmick in which he would go under the ring in the middle of his matches and re @-@ emerge wearing a mask . In this " alter @-@ ego " , Haas would sometimes perform luchador @-@ esque maneuvers in a comical fashion ( such as attempting a diving splash , but instead landing on his feet and hitting a standing splash ) . The opponent would often unmask Haas mid @-@ match , returning him to his normal demeanor . During this persona , Haas usually competed in dark matches before the live broadcast of Raw or on Heat .
Beginning in late August , Haas turned into a face ( heroic character ) and began a storyline in which he began to impersonate other wrestlers , a concept created by John Laurinaitis , a WWE executive . His first match under this gimmick was a loss to Carlito 's real @-@ life brother Primo Colón , while Haas was parodying Carlito with the name " Charlito " . He has portrayed such superstars as John Cena , John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Jim Ross , The Great Khali , Montel Vontavious Porter , legends such as Stone Cold Steve Austin , Bret Hart , " Mr. Perfect " Curt Hennig , Jimmy " Superfly " Snuka , Rowdy Roddy Piper , Hulk Hogan and even WWE Diva Beth Phoenix for which he won a Slammy Award .
On April 15 , 2009 , Haas was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On the May 8 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Haas made his in @-@ ring return to the brand as a heel , abandoning his persona of imitating other wrestlers , and losing to John Morrison in a match where he was accompanied by his former World 's Greatest Tag Team partner , Shelton Benjamin . The following week on the May 15 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin and Haas unofficially reunited and competed against John Morrison and CM Punk in a losing effort , but Benjamin was traded to the ECW brand in June .
After an absence of several months , Haas made his return to television by teaming with Mike Knox in a losing effort against Cryme Tyme on the December 31 , 2009 episode of Superstars . On February 28 , 2010 , WWE announced that Haas had been released from his contract .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2010 – present ) = = =
On March 20 , 2010 , Haas made a surprise return to Jersey All Pro Wrestling and defeated Devon Moore for the JAPW New Jersey State Championship . On May 22 Haas and JAPW Heavyweight Champion Dan Maff put their titles on the line in a tag team match against the Hillbilly Wrecking Crew ( Brodie Lee and Necro Butcher ) . In the end Maff turned on Haas and hit him with a chair , after which Lee pinned him to win the JAPW New Jersey State Championship .
On September 10 , 2010 , Haas won the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship by defeating Michael Faith in Amarillo . In May 2011 , Haas took part in New Japan Pro Wrestling 's first tour of the United States , the Invasion Tour 2011 . In their opening show on May 13 in Rahway , New Jersey , Haas teamed with Rhyno in a tag team main event , where they defeated IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi and Togi Makabe . The following day in New York City , Haas unsuccessfully challenged Tanahashi for his title . On August 20 , 2011 , Haas became the inaugural Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) Heavyweight Champion by defeating Jay Lethal and Eric Young . He held the championship for four months before losing it to Young on December 17 .
After his retirement from pro wrestling , Haas made his return on August 17 , 2013 , where Haas defeated Jax Dane to win the NWA Branded Outlaw Wrestling championship .
At JAPW 18th Anniversary Show , Haas , Benjamin , and Angle reunited , as Team Angle , for the first time in 11 years . In the main event , Benjamin and Haas defeated Chris Sabin and Teddy Hart .
At NWA Parade Of Champions 2K16 Haas was defeated by the NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jax Dane
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On September 11 , 2010 , Haas and Shelton Benjamin made their debut as Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team in Ring of Honor ( ROH ) losing to The Kings of Wrestling at the Glory By Honor IX pay @-@ per @-@ view . They returned to ROH at the Ring of Honor Wrestling television tapings on December 9 , where they defeated the Bravado Brothers ( Harlem and Lance ) . The following day , at the second set of television tapings , Haas and Benjamin defeated the All @-@ Night Xpress of Kenny King and Rhett Titus , and participated in an eight @-@ man tag team match , teaming with the Briscoe Brothers against the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Xpress , which ended in a no contest . At the Final Battle 2010 pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 18 , Haas and Benjamin announced they would be wrestling regularly for ROH in 2011 . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , 9th Anniversary Show , on February 26 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Briscoe Brothers in the main event of the evening to earn another shot at the Kings of Wrestling and the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On April 1 , at the first night of the Honor Takes Center Stage pay @-@ per @-@ view , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Kings of Wrestling to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 26 at Best in the World 2011 , Haas and Benjamin successfully defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship in a four @-@ way match against the Briscoe Brothers , the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Express . The following day ROH announced that both Haas and Benjamin had signed contracts with the promotion . At Final Battle 2011 , Haas and Benjamin lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the Briscoes despite severely attacking them before the match started , turning them into villainous characters . On May 12 , 2012 , at Border Wars , Haas and Benjamin regained the ROH World Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers . On June 24 at Best in the World 2012 , Haas and Benjamin lost the title to Kenny King and Rhett Titus . Shortly after their loss , Benjamin was suspended in storyline , to explain his absence while wrestling in Japan . Benjamin returned at the Death Before Dishonor X pay @-@ per @-@ view , accompanying Haas and Rhett Titus in a tag team championship match . Following Death Before Dishonor , Haas and Benjamin would continue to feud with Titus and his new tag team partner B.J. Whitmer defeating them at Glory By Honor XI . They defeated them again in a street fight at Final Battle , where Haas won the match after sent BJ against a table . On February 2 , 2013 , Haas turned on Benjamin during an ROH World Tag Team Championship match against the Briscoe Brothers . He continued his feud with BJ , fighting in the 11th Anniversary Show in a No Holds Barred Match . BJ won the match when the referee stopped the match .
On March 30 , 2013 , Haas announced his retirement from professional wrestling which coincided with him leaving Ring of Honor . However , Haas has continued to compete in various promotions in his home state of Texas .
= = Personal life = =
Haas competed in amateur wrestling during high school , and for Seton Hall University , where he attended on a wrestling scholarship . He also has various other awards for wrestling from high school . Haas was a two @-
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. On August 13 , 1898 , the Spanish – American War ended and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents . Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence . Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence , a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as " El Levantamiento de Ciales " or the " Ciales Uprising of 1898 " and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic . The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising The total casualties of the Puerto Rican Campaign were 450 dead or wounded Spanish and Puerto Ricans , and 4 dead and 39 wounded Americans .
Upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10 , Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States . The Spanish troops had already left by October 18 , and the United States named General Nelson A. Miles military governor of the island . On July 1 , 1899 , " The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry , United States Army " was created , and approved by the U.S. Congress on May 27 , 1908 . The regiment was a segregated , all @-@ volunteer unit made up of 1 @,@ 969 Puerto Ricans .
= = = Puerto Rican commander in the Philippines = = =
In 1897 , before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico , Juan Alonso Zayas , born in San Juan , was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines to take command of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in Baler . He arrived in Manila , the capital , in May 1897 . There he took a vessel and headed for Baler , on the island of Luzon . The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles ( 100 km ) ; if traveled through the jungles and badly built roads , the actual distance was 144 miles ( 230 km ) . At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non @-@ existent . The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels . The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence . Zayas 's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack . Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort .
The independence advocates , under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte , were called " insurgents " ( Tagalos ) by the Spanish crown . On June 28 , 1898 , they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army . The Spanish governor of the region , Enrique de las Morena y Fossi , refused ; the Filipinos immediately attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months . Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease , the battalion did not capitulate . In the meantime , Zayas and the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish – American War that was going on . In August 1898 , the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end . The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris . In May 1899 , the Battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish – American War and its aftermath . They had been unaware that they had been fighting for a possession which was no longer theirs to fight for . On June 2 , 1899 the Battalion 's commander , Lieutenant Martín Cerezo surrendered to the Tagalos only after some conditions were met . Among the conditions were the following :
1 . That the Spaniards not be treated as prisoners of war and
2 @.@ that they would not be harmed in their quest of reaching a Spanish ship which would take them back to Spain .
The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila , where they boarded a ship for Spain . In Spain , they were given a hero 's welcome and became known as los Ultimos de Baler — " the Last of Baler . "
= = Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry = =
On March 2 , 1898 , Congress authorized the creation of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico . On June 30 , 1901 , the " Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry came into being . An Act of Congress , approved on May 27 , 1908 , reorganized the regiment as part of the " regular " Army . Since the native Puerto Rican officers where Puerto Rican citizens and not citizens of the United States , they were required to undergo a new physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the Regular Army and to take an oath of U.S. citizenship with their new officers oath .
= = Puerto Rican National Guard = =
In 1906 , a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop , and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard . The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress .
On June 19 , 1915 , Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army became the first Puerto Rican and the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . While he attended West Point , he tutored classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish ; a second language was required in order to graduate . He was a Second Lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Brigade of the army under the command of John J. Pershing when he was sent to El Paso , Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition . From El Paso , he was sent to the town of Polvo , where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens . Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion , which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rico National Guard .
= = World Wars = =
= = = World War I = = =
In 1904 , Camp Las Casas was established in Santurce under the command of Lt. Colonel Orval P. Townshend . The Porto Rico Regiment was assigned to the camp . The regiment consisted of two battalions of the former Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry .
= = = = U.S. first shot of World War I fired in Puerto Rico = = = =
Lieutenant Teófilo Marxuach was the officer of the day at El Morro Castle on March 21 , 1915 . The Odenwald , built in 1903 ( not to be confused with the German World War II war ship which carried the same name ) , was an armed German supply ship which tried to force its way out of the San Juan Bay and deliver supplies to the German submarines waiting in the Atlantic Ocean . Lt. Marxuach gave the order to open fire on the ship from the walls of the fort . Sergeant Encarnacion Correa then manned a machine gun and fired warningf shots with little effect . Marxuach fired a shot from a cannon located at the Santa Rosa battery of " El Morro " fort , in what is considered to be the first shot of World War I fired by the regular armed forces of the United States against any ship flying the colors of the Central Powers , forcing the Odenwald to stop and to return to port where its supplies were confiscated . The shots ordered by Lt. Marxuach were the first fired by the United States in World War I. The Odenwald was confiscated by the United States and renamed SS Newport . It was assigned to the U.S. Shipping Board , where it served until 1924 when it was retired .
As more countries became involved in what became known as World War I , the U.S. Congress approved the Jones – Shafroth Act , which imposed United States citizenship upon Puerto Ricans . Those who were eligible , with the exception of women , were expected to serve in the military . About 20 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans were drafted during World War I. On May 3 , 1917 , the Regiment recruited 1 @,@ 969 men . The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto Rico . On November 1917 , the first military draft ( conscription ) lottery in Puerto Rico was held in the island 's capital , San Juan . The first draft number was picked by Diana Yaeger , the daughter of the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico Arthur Yager . The number she picked was 1435 and it belonged to San Juan native Eustaquio Correa . Thus , Correa became the first Puerto Rican to be " drafted " into the Armed Forces of the United States .
On May 17 , 1917 , the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone One of the Puerto Ricans who distinguished himself during World War I was Lieutenant Frederick Lois Riefkohl of the US Navy , who on August 2 , 1917 , became the first known Puerto Rican to be awarded the Navy Cross . The Navy Cross , which is the second highest medal after the Medal of Honor , that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy , was awarded to Lt. Riefkohl for his actions in an engagement with an enemy submarine . Lt. Riefkohl , who was also the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Naval Academy , served as a Rear Admiral in World War II .
Frederick L. Riefkohl 's brother , Rudolph William Riefkohl also served . Riefkohl was commissioned a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 63rd Heavy Artillery Regiment in France where he actively participated in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . According to the United States War Department , after the war he served as Captain of Coastal Artillery at the Letterman Army Medical Center in Presidio of San Francisco , in California ( 1918 ) . He played an instrumental role in helping the people of Poland overcome the 1919 typhus epidemic .
By 1918 , the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians specializing in anesthesia , a low salary specialty required in the military operating rooms . Therefore , the Army reluctantly began hiring women physicians as civilian contract employees . The first Puerto Rican woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piñero from San Juan . She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory during the afternoons .
In New York , many Puerto Ricans joined the 369th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of Afro @-@ Americans . They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts ; however , they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms . They fought along the Western Front in France , and their reputation earned them the nickname of " the Harlem Hell Fighters " by the Germans . Among them was Rafael Hernández Marín , considered by many as Puerto Rico 's greatest composer . The 369th was awarded French Croix de guerre for battlefield gallantry by the French President .
Marine aviation was fairly new , it came into existence on May 22 , 1912 , and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps ' air component , of which Puerto Rico played a major rule , came with America 's entrance into World War I. On January 6 , 1914 , First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipal Culebra . As the number of Marine Aviators grew so did the avid desire to separate from Naval Aviation . By doing so , the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation . The creation of a " Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men .
The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico in March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4 , 1920 . It is estimated that 18 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans from the Porto Rico Regiment served in the war and that 335 were wounded by the chemical gas experimentation which the United States conducted as part of its active chemical weapons program in Panama , however neither the military nor the War Department of the United States kept statistics in regard to the total number of Puerto Ricans who served in the regular units of the Armed Forces ( United States mainland forces ) , therefore , even though it is known that four Puerto Ricans died in combat , it is impossible to determine the exact number of Puerto Ricans who served and perished in World War I.
The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves , who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico . His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature . In 1919 , the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed , and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard .
= = = Second Nicaraguan Campaign ( 1926 – 33 ) = = =
After World War I , Puerto Ricans fought on foreign shores as members of the United States Marine Corps . Civil war broke out in Nicaragua during the first months of 1926 , and upon the request of the Nicaraguan government , 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines were sent ashore to establish a neutral zone for the protection of American citizens . The American intervention was also known as the Banana Wars . Both Captain Pedro del Valle and Private Rafel Toro from Puerto Rico , participated in the Second Nicaraguan Campaign .
In 1926 , Captain del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1927 , Lieutenant Jaime Sabater , from San Juan , Puerto Rico graduated from United States Naval Academy .
Private Rafel Toro , from Humacao , Puerto Rico , was part of the U.S. Marine Corps occupation force in Nicaragua , serving with the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua . On July 25 , 1927 , Private Toro was assigned to advance guard duty in Nueva Segovia . As he rode into town , he was attacked ; returning fire , he was able to hold back the enemy until reinforcements arrived . He was mortally wounded in this action for which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross .
Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s , and many Puerto Ricans moved to the East Coast of the United States looking for jobs and a better way of life . On the island , the unemployment rate continued to rise and many Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as a source of employment . Not only were they paid better than at the few other available jobs , but they were also guaranteed three meals a day , clothing , and shelter .
= = = The Rif War ( 1920 ) = = =
After the Spanish – American War , members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain . Those who returned to their motherland took with them their Puerto Rican spouses and children . Among those who were born in Puerto Rico and who would go on to serve in the Rif War as members of the Spanish mititary were General Manuel Goded Llopis and Captain Felix Arenas Gaspar . The Rif War is a rebellion against Spanish colonial rule took place in Spanish Morocco , a Spanish protectorate in 1919 . During the Rif War Captain Félix Arenas Gaspar , who was born in San Juan , distinguished himself in combat . He was posthumously awarded the Cruz Laureada de San Fernando " Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand " ( Spain 's version of the United States Medal of Honor ) for his actions in the defense of his company .
= = = Spanish Civil War ( 1936 – 39 ) = = =
Before the United States entered World War II , Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil , not only in the Rif War , but also on both sides of the Spanish Civil War .
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d 'état committed by parts of the army , led by the Fascist General Francisco Franco , against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved , the " Nationalists " as members of the Spanish Army and the " Loyalists " ( Republicans ) as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade .
Among the Puerto Ricans who fought alongside General Franco on behalf of the Nationalists was General Manuel Goded Llopis ( 1882 – 1936 ) , a high @-@ ranking officer in the Spanish Army . Llopis , who was born in San Juan , was named Chief of Staff of the Spanish Army of Africa , after his victories in the Rif War , took the Balearic Islands and by order of Franco , suppressed the rebellion of Asturias . Llopis was sent to lead the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia , but his troops were outnumbered . He was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad .
Among the many Puerto Ricans who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade , was Lieutenant Carmelo Delgado Delgado ( 1913 – 1937 ) , a leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from Guayama who upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War was in Spain in pursuit of his law degree . Delgado was an anti @-@ fascist who believed that the Spanish Nationalists were traitors . He fought in the Battle of Madrid , but was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29 , 1937 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = The Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic = = = =
In 1940 , when Germany attacked Great Britain , the United States feared that if Germany controlled Great Britain , Mexico and the U.S. would be next . In the same year , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt ordered the construction of a naval base in the Atlantic similar to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii . The site was meant to provide anchorage , docking , repair facilities , fuel , and supplies for 60 % of the Atlantic Fleet . The naval base , which was named U.S. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads , became the largest naval installation in the world in landmass and was meant to be the Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic . However , with the defeat of Germany in 1945 , the United States concentrated all of their efforts to the war in the Pacific . In May 2003 , after six decades of existence , the base was officially shut down by the U.S. Navy .
In 1939 , a survey was conducted of possible air base sites . It was determined that Punta Borinquen was the best site for a major air base . Later that year , Major Karl S. Axtater assumed command of what was to become " Borinquen Army Air Field " ( Later renamed Ramey Air Force Base ) . The first squadron based at Borinquen Field was the 27th Bombardment Squadron , consisting of nine B @-@ 18A Bolo medium bombers . In 1940 , the air echelon of the 25th Bombardment Group ( 14 B @-@ 18A aircraft and two A @-@ 17 aircraft ) arrived at the base from Langley Field .
During World War II , the following squadrons were assigned to the airfield :
27th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) , 9 Oct 1939 ( formed at Fort Dupont , Delaware ) – 20 Oct 1939 ( arrives in Puerto Rico )
Headquarters , 13th Composite Wing , 1 Nov 1940 – 6 Jan 1941 ; 1 May – 25 Oct 1941
Headquarters , 25th Bombardment Group , 1 Nov 1940 – 1 Nov 1942 ; 5 Oct 1943 – 24 Mar 1944
417th Bombardment Squadron , 21 Nov 1939 – 13 Apr 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
10th Bombardment Squadron , 1 Nov 1940 – 1 Nov 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
12th Bombardment Squadron , 1 Nov 1940 – 8 Nov 1941 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
35th Bombardment Squadron , 31 Oct – 11 Nov 1941 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
44th Bombardment Squadron ( 40th Bombardment Group ) 1 Apr 1941 – 16 Jun 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
20th Troop Carrier Squadron ( Panama Air Depot ) Jun 1942 @-@ Jul 1943 ( C @-@ 47 Skytrain )
4th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron ( 72d Reconnaissance Group ) 27 Oct 1943 – 21 May 1945 ; 5 Oct 1945 – 20 Aug 1946
123d AAA Battalion – Fort Brooke
501st Military Police Battalion ( Combat ) – Fort Brooke
Detached Enlisted Mens List – Fort Brooke
542d Military Police Battalion – Fort Brooke
Battery D of the 123d Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion – Cataño
Battery B of the 253d Coast Artillery Regiment – Goat Island ( Isla de Cabras )
Battery B of the 123d AAA Battalion – Fort Brooke
Battery C of the 253d Coast Artillery – Fort Brooke
Battery C of the 123d AAA Battalion – far end of the harbor on the Rio Piedras
123d AAA Battalion Headquarters – Fort Buchanan
Battery A of the 123d AAA Battalion – Fort Buchanan
Antilles Air Command , 1 Mar – 25 Aug 1946
As : Antilles Air Division , 12 Jan 1948 – 22 Jan 1949
24th Composite Wing , 25 Aug 1946 – 28 Jun 1948
Navy Patrol Plane Squadron VP @-@ 31 – Borinquen Field
= = = = Puerto Ricans in the military = = = =
In October 1940 , the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard , founded by Major General Luis R. Esteves , were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department in accordance with the existing War Plan Orange .
There weren no Puerto Rican military @-@ related fatalities in the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor . However , there was one civilian Puerto Rican fatality . Daniel LaVerne was a Puerto Rican armature boxer who was working at Pearl Harbor 's Red Hill underground fuel tank construction project when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . He died as a result of the injuries which he received during the attack . His name is listed among the 2 @,@ 338 Americans killed or mortally wounded on December 7 , 1941 , in the Remembrance Exhibit in the back lawn of the USS Arizona Memorial Visitor Center at Pearl Harbor .
It is estimated by the Department of Defense that 65 @,@ 034 Puerto Ricans served in the U.S. military during World War II . Soldiers from the island , serving in the 65th Infantry Regiment , participated in combat in the European Theater — in Germany and Central Europe . Those who resided in the mainland of the United States were assigned to regular units of the military and served either in the European or Pacific theaters of the war . Some families had multiple members join the Armed Forces . Seven brothers of the Medina family known as " The Fighting Medinas " , fought in the war . They came from Río Grande , Puerto Rico and Brooklyn , New York . In some cases Puerto Ricans were subject to the racial discrimination which at that time was widespread in the United States .
World War II was also the first conflict in which women , other than nurses , were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces . However , when the United States entered World War II , Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps . As a result , many of the island 's women work force migrated to the mainland U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment . In 1944 , the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers . Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler , who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers .
In 1944 , the Army sent recruiters to the island to recruit no more than 200 women for the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Over 1 @,@ 000 applications were received for the unit which was to be composed of only 200 women . The Puerto Rican WAC unit , Company 6 , 2nd Battalion , 21st Regiment of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps , a segregated Hispanic unit , was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation , after their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia . They were assigned to work in military offices which planned the shipment of troops around the world . Among them was PFC Carmen García Rosado , who in 2006 , authored and published a book titled " LAS WACS @-@ Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Segunda Guerra Mundial " ( The WACs @-@ The participation of the Puerto Rican women in the Second World War ) , the first book to document the experiences of the first 200 Puerto Rican women who participated in said conflict . According to García Rosado , one of the hardships which Puerto Rican women in the military were subject to was the social and racial discrimination , which at the time was rampant in the United States against the Latino community .
The 149th Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas , setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943 . The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27 , 1943 , and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters . Tech4 Carmen Contreras @-@ Bozak , a member of this unit , was the first Hispanic to serve in the Women 's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions .
The 65th Infantry , after an extensive training program in 1942 , was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus in 1943 . On November 25 , 1943 , Colonel Antulio Segarra , proceeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as Commander of the 65th Infantry , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment .
On January 12 , 1944 , the 296th Infantry Regiment departed from Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone . In April 1945 , the unit returned to Puerto Rico and soon after was sent to Honolulu , Hawaii . The 296th arrived on June 25 , 1945 and was attached to the Central Pacific Base Command at Kahuku Air Base . Lieutenant Colonel Gilberto José Marxuach , " The Father of the San Juan Civil Defense " , was the commander of both the 1114th Artillery Co. and the 1558th Engineers Co .
Also on January 1944 , the 65th Infantry Regiment was embarked for Jackson Barracks in New Orleans and later sent to Fort Eustis in Newport News , Virginia in preparation for overseas deployment to North Africa . After they arrived at Casablanca , they underwent further training . By April 29 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry regiment was sent to North Africa , arriving at Casablanca , where they underwent further training . For some Puerto Ricans , this would be the first time that they were away from their homeland . Being away from their homeland for the first time would serve as an inspiration for compositions of two Bolero 's ; " En mi viejo San Juan " by Noel Estrada and " Despedida " ( My Good @-@ bye ) , a farewell song written by Pedro Flores and interpreted by Daniel Santos . By April 29 , 1944 , the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica . On September 22 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava . On December 13 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila , relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment , a Regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller , a native of Puerto Rico . The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany 's 34th Infantry Division 's 107th Infantry Regiment . There were 47 battle casualties including Pvt. Sergio Sanchez @-@ Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez , from the town of Sabana Grande , who were the first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in combat action from the 65th Infantry . On March 18 , 1945 , the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties . In all , the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of Naples @-@ Fogis , Rome @-@ Arno , central Europe and of the Rhineland .
It was during this conflict that CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. , a member of the United States Coast Guard and the first Hispanic @-@ American to be promoted to Chief Petty Officer , received a war @-@ time promotion to Chief Warrant Officer ( November 27 , 1944 ) , thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well . Aviles , who served in the United States Navy as Chief Gunner 's Mate in World War I , spent most of the war at St. Augustine , Florida training recruits .
= = = = Commanders = = = =
This was also the first time that Puerto Ricans played important roles as commanders in the Armed Forces of the United States . Besides Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila who served with the 65th Infantry and Colonel Virgil R. Miller , a West Point graduate , born in San Germán , Puerto Rico , who was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team , a unit which was composed of " Nisei " ( second generation Americans of Japanese descent ) , that rescued Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division , in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France . Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . ( 1893 – 1980 ) was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment on December 8 , 1941 , when Japanese planes attacked the U.S. military installations in the Philippines . Cordero and his men underwent brutal torture and humiliation during the Bataan Death March and nearly four years of captivity . He was one of nearly 1 @,@ 600 members of the 31st Infantry who were taken as prisoners . Half of these men perished while prisoners of the Japanese forces . After Cordero gained his freedom , when the Allied troops defeated the Japanese , he was sent to Italy and in 1946 , returned to the United States . Cordero , who retired with the rank of Brigadier General , wrote about his experiences as a prisoner of war and what he went through during the Bataan Death March . He authored My Experiences during the War with Japan , which was published in 1950 . In 1957 , he authored a revised Spanish version titled Bataan y la Marcha de la Muerte ; Volume 7 of Colección Vida e Historia .
The following seven Puerto Ricans , who graduated from the United States Naval Academy , served in command positions in the Navy and the Marine Corps . Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle , was the first Hispanic Marine Corps general . He played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Battle of Guam and became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division . Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa . Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , USN , who later became the first Puerto Rican to become a four @-@ star Admiral ; Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano , USN , the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer . As submarine commander of the USS Balao ( SS @-@ 285 ) , he is credited with sinking two Japanese ships ; Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez , USN , a highly decorated submarine commander who was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals ; Rear Admiral José M. Cabanillas , USN , who was the Executive Officer of the USS Texas which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy ( D @-@ Day ) ; Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García , USN , commander of the destroyer USS Sloat who saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France ; Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl , USN , the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Naval Academy and recipient of the Navy Cross and Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. , USMC , who commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations . Sabater also participated in the Battle of Guam ( July 21 – August 10 , 1944 ) as Executive officer of the 9th Marines . He was wounded in action on July 21 , 1944 and awarded the Purple Heart .
= = = = Notable combatants = = = =
Among the many Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves in combat were Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero and the first three Puerto Ricans to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross : PFC . Luis F. Castro , Private Anibal Irrizarry and PFC Joseph R. Martinez .
PFC Joseph ( José ) R. Martinez , born in San Germán , destroyed a German Infantry unit and tank in Tunis by providing heavy artillery fire , saving his platoon from being attacked in the process . He received the Distinguished Service Cross from General George S. Patton , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican recipient of said military decoration . His citation reads as follow :
Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero was awarded a total of 22 decorations and medals his actions in Europe during World War II , thus becoming most decorated soldier in the United States Military during that war .
= = = = Aviators = = = =
Puerto Ricans also served in the United States Army Air Forces . In 1944 , Puerto Rican aviators were sent to the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee , Alabama to train the famed 99th Fighter Squadron of the Tuskegee Airmen . The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African @-@ American military aviators in the United States armed forces . Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit . Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T / Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt , an NCO ( Non Commissioned Officer ) in charge of the Special Service Office , and Eugene Calderon , who was assigned to the " Red Tail " unit , as the Company Clerk . By the end of the war , the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down , a patrol boat run aground by machine @-@ gun fire , and destruction of numerous fuel dumps , trucks and trains .
Among the Puerto Ricans who served in either the Royal Canadian Air Force , the British Royal Air Force or the United States Army Air Forces during the war and distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and bombardiers were Captains Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini and Alberto A. Nido , Lieutenants José Antonio Muñiz and César Luis González , and T / Sgt. Clement Resto .
Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini served in the Royal Air Force and in United States Army Air Forces as a fighter pilot during World War II . He was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal , the Air Medal with four clusters and the Distinguished Flying Cross 5 times . Gilormini later became a co @-@ founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General .
Captain Alberto A. Nido served in the Royal Canadian Air Force , the Royal Air Force and in the United States Army Air Forces during the war . He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as a Supermarine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF . As member of the RAF , he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions . Nido later transferred to the USAAF 's 67th Fighter Group as a P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Nido co @-@ founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and , as Gilormini , retired a Brigadier General .
Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz served with distinction in the China Burma India Theater . During his tour of duty he flew 20 combat missions against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and shot down a Mitsubishi A6M Zero . Muñiz was also a co @-@ founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard .
2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , a co @-@ pilot of a C @-@ 47 , was the first Puerto Rican pilot in the United States Army Air Forces . He was one of the initial participants of the invasion of Sicily on July 10 , 1943 also known as Operation Husky . During the invasion of Sicily , he flew on two night missions , the first on July 9 , where his mission was to release paratroops of 82nd Airborne Division on the area of Gela and the second on July 11 , when he dropped reinforcements in the area . His unit was awarded a " DUC " for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy attack by enemy ground and naval forces . González died on November 22 , 1943 , when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway at Castelvetrano . He was posthumously promoted to First Lieutenant .
T / Sgt. Clement Resto served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany . During a bombing mission over Düren , Germany , Resto 's plane , a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII @-@ B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war . Resto , who lost an eye during his last mission , was awarded a Purple Heart , a POW Medal , and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity .
= = Human experimentation = =
Puerto Rican soldiers were also subject to human experimentation by the United States Armed Forces . On Panama 's San Jose Island , Puerto Rican soldiers were exposed to mustard gas to see if they reacted differently than their " white " counterparts . According to Susan L. Smith of the University of Alberta , the researchers were searching for evidence of race @-@ based differences in the responses of the human body to mustard gas exposure .
= = Post World War II = =
The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8 , 1945 when the western Allies celebrated " V @-@ E Day " ( Victory in Europe Day ) upon Germany 's surrender , and in the Asian theater on August 14 , 1945 " V @-@ J Day " ( Victory over Japan Day ) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez Denton ( U.S. Navy ) , born in Guanica , Puerto Rico , was the first woman from Puerto Rico who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES . It was LTJG Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
On October 27 , 1945 , the 65th Infantry sailed home from France . Arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9 , 1945 , they were received by the local population as national heroes and given a victorious reception at the Military Terminal of Camp Buchanan .
According to the book " Historia Militar De Puerto Rico " ( Military history of Puerto Rico ) , by historian Col. Héctor Andrés Negroni , the men of the 65th Infantry were awarded the following military decorations :
65th Infantry Regiment Individual Awards in World War II
The 295th Regiment returned on February 20 , 1946 from the Panama Canal Zone , and the 296th Regiment on March 6 . Both regiments were awarded the American Theatre streamer and the Pacific Theatre streamer . They were inactivated that same year .
According to the 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service of 1948 , a total of 51 @,@ 438 Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces during World War II , however the Department of Defense in its report titled " Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies " stated that the total of Puerto Ricans who served was 65 @,@ 034 and from that total 2 @,@ 560 were listed as wounded . Unfortunately , the exact total amount of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II in other units , besides those of Puerto Rico , cannot be determined because the military categorized Hispanics under the same heading as whites . The only racial groups to have separate stats kept were African @-@ Americans and Asian Americans .
= = Revolt against the United States = =
During the mid @-@ 1940s , various pro @-@ independence groups , such as the Puerto Rican Independence Party , which believed in gaining the island 's independence through the electoral process , and the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party , which believed in the concept of armed revolution , existed in Puerto Rico . On October 30 , 1950 , the nationalists , under the leadership of Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos staged uprisings in the towns of Ponce , Mayagüez , Naranjito , Arecibo , Utuado ( Utuado Uprising ) , San Juan ( San Juan Nationalist revolt ) and Jayuya .
The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as El Grito de Jayuya ( Jayuya Uprising ) . Nationalist leader Blanca Canales led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police station . A small battle with the police occurred ; one officer was killed and three others were wounded before the rest dropped their weapons and surrendered . The nationalists cut the telephone lines and burned the post office . Canales led the group into the town square where the illegal light blue version of the Puerto Rican Flag was raised ( it was against the law to carry a Puerto Rican Flag from 1898 to 1952 . ) In the town square , Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic . The town was held by the nationalists for three days .
The United States declared martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya . The town was attacked by U.S. bomber planes and ground artillery . Even though part of the town was destroyed , news of this military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico . It was called an incident between Puerto Ricans . The top leaders of the nationalist party , including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales , were arrested and sent to jail to serve long prison terms .
Griselio Torresola , Albizu Campos 's bodyguard , was in the United States at the time of the Jayuya Uprising . Torresola and fellow nationalist Oscar Collazo , were to assassinate President Harry S. Truman . On November 1 , 1950 , they attacked the Blair House where Torresola and a policeman , Leslie Coffelt , lost their lives . Oscar Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death . His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman and he eventually received a presidential pardon .
= = Cold War ( 1947 – 91 ) = =
After World War II a geopolitical , ideological , and economic struggle emerged between the United States and the Soviet Union which included their respective allies . This struggle was popularly named the Cold War because open hostilities never occurred between the main parties involved . The so @-@ called " war " involved a nuclear and conventional weapons arms race , networks of military alliances , economic warfare and trade embargoes , propaganda , espionage , and proxy wars . The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was the most important direct confrontation . The Korean and Vietnam War were among the major civil wars polarized along Cold War lines .
= = = Puerto Rico Air National Guard = = =
Colonel Mihiel Gilormini , was named base commander to the 198th Fighter Squadron in Puerto Rico . Gilormini and Colonel Alberto A. Nido , together with Lieutenant Colonel Jose Antonio Muñiz , played an instrumental role in the creation of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard on November 23 , 1947 . The Puerto Rico Air National Guard is a part of the Air Reserve Component ( ARC ) of the United States Air Force . Both Gilormini and Nido were eventually promoted to Brigadier General and served as commanders of PRANG . In 1963 , the Air National Guard Base , at the San Juan International airport in Puerto Rico , was renamed " Muñiz Air National Guard Base " in honor of Lt. Col. Jose Antonio Muñiz who perished in July 4 , 1960 when his F @-@ 86 crashed during take off during the 4th of July festivities in Puerto Rico .
= = = The USS Cochino incident = = =
The USS Cochino ( SS @-@ 345 ) was a Gato @-@ class submarine under the command of Rafael Celestino Benítez . On August 12 , 1949 , the Cochino , along with the USS Tusk ( SS @-@ 426 ) , departed from the harbor of Portsmouth , England . Both diesel submarines were supposed to be on a cold @-@ water training mission , however , according to Blind Man 's Bluff : The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage , the submarines were part of an American intelligence operation . They had snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater , largely invisible to an enemy , and they carried electronic gear designed to detect far @-@ off radio signals . The mission of the Cochino and the Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine @-@ launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry nuclear warheads . Thus , making this the first American undersea spy missions of the cold war .
The mission was cut short when one the Cochino 's 4 @,@ 000 @-@ pound batteries caught fire . Commander Benitez directed the firefighting , trying both to save the ship and his crew from the toxic gases . The crew members of the Tusk rescued all except one Cochino crew member and convinced Commander Benitez , who was the last man on the Cochino , to board the Tusk . The Cochino sank off the coast of Norway two minutes after Benitez 's departure . Benitez retired as a Rear Admiral from the Navy in 1957 .
= = = The Korean War = = =
Sixty @-@ one thousand Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War , including 18 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the continental United States . Puerto Ricans distinguished themselves as part of the 65th Infantry Regiment receiving many awards and recognitions ; however , they were also involved in the largest court martial of the Korean War .
On August 26 , 1950 , the 65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan , Korea on September 23 , 1950 . It was during the long sea voyage that the 65th Infantry was nicknamed the " Borinqueneers " . The name is a combination of the words " Borinquen " ( the Taíno name for Puerto Rico ) and " Buccaneers " . The men of the 65th were the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea . Among the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold , harsh winters . The enemy made many attempts to encircle the Regiment , but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th . On December 1950 , U.S. Marines found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area . In June 1951 , The 65th was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the Hauack @-@ on Reservoir . When the Marines were encircled by the Chinese Communist troops close to the Sino @-@ Korean border , the 65th rushed to their defense . As a consequence , the Marines were able to return safely to their ships .
Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the Operation " Killer " of January 1951 , becoming the first Regiment to cross the Han River . On April 1951 , the Regiment participated in the Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951 , the 65th was the third Regiment to cross the Han Ton River . Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón will receive the Medal of Honor posthumously on March 18 , 2014 , for his courageous actions while serving as a member of Company L , 65th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division during combat operations against an armed enemy in Kalma @-@ Eri , Korea on April 28 , 1951 . The 65th was the Regiment that took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the Iron Triangle of Hill 717 on July 1951 . On November 1951 , the Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units , with success . Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila was named commander of 65th Infantry on February 8 , 1952 , thus becoming one of the highest @-@ ranking ethnic officers in the Army . On July 3 , 1952 , the Regiment defended the MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac , King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions . On October the Regiment also saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse , Hill 391 , whose lower part was called " Jackson Heights " . On September 1952 , the 65th Infantry was holding on to a hill known as " Outpost Kelly " . Chinese Communist forces that had joined the North Koreans overran the hill in what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly . Twice the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off .
In June 1953 , the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids on Hill 412 and in November , the Regiment successfully counterattacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the truce signing between all parts involved .
= = = = Mass court @-@ martial = = = =
Col. Cordero Dávila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre , a West Point graduate and a " continental " officer from the mainland United States and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non @-@ Hispanic officers . DeGavre ordered that the unit stop calling itself the Borinqueneers , cut their special rations of rice and beans , ordered the men to shave off their mustaches and had one of them wear signs that read " I am a coward " . It is believed that as a result of this humiliation , combat exhaustion , and the language barrier where factors that influenced some of the men of Company L of the 65th in their refusal to continue to fight .
In December 1954 , 162 Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested , 95 were court martialed , and 91 were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from 1 to 18 years of hard labor . It was the largest mass court martial of the Korean War . The Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted clemency and pardons to all those involved . Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned , there is currently a campaign for a formal exoneration .
An Army report released in 2001 blamed the breakdown of the 65th on the following factors : a shortage of officers and noncommissioned officers , a rotation policy that removed combat @-@ experienced leaders and soldiers , tactics that led to high casualties , an ammunition shortage , communication problems between largely white , English @-@ speaking officers and Spanish @-@ speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men , and declining morale . The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans , citing instances of continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances , before and after Jackson Heights .
= = = Post Korean War = = =
The 65th Infantry was credited with battle participation in nine campaigns . Among the distinctions awarded to the members of the 65th were a Medal of Honor , 10 Distinguished Service Crosses , 256 Silver Stars and 595 Bronze Stars . According to El Nuevo Día newspaper , May 30 , 2004 , a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea and a total of 3 @,@ 630 men were wounded , from all four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces . More than half of these were from the 65th Infantry ( This is without including non @-@ Puerto Ricans ) . The 65th Infantry returned to Puerto Rico and was deactivated in 1956 . However , Major General Juan César Cordero Dávila , Puerto Rico 's Adjutant General ( 1958 – 65 ) , persuaded the Department of the Army to transfer the 65th Infantry from the regular Army to the Puerto Rican National Guard . This was the only unit ever transferred from active component Army to the Army Guard .
65th Infantry Regiment
Individual Awards in the Korean War
Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves are : Brigadier General Antonio Rodríguez Balinas ( awarded two Silver Stars ) , Colonel Carlos Betances Ramírez ( only Puerto Rican officer to command an infantry battalion ) , Master Sergeant Pedro Rodríguez ( awarded two Silver Stars ) , and Staff Sergeant Modesto Cartagena ( the most decorated Hispanic in history ) . Other Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves were United States Marines Private First Class Fernando Luis García , who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the Medal of Honor when he covered a grenade with his body , saving the lives of his fellow Marines and PFC . Ramón Núñez @-@ Juárez and PFC Enrique Romero @-@ Nieves , who were awarded the Navy Cross . On February 21 , 2014 , President Barack Obama announced that three Puerto Ricans who fought in the Korean War will posthumously be awarded the Medal of Honor . They are Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón of the 65th Infantry Regiment , Private Demensio Rivera of the 7th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division and Private Miguel A. Vera of the 38th Infantry Regiment , 2d
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Infantry Division . Master Sergeant Juan E. Negron of the 65th Infantry Regiment , Private Demensio Rivera pf the 7th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division and Private Miguel A. Vera of the 38th Infantry Regiment , 2d Infantry Division .
Puerto Rican women continued to volunteer for military service during and after the war . CWO3 Rose Franco was the first Puerto Rican woman to become a Chief Warrant Officer in the U.S. Marine Corps . With the outbreak of the Korean War , Rose surprised her family by announcing that she was leaving college to join the United States Marine Corps . In 1965 , Rose was named Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy Paul Henry Nitze by the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson . 1st Lieutenant Gloria Esparra Petersen was an Army nurse at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington , D.C. , during the War . Captain Julia Benitez Aviles was the first Puerto Rican servicewoman to obtain the rank of captain . She joined the Army Nurse Corps in 1950 and served in Occupation Germany ; Washington , D.C. ; Texas ; and Puerto Rico as a nurse anesthetist , retiring in 1964 . Lieutenant Nilda Carrulas Cedero Fuertes joined the Army Nurse Corps in 1953 , serving on active duty until 1964 . She then joined the Reserves , where she served until 1990 . Among her assignments in the military was teaching the latest modern nursing techniques to Nicaraguan Army nurses while TDY ( on temporary duty ) in Nicaragua for six months .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis = = =
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba . On October 22 , 1962 , Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr. was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine ( blockade ) of the Soviet ships . On October 28 , Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba , and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20 , bringing an end to the crisis . Admiral Rivero later served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain ( 1972 – 75 ) .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
During the Vietnam War , an estimated 48 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces . Some sources state that a total of 345 Puerto Ricans who resided in the island died in combat , however according to a report by the Department of Defense , titled " Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies " the total number of Puerto Ricans who died was 455 and that were wounded was 3 @,@ 775 . A total of 17 men were listed as Missing in Action ( MIA ) , and of these , PFC . Humberto Acosta @-@ Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as MIA . Five Puerto Ricans — Staff Sergeant Felix M. Conde @-@ Falcon , Spc4 Héctor Santiago Colón , Captain Eurípides Rubio , PFC Carlos Lozada and Captain Humbert Roque Versace — were awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest United States military decoration . Lance Corporal Jose L. Rivera , Corporal Miguel Rivera @-@ Sotomayor , and Sergeant Angel Mendez , members of the United States Marine Corps , were awarded the Navy Cross for their heroic actions . Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions on March 16 , 1967 , for saving the life of his platoon commander , Lieutenant Ronald D. Castille , ( one of the seven justices of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ) . U.S. Senator Charles Schumer has recommended that Mendez ' award be upgraded to Medal of Honor . The most decorated Hispanic American soldier in the Vietnam War was Sergeant First Class Jorge Otero Barreto from the town of Vega Baja , Puerto Rico . Otero @-@ Barreto , has also been called by the media , the most decorated U.S. soldier of the Vietnam War . Sgt. Otero @-@ Barreto was a member of the U.S. Army . From 1961 to 1970 , Otero Barreto served five tours in Southeast Asia , starting as an advisor who helped train Vietnamese troops . He was awarded 38 decorations , among them 3 Silver Star Medals , 5 Bronze Star Medals with Valor , 4 Army Commendation Medals , 5 Purple Heart Medals and 5 Air Medals .
Other Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam and had distinguished military careers include : Major General Salvador E. Felices , Rear Admiral Diego E. Hernández , Colonel Héctor Andrés Negroni and Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero who in 1991 became the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Dean of Faculty of the United States Air Force Academy .
Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam held positions in the Administration of President George W. Bush . They are Dr. Richard Carmona , a former Green Beret who was awarded two Purple Hearts and was appointed Surgeon General in March 2002 , and Major General William A. Navas Jr . , who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was named Assistant Secretary of the Navy on June 6 , 2001 . In September 22 , 2015 , the documentary “ On Two Fronts : Latinos & Vietnam ” examined the Latino experience during the Vietnam War .
= = = Operation El Dorado Canyon = = =
On April 14 , 1986 , in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by Libyan leader Muammar al @-@ Gaddafi — in particular , the Berlin disco bombing of April 6 — and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya 's disputed territorial water claims in the Gulf of Sidra , the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in Tripoli and other parts of Libya . The attack was code @-@ named Operation El Dorado Canyon .
With the acquiescence of the British government , 24 U.S. Air Force F @-@ 111F fighter @-@ bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England . Attacking in the pre @-@ dawn hours of April 15 , their main objectives were 22 airfields , terrorist training camps , and other military installations . Captain Fernando L. Ribas @-@ Dominicci was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid . His F @-@ 111 was shot down over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast . Ribas @-@ Dominicci and his weapons systems officer , Captain Paul F. Lorence , were the only U.S. casualties . Al @-@ Qaddafi , who was also personally targeted , escaped harm , but his daughter was killed .
= = Post Cold War campaigns = =
On October 7 , 1975 , President Gerald R. Ford signed legislation permitting women to enter the United States service academies . As a consequence Puerto Rican women who graduated from the academies would be allowed to serve in sensitive leadership positions during their military careers .
In 1980 , Captain Linda Garcia Cubero became the first Hispanic woman to graduate from a military academy . Garcia Cubero was a member of the first class of women to graduate from the United States Air Force Academy .
That same year then Lieutenant Olga E. Custodio became the first female Hispanic U.S. military pilot . Custodio studied at the University of Puerto Rico and joined that institutions ROTC program . She graduated from the Officer Training School in January 1980 , and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant . She holds the distinction of being first Latina to complete U.S. Air Force military pilot training . One of her assignments in the military was that of instructor pilot where she was the first female Northrop T @-@ 38 Talon ( T @-@ 38 ) UPT flight instructor at Laughlin AFB . After retiring in 2003 , with the rank Lieutenant Colonel , she became the first Latina to become a commercial airline captain .
In 1984 , Michelle Fraley became the first Puerto Rican women to graduate from West Point . Fraley ( née Hernández ) graduated from West Point Military Academy and eventually served as chief of staff of the Army Network Enterprise Technology Command . She retired in 2014 with the rank of Colonel .
= = = Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope = = =
In 1990 , 1 @,@ 700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20 @,@ 000 Hispanics deployed to the Persian Gulf in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm as part of the Gulf War . Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives , including Captain Manuel Rivera , Jr. of the Marine Corps , a Puerto Rican from the South Bronx , who on January 22 , 1991 became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield . Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf . On January 30 , 1991 , the U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera .
During this era Haydee Javier Kimmich , from Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , was the highest @-@ ranking Hispanic female in the Navy when she was promoted to the rank of Capatin . The naval rank of Captain is the equivalent of Colonel in the other US armed forces . Kimmich was assigned as the Chief of Orthopedics at the Navy Medical Center in Bethesda and reorganized their Reservist Department during Operation Desert Storm . In 1998 , she was selected as the woman of the year in Puerto Rico .
Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the African nation of Somalia , which was suffering from a severe famine , anarchy , and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre 's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War . On January 30 , 1993 , Private First Class Domingo Arroyo , Jr . , a Marine from Puerto Rico , became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation . He was ambushed in Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia , by Somali warlords .
= = September 11 attacks = =
On September 11 , 2001 , United Airlines Flight 93 was hijacked by four members of al @-@ Qaeda as part of the September 11 attacks . The hijackers ' specific target was the United States Capitol . Among the pilots available that day of the 113th Wing of the DC Air National Guard were Lieutenant Colonel Marc H. Sasseville and Lieutenant Heather Penney Garcia . They were given the mission of finding the United Airlines Flight 93 and destroying it however they could . Since the fighter jets were absent of missiles and packed only with dummy ammunition from a recent training mission , there was only one way to do it and that was by ramming the aircraft . The fighter jets passed over the ravaged Pentagon building , however it was not until hours later that they would find out that United 93 had already gone down in a field outside Shanksville , Pennsylvania , killing all 44 people aboard including the 4 hijackers .
= = = 21st century campaigns = = =
In the 21st century , Puerto Ricans have participated in the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq , in what the United States and its allies refer to as the War on Terror . Among those that have perished during the Irag Operation are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone . They are Specialist Frances M. Vega , Specialist Lizbeth Robles and Specialist Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez . On November 2 , 2003 , Specialist Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone . A ground @-@ to @-@ air missile fired by insurgents in Fallujah hit the Chinook transport helicopter Vega was in ; she was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed . On March 1 , 2005 , Specialist Lizbeth Robles became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born on the island to die in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident . On July 10 , 2007 , Captain María Inés Ortiz , who was assigned to a hospital in an area known as the " Green Zone " in Baghdad , Iraq , became the first Puerto Rican nurse to die in combat and the first Army nurse to die in the Iraq War after the area came under a heavy mortar attack .
Brigadier General Hector E. Pagan graduated from the U.S. Army War College in 2003 . Pagan took command of the 5th SF Group ( Airborne ) in Baghdad , Iraq , Operation Iraqi Freedom . He led the 5th SF Group ( Airborne ) in combat as the commander of the Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force in the Arabian Peninsula for two combat tours in 2003 and 2004 . Later Pagan became the first Hispanic of Puerto Rican descent to become Deputy Commanding General of the U.S.Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School at Fort Bragg , North Carolina .
That same year , Colonel Maritza Sáenz Ryan , who had participated in both Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , became the first woman and first Hispanic West Point graduate to serve as an academic department head . She also has the distinction of being the most senior ranking Hispanic Judge Advocate and has been instrumental in raising awareness of the inequity and impracticality of the Combat Exclusion Policy , which restricts women 's roles and opportunities in the military regardless of talent or ability .
Colonel Evelio Otero , Jr. helped establish the U.S. Central Command Headquarters at Qatar . When the United States military began Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom , Otero was called upon to establish the Intelligence Division which supported the military operations . The first Sensitive Site Exploitation of the Ba 'ath Party Headquarters in Baghdad was led by Otero . He was promoted to Colonel in 2004 and as Chief Coalition Intelligence Center in the Central Command at MacDill Air Force Base . His assignment included multiple trips to the Coalition Intelligence Center in Iraq where he worked on Detainee Interrogation Release Parameters .
In 2006 , Capt. Iván Castro ( then a First Lieutenant ) was providing support by fire during a battle with insurgents in Iraq when a mortar round exploded close to him leaving him totally blind . He continued serving on active duty in the Special Forces despite losing his eyesight becoming the only blind officer serving in the United States Army Special Forces .
As of May 2004 , there were 1 @,@ 800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq , Kuwait , Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard = =
In July 2015 , Puerto Rico Governor Alejandro Garcia Padilla nominated Colonel Martha Carcana for the position of Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard , a position which she unofficially held since 2014 . On September 4 , 2015 , she was confirmed as the first Puerto Rican woman to lead the Puerto Rican National Guard .
= = Monument of Remembrance = =
General William W. Harris was quoted in the Puerto Rico Herald as saying ,
Over 1 @,@ 225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving the United States . The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in " El Monumento de la Recordación " ( Monument of Remembrance ) , which was unveiled on May 19 , 1996 , and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan , Puerto Rico .
On Veterans Day , November 11 , 2013 , a group representing the Puerto Rican community in Connecticut placed a floral arrangement on the tomb of Augusto Rodrigues , who fought in the American Civil War , recognizing him as Puerto Rico ’ s first known U.S. Armed Forces veteran .
= = Congressional Gold Medal = =
On June 10 , 2014 , President Barack Obama , signed the legislation known as " The Borinqueneers CGM Bill " at an official ceremony . The Bill honors the 65th Infantry Regiment with the Congressional Gold Medal .
A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress and is , along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian award in the United States . It is awarded to persons or military units " who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient 's field long after the achievement . "
They join the four military units that had been awarded the Congressional Gold Medal prior to them . These were the Navaho Wind Talkers – Native American Marines whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages with the use of their Native language ; the Nisei Soldiers , Japanese American intelligence soldiers during WWII in the Pacific , Africa , Italy and France ; the Tuskegee Airmen , the first African @-@ American military aviators ; and the Montford Point Marines , the first African @-@ Americans to break the race barrier in the Marines .
A decision on designs for a congressional gold medal being awarded in 2015 to the Borinqueneers of the 65th Infantry Regiment was selected by the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee on June 16 , 2015 . In August 2015 , the Borinqueneers CGM design was finally approved by the Secretary of the Treasury .
= Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " is the first episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk , and the show 's 30th episode overall . The series follows Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Sharona Flemming ( Bitty Schram ) . In this episode , Monk travels to New York City in an attempt to discover his wife 's killer , but may solve the case of the death of the Latvian ambassador .
Written by Andy Breckman and directed by Randall Zisk , " Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was shot in New York . When the episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on June 18 , 2004 , it was watched by 5 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode garnered a mixed reaction from critics , praising the comedy obtained through putting Monk in a scenario that would arouse his fears while criticizing Monk 's exaggerated reactions to the setting .
= = Plot = =
Detective Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) flies to New York City to find criminal Warrick Tennyson ( Frank Collison ) . In the preceding episode , criminal Dale " The Whale " Biederbeck ( Tim Curry ) told Monk that Tennyson was involved in the murder of Monk 's wife , Trudy . On the trip , Monk is accompanied by his nurse Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) , and police officers Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Lieutenant Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) . They stay at the same hotel as the Latvian ambassador , who is subsequently discovered shot to death along with his two bodyguards . Police Captain Walter Cage ( Mykelti Williamson ) asks for Monk 's help in solving the murder . Monk notices the ambassador 's coat is damp , even though it had been dry minutes before the murder .
The four retrace the ambassador 's movements that day , discovering that he had stopped at a bar before arriving at the hotel . Then , Stottlemeyer and Disher go back to the precinct to try to get a bead on Tennyson 's location while Monk and Sharona discover that the ambassador 's final words meant " This is not my coat " . Stottlemeyer breaks into Cage 's office to discover that Tennyson is dying in a hospital and has days left to live . Stottlemeyer confronts Cage , who says the only way he will allow access to Tennyson is if Monk solves the ambassador 's murder .
Monk is briefly separated from the group after accidentally boarding the wrong train . While reuniting with his partners he notices Steven Leight ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) being interviewed on a TV screen about the recent murder of his wife . Noticing Leight eating a mint from the same bar the ambassador had last been seen , Monk insists Steven Leight is the ambassador 's murderer , despite the lack of supporting evidence . To support his theory , Monk proposes that Leight stole his wife 's jewelry to stage a robbery , then proceeded to the bar before calling the police . He asserts Leight and the ambassador were wearing essentially identical coats , and that they must have been switched accidentally at the bar . As rain falls , Leight locates the ambassador 's hotel room , and subsequently kills both him and his bodyguards , and switches the newly wet coat with his own .
Subsequently , a ballistics report confirms that Leight 's wife and the ambassador were killed with the same gun and Leight is arrested . Having solved the case , Monk is allowed to visit Tennyson who remembers being hired by a man who had six fingers on his right hand . Tennyson asks for forgiveness , but Monk cannot bring himself to give it . He turns off Tennyson 's morphine drip saying , " This is me , turning off your morphine ; " but a few moments later , he says , " This is Trudy , the woman you killed , turning it back on , " and does .
The foursome prepares to leave New York , having gotten a step further in solving Monk 's most important case .
= = Production = =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was written by Andy Breckman and directed by Randall Zisk . Series creator and executive producer Breckman was credited for the script for the fifth time in the series , while it was the sixth time Zisk worked on a Monk episode . While Monk 's second season was entirely filmed and produced in Los Angeles , " Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was shot in New York City in March 2004 .
In the series ' plot , Trudy was killed years prior its first episode , which led Monk to develop obsessive – compulsive disorder and to be discharged from the San Francisco Police Department . At the beginning of the third season , executive producer and co @-@ creator David Hoberman said the staff felt it was a good idea to explore Trudy 's death . They were , however , careful about the manner in which they mentioned her death and Monk 's desire to find the culprit . This was out of concern that they would " burden " the series with it .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on June 18 , 2004 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 5 @.@ 9 million viewers . It was the third most watched program on cable television that week with a 3 @.@ 6 percent household rating and a household audience of 3 @.@ 9 million .
CurrentFilm.com and MovieFreak.com 's Dennis Landmann qualified it as one of the best episodes of the season . Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's Melanie McFarland said although it is " a fecund opportunity for cheap laughs " , Shalhoub was able to keep the " balance between Monk 's power and helplessness without caving into lower comedic impulses . " McFarland praised its writing and Shalhoub , saying " It would begin to look like shoddy choreography " if they were not good . " A welcome return " was how it was described by Robert Lloyd from the Los Angeles Times who asserted its " pleasures are all in the predictable eccentricities of its characters , and the fact that it 's clearly being staged for our benefit . " Ted Cox of the Chicago @-@ area Daily Herald praised the scene when Monk forgives Tennyson dubbing it " great TV . " Chris Hicks of Deseret News deemed it as " a terrific example of how the writers come up with simple situations that throw Monk into turmoil but also allow us to identify with him : Monk in Manhattan . The crowds , the noise , the confusion . Perfect . "
Not all reviews were positive . David Bianculli , writing in the New York Daily News , stated that the idea of putting Monk in New York " sound [ ed ] great " on paper but it did not take advantage of what could be " a delightful study in contrasts . " Bianculli called it a " misstep " , criticizing its premise and how it was not able to keep the balance between comedy and drama that made it " too outrageous . " A review for the The Beaver County Times considered it a " stunt episode " and its humor " uncharacteristically forced " , saying it " really doesn 't do justice to the show 's considerable charms . " Steve Johnson of Chicago Tribune affirmed that while the premise is funny , " the writers go out of their way to play the city against his condition . " He continued by saying it " wouldn 't be so bad " if he went to solve crimes " but Friday 's first case is a real stretch . " Although excited for the episode 's premise prior its broadcast , Austin Smith of the New York Post was very critical of it . Smith said in this episode " the producers have him [ Monk ] crossing that fine line between genius and insanity , transforming our hero into a full @-@ blown mental patient . " He also criticized the " Mr. Monk vs. the City of New York " scenes as they do not further the episode 's plot . Smith co @-@ worker , Linda Stasi also panned the episode , considering Monk 's reactions " caricature [ d ] " . Stasi wrote , " It 's one thing to be an obsessive / compulsive ex @-@ detective who lines up the pins on the murder map and it 's another to act like you 've got a pin in your brain . " As Smith , Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times called the jokes " predictable " and said " If you aren 't a Monk fan , these devices may strike you as altogether shopworn . "
= Guy Bradley =
Guy Morrell Bradley ( April 25 , 1870 – July 8 , 1905 ) was an American game warden and deputy sheriff for Monroe County , Florida . Born in Chicago , Illinois , he relocated to Florida with his family when he was young . As a boy , he often served as guide to visiting fishermen and plume hunters , although he later denounced poaching after legislation was passed to protect the dwindling number of birds . In 1902 , Bradley was hired by the American Ornithologists ' Union , at the request of the Florida Audubon Society , to become one of the country 's first game wardens .
Tasked with protecting the area 's wading birds from hunters , he patrolled the area stretching from Florida 's west coast , through the Everglades , to Key West , single @-@ handedly enforcing the ban on bird hunting . Bradley was shot and killed in the line of duty , after confronting a man and his two sons who were hunting egrets in the Everglades . His much @-@ publicized death at the age of 35 galvanized conservationists , and served as inspiration for future legislation to protect Florida 's bird populations . Several national awards and places have been named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Guy Bradley was born in Chicago , Illinois , in 1870 . His family had strong ties to the city ; his father , Edwin Ruthven Bradley , was born there in 1840 , and two members of the family held high positions in Chicago 's law enforcement . Six years after Guy 's birth , the family relocated to Florida . After making their home in smaller towns , the family eventually settled in Fort Lauderdale , where Edwin became keeper of the Fort Lauderdale House of Refuge . Shortly after the death of Bradley 's sister Flora from an unknown illness — which also affected Guy , leaving him ill for several years — the family moved to Lake Worth . Edwin became a postman , earning an annual wage of six hundred dollars . He , with the help of his oldest son , later received national attention for being one of several barefoot mailmen , who operated until a road was constructed in 1892 .
The family then relocated to Miami , where Edwin served as superintendent of the Dade County school district . In 1885 , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Guy and his older brother Louis served as scouts for noted French plume hunter Jean Chevalier on his trip to the Everglades . Accompanied by their friend Charlie Pierce , the men set sail on Pierce 's craft , the Bonton , ending their journey in Key West . At the time , plume feathers — selling for more than $ 20 an ounce ( $ 501 in 2011 ) — were reportedly more valuable than gold . On their expedition , which lasted several weeks , the young men and Chevalier 's party killed 1 @,@ 397 individual birds of thirty @-@ six different species .
= = Hunt for plumes = =
At the turn of the 20th century , vast numbers of birds were being killed in order to provide feathers to decorate women 's hats . The fashion craze , which began in the 1870s , became so prominent that by 1886 birds were being killed for the millinery trade at a rate of five million a year ; many species faced extinction as a result . In Florida , plume birds were first driven away from the most populated areas in the northern part of the state , and forced to nest further south . Rookeries concentrated in and around the Everglades area , which had abundant food and seasonal dry periods , ideal for nesting birds . By the late 1880s , there were no longer any large numbers of plume birds within reach of Florida 's most settled cities .
The most popular plumes came from various species of wading birds , known as " little snowies " for their snowy @-@ white feathers ; even more prized were the " nuptial plumes " , grown during mating season and displayed by birds during courtship . Poachers often stole into the densely populated rookeries , where they would shoot and then pluck the roosting birds clean , leaving their carcasses to rot . Unprotected eggs became easy prey for predators , as were newly hatched birds , who also starved or died from exposure . One ex @-@ poacher would later write of the practice , " The heads and necks of the young birds were hanging out of the nests by the hundreds . I am done with bird hunting forever ! "
In the mid @-@ 1890s , Edwin became head of the Florida Coast Line Canal and Transportation Company and then the Model Land Company , both of which sold land for the railroads . In 1900 , after twenty years living in Lake Worth , the family moved to Flamingo in Monroe County , near the Everglades . Edwin had heard that railroad tycoon Henry Flagler planned to build his railroad through the area , and that the then primitive city of Flamingo would flourish as a result ; Flagler later changed his mind , deciding to build to Key West instead . Guy and his brother , who continued working as guides and hunters , each received a quarter of a mile of land on Florida Bay as part of their father 's deal with the Model Land Company . While working variously as a postman , farmer and boatman during his 20s , Guy continued to augment his income with an occasional plume hunt . In 1899 , he married the young widow Sophronia ( " Fronie " ) Vickers Kirvin from Key West . Their first child , Morrell , was born a year later .
= = Game warden = =
When the Florida legislature passed the American Ornithologists ' Union ( AOU ) model law to outlaw the killing of plume birds , this created a need for qualified and competent wardens to enforce it . Kirk Munroe , a friend of the Bradley family and a founding vice president of the Florida Audubon Society , recommended Guy for the position . Seen as different from the other " wild " young men in Flamingo , Bradley was described as " pleasant , quiet … fair , with blue eyes , always whistling and a pretty good violinist … [ a ] social asset to the isolated , frontier community , clean @-@ cut , reliable , courageous , energetic and conscientious " .
Bradley was at this time a reformed plume hunter , who had given up the profession after the passage of the Lacey Act of 1900 . In a letter to William Dutcher , president of the Florida Audubon Society , Bradley wrote " I used to hunt plume birds , but since the game laws were passed , I have not killed a plume bird . For it is a cruel and hard calling not withstanding being unlawful . I make this statement upon honor . " Soon after being accepted for the position , Bradley traveled to Key West to secure his appointment as both game warden and deputy sheriff , which gave him the authority to arrest those hunting illegally .
As one of the first game wardens , Bradley was responsible for reporting suspected poachers and the businesses with which they worked . He was paid a monthly stipend of $ 35 ( $ 917 in 2010 ) to single @-@ handedly patrol the enormous area stretching from the Ten Thousand Islands on Florida 's west coast , through the Everglades , to Key West , which served as nesting areas for popular plume birds such as egrets , herons , spoonbills and ibis . Bradley took his job seriously ; he educated locals about the newly implemented laws which made plume hunting a punishable offense , spoke to hunters directly , and posted warning signs throughout his territory . He also set up a network of spies who watched for suspicious behavior , and employed his brother Louis and others close to him to work as assistant wardens during the height of the plume season .
= = Difficulties = =
In 1903 , President Theodore Roosevelt created the first wildlife refuge in the United States , Pelican Island . Its first warden , Paul Kroegel , joined forces with Bradley to enforce the illegality of bird @-@ hunting in Florida . By 1904 , the various Audubon organizations had 34 wardens employed in ten states . Conservationist publications were optimistic that Bradley and other wardens would be successful in their enforcement ; in AOU 's January 1904 issue of The Auk , an editor wrote : " The natives are beginning to realize that the birds are to be protected and that the wardens are fearless men who are not to be trifled with . The Bradleys have the reputation of being the best rifle shots in that vicinity and they would not hesitate to shoot when necessary . "
After accepting the position as game warden , however , Bradley became a vilified figure in southern Florida ; working alone , with no reinforcements , he had been shot at more than once . In 1904 , Bradley alerted visiting ornithologist and author Frank Chapman that one of the more isolated rookeries , called Cuthbert , had been " shot out " despite previously having been found to be in good condition . He reportedly said , " You could 've walked right around the Rookery on those bird 's bodies — between four and five hundred of them . "
Bradley took the slaughter to mean that he was being watched by local hunters , who only could have discovered the rookery by tracking his movements . Chapman later wrote , " Under his guardianship the ' white birds ' had increased in numbers , which , with aigrettes selling at $ 32 an ounce , made the venture worth the risk ( for there was a risk ; as the man who attempted to ' shoot out ' a rookery while Bradley was on guard would probably have lost his own ' plume ' ) ; the warden watched and in his absence his charges were slaughtered . "
= = Death = =
On July 8 , 1905 , Bradley heard gunshots close to his waterfront home in Flamingo . He set sail in his small skiff , and encountered a father and his two sons by the name of Smith , who were shooting up a rookery . The families had known each other for years , but Civil War veteran Walter Smith had a reputation for being troublesome , and Bradley had previously had altercations with him . He had arrested Smith on one occasion and Smith 's oldest son , Tom , twice for poaching . Smith threatened to retaliate against Bradley if he tried again , reportedly telling the warden , " You ever arrest one of my boys again , I 'll kill you . "
According to Walter Smith 's account , Bradley encountered the three men as they were loading dead plume birds onto their boat . An argument ensued , and as the warden attempted to arrest one of the young men , Smith opened fire with his hunting rifle , fatally wounding Bradley . His body was found the next day by his brother 's search party , after drifting 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the scene of the crime . He had bled to death .
= = Aftermath = =
Smith set sail to Key West and turned himself in to the authorities the next day . Despite evidence found by the prosecution — paid for by the Florida Audubon Society — that Bradley had not fired his weapon , Smith claimed self @-@ defense . He maintained that the warden had fired first , but missed , hitting Smith 's boat . Those who knew Bradley , however , insisted that he had been an excellent shot , and would not have missed his target had he , in fact , shot first . Smith later was found not guilty of murder , when the jury decided there was insufficient evidence to convict ; he served only five months in jail , unable to pay $ 5 @,@ 000 for bail . While he was incarcerated , Bradley 's two brothers @-@ in @-@ law burned down Smith 's Flamingo home .
Bradley 's death and Smith 's acquittal made national headlines ; detailed stories ran in the New York Times , the New York Herald , the Philadelphia North American , and Forest and Stream . The warden 's wife and two young children were given a home in Key West , paid for by donations secured by the Florida Audubon Society . The Society , however , made no effort to replace Bradley , and his job as warden went unfilled . Bradley 's obituary , written by William Dutcher and published in August 1905 's edition of Bird Lore , characterized him as " fearless and brave . " Dutcher eulogized Bradley by saying , " A faithful and devoted warden , who was a young and sturdy man , cut off in a moment , for what ? That a few more plume birds might be secured to adorn heartless women 's bonnets . Heretofore the price has been the life of the birds , now is added human blood . Every great movement must have its martyrs , and Guy M. Bradley is the first martyr in bird protection . "
With no one to replace Bradley , lawlessness continued in the Everglades and rookeries were devastated for several more years . Frank Chapman remarked that " There is no community sufficiently law @-@ abiding to leave a bank vault unmolested if it were left unprotected . We have given up . We can 't protect it , and the rookery will have to go . " In November 1908 , game warden and deputy sheriff of DeSoto County , Columbus G. McLeod , went missing near Charlotte Harbor . A month later , his boat was found weighted down and sunk ; inside , police found the warden 's bloodstained hat , long gashes cut into the crown with what appeared to be an axe . It was suspected that he was killed by poachers . His body was never found and the perpetrators were not caught . Later that year , an employee of the South Carolina Audubon Society , Pressly Reeves , was shot and killed during an ambush by unknown assailants .
= = Legacy = =
These three deaths within as many years helped end the commercial trade of feathers from Florida . In 1910 , the New York legislature passed the Audubon Plumage Act , outlawing the plume trade ; other states followed , and Congress soon banned the import of hats decorated with bird feathers . In time , the fashion craze for bird feathers faded . As the demand for plumage dwindled , thousands of birds returned to the Everglades rookeries ; adventure writer Zane Grey wrote after visiting a creek near Cape Sable :
Though we saw birds everywhere , in the air and on the foliage , we were not in the least prepared for what a bend in the stream disclosed . Banks of foliage as white with curlew as if with heavy snow ! With tremendous flapping of wings that merged into a roar , thousands of curlew took wing , out over the water . … It was a most wonderful experience .
Bradley was buried on a shell ridge at Cape Sable , overlooking Florida Bay . A nearby monument was erected by the Florida Audubon Society , reading : " Guy M. Bradley , 1870 – 1905 , Faithful Unto Death , As Game Warden of Monroe County He Gave his Life for the Cause to Which He Was Pledged " . The grave and monument , however , were later washed away in 1960 's Hurricane Donna . The original gravestone was recovered , and is now on display at the Flamingo Visitor Center . A nearby plaque was also dedicated to Bradley 's memory , and reads : " Audubon warden was shot and killed off this shore by outlaw feather hunters , July 8 , 1905 . His martyrdom created nationwide indignation , strengthened bird protection laws and helped bring Everglades National Park into being . "
The story of Bradley 's defense of the Everglades ' birds , and the manner of his death , has been depicted in both literature and film . Author Marjory Stoneman Douglas , who would later become famous for publicizing the need for conserving and restoring the Everglades , based the hero of her 1930 short story " Plumes " on Bradley . The 1958 film Wind Across the Everglades , starring Christopher Plummer and Burl Ives , was loosely based upon Bradley 's life and death .
In 1988 , the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation established the Guy Bradley Award to recognize achievements in wildlife law enforcement . The award is presented annually to two recipients , one state and one federal officer . Another honor , the Guy Bradley Lifetime Conservation Award , was established in 1997 by the Audubon Society Everglades Ecosystem Restoration Campaign to those who promote conservation and offer workable conservation solutions . A trail in the Everglades , leading from the Flamingo Visitor Center to the Flamingo Campground , also was named in Bradley 's honor .
= Batman Forever =
Batman Forever is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton , based on the DC Comics character Batman . It is the third installment of the initial Batman film series , with Val Kilmer replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman . The film stars Chris O 'Donnell , Nicole Kidman , Tommy Lee Jones and Jim Carrey . The plot focuses on Batman trying to stop Two @-@ Face ( Jones ) and the Riddler ( Carrey ) in their villainous scheme to extract confidential information from all the minds in Gotham City and use it to learn Batman 's identity and bring the city under their control . He gains allegiance from a love interest — psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian ( Kidman ) and a young , orphaned circus acrobat named Dick Grayson ( O 'Donnell ) , who becomes his sidekick Robin .
Batman Forever 's tone is significantly different from the previous installments , becoming more family @-@ friendly since Warner Bros. believed that the previous Batman film , Batman Returns ( 1992 ) , failed to outgross its predecessor due to parent complaints about the film 's violence and dark overtones . Schumacher eschewed the dark , dystopian atmosphere of Burton 's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic book of the Dick Sprang era , as well as the 1960s television series . Keaton chose not to reprise the role due to Burton stepping down as director . William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were initially considered for Keaton 's replacement , before Kilmer joined the cast . The film was released on June 16 , 1995 , receiving mixed reviews , but was a financial success . Batman Forever grossed over $ 336 million worldwide and became the sixth @-@ highest grossing film worldwide of 1995 .
= = Plot = =
In Gotham City , the crime fighter Batman stops a hostage situation caused by a criminal known as Two @-@ Face , the alter ego of the former district attorney Harvey Dent , but Two @-@ Face escapes and remains at large . Edward Nygma , a researcher at Wayne Enterprises who idolizes Bruce Wayne , has developed a device that can beam television into a person 's brain . However , Bruce rejects the invention , believing it to be too close to mind manipulation . After killing his secretary Fred Stickley , Nygma resigns and seeks retaliation against Bruce for rejecting his invention and begins to send him riddles . A news report reveals how Harvey Dent became Two @-@ Face : when he was prosecuting a mob boss named Sal Maroni , Maroni threw acid on Dent 's face , disfiguring half of it . Batman tried to save him , but failed . After the incident , Dent seeks to kill Batman for failing to save him . Bruce meets Chase Meridian , a psychiatrist who is obsessed with Batman , and invites her to come with him to a circus event . After a performance from the circus performers , The Flying Graysons , Two @-@ Face arrives and threatens to blow up the circus unless Batman comes forward and surrenders his life to him . The Flying Graysons attempt to stop Two @-@ Face , but they get killed by as a result . However , Dick Grayson , the youngest member , survives as he throws Two @-@ Face 's bomb into a river .
Bruce invites the orphaned Dick to stay at Wayne Manor . Dick , still troubled by the murder of his family , intends to kill Two @-@ Face and avenge his family . When he discovers that Bruce is Batman , he asks Bruce to help him find Two @-@ Face so that he can kill him , but Bruce refuses . Meanwhile , Nygma becomes a criminal called the Riddler and forms an alliance with Two @-@ Face . The two steal capital in order to mass produce Nygma 's brainwave device . At Nygma 's business party , Nygma discovers Bruce 's alter ego using the brainwave device . Two @-@ Face arrives and crashes the party . He nearly kills Batman , but Dick manages to save his life . Meanwhile , Chase has fallen in love with Bruce , which surpasses her obsession with Batman , but she soon discovers that they are one and the same . Bruce decides to stop being Batman in order to have a normal life with Chase and to prevent Dick from finding Two @-@ Face and kill him . Dick runs away while Bruce and Chase have dinner together in the manor . The Riddler and Two @-@ Face arrive and attack Wayne Manor . The Riddler destroys the Batcave and kidnaps Chase , while leaving an injured Bruce another riddle .
Using the riddles , Bruce and his butler , Alfred , find out the Riddler 's secret identity . Dick returns and becomes Batman 's sidekick , Robin . Batman and Robin head to Riddler and Two @-@ Face 's lair , Claw Island , where they are separated . Robin encounters Two @-@ Face and nearly kills him . Realizing that he does not have it in him to murder , Robin spares him . Two @-@ Face gets the upper hand and captures Robin . Batman arrives at the lair , where Robin and Chase are held as hostages . The Riddler gives Batman a chance to save only one hostage . But instead , Batman destroys the Riddler 's brainwave collecting device , causing the Riddler to suffer a mental breakdown . Batman manages to save Robin and Chase . Two @-@ Face corners the trio and determines their fate with the flip of a coin , but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air , causing Two @-@ Face to stumble and fall to his death . The Riddler is taken to Arkham Asylum and imprisoned , but he claims he knows who Batman is . Chase is asked to consult on the case , but Nygma says that he himself is Batman , due to his damaged memories . Chase meets Bruce outside and tells him that his secret is safe before leaving . Bruce decides to become Batman again and he and Robin continue to protect Gotham from crime .
= = Cast = =
Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman
After coming across the journal of his father , he starts questioning his act of vengeance . Bruce struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter , becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian .
Chris O 'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin
Once a circus acrobat , Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two @-@ Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event . Bruce is reminded of when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick , and decides to take him in as his ward . He eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce 's secret identity . In his wake , he becomes the crime fighting partner , Robin .
Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian
A psychologist and love interest of Bruce Wayne . Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman . She is held as a damsel in distress in the climax .
Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Harvey Two @-@ Face
Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City , half of Harvey 's face is scarred with acid during the conviction of a crime boss . Driven insane , he becomes the criminal Harvey Two @-@ Face obsessed with killing Batman . He flips a coin to determine if he kills ( tails ) or not ( heads ) .
Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler
A former Wayne Enterprises employee , Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce Wayne , with whom he is obsessed . He becomes the villainous Riddler , leaving riddles and puzzles at crime scenes .
Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth
The Wayne family 's faithful butler and Bruce 's confidant . Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson .
Pat Hingle as James Gordon
The police commissioner of Gotham City .
Drew Barrymore as Sugar
Two @-@ Face 's " good " assistant .
Debi Mazar as Spice
Two @-@ Face 's " bad " assistant .
Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty
Gotham 's top gossip columnist .
René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton
The head Doctor of Arkham Asylum .
Joe Grifasi as Hawkins , the Bank Guard
Two @-@ Face 's hostage during the opening scene .
Ofer Samra as Two @-@ Face 's thug
Ed Begley , Jr. as Fred Stickley
Edward Nygma 's ill @-@ tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises . After Stickley discovers the side effect of Edward 's invention , Edward kills him and makes it look like suicide . Begley was uncredited for this role .
Don " The Dragon " Wilson as the leader of the Neon Gang .
Patrick Leahy in an uncredited cameo
This is the first of five cameo appearances in Batman films by Leahy , a United States Senator and DC Comics fan .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Even though Batman Returns was a financial success , Warner Bros. felt the film should have made more money and decided to make the film series more mainstream . Tim Burton , who had directed the two previous installments , was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer and signed Joel Schumacher as director . After approving Schumacher as director , Burton met with Lee and Janet Scott @-@ Batchler , who agreed with him that " the key element to Batman is his duality . And it 's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne " . Burton along with Schumacher hired the Batchlers to write the script which introduced a psychotic Riddler with a pet rat accompanying him . The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film , though Schumacher felt it could be " lighte [ ne ] d down " . Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller 's Batman : Year One . The studio rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel , not a prequel , though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne 's past . He hired Akiva Goldsman — with whom he previously had worked with on The Client — to write the second draft of the script .
Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Dr. Chase Meridian but Michael Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the new direction the film series was heading in . Keaton also wanted to pursue " more interesting roles " , turning down $ 15 million to appear in Batman Forever . Val Kilmer was cast days later , and the filmmakers decided that Russo was too old for Kilmer , replacing her with a different actress . Schumacher became interested in Kilmer for Batman after seeing him in Tombstone , and the actor accepted the role without even reading the script or knowing who the new director was . Before Val Kilmer was cast , Daniel Day @-@ Lewis , Ralph Fiennes , William Baldwin and Johnny Depp were all under consideration to replace Michael Keaton . Ethan Hawke turned down the role over fear of typecasting , but later regretted the decision .
Robin Wright , Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were in competition for Dr. Chase Meridian , with Wright appearing as the favorable choice . Nicole Kidman was eventually cast . Billy Dee Williams took on the role of Harvey Dent in Batman on the possibility of portraying Two @-@ Face in a sequel , but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role . Jones was always Schumacher 's first choice , after having worked with him on The Client . Jones claims he was sent the script and was very cautious to accept , but did so after his son 's insistence . Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point . In a 2003 interview , Schumacher stated Michael Jackson lobbied hard for the role , but was turned down before Jim Carrey was cast . Robin appeared in the shooting script of Batman Returns but was deleted due to too many characters . Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role , and signed for Batman Forever . It was decided to replace Wayans with a white actor . Leonardo DiCaprio was considered , but decided not to go the role after a meeting with Schumacher . Chris O 'Donnell was cast and Mitchell Gaylord served as his stunt double . Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character , but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming started in September 1994 . Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design , claiming that the film needed a " force " and felt Ling could " advance on it " . Schumacher wanted a design that was not to be in any way connected to the previous films , and instead was to be inspired by the images from the Batman comic books seen in the 1940s / early 1950s and taken from that of New York City architecture in the 1930s , with a combination of modern Tokyo . He also wanted a " city with personality " , with more statues , as well as various amounts of neon .
Schumacher had problems filming with Kilmer , whom he described as " childish and impossible " , reporting that he fought with various crewmen , and refused to speak to Schumacher during two weeks after the director told him to stop behaving in a rude way . Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble : " Jim Carrey was a gentleman , and Tommy Lee was threatened by him . I 'm tired of defending overpaid , overprivileged actors . I pray I don 't work with them again . " Carrey later acknowledged Jones was not friendly to him , telling him once off @-@ set during the production , " I hate you . I really don 't like you ... I cannot sanction your buffoonery . "
= = = Design and effects = = =
Rick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup . John Dykstra , Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors , with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work . PDI provided a computer @-@ generated Batman for complicated stunts . For the costume design , producer Peter MacGregor @-@ Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together . Batman 's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more " MTV organic , and edgier feel " to the suit . Sound editing and mixing was co @-@ supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque , which included trips to caves to record bat sounds . A new Batmobile was designed for Batman Forever , with two cars being constructed , one for stunt purposes and one for close @-@ ups with both showcasing a V8 engine . Swiss surrealist painter H.R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film .
= = = Music = = =
Elliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written , whereas most composers are hired during production . In discussions with Schumacher , the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman , and requested an original composition . The film 's promotional teaser trailer used the main title theme from Elfman 's score of 1989 's Batman .
The soundtrack was commercially successful , selling almost as many copies as Prince 's soundtrack to the 1989 Batman film . Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie ' . Hit singles from the soundtrack include " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " by U2 and " Kiss from a Rose " by Seal , both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards . " Kiss from a Rose " ( whose video was also directed by Joel Schumacher ) reached No. 1 in the U.S. charts as well . The soundtrack itself , featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips , Brandy ( both songs also included in the film ) , Method Man , Nick Cave , Michael Hutchence ( of INXS ) , PJ Harvey , and Massive Attack , was an attempt to ( in producer Peter MacGregor @-@ Scott 's words ) make the film more " pop " .
= = Deleted scenes = =
Batman Forever went through a few major edits before its release . Originally darker than the final product , the movie 's original length was closer to 2 hours and 40 minutes according to director Joel Schumacher . There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film 's 10th anniversary in 2005 . While all four previous Batman films were given special edition DVD releases on the same day as the Batman Begins DVD release , none of them were given extended cuts , although some of the following scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features .
There was an undercurrent theme involving Bruce having repressed memories of an aspect of his parents death that he hadn 't faced which was finding his father 's diary on the night of his parents wake and reading that Bruce insisted his parents go to the theater so he could watch one of the shows , meaning the reason he became Batman was out of the guilt that he killed them .
Many scenes were filmed but deleted from the film , other scenes had footage removed . These included :
The escape of Two @-@ Face from Arkham Asylum . René Auberjonois had another scene filmed here in the role of Doctor Burton , but his role was reduced in the final film . He discovers Two @-@ Face 's escape , encountering his psychologist hanged in Two @-@ Face 's cell with " The Bat Must Die " written in blood on the wall . This was supposed to be the film 's opening scene , but producers decided this was far too dark for a family audience .
When Two @-@ Face addresses the crowd from the helicopter in the opening action scene , the speech was truncated and several lines that appeared in the Theatrical Trailer were removed , including the line " If the Bat wants to play , we 'll play ! "
There was a sequence that contained an extended fight scene between Two @-@ Face and Batman , where they both struggle for control of the helicopter . In this scene , Two @-@ Face accuses Batman of being " a killer too " , a direct continuity reference to the first two Batman films in which Batman killed the Joker , the Penguin and several of their respective goons . Two @-@ face then manages to escape by the parachute , after Batman realizes he has locked the steering wheel into position . This sequence is included in rough form on the special edition DVD .
A scene right before Edward Nygma arrived at Wayne Manor . It featured Bruce Wayne watching a local Gotham talk show with Chase Meridian as a guest , talking about Batman .
One scene right before Riddler and Two @-@ face team up featured a little conversation with Dick and Bruce in the gym of the manor . This would explain why Dick suddenly has martial arts training . This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD .
The scene where the Riddler fails to punch a security guard out . The guard is then brutally beaten by the Riddler using his cane .
One sequence came directly after the casino robbery , where Batman follows a robbery signal on a tracking device in the Batmobile . He shows up at the crime scene and finds he is at the wrong place ( a beauty salon ) , in which a room full of girls laugh at him . The Riddler had been throwing Batman off the track by messing with the Batmobile 's tracking device . This would explain why in the theatrical version Batman seems to give Riddler and Two @-@ Face moments of free rein over the city . This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD .
The construction of NygmaTech was after Batman solves the third riddle and was more in @-@ depth . There were scenes shot that appear in publicity stills of Edward Nygma with a hard hat helping with the construction of his headquarters on Claw Island .
Sugar and Spice , played by Drew Barrymore and Debi Mazar , try out the Riddler 's device during the montage when it goes on sale . They are seated with the Riddler and Two @-@ Face on the couch where Chase is handcuffed later in the film . This scene appears in the comic adaptation but not in the final
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4 finale " Exodus " were nominated for a 2001 Emmy in the category " Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series " , but they lost to Star Trek : Voyager 's " Endgame " . " Small Victories " was also nominated for a Gemini Award and a Leo Award in the respective " Best Visual Effects " categories , but failed to win either .
In his book Approaching the Possible , Jo Storm considered " Small Victories " " one of the most enthralling episodes " that makes the audience forget that it used nearly the same premise that was used in " Nemesis " . He thought the episode was " especially big on the Sam / Jack dynamic " as the characters " toe the line between fraternal teasing and downright chemistry " . He saluted Amanda Tapping 's comedic opportunities and called her character 's reaction to Asgard food " priceless " . He also noted the character development of Daniel Jackson in a military environment , contrasting it with the character 's attitude in the season 1 episode " Thor 's Hammer " where his military mind was less developed .
= Magnavox Odyssey =
The Magnavox Odyssey is the first commercial home video game console . It was developed by a small team led by Ralph H. Baer at Sanders Associates and released by Magnavox in the United States in September 1972 and overseas the following year . The Odyssey consists of a white , black , and brown box which connects to a television set and two rectangular controllers attached by wires . It is capable of displaying three square dots on the screen in monochrome black and white , with different behavior of the dots depending on the game played , and has no sound capabilities . Players place plastic overlays on the screen to create visuals , and the one or two players for each game control their dots with the three knobs and one button on the controller in accordance with the rules given for the game . The Odyssey console came packaged with dice , paper money , and other board game paraphernalia to go along with the games , and a peripheral controller — the first video game light gun — was sold separately .
The idea for a video game console was thought up by Baer in August 1966 , and over the next three years he , along with Bill Harrison and Bill Rusch , created seven successive prototype consoles . The seventh , known as the Brown Box , was shown to several manufacturers before Magnavox agreed to produce it in January 1971 . After releasing the console in September 1972 through their dealerships , Magnavox sold between 69 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 units by the end of the year , and 350 @,@ 000 by the time the console was discontinued in 1975 . The console spawned the Magnavox Odyssey series of dedicated consoles , as well as the 1978 Magnavox Odyssey ² . One of the 28 games made for the system , a ping pong game , was an inspiration for Atari 's successful Pong arcade game , in turn driving sales of the console . Baer 's patents for the console and the games , including what was termed by a judge as " the pioneering patent of the video game art " , formed the basis of a series of lawsuits over 20 years , earning Sanders and Magnavox over US $ 100 million . The release of the Odyssey marked the end of the early history of video games , and the rise of the commercial video game industry along with the start of the first generation of video game consoles .
= = Design = =
The Odyssey consists of a black , white , and brown oblong box connected by wires to two rectangular controllers . The primary console box connects to the television set through an included switchbox , which allows the player to switch the television input between the Odyssey and the regular television input cable , and presents itself like a television channel . The controllers , which are designed to sit on a flat surface , contain one button marked Reset on the top of the controller and three knobs : one on the right side of the controller , and two on the left with one extending from the other . The reset button does not reset the game , but instead is used by different games to reset individual elements , such as making a player 's dot visible after it is turned off during a game . The system can be powered by six C batteries , which were included . An optional AC power supply was sold separately . The Odyssey lacks sound capability and can only display monochrome white shapes on a blank black screen .
Internally , the Odyssey architecture is composed of digital computing parts . The circuitry is implemented in diode – transistor logic using discrete transistors and diodes , rather than the newly emerging transistor – transistor logic integrated circuits , due to cost concerns . The games themselves do not use cartridges like later consoles , but instead use " game cards " composed of printed circuit boards that plug into the console . These cards modify the internal circuitry like a set of switches or jumpers , causing the Odyssey to display different components and react to inputs differently . Multiple games use the same cards , with different instructions given to the player to change the style of game .
The Odyssey is capable of displaying three square dots and a vertical line on the screen . Two of the dots are controlled by the two players , and the third by the console . The main console has two dials , one of which moves the vertical line across the screen , and one which adjusts the speed of the computer @-@ controlled dot . Different games directed the player to adjust the dials to different positions , for example to change the center line of a tennis game into the side wall of a handball game . The games include plastic overlays which would stick to the television via static cling , to create visuals for the game . Different games that use the same game card can have different overlays , which could change a game with the same controls from , for example , a mountain ski path to a movement @-@ based Simon Says game .
In addition to the overlays , the Odyssey came with dice , poker chips , score sheets , play money , and game boards much like a traditional board game . One peripheral controller was released for the Odyssey , the first video game light gun . Named the Shooting Gallery , the rifle @-@ shaped device registered a hit when pointed at a light source such as a dot on the television screen . Four shooting @-@ based games were included with the light gun .
= = Development = =
In 1951 , while working for military contractor Loral Electronics , engineer Ralph H. Baer was assigned to build a television set ; while doing so , he had the idea to build something into a television set that the owner could control , rather than only hooking it up to a remote television station . Baer did not pursue the idea , but it returned to him in August 1966 while waiting for a bus . Baer , then the head of the Equipment Design Division at military contractor Sanders Associates , came up with the concept of using a television to play games , and the next morning wrote up a four @-@ page proposal for a US $ 20 " game box " that would plug into a television screen and play games on it . While the commercial video game industry did not yet exist at that point , the very first electronic computer games had been developed at the start of the 1950s , and by 1966 several early mainframe games had been developed for mainframe computers , which were typically only found in large academic or research institutions . In the proposal , Baer began by referring to the project using military terminology , but by the time he finished it he was referring to it as Channel LP , short for " let 's play " . The proposed device would transmit a signal that the television set could tune into as if it were a television channel , and Baer described several games that could be played on it .
As Channel LP had little to do with the typical military contracts Sanders worked on , rather than bring the idea to his bosses Baer instead commandeered an empty room and assigned one of his technicians , Bob Tremblay , to work on it with him . By December 1966 an initial prototype later christened " TV Game # 1 " was completed , which could display and move a vertical line on a television screen . Baer demonstrated the prototype to the Sanders director of research and development , Herbert Campman , who hesitantly agreed to fund it for US $ 2 @,@ 000 of labor and US $ 500 for materials , making it an official project .
Baer spent the next few months designing further prototypes , and in February 1967 assigned technician Bill Harrison to begin building the project . Harrison spent the next few months in between other projects building out successive modifications to the prototype . Baer , meanwhile , collaborated with engineer Bill Rusch on the design of the console , including developing the basis of many games for the system . The first game was developed by May , a two @-@ player gamer where the players repeatedly press a button in competition to fill or empty a bucket of water , and by June multiple games were completed for what was then a second prototype box . These included a game where players controlled dots chasing each other and a light gun shooter game with a plastic rifle . Baer demonstrated the new prototype to Campman , who enjoyed the shooting game , increased funding , and recommended Baer demonstrate the project to senior management . Baer demonstrated the console to the board , who were largely uninterested , though a couple members were enthusiastic ; nevertheless , CEO Royden Sanders authorized the project to be continued with the aim of selling or licensing the console as a commercial product .
By August 1967 , Baer and Harrison had completed a third prototype machine , but had found that to even come near to Baer 's initial aim of a US $ 20 or $ 25 console would require so much to be excluded that the resulting console would not be very enjoyable . Baer additionally felt that he was not proving successful at designing fun games for the system ; to make up for this he formally added Bill Rusch , who had helped him come up with the initial games for the system , to the project . Though the pair found Rusch difficult to work with , he soon proved his value to the team by coming up with a way to display three spots on the screen at once rather than the previous two , and proposing the development of a ping pong game . By November the team , now on their fourth prototype machine , had a ping pong game , a chasing game , a light gun game , and three types of controllers : joysticks for the chase game , a rifle for the light gun game , and a three dial controller for the ping pong game . Campman felt that the system was advanced enough to begin trying to find a manufacturer to buy it ; they had decided to aim for selling the rights to produce the console , as Sanders was not in the business of making and selling commercial electronics .
The team first approached the cable television industry , and the prototype attracted the attention of TelePrompter Corporation , who had seen it during a visit . After a few months of talks , cash @-@ flow problems forced TelePrompter to back out in April 1968 . The same economic downturn that caused TelePrompter 's problems caused financial difficulties at Sanders as well , which put the project on hold after the fifth prototype was developed while simultaneously undergoing large @-@ scale layoffs . It was picked up again in September , this time without Rusch , and went through two more iterations resulting in January 1969 in the seventh prototype , known as the " Brown Box " due to the wood @-@ grain stickers on the casing . With the system now largely complete , Baer and Harrison were unsure who to approach to sell it until a Sanders patent attorney recommended contacting television manufacturers . Baer demonstrated the system to several companies , who all expressed enthusiasm ; only RCA was willing to purchase the device , however , and an agreement could not be reached . Soon afterwards , though , RCA executive Bill Enders left RCA for Magnavox and convinced them to look at the console again . The three creators of the Brown Box again demonstrated the device to Magnavox in July 1969 ; they received a tepid reaction from most of the executives , but Vice President of Marketing Gerry Martin was in favor and Magnavox agreed to produce the console . After a long period of negotiations the two companies finally signed an agreement in January 1971 .
Magnavox designed the exterior of the machine , and re @-@ engineered the internals with some consultation from Baer and Harrison ; they removed the ability to display color , used only the three dial controller , and changed the system of selecting games from a dial to separate game cards that modified the console 's circuitry when plugged into the console . At the time , color televisions were still seen as a luxury item , and the ability to show color would have added additional expense and time spent dealing with FCC testing and regulations . The internal circuitry had been designed with discrete components rather than integrated circuits due to cost concerns ; these concerns were no longer valid by 1971 , but Magnavox did not have enough time to redesign every internal component of the machine prior to the planned production start date . Magnavox named the console first as the Skill @-@ O @-@ Vision while testing , and then released it as the Odyssey . The rifle game was turned into a separately sold add @-@ on game , Shooting Gallery , and Magnavox added paper money , playing cards , and poker chips to the console , to go along with the plastic overlays for the games that enhanced the primitive visuals . The new additions helped raise the price of the console to US $ 99 @.@ 95 . Baer was upset with the board game additions , which he felt were pointless add @-@ ons that would go unused by players . Magnavox announced the game for a launch date of September 1972 , and demonstrated it for months prior to Magnavox dealerships and media .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Odyssey was released by Magnavox in September 1972 . After initially ordering a production run of 50 @,@ 000 units , prior to release Magnavox increased its production capabilities and built up a large stock of the systems , as market testing had shown an enthusiastic response to the console . The Odyssey was sold only through Magnavox dealers and not through general retailers ; Magnavox felt that as the first video game console it would draw consumers into its stores . The device retailed for US $ 99 @.@ 99 , or US $ 50 when purchased along with a Magnavox television . There are conflicting reports between Baer and Magnavox employees as to whether Magnavox produced 120 @,@ 000 or 140 @,@ 000 consoles in 1972 ; additionally , Odyssey product manager Bob Fritsche recalls selling 69 @,@ 000 units that year , while Baer recalls sales being closer to 100 @,@ 000 . Baer has stated that he felt the low initial sales were due to the high price — US $ 100 being the equivalent of US $ 569 in 2015 — and because of Magnavox restricting sales to their dealerships and implying that the device only worked with Magnavox televisions . Other sources have stated that dealership salespeople would try to mislead customers to that effect in order to try to sell more television sets . Magnavox assistant product planner Don Emry has noted that the sales were in line with the original projections , if not with the production run .
According to Baer , after the initial holiday season Magnavox considered dropping the console , but the modest continuing demand the following year convinced them to manufacture an additional 27 @,@ 000 units for the 1973 holiday season , selling 20 @,@ 000 of them . The console was also released in 12 other countries : Australia , Belgium , France , Germany , Greece , Israel , Italy , the Soviet Union , Spain , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and Venezuela , with different games . The international release was focused in the United Kingdom , with some non @-@ English versions not released until 1974 . Late in 1973 , Magnavox ran a large advertising campaign for all of their 1974 products , with the result that they sold 129 @,@ 000 Odyssey units in 1974 , or 150 @,@ 000 according to Baer . Magnavox discontinued the console after 1975 ; according to Baer it sold 350 @,@ 000 units in total worldwide , though statements by Fritsche indicate it may have been higher . The light gun peripheral sold 20 @,@ 000 units . As the Odyssey was discontinued Magnavox released the first successive dedicated consoles — consoles that could only play games built into the system — in the Magnavox Odyssey series , the Odyssey 100 and Odyssey 200 , as part of the first generation of video game consoles ; the Odyssey 100 was only capable of playing the ping pong and hockey games from the original Odyssey . Eleven dedicated Odyssey consoles were produced before a true follow @-@ up console in 1978 , the Magnavox Odyssey ² .
While it showed the potential of video game consoles and marked the end of the early history of video games and the beginning of the commercial video game industry , the Odyssey is not generally considered a major commercial success . Magnavox produced no more games for the console after 1973 and rejected Baer 's proposals for an add @-@ on that would add sound to games , a putting controller and associated golf game , and console variants that would have been cheaper or supported up to four players . While a few clone systems were produced in limited quantities , and multiple dedicated consoles — generally focused on ping pong game variants — were created by several companies , no other true home video video consoles were produced until the 1976 Fairchild Semiconductor Channel F.
In 2004 Ralph Baer was awarded the National Medal of Technology for " his groundbreaking and pioneering creation , development and commercialization of interactive video games , which spawned related uses , applications , and mega @-@ industries in both the entertainment and education realms " . In June 2013 , the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) added the Magnavox Odyssey to its permanent collection of video games . MoMA 's Paul Galloway described the console as " a masterpiece of engineering and industrial design " and stated that it was " hard to overstate the importance of [ Ralph Baer 's ] place in the birth of the industry " . The Brown Box prototype and the TV Game # 1 prototype are located at the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History in Washington , D.C ..
= = = Lawsuits = = =
In May 1972 , Nutting Associates chief engineer Nolan Bushnell , designer of the first commercial arcade video game , Computer Space , saw a demonstration of the Odyssey at a dealership . Inspired , when he quit Nutting to start his own company , Atari , he assigned Allan Alcorn to create a cheap ping pong arcade game as a training exercise , though he did not tell Alcorn that it was for training nor that the idea was based on the Odyssey Table Tennis game . Alcorn soon developed Pong , which Bushnell recognized as a potential hit , and it became the company 's first game . Pong was very successful , and in turn helped drive sales of the Odyssey ; Baer once noted that customers bought the console because of Table Tennis , in turn because of Pong , and joked that they may as well have stopped designing games after that game card . In 1974 , however , Magnavox sued Atari along with several competitors including Nutting , Allied Leisure , Bally Midway , and Williams Electronics for infringing on Baer 's patents for video games played on a television screen . Baer has stated that the lawsuits were not filed right away because Magnavox and Sanders needed to wait until they could expect to be awarded more money than it would cost to pursue the suits . The root of the conflict was a pair of patents by Baer — one which described how the Odyssey showed player @-@ controlled objects , or dots , on a video monitor and described a number of games that could be played with the system , and an earlier one that went into detail about how the Odyssey used that system to have two dots collide with each other and have one bounce off , specifically using a game of ping pong as an example .
The judge ruled that Baer 's more general patent for the Odyssey constituted " the pioneering patent of the video game art " , and held the defendants ' games as infringing the patents . Atari settled early on in the court case with Magnavox , and in return were granted a license in exchange for US $ 1 @.@ 5 million and access granted to Magnavox to all technology produced by Atari from June 1976 to June 1977 , while the other defendants paid higher penalties . Over the next twenty years Sanders and Magnavox sued several other companies over the issue , focusing on " paddle @-@ and @-@ ball " type games like Pong and Table Tennis that were more clearly related to the ping pong game patent ; the final lawsuits ended in the mid 1990s . Defendants included Coleco , Mattel , Seeburg , and Activision ; Sanders and Magnavox won or settled every lawsuit . Many of the defendants unsuccessfully attempted to claim that the patents only applied to the specific hardware implementations that Baer had used , or that they were invalidated by prior computer or electronic games . In 1985 , Nintendo sued and tried to invalidate Baer 's patents , claiming as prior art the 1958 Tennis for Two game built by William Higinbotham . The court , however , ruled that the oscilloscope @-@ based game did not use video signals and therefore did not qualify as a video game , and ruled again in favor of Magnavox and Sanders . Magnavox won more than US $ 100 million in the various patent lawsuits and settlements involving the Odyssey related patents . In addition , they had a large number of licensees of their patents , with over one hundred already by the mid 1970s .
= = List of games = =
A total of 28 games distributed on 11 different game cards were released for the Magnavox Odyssey . 13 games were included with the console — a set of 12 in America and a different set of 10 in other countries — with 6 others available for purchase either individually for US $ 5 @.@ 49 or in a pack for US $ 24 @.@ 99 ; the additional games primarily used the same game cards with different screen overlays and instructions . Another game , Percepts , was available for free to players that sent in a survey card . A light gun accessory , Shooting Gallery , was available for purchase , and included four games on two cards that used the rifle . A final four games were released for sale in 1973 , designed wholly or in part by Don Emry . The games do not enforce game rules or keep track of score ; that is left up to the players .
= Nethermost Pike =
Nethermost Pike is a fell in Cumbria , England , and a part of the Lake District . At 891 metres ( 2 @,@ 923 ft ) it is the second highest Wainwright in the Helvellyn range , the highest of which is Helvellyn itself . It is located close to the southern end of the ridge , with Helvellyn to the north , and High Crag and Dollywaggon Pike to the south . Nethermost Pike , along with many of the Eastern Fells , lies between Thirlmere in the west and the Ullswater catchment in the east . The closest villages are Glenridding and Patterdale on the shores of Ullswater , over 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) away .
Like most fells in the Helvellyn range , Nethermost Pike has grassy western slopes and rocky outcrops on the eastern side . Geologically , Nethermost Pike belongs to the Borrowdale Volcanic Group . Lead was once mined on its eastern slopes , resulting in open workings and underground mines . The eastern slopes are protected as part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest because of the Pike 's geological and biological features , which include some of England 's best arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb vegetation .
= = Classification = =
Mountains are often classified according to their heights . At 891 m ( 2 @,@ 922 ft ) Nethermost Pike is listed as a Nuttall , which requires an elevation of 610 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . However with a prominence of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) it is not counted as a Hewitt or Marilyn which require prominences of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) and 150 metres ( 492 ft ) respectively . Nethermost Pike is also counted as a Wainwright because it was given a chapter in Alfred Wainwright 's Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells . It is the second highest of the Eastern Fells , and the ninth highest of all the Wainwrights . South of Nethermost Pike is High Crag 884 metres ( 2 @,@ 900 ft ) , which is separated from Nethermost Pike by a very limited depression . Most guidebooks follow Alfred Wainwright in considering High Crag to be a part of Nethermost Pike . This convention is not universally followed however , with author Bill Birkett preferring to differentiate between the two fells .
= = Topography = =
The Helvellyn range runs broadly north @-@ south for about 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) , remaining above 600 m ( 1 @,@ 970 ft ) throughout its length . Nethermost Pike is toward the southern end of this ridge , with Helvellyn itself to the north and Dollywaggon Pike to the south . In common with much of the Helvellyn range there is a marked contrast between the western and eastern slopes of Nethermost Pike . In Wainwright 's words : " The grassy western slope trodden by the multitudes is of little interest , but the fell should not be judged accordingly : it is made of sterner stuff . From the east , Nethermost Pike is magnificent , hardly less so than Helvellyn . "
The western slopes fall smoothly to the head of Thirlmere reservoir , and the tiny church at Wythburn . There are rougher areas , High and Comb Crags in particular , but these do little to change the overall impression of high moorland . The lower slopes have been planted with conifers as part of the Thirlmere Forest , but above this is a sense of wide open space . Nethermost Pike 's toehold on the valley is shifted a little to the south , relative to its position on the ridge . This is because Whelpside and Birkside Gills , its boundary streams , both run south @-@ west , rather than flowing straight down the slope .
On the east , the first impression is all of rock . The long strath of Grisedale runs north eastward to Ullswater , cutting off a series of hanging valleys which fall from the Helvellyn range . To the south east of Nethermost Pike , below the summit of High Crag , is Ruthwaite Cove . Surrounded by crag on three sides , this corrie contains Hard Tarn , a small pool on a rock shelf . This is one of the most difficult mountain tarns to locate , and its black algal bed and clear water combine to give the false impression of great depth . Ruthwaite Cove is now the site of Ruthwaite Lodge , a climbing hut . It was formerly the setting for more industrial activity , with the remains of several underground mines and some shallow open workings visible near the Lodge .
Between Ruthwaite and Nethermost Coves , Nethermost Pike sends out a fine rocky ridge . This arête , although not as imposing as Striding Edge across Nethermost Cove , ascends by a series of rocky steps for three quarters of a mile , making straight for the summit . It is from this angle , rather than from the west , that the fell earns the sobriquet of " Pike " , meaning peaked mountain . At the bottom of the ridge is Eagle Crag , standing above Grisedale Beck and forcing walkers to take a detour from the ridgeline .
North from Nethermost Pike is the depression of Swallow Scarth , above the head of Nethermost Cove . From here the ridge climbs again , turning to the west as the long plateau of Helvellyn top is reached . Southwards the ridge steps down over High Crag , and narrows as it swings east around Ruthwaite Cove to Dollywaggon Pike . A heavily eroded path runs along the ridge , but actually bypasses the top of Nethermost Pike to the west , as it leads to Helvellyn .
The summit area is triangular in plan with ridges running to the north , south and east . The actual top is toward the northern corner and set back a little from the drop to Nethermost Cove . There is a rash of stones on the summit although the surroundings are mostly covered in rough grass , and several small cairns have been built . Other than northward , where the bulk of Helvellyn intervenes , the view is extensive , with much of the Lake District visible . Further ground is brought into view from the summit of High Crag .
= = Ascents = =
The Lake District receives over 12 million visitors a year , many of whom come to climb the mountains . The closest villages to Nethermost pike are Glenridding and Patterdale , 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) to the east , close to the shores of Ullswater . Both are common starting points for climbing Nethermost Pike or other fells in the Helvellyn range . The best ascents from the east is the east ridge , reached either from the path to Eagle Crag Mine , or via Ruthwaite Lodge and Hard Tarn . There are no settlements of note close to Nethermost Pike to the west , and many walkers start from a car park at Wythburn , close to Wythburn Church . This is a popular route which follows a wide track to Helvellyn before branching off right at Swallow Scarth . Alternatives are possible on the smooth flanks of the fell , but all are pathless .
Because of its close proximity to the higher Helvellyn , Nethermost Pike receives fewer visitors . When climbing from the west many people traverse the western slopes on their way to Helvellyn . Despite this the summit does still receive a large number of walkers , who use a large number of footpaths . The large number of footpaths causes significant disturbance to the summit vegetation , which could be greatly reduced by using fewer footpaths .
= = Geology = =
Geologically the summit of the fell forms part of the Deepdale Formation , ( principally volcaniclastic sandstone ) underlain by the dacitic lapilli @-@ tuff of the Helvellyn Formation . The geology of much of the Lake District is the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , of which Nethermost Pike is part , and is late Ordovician in age . The eastern cliffs of the range , including those of Nethermost Pike , are rich in base minerals . When these rocks weather they form areas of fertile soil , which together with the area 's inaccessibility and climate provide suitable conditions for plants of biological importance .
Mining was carried out in Ruthwaite Cove , and the remains of several levels and some shallow open workings are visible near Ruthwaite Lodge . These excavations were made in a search for lead @-@ bearing galena , and are believed to have been worked in the 16th century . Further leases were taken out in 1784 and 1862 ; the last known operation was in 1880 .
North east of the summit the scene is repeated in Nethermost Cove , where the Eagle Crag Mine was mined for its lead and zinc . The vein which was exploited forms a visible gully on Eagle Crag , and was worked both above and below ground over an altitude of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The vein is surrounded by rocks from the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , which dates from the Ordovician . Large dumps of veinstone are found in the area as a result of the mining . They contain , among other minerals , crystallised tetrahedrite , which is not believed to be able to be seen or collected anywhere else in Britain . Eagle Crag Mine has a history of working similar to that of Ruthwaite Lodge .
= = Biological interest = =
The summit and surrounding areas of Nethermost Pike contain many species and communities which are of biological interest . North east of the summit is Nethermost Cove which contains some of England 's best arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb vegetation , including one third of the English population of Downy Willow ( Salix lapponum ) . Similarly Ruthwaite Cove contains Arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb communities , and it is believed that the cove may contain very rare species of plants in very small , and therefore precarious , populations . The lower eastern slopes form Grisedale Common , a large expanse of dwarf shrub heath . The lower slopes are grazed by sheep , which has a significant effect on the type of vegetation which grows . Certain areas , such as Eagle Crag , are inaccessible to sheep due to their steep slopes .
The summit and eastern slopes of Nethermost Pike are part of the Helvellyn and Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . This SSSI covers 2 @,@ 418 @.@ 8 hectares ( 5 @,@ 977 acres ) centred on the Helvellyn range and Fairfield , and was designated in 1975 because of the area 's geological and biological features . Natural England , which is responsible for choosing SSSIs , tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable .
Overgrazing by sheep in Grisedale Common has damaged the vegetation to the extent that it has needed careful management . Since 2003 grazing has been limited to one ewe per hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) in summer and 0 @.@ 6 ewe in winter . In summer sheep are also flushed from the coves , ( Nethermost and Ruthwaite ) as they contain vegetation which is susceptible to damage from summer grazing . The vegetation structure has started to improve , however recovery is slowest on the higher land and the summit is still heavily grazed . The summit suffers erosion from the large number of walkers who climb Nethermost Pike . The use of fewer footpaths would help reduce the disturbance to the summit species .
= Final Fantasy VII ( NES video game ) =
Final Fantasy VII ( simplified Chinese : 最终幻想7 ; traditional Chinese : 最終幻想7 ; pinyin : Zuì Zhōng Huànxiǎng Qī ) , also called Core Crisis ( Chinese : 核心危机 ; pinyin : Héxīn Wēijī ) , is a Chinese unofficial , unlicensed " Shanzhai " demake of the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII , originally developed by Square for the PlayStation . The two @-@ dimensional " port " was developed and published by the Chinese company ShenZhen Nanjing Technology for the SUBOR entertainment system , a clone of Nintendo 's Family Computer console ( known internationally as the Nintendo Entertainment System ) . The cartridge itself is unique , as it is structurally different from licensed Famicom cartridges in terms of hardware and programming .
The game features many gameplay elements of the original Final Fantasy VII , including a three @-@ member party structure and adaptations of the game 's subsystems . The items , spells and equipment available to the player are based upon those in the original game , and although a large number have been omitted along with optional characters and some side quests , the original story was reproduced in very minute detail . The game was received with mixed reception , cited as an impressive achievement but at the same time criticized for its difficulty and choice of a target console .
= = Gameplay = =
In Final Fantasy VII , the player directs the protagonist throughout the game world with a group of three interchangeable party members , exploring areas and interacting with non @-@ player characters . Most of Final Fantasy VII occurs within the city of Midgar for the first act , later expanding to towns , dungeons , caves , and similar areas for the rest of the game . Players can save their game at any time when not in combat to the game 's single save slot for later playing .
Starting from the second act , players can journey between field screen locations via the world map , a downsized representation of Final Fantasy VII 's world . Players can freely navigate the world map screen unless restricted by geographical obstacles , such as water or mountains . To overcome this , players can ride emu @-@ like chocobos and various vehicles available to them , though usage is limited . As in other Final Fantasy @-@ related games , travel across the world map screen and hostile areas is frequently interrupted by random enemy encounters .
= = = Combat = = =
Whenever the protagonist encounters an enemy , the map changes to the " battle screen " . On this , the enemy appears opposite to the three characters in the party ; each battle uses a turn @-@ based battle system similar to that featured in Final Fantasy III . All characters can physically attack the enemy , use spells from equipped materia , or use an item in one turn . Combat ends when the player either defeats all enemies and the game returns to the area map , or all party members are defeated in which case the game ends and returns to the title screen . If one of the party members successfully flees , the battle also ends .
A character 's performance in battle is determined by numerical values for categories such as speed , strength , and magical power . Character statistics are driven by experience — players are awarded " experience points " for winning battles , which accumulate until characters gain " experience levels " . When characters " level up " , the statistics for their attributes increase permanently , which can also be amplified by the types of equipment the character is wearing . Winning battles may reward the player money ( Gil ) and items .
= = = Equipment and abilities = = =
Each character brings one materia into the party when they join , carrying one spell that can be used in combat . Materia have a limited number of uses before they must be recharged at one of the game 's magic shops . Like party members , materia gain experience when used , and can be leveled up to a maximum level of nine . Characters can swap materia among themselves , with unequipped materia being used mid @-@ battle for such things as healing party members , compensating for the limited amount of healing items .
Weapons follow the same principle as materia in terms of attack power , gaining experience and levelling up . Unlike materia , they cannot be swapped or replaced , and have unlimited usage . In addition to weapons , each has four types of armor that can be equipped for defense , which can be purchased at armor shops or found in chests scattered throughout the game . Armor directly affects the vitality statistic , which will in turn affect the amount of health gained when leveling up . Also available in the game are curative items , which can be purchased at designated shops or found in chests . These items can be used in or out of combat to restore health ( HP ) , materia usage ( CP ) , or revive fallen party members .
= = Development = =
The official and authorized Final Fantasy VII game was developed by Square and released worldwide in 1997 for the PlayStation . At an unknown date , ShenZhen Nanjing Technology developed an unauthorized remake of the game , for the Famicom . The game was released in 2005 , and both the box and manual make reference to Final Fantasy VII Advent Children as the game 's full title , a statement supported by the game 's manual . Despite the name on the box and cartridge , the title screen simply states " Final Fantasy VII , " and the game itself includes no content or plot elements from the film . The game was developed for the SUBOR entertainment system , a clone of the Famicom , though can also be played on Famicom and NES consoles through the use of an adapter .
Due to the Famicom 's restricted hardware capabilities , the remake is entirely two @-@ dimensional . Special compensation was made for some of the in @-@ battle sprites such as Cloud Strife 's , combining two 16x24 pixel sprites side @-@ by @-@ side instead of the usual single sprite to account for weapons such as Cloud 's sword or Barret 's gun . While most Japanese games use only 8x8 @-@ pixel hiragana or katakana fonts , and most Chinese games use 4 @-@ color 16x16 @-@ pixel tiles stored in dedicated CHR ROM pages , this game uses its own several @-@ hundred 16x16 @-@ pixel monochrome font instead . The script itself is strewn in chunks across the code ; at the beginning of each piece of text for dialog boxes is a three digit number preceded by an @ -symbol , signifying which character portrait to display .
The cartridge 's circuit board layout is unique compared to most Famicom games , using a single two megabyte PRG ( program ) ROM chips . A RAM chip is used instead of a ROM for the character graphics data , similar to the " UNROM " method used in some Nintendo games . As a result , the data is strewn across the PRG ROM in various banks . The cartridge features one 8 @-@ kilobyte battery @-@ backed RAM chip , used for the game 's single save slot . Many of the game 's graphics are borrowed from other games , mostly other Final Fantasy titles and including Super NES graphics converted to four @-@ color palettes used by the Famicom 's hardware . Much of the game 's music is borrowed from other games as well , in many cases shortened significantly to a few repeating notes .
= = Reception = =
While the game has received praise for covering the entire story within the game , it has been described as extremely difficult , with an inconsistent battle rate and fights that take a long time to complete . The game 's limited healing options and slow growth rate for abilities and weapons compound this , with one reviewer recommending " play it — but cheat " . Despite these issues , interest has been shown regarding the release of a patch to translate the game into English . Final Fantasy VII has additionally gained mention on several major gaming websites , including Gameworld Network , and Japan @-@ based Gpara.com.
Another project , which aims to overhaul the game and improve upon the gameplay and graphics to better resemble the original PlayStation version , was released in 2013 by members of the Romhacking.net community . The patch , which took four years to develop , first started off as a graphics hack , but has since evolved into an extensive revamp .
The game has received praise from various sources . Journalist Derrick Sobodash stated that while the game would not be an entirely new experience for those that played the original Final Fantasy VII , he added that " ... this title can hold its own against the other NES Final Fantasy games " , further calling the effort " surprisingly professional " . Kotaku editor Luke Plunkett cited the Famicom game as " ... an achievement I have no hesitation in labeling Herculean " , further calling it " ... a triumph of the human spirit " . Boing Boing Gadgets and Wired News writer Joel Johnson described the game as " more than just a knock @-@ off — it 's an act of true skill and commitment by an unknown team of Chinese coders " . GamePro named it one of the thirteen best fan @-@ made video game remakes , placing first on their list and described as " the video game equivalent of the Human Genome Project " , despite its flaws .
= Holly Holliday =
Holly Holliday is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . Portrayed by actress Gwyneth Paltrow , the character appeared in three episodes during the show 's second season , and two episodes during the fifth season , and was Paltrow 's first @-@ ever role in a scripted television show . Holly was developed by Glee co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , a personal friend of Paltrow 's , who suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing abilities ahead of the release of her film Country Strong , in which she played a country singer . Introduced as a substitute teacher who takes the place of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) while he is ill , she forms a romantic bond with Will , but decides to break up with him and takes a teaching job in another town after realizing that he is still in love with Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) .
Paltrow 's debut performance attracted positive commentary and earned her the 2011 Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . Many reviewers praised her subsequent portrayal of Holly in the " Sexy " episode , preferring it to her first appearance in " The Substitute " installment , though they disagreed over how Paltrow was used . Her final appearance in the " A Night of Neglect " episode was met with divergent reactions . She performed several musical numbers during her appearances , which include critically acclaimed renditions of " Forget You " by Cee Lo Green and " Landslide " by Fleetwood Mac . Paltrow was additionally featured in the 2011 concert film Glee : The 3D Concert Movie .
= = Storylines = =
Holly is a substitute teacher who makes her first appearance on Glee in the second season 's seventh episode , " The Substitute " . She is filling in at McKinley High School for the ailing Spanish teacher Will ( Matthew Morrison ) , who is also director of the glee club , New Directions . Club member Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , who had seen her perform " Conjunction Junction " when she subbed for his English class , asks her to also take over Will 's glee club rehearsals . Instead of assigning songs , Holly asks the club members what kind of music they would like to perform , and when Puck ( Mark Salling ) suggests " Forget You " , she sings the song and they all join in , except for Rachel ( Lea Michele ) . Holly later wins her over by asking Rachel what she would like to sing that she hasn 't been able to , and they perform a number from Chicago together . Holly bonds with Sue ( Jane Lynch ) , who is the acting principal with Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) also out sick , and Sue fires the still @-@ ailing Will , making Holly the full @-@ time director of the glee club . When he recovers , Will confronts Holly at school , but she is unwilling to give up her new position . She later discovers she is in over her head when Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) gets in trouble , and Holly turns to Will for help . She reveals that she was once a more serious teacher like Will until a student punched her in the face , at which point she became far more free spirited . Holly ultimately returns to substitute teaching and Will is reinstated . He assigns the glee club to perform " Singin ' in the Rain " on his return , but faced with their dismay at being given another old song , he asks for Holly 's help to modernize it , and they all perform a mash @-@ up of it with Rihanna 's " Umbrella " .
Holly later returns to McKinley High as a substitute sex education teacher in the season 's fifteenth episode , " Sexy " . She informs Will that the members of New Directions are woefully ignorant about sex . He invites her to teach the glee club about safe sex , and she performs a rendition of Joan Jett 's " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " , much to the chagrin of the new head of the celibacy club , guidance counselor Emma ( Jayma Mays ) . Holly advises Puck and Lauren ( Ashley Fink ) that the sex tape
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they plan to make is illegal , as both are minors , and helps Brittany ( Heather Morris ) and Santana ( Naya Rivera ) start to come to terms with their true feelings for each other , later performing " Landslide " with them in front of the club . When Emma 's choice of " Afternoon Delight " as an abstinence song reveals her sexual naivete , her husband Carl ( John Stamos ) asks Holly for an appointment for him and Emma to work out issues in their sex life . During the counseling session , he reveals that Emma is still a virgin , and in answer to a question from Holly , Emma admits that she may still have feelings for Will . At the end of the episode , Holly begins a relationship with Will .
Holly makes her final second @-@ season appearance two episodes later in " A Night of Neglect " . She is still dating Will , and suggests to him that in order to help raise funds for the academic decathlon team , the glee club should present a benefit concert at the school that will feature songs by " neglected " artists . Her contribution to the benefit is a performance of Adele 's " Turning Tables " . At the end of the episode , realizing that he is still in love with Emma , Holly breaks up with Will and takes a several @-@ month substitute teaching job in another town .
= = Development = =
The role of Holly was created by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy specifically for Paltrow , a personal friend . Murphy suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing talent ahead of the December 2010 release of the film Country Strong , in which Paltrow plays a country singer . Murphy said of Paltrow , " Gwyneth is a great singer . She 's done it a little bit but I really want to show it off and show everyone how great she is . " It was not the first time Paltrow had sung on screen : she played a karaoke singer in the movie Duets in 2000 , and had a number one hit in Australia for her duet of " Cruisin ' " from its soundtrack .
The character was originally set to appear for two episodes , as a love interest for Will Schuester in a love quadrangle with Will , Emma and Carl . Her debut was subsequently reduced to a single episode , and the relationship plot removed . After " The Substitute " episode aired , Murphy expressed interest in having Paltrow return with the right storyline . A few months later , she confirmed she would be seen again on the series , and was initially supposed to appear in episodes fifteen and sixteen , but instead appeared in episodes fifteen and seventeen , " Sexy " and " A Night of Neglect " , the second of these being her final appearance .
Paltrow initially said about a possible return to Glee in its third season : " No , I don 't think so . I don 't think I should . Though it 's honestly been one of the best jobs I 've ever had . " She did later state that she would love to come back , and said that Holly was " probably the most fun character I 've ever gotten to play " . Murphy stated before the second season ended that he had plans for Paltrow to return in season three , though nothing specific has been mentioned since the beginning of the third season . Paltrow , however , was featured in Glee : The 3D Concert Movie after being filmed while she performed " Forget You " as Holly in the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour performances of June 16 and 17 , 2011 .
= = Critical reception = =
Paltrow 's performance in the " The Substitute " episode earned her an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and attracted critical praise . Indeed , at the time , Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack and E ! Online 's Kristin dos Santos called her appearance Emmy @-@ worthy , with the former rating it among her best performances , and the latter stating that Holly received " some of Glee 's best @-@ ever one @-@ liners . VanDerWerff wrote that Holly injected an effortless sense of fun , despite much of her plot being nonsensical . The Atlantic 's Meghan Brown commented that Paltrow " brought a massive spark to what could have been a one @-@ note role " , and her co @-@ author Kevin Fallon wrote that her energetic performance saved an episode that might have been " in shambles without her presence " . Robert Canning of IGN noted that Paltrow 's casting could have been distracting , but instead she fit the role " seamlessly " . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair found her " surprisingly great " , and James Poniewozik of Time stated that while her casting was somewhat distracting , she was able to make Holly a sympathetic character without overdoing her neediness and commitment @-@ phobia . However , the National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI ) took exception Paltrow 's history classroom scene where she role @-@ plays as Mary Todd Lincoln , which it stated " mocked and trivialized bipolar disorder " .
Several critics preferred Paltrow 's return in the " Sexy " installment to her initial appearance . The Washington Post 's Emily Yahr felt that she was better integrated into this episode , and Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal called her return " infinitely better " than her first appearance : " Back then , she was a puzzle , a loony bin . Here , she 's sly and quick @-@ witted , appropriately adult and seductively saucy in an episode that showcased more of her comedic timing , than her stiff dance skills . All the better for us . " Fallon wrote that Paltrow was " if possible , even sassier and sultrier " than before , and felt that she served to anchor a busy episode . In contrast , Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly had mixed feelings about Holly and believed that she dominated screen time . VanDerWerff liked Paltrow 's acting , but disliked Holly 's interaction with Will , saying they lacked " chemistry " . Soraya Roberts of the Daily News disliked her return for prolonging Will and Emma 's separation , branding Holly a home @-@ wrecker . She commented that while Paltrow 's appearance in " The Substitute " was " relatively fresh " , in " Sexy " she was " acting almost like a cardboard cutout version of her former self , overly enunciating her lines [ and ] treading carefully around her choreography " . Poniewozik found all of Paltrow 's scenes " labored and ridiculous " , and wrote that the actress failed to bring an element of realism to her character . Canning said that " the moment she came on screen the whole episode lit up " , and the episode was a " fun and funny showcase for everybody 's favorite recurring character " , and Futterman echoed him when she called Paltrow " our new favorite cast member " .
Paltrow 's final appearance in the " A Night of Neglect " episode was met with divergent reactions . Both MTV journalist Aly Semigran and Gonzalez approved of Holly 's departure , the latter of whom stating that Glee writers gave the character an appropriate ending and rounded out her arc . In contrast , CNN writer Lisa Respers France was dismayed by the character 's exit and favored Holly 's " memorable " characterization in the episode . The Washington Post 's Lisa de Moraes expressed interest in a season three return , and Canning described Holly as " charming as ever " in the episode . Myles McNutt , writing for The A.V. Club , felt the installment " captured the occasional awkwardness of Paltrow 's presence on the show " , and wrote that casting such a prominent actress " has its disadvantages when you know that she 's only around on a temporary basis " . TVLine correspondent Michael Slezak noted that Will and Emma 's romance — and that Paltrow probably was not ready to commit to the series full @-@ time — led to Holly 's adieu . Slezak concluded that what he liked about Holly , was that she did not succumb to Will , which , according to Slezak , made him less annoying .
= = Musical performances = =
Paltrow 's rendition of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You " , sanitized and retitled " Forget You " and featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 , garnered positive critical reception . Anthony Benigno , an editor for the Daily News , and Time 's James Poniewozik criticized the show for sanitizing the song , but while the latter found it inferior to the original version , the former preferred Paltrow 's deeper voice and awarded it an " A " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman felt the censorship of the song did not adversely affect its success , and deemed the performance " charming and sassy " . Megan Vick of Billboard favored it as " the most exciting number " of the episode , and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack went further in his praise : he bestowed a grade of " A + " and lauded it as " one of the most memorable and energetic Glee performances ever , thanks in no small part to Paltrow " . Green expressed approval of the rendition . Benigno gave her short performance of " Conjunction Junction " an " A " , and described it as " a glorious ten seconds " , and granted the installment 's mash @-@ up of " Singin ' In The Rain / Umbrella " a " B " . Stack said that he loved the mash @-@ up and gave it an " A − " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times appreciated the mash @-@ up 's choreography and the manner in which " Paltrow 's sassiness undercuts [ Morrison 's ] overripe sweetness " , and named it potentially her favorite group number of the second season . " Forget You " reached number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 and twelve on the Canadian Hot 100 , and the " Singing in the Rain / Umbrella " peaked at number ten on the Irish Singles Chart . Green 's " Fuck You ! " entered the top ten of the Hot 100 for the first time following the Glee cover , with sales rising 94 % in a week .
Most reviewers agreed that the performance of " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " was sexy . Benigno was one of these and was entertained by the number , but he thought Holly 's " vocals seem oddly subdued trying to imitate Joan Jett 's voice " and gave it a " B " grade . Gonzalez gave the same grade and also took issue with the vocals , though she enjoyed the energy . Futterman had a different view of the singing , and said that " Holly can 't quite muster Jett 's vocal power " . Berk gave the song four stars out of five and noted the " amazing hairography " , while Roberts called the performance a " leather @-@ clad , hair @-@ whipping mess " . Slezak gave the performance an " A " and wrote that Paltrow " completely captured the track 's naughty spirit " . " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " entered the Hot 100 at number fifty @-@ seven , and the Canadian Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ three .
There was not much enthusiasm for Morrison and Paltrow 's performance of Prince 's " Kiss " . BuddyTV 's Jen Harper noted that " Holly saved the song " for her . Futterman did not " feel the chemistry " until the final kiss . Benigno , on the other hand , said that the chemistry between them was " palpable " , called the cover " pretty great " , and gave it a " B + " . Roberts deemed Paltrow 's tango rigid , and The Atlantic author Patrick Burns commented that white people ought to be deterred from performing Prince . He called the music " uninteresting and soulless " , and was dismayed that the tango was " just white with white people tango dancing " . Flandez , however , enjoyed their dancing and wrote , " The strong holds , the slow cuts , the perfect swivel of hips and the lean @-@ to 's were mesmerizingly seductive . " " Kiss " charted at number eighty @-@ three on Hot 100 , and also made number eighty on the Canadian Hot 100 .
Paltrow 's performance of Fleetwood Mac 's " Landslide " received the most praise of the songs in the " Sexy " installment ; indeed , both VanDerWerff and Harper named it the episode 's best number . Harper noted the " great harmonies " and added , " I got goose bumps . " Houston Chronicle contributor Bobby Hankinson called the rendition " gorgeous " and Berk used " perfection " ; Berk went above his five star maximum to give the performance six stars . Roberts found the performance " pretty but uninspired " , though Flandez called it " a dreamy , perfectly pitched power song of lesbian love " and Poniewozik " surprisingly poignant " . Benigno and Slezak both noted that the cover was based on the version by the Dixie Chicks , and gave grades of " A − " and " B + " respectively . The " B + " from Gonzalez came with a caveat : she wished that Rivera , rather than Paltrow , had sung the lead vocal because of the meaning the song held for Santana . Stevie Nicks welcomed the cover of " Landslide " , and hoped it would bring the Fleetwood Mac 's songs to a new generation . She approved of the performance , and said that Paltrow " sang it beautifully " . On the Hot 100 , the rendition of " Landslide " debuted at number twenty @-@ three ; it was at number thirty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 .
Paltrow 's performance of Adele 's " Turning Tables " was considered inferior to the original . While Flandez called it a " scene @-@ stealing turn " and commended it visually and vocally , he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele 's veracity . Futterman named it her least @-@ favorite of Paltrow 's covers to date and said that her vocals " lacked the texture that made Adele 's version so heartbreaking . " Gonzalez gave the performance her lowest grade of the episode , a " B – " , and Semigran opined that while Paltrow is " a nice enough singer , " she " in no way has the chops " the piece requires . McNutt characterized the decision to have Paltrow cover " Turning Tables " unfair in comparison to Adele 's original , " given that Paltrow 's singing is only passable " . Slezak , however , said that Paltrow delivered a controlled , understated performance and CNN 's Lisa Respers France simply deemed the performance memorable . The version reached number sixty @-@ six in the US and Canada .
= Papal conclave , 1492 =
The papal conclave of 1492 ( 6 – 11 August 1492 ) was convened after the death of Pope Innocent VIII ( 25 July 1492 ) . It was the first conclave to be held in the Sistine Chapel .
Cardinal Rodrigo Borja was elected unanimously on the 4th ballot as Pope Alexander VI . The election is notorious for allegations that Borja bought the votes of his electors , promising them lucrative appointments and other material gifts — a practice known as simony . Concerns about this conclave led Pope Julius II to create stronger rules against simony in 1503 .
= = Cardinal electors = =
Of the 23 cardinals participating in the conclave , fourteen had been elevated by Pope Sixtus IV . The Cardinals of Sixtus IV , known as the " Sistine Cardinals " and led by Giuliano della Rovere , had controlled the conclave of 1484 , electing one of their own , Giambattista Cibo as Pope Innocent VIII . Since 1431 the composition of the College of Cardinals had been radically transformed , increasing the number of cardinal @-@ nephews ( from 3 to 10 ) , crown @-@ cardinals ( from 2 to 8 ) , and representatives of powerful Roman noble families ( from 2 to 4 ) . With the exception of three curial officials and one pastor , the cardinals were " secularly @-@ minded princes largely unconcerned with the spiritual life of either the Latin church or its members . "
At the time of Innocent VIII 's death , the names of Cardinals Gherardo and Sanseverino ( both created in pectore ) , had not been published , thus making them ineligible to participate in the conclave ; however , both were published as an act of the College in sede vacante , Gherardo having been pushed by Orsini and Sanseverino by Sforza . Gherardo was assigned the title of Santi Nereo e Achilleo , which it was believed Innocent VIII had intended for him ; Sanseverino was given the poor and undesirable diaconate of San Teodoro to ensure that the future pontiff would confirm his assignment .
According to the account of bishop ambassador Giovanni Andrea Boccaccio , at least seven cardinals considered themselves papabile , having dismantled the furnishings of their palaces as a precaution against the traditional pillaging of the pope @-@ elect 's residence by the Roman populace : da Costa , di Campofregoso , Michiel , Piccolomini , Domenico della Rovere , Savelli , and Zeno .
= = = Absent Cardinals = = =
There is no evidence that the 4 absent cardinals made an attempt to reach Rome for the conclave .
= = Procedures = =
As dictated by the prescriptions Ubi periculum and Ne Romani , the conclave should have begun on 4 August , ten days after the death of Innocent VIII ; however , the conclave was delayed to await the slow arrival of the aged Gherardo , bearing a letter from Venice 's Council of Ten urging his acceptance into the College . The cardinals had decided as early as their first meeting on 24 July to use the Sistine Chapel for the balloting and assembly of the conclave .
Johann Burchard , the German papal master of ceremonies , who presided over the conclave , as well as the previous one in 1484 , kept an extensive diary , noting that each cardinal was provided :
The Mass of the Holy Spirit ( celebrated by Giuliano della Rovere rather than Borja who as Dean would traditionally have been the celebrant ) and then a speech by Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal , a Spaniard and the ambassador to Ferdinand and Isabella , on the " evils afflicting the Church " preceded the beginning of the conclave on 6 August 1492 . Another Spaniard , Gonzalo Fernandez de Heredia , archbishop of Tarragona , was appointed prefect of the Vatican . Two important offices during sede vacante were filled with compatriots of Cardinal Borja , and it is believed that they both were chosen by Borja in his capacity as Dean to strengthen his position before the conclave .
The remainder of 6 August was consumed by the drafting and subscription to the conclave capitulation , which — although not extant — is known to have restricted the number of new cardinals which could be created by the new pope .
= = Vote count = =
The first ballot ( " scrutiny " ) , held on 8 August was said to have resulted in nine votes for Carafa , seven for Borja , Costa , and Michiel , and five for Giuliano della Rovere , with Sforza notably receiving zero votes .
The second ballot produced nine for Carafa , eight for Borja , seven for Michiel , and five for Giuliano della Rovere .
According to the Florentine Ambassador , one of the guards of the conclave , as of 10 August there had been three unsuccessful ballots , favoring Costa and Carafa , but in no way indicating Borja might be chosen . According to Sigismondo de ' Conti , papal secretary and chronicler , the vote was unanimous on the fourth ballot , taken early in the morning on 11 August although Borja had only 15 votes prior to the accessus ; other accounts say Borja received all the votes except for his own , which he gave to Carafa .
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , the election of Rodrigo Borja was " almost entirely due to " Giambattisti Orsini .
= = Allegations of simony = =
The Venetian envoy to Milan informed his confrère in Ferrara : " that by simony and a thousand villanies and indecencies the papacy has been sold , which is a disgraceful and detestable business " , adding that he expected Spain and France to withhold their support from the new pontiff . After the conclave , a ubiquitous epigram within Rome was : " Alexander sells the Keys , the Altar , Christ Himself — he has a right to for he bought them . "
On 10 August after the third ballot , Ascanio Sforza allegedly came to believe his own ambitions of being elected pope were impossible and became susceptible to Borja 's offer : the office of Vice @-@ Chancellor and the associated Palazzo Borgia , the Castle of Nepi , the bishopric of Erlau ( with annual revenue of 10 @,@ 000 ducats ) and other benefices . Sforza was also reputed to have received four mule @-@ loads of silver ( some sources say gold ) , which Borja ordered to be delivered immediately after the deal was struck . The price of the other Cardinals was as follows : Orsini , the fortified towns of Monticelli and Soriano , the legation of the Marches , and the bishopric of Cartagena ( with annual revenue of 5 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; Colonna , the abbey of Subiaco and its environs ( with annual revenue of 3 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; Savelli , Civita Castellana and the bishopric of Majorca ; Pallavicini , the bishopric of Pampeluna ( Pamplona ) ; Michiel , the suburbicarian see of Porto ; Riario , Spanish benefices with annual income of 4 @,@ 000 ducats and the return of a house in the Piazza Navona ( which Sforza had occupied ) to the children of Count Girolamo . Sanseverino 's compensation included Rodrigo Borgia 's house in Milan . Cardinals Sclafenati and Domenico della Rovere were to receive abbacies and / or benefices . Cardinals Andicino della Porta and Conti followed Sforza , whom they had originally supported .
The aforementioned Cardinals plus Borja 's own vote numbered 14 , one short of the required two @-@ third majority . However , Cardinals Carafa , Costa , Piccolomini , Cibò , and Zeno , followed by Medici , were unwilling to be bribed . Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere , followed by Basso , was intractably opposed to Borja 's election . Thus , the ninety @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old Gherardo , the Cardinal Patriarch of Venice , who was paid only 5 @,@ 000 ducats , constituted the deciding vote .
According to Professor Picotti , who extensively researched the conclave and came to the conclusion that simony had occurred , no accounts of papal income and expenditure exist in the registers of Introitus et Exitus for August 1492 , and debts from the Apostolic Camera to Cardinals Campofregoso , Domenico della Rovere , Sanseverino , and Orsini appeared soon afterwards . The Spannocchi bank , which housed much of Borja 's wealth , was said to have nearly crashed after the conclave due to the velocity of transactions .
Some sources say that Charles VIII of France had bankrolled 200 @,@ 000 ducats ( plus 100 @,@ 000 ducats from the Doge of Genoa ) for the election of Giuliano della Rovere , although several otherwise bribable cardinals were hostile to French interference .
Other historians regard politics as a stronger factor within the conclave than pure simony , with the personal rivalvry between Giuliano della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza ( who had met to discuss the upcoming conclave in Castel Gandolfo even before Innocent VII had died ) substituting for the ancient struggle between Naples and Milan , with the intractability between the two parties making Borja a viable candidate .
= = Aftermath = =
When Giuliano della Rovere was elected Pope Julius II in 1503 , he issued a bull annulling any papal election brought about by simony , and defrocking and excommunicating any cardinal who sold his vote . Although the twenty @-@ six day reign of Pope Pius III intervened between Alexander VI and Julius II , the alleged unscrupulousness of the Borgia pope was still firmly in the institutional memory of the Roman Curia . While Cardinal during the reign of Alexander VI , Julius II had been assailed politically and often militarily outside the sturdy wall of his Castle of Ostia .
= = Media = =
The conclave is fictionalized in the 2011 premiere episode of the Showtime series " The Borgias " , with Jeremy Irons as Borja and Colm Feore as della Rovere , and also in the Borgia series of the same year , with John Doman as Rodrigo Borgia , Dejan Cukic as Giuliano Della Rovere , John Bradley as Giovanni De Medici and Predrag Bjelac as Francesco Piccolomini .
= Adelaide Rams =
The Adelaide Rams were an Australian professional rugby league football club based in Adelaide , South Australia . The team was formed in 1995 for the planned rebel Super League competition , which eventually ran parallel to the rival Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) competition in 1997 . The Rams lasted two seasons , the first in the Super League competition in 1997 and the second in the first season of the National Rugby League ( NRL ) in 1998 . The Rams were not a successful club , winning only 13 out of 42 games . However crowd numbers in the first season were the fifth highest of any first @-@ grade club that year , but dwindled to sixteenth in the second season . The Adelaide club was shut down at the end of the 1998 season as a result of poor on @-@ field performances , dwindling crowd numbers , financial losses and a reduction in the number of teams in the NRL . They remain the only team from the state of South Australia to have participated in top @-@ level rugby league in Australia .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Australian rules football code , with origins as far back as 1843 , had long dominated sport in the state . South Australia had two teams competing in the national Australian rules competition , the Australian Football League ( AFL ) : the Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide Power , the latter starting in the AFL in the same year as the Rams first season in Super League while the Crows won their first two AFL premierships in the same two years the Rams played . The new team from Port Adelaide , who already had a large fan base in the local South Australian National Football League ( SANFL ) competition , and the Crows successes in 1997 – 98 made it much harder for the Rams to compete for fan support . They were also competing against the popular Adelaide 36ers who played in the National Basketball League ( NBL ) which at the time ran a winter season . Adelaide , the capital of South Australia , was considered an Aussie rules stronghold , and in the SANFL had the oldest Aussie Rules Football league , and indeed the oldest league of any code , in Australia , as well as a viable Rugby Union competition which had been running since 1932 . The South Australian Rugby League ( SARL ) also had a First Grade Premiership competition in place since 1976 , while league been played competitively in Adelaide since the late 1940s .
The New South Wales Rugby League premiership ( NSWRL ) begun in 1908 , as a rugby league competition mostly for clubs in the Sydney region of Australia ( a team from Newcastle competed in 1908 – 09 ) , a situation that lasted until 1982 . The competition then expanded outside of NSW to Canberra , and to outside of Sydney with a team from Wollongong , and eventually in 1988 to Brisbane and the Gold Coast in Queensland , plus a new team from Newcastle . In 1992 the NSWRL decided to extend the competition further , by admitting four new teams for the 1995 competition , one from Western Australia , one from New Zealand and two from Queensland . The NSWRL also decided to test the viability of a rugby league team from the South Australian capital , and between 1991 and 1995 programmed five matches to be played in Adelaide at the famous Adelaide Oval . In 1991 , the St. George Dragons ( whose primary sponsor since the mid @-@ late 1970 's was Adelaide @-@ based winery Penfolds ) and Balmain Tigers match attracted 28 @,@ 884 people , the largest attendance for any rugby league game in South Australia and the largest of the entire minor round of the 1991 NSWRL season ( it was in fact the 5th highest attendance for the entire season , beating the attendance of two of the six Finals series games ) . Around 20 @,@ 000 attended the two matches in 1992 and 1993 , and around 10 @,@ 000 in 1994 and 1995 . Despite this evidence of popular appeal , the NSWRL , already in the process of setting up a 20 @-@ team competition , could not see their way to admitting a team from Adelaide and their preferred option outside of rugby league strongholds of NSW , Qld and New Zealand was to have a team from Melbourne and another in Perth ( the Melbourne Storm would be formed in 1998 ) . By the end of 1995 , this was apparent as the ARL had already played two international Test matches involving the Australian Kangaroos in Melbourne , as well as three State of Origin games , with Game 2 of the 1994 State of Origin series attracting a then Australian record rugby league crowd of 87 @,@ 161 to the Melbourne Cricket Ground .
= = = Formation = = =
In 1994 , the media company News Limited began developing a rival competition to the long @-@ established NSWRL premiership : the " Super League " premiership . In response to this move the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) , the governing body of rugby league in Australia , took over the NSWRL . After 8 of the 20 teams in the ARL competition signed with News Limited ( to play in their proposed Super League competition in 1996 ) the organization began looking for further teams to make the new competition viable . In June 1995 the South Australian Rugby League ( SARL ) , which governs the game of rugby league in South Australia , officially signed with Super League , who subsequently gave them a licence to form a franchise which would allow the SARL to create a Super League team . Another leading factor in the SARL 's decision to sign with SL was the promise of greater financial assistance than they were receiving from the ARL .
The team was owned and supported by News Limited . Former Australian representatives Tim Pickup and Rod Reddy were named inaugural CEO and head coach respectively . Pickup played a major role in assembling the playing roster as well as establishing training headquarters , and was the Rams delegate for all of the Super League court hearings . No expense was spared converting a former sanitarium in the suburb of Oakden into a world @-@ class sporting complex , later named Ram Park , that was home to the largest weight @-@ lifting gym in the southern hemisphere .
On 13 December 1995 , the SARL officially launched the ' Adelaide Rams ' , the tenth and final team to join the Super League competition . In early March , the ARL were successful in gaining a federal court injunction , a legal ruling that prevented the Super League from beginning competition in 1996 and the Rams were put on hold causing Tim Pickup to stand down from his post in the ensuing months . In mid @-@ 1996 , News Limited successfully appealed this ruling , which enabled the competition to proceed . Wallaby rugby union halfback George Gregan was approached to switch codes to be the starting halfback for the new team for " seriously more money than " he would earn playing rugby union , though he opted to remain in the 15 @-@ man code ( Gregan would ultimately go on to win the 1999 Rugby World Cup with the Wallabies and would become Wallaby captain in 2001 ) . The first , and only Super League season , was held in 1997 , and the Rams were part of it .
= = = Inaugural season = = =
SARL appointed the former Auckland Warriors marketing manager Liz Dawson as Pickup 's replacement as the Rams ' chief executive – the first female chief executive of any rugby league club in either the ARL or the Super League . The club had appointed St. George Dragons international back rower Rod Reddy to be their inaugural coach , along with two @-@ time NSWRL premiership @-@ winning Hooker Kerrod Walters from the Brisbane Broncos to be the first captain of the team . Most of the junior players were drawn from the SARL 's lower grade competitions in the region .
The club played its first premiership match against the North Queensland Cowboys and , after leading 16 – 4 at half time , eventually lost 24 – 16 .
Their first home match , against the Hunter Mariners , was also the Rams ' first win , and drew their record home attendance of 27 @,@ 435 to the Adelaide Oval , one of only two home wins for the season . The Rams also won four away games with their first being in Round 4 against the Auckland Warriors at the Ericsson Stadium in Auckland , New Zealand , but their overall record of 6 wins , 11 losses and 1 draw placed them second last on the Super League premiership ladder , one win ahead of North Queensland .
The Rams first home game attendance of 27 @,@ 435 was the 4th highest attendance of the entire 1997 season , behind only the Grand Final at the ANZ Stadium in Brisbane ( 58 @,@ 912 ) , the opening game of the season in Brisbane ( 42 @,@ 361 ) and a Round 6 match at the Dairy Farmers Stadium in Townsville ( 30 @,@ 122 ) .
Although the Rams had good home attendances in 1997 , unfortunately for the new club this was the same year that the Port Adelaide Power began to play in the AFL . Port Adelaide were the most successful and well supported club in the local Australian rules competition , the SANFL . This made the Rams job of attracting new fans even harder . This job was made even harder when the Adelaide Crows won their first AFL premiership that year .
Goal kicking utility back Kurt Wrigley was the Rams top point scorer for the season with 81 points from 5 tries , 30 goals and 1 field goal . Wrigley and fullback Rod Maybon were the teams top try scorers with 5 each . Super League 's top point scorer for the season was Penrith Panthers centre Ryan Girdler who scored 197 points from 11 tries , 76 goals and 1 field goal . The competitions top try scorer was Canterbury Bulldogs utility back Matthew Ryan who crossed for 17 tries .
Following the unification of the Super League and ARL competitions after the 1997 season , a new National Rugby League ( NRL ) competition was formed . This meant that three teams would be demised , as part of the rationalisation process aimed at reducing teams to an optimal number . With the introduction of the Melbourne Storm , and an agreement between Super League and the ARL to have a competition limited to 14 teams by 2000 , the future for the Rams looked bleak . However , the Rams ' home ground support , which averaged 15 @,@ 330 fans each week , ensured that they remained in the unified 1998 competition .
= = = = World Club Championship = = = =
In addition to the Telstra Cup , the Adelaide Rams also competed in Super League 's 1997 World Club Championship competition . The Rams were placed in Australasia Pool B along with the Hunter Mariners , North Queensland Cowboys and Perth Reds and would be matched up against teams from Europe Pool B including the Leeds Rhinos , Oldham Bears and Salford City Reds . The competition would see the Rams play three games at home and three in England .
The Rams won their three home games rather easily , but only managed to win one of their games in England leaving them in third place in their pool . As only one team from Australasia Pool B would go on to the Quarter finals , this meant that the Adelaide Rams did not advance past the group stage of the tournament .
= = = Final season = = =
The demise of three clubs from the Super League and ARL ( Western Reds and Hunter Mariners ( SL ) , and South Queensland Crushers ( ARL ) ) saw some player re @-@ shuffling , and brought Noel Goldthorpe , Tony Iro and Matt Daylight to the Adelaide club . However , after the Rams lost nine of their first ten games , coach Reddy and the entire coaching staff were sacked by the Rams ' administration . Reddy was replaced by former Perth Reds coach Dean Lance and mid @-@ season saw the arrival of Canberra Raiders utility back Graham Appo .
In June after numerous financial disagreements with the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) who at the time owned the Adelaide Oval , the club changed home grounds to the smaller , 16 @,@ 000 capacity Hindmarsh Stadium , a soccer specific venue which was better suited to a rugby league field than the Adelaide Oval was . The Rams celebrated the move with a record 52 – 0 win over the Balmain Tigers .
The club went on to win six of their last fourteen games after Lance 's arrival , enough to avoid the wooden spoon awarded to the team finishing lowest on the competition ladder . Their overall results were comparable to those of their first season , coming fourth last in the 20 – team competition . Appo broke several team records in his 14 games with the Rams .
The Adelaide Rams last home game in the penultimate round of the season saw a 36 – 0 thrashing at the hands of the finals bound North Sydney Bears in front of 7 @,@ 035 fans on 15 August 1998 .
Throughout the 1998 season , the Rams attempted to build a stronger supporter base in order to avoid removal from the competition in 1999 or 2000 . However , with the teams lack of on @-@ field success , plus the success of other Adelaide @-@ based sports teams who won national championships in 1997 and / or 1998 including the Adelaide Crows ( AFL ) , Adelaide 36ers ( NBL ) and Adelaide Thunderbirds ( netball ) , saw average home attendances dropped by more than half ( 51 @.@ 3 % ) from the previous years 15 @,@ 330 to just 7 @,@ 472 over the course of the season .
The NRL had planned to continue a 20 – team competition in 1999 , with a reduction to 14 teams in 2000 . The Rams ' management , led by newly named CEO , former dual rugby international and Manly @-@ Warringah 1987 premiership player Michael O 'Connor , had their minds set on a place in the reduced competition , and went on a buying spree , obtaining rights for players that they hoped would be productive enough for the team to survive the cut in 2000 . However , after the merger between rugby league clubs St. George Dragons and Illawarra Steelers , News Limited told the Rams they would no longer receive funding . The club was wound up just days after it had held its 1999 season launch . With little chance of securing a contract with another club just weeks before the start of the 1999 NRL season , the players were then placed in other News Ltd. owned or financed teams including Brisbane , Canberra and Melbourne .
The cost of building and sustaining an uncompetitive rugby league team in an area dominated by another football sport had resulted in News Limited incurring heavy financial losses with the Rams . Subsequent attempts to merge with a Sydney club ( rumoured to be the ARL loyal South Sydney Rabbitohs ) failed , however the Canberra Raiders offered to merge with the club and effectively took over the club on 1 December 1998 .
You cannot expect the Rams to have won over South Australians after just two seasons in such an Aussie Rules stronghold , especially given the extraordinary nature of those seasons .
= = = Future = = =
While the Adelaide Rams cease to no longer exist in their own right , numbers in junior rugby league in Adelaide have risen , and the SARL has begun again to promote the idea of a team based in Adelaide . Due to its efforts , NRL teams have been brought to the city to revive interest ; in 2006 the Penrith Panthers scheduled a home game at Adelaide 's Hindmarsh Stadium while their home ground was under renovation . The NRL helped with the promotion of the match , although the SARL were disappointed with the small crowd of 7 @,@ 017 . In 2008 , Sydney based club the Cronulla Sharks announced they would play three matches over the next three years at Adelaide , with coach Ricky Stuart saying he wanted Adelaide to become the Sharks ' second home . SARL general manager Bruce Walker has suggested that the NRL itself should take more responsibility for scheduling games in Adelaide . The 2009 match against North Queensland Cowboys attracted 8 @,@ 547 people . However , at the end of the 2008 NRL season , the leagues Centenary year , the Sharks decided to concentrate on their home fans and were allowed out of their contract to play in Adelaide after just one game .
In 2010 , the Canterbury @-@ Bankstown Bulldogs took their home match against the Melbourne Storm to Adelaide in which Canterbury @-@ Bankstown Bulldogs defeating the Melbourne Storm 20 – 18 where the game attracted 10 @,@ 350 people at Adelaide Oval .
In 2008 , several NRL club bosses expressed the view that the NRL should be a " national " competition , since it now had teams from all around Australia rather than just on the eastern seaboard , arguing that such a move would increase the competition 's revenue . Peter Parr , the CEO of the North Queensland Cowboys and former assistant coach for the Rams in 1998 , said that if the NRL had stuck with the Adelaide Rams , then rugby league in Adelaide might have flourished , making comparisons with the Melbourne Storm , a team performing successfully on and off the field in the AFL 's heartland .
Early in the 2013 NRL season , the NRL 's official free @-@ to @-@ air broadcast partner the Nine Network , began to show their Friday night and Sunday afternoon games live around Australia , including Adelaide , on their digital channel GEM . This saw games shown during prime time on Friday nights from 7pm , and from 4pm on Sundays ( following the The Sunday Footy Show which prior to 2013 had never been broadcast into Adelaide ) rather than in the post midnight ' graveyard shift ' of previous years . It also saw NRL broadcasts go head @-@ to @-@ head with live AFL telecasts on the Seven Network with predictably lower ratings in Australian rules dominated states South Australia , Western Australia and Victoria . While this agreement is still in place around Australia during 2014 , for unexplained reasons the showing of games in Adelaide only has reverted to the graveyard shift , a move which has angered league fans in Adelaide .
Prior to the start of the 2015 NRL season , ABC news reported that successful Sydney based club the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles were in talks with the South Australian Government with the view to bring some future Sea Eagles home games to Adelaide .
= = Colours , emblem and stadium = =
The emblem of the team was a ram ( a male sheep ) . The ram was chosen , according to Super League chief executive John Ribot , because it was " readily identifiable with strength and hardness " . This name was considered a better alternative to the first choice , the Adelaide Aces ( through a proposed sponsorship link with the Adelaide Casino ) , which Ribot believed was too soft a name and did not work well as a brand for a Super League team . The main colours of the Adelaide Rams were red and blue , although there was yellow in their emblem to reflect South Australia 's traditional sporting colours . Their jerseys remained red and blue until the last game they played in 1998 , when they used a mainly yellow jersey to avoid a colour clash with the similar jerseys of the Newcastle Knights ( who were the home team ) .
The Rams ' initial home ground was Adelaide Oval , a round park that had been used for cricket and Australian Rules Football for over a century . For their first season they had average home attendances of 15 @,@ 330 , the fourth highest of the Super League teams and fifth highest of all 22 teams in both competitions . In 1998 , however , the Rams ' home attendances diminished , dropping to an average of about 7 @,@ 500 , the fourth lowest of any team in the 20 – team competition .
During 1998 , the South Australian Cricket Association had ongoing problems with the SARL and the Rams ' use of their stadium , Adelaide Oval . The Rams then moved to Hindmarsh Stadium , a rectangular stadium more suited to rugby league and owned by the South Australian Soccer Association . They celebrated with a 52 – 0 defeat over Balmain in their first match at the stadium . However , attendances did not improve after the move , falling below 7 @,@ 500 .
The Rams highest attendance at Adelaide Oval was 27 @,@ 435 set in their inaugural home game against the Hunter Mariners . Their record attendance at Hindmarsh was 7 @,@ 459 for their loss to 1997 ARL Grand Finalists , the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles . In 1998 , the Rams played their Round 15 home game against the Illawarra Steelers at the Bennett Oval in Whyalla , in part due to Whyalla 's main employer being BHP who were also the Steelers major sponsor . The Steelers won the game 39 – 4 in front of 5 @,@ 153 fans .
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = Most games for club = = =
41 , Kerrod Walters ( 1997 – 1998 )
= = = Most points for club = = =
116 ( 12 tries , 34 goals ) , [ Cailin Elkins ] ( 1998 )
= = = Most tries for club = = =
12 , Graham Appo ( 1998 )
= = = Most goals for club = = =
45 ( 45 / 69 – 65 @.@ 22 % ) , Luke Williamson ( 1997 – 1998 )
= = = Most points in a season = = =
116 ( 12 tries , 34 goals ) , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most tries in a season = = =
12 , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most goals in a season = = =
34 ( 34 / 52 – 65 @.@ 38 % ) , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most points in a match = = =
24 ( 3 tries , 6 goals ) , Graham Appo vs Gold Coast Chargers on 27 June 1998 @ Carrara Stadium
24 ( 2 tries , 8 goals ) , Graham Appo vs Balmain Tigers on 3 July 1998 @ Hindmarsh Stadium
= = = Most tries in a match = = =
3 , Graham Appo against Gold Coast Chargers on 27 June 1998
= = = Most goals in a match = = =
8 ( 8 / 9 – 88 @.@ 9 % ) , Graham Appo vs Balmain Tigers on 3 July 1998
= = = Highest attendance ( home ) = = =
Adelaide Oval : 27 @,@ 435 vs Hunter Mariners on 14 March 1997
Hindmarsh Stadium : 7 @,@ 459 vs Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles on 7 August 1998
Bennett Oval ( Whyalla ) : 5 @,@ 153 vs Illawarra Steelers on 20 June 1998
= = = Highest attendance ( away ) = = =
Stockland Stadium ( Townsville ) : 17 @,@ 738 vs North Queensland Cowboys on 1 March 1997
= = = Lowest attendance ( home ) = = =
Adelaide Oval : 6 @,@ 500 vs Canberra Raiders on 8 May 1998
Hindmarsh Stadium : 7 @,@ 035 vs North Sydney Bears on 15 August 1998
= = = Lowest attendance ( away ) = = =
Topper Stadium ( Newcastle ) : 2 @,@ 345 vs Hunter Mariners on 5 July 1997
= = Club records = =
= = = Biggest wins = = =
= = = Biggest loses = = =
= = = Team performance summary = = =
The Rams did not win any premierships , minor premierships or wooden spoons in their two seasons . Their biggest win was 52 – 0 over the Balmain Tigers in 1998 and their biggest losing margin was 42 points , which occurred twice : against the Canberra Raiders in 1997 and the Penrith Panthers in 1998 . The Rams had a 32 @.@ 14 % win percentage for all of their premiership games , which made them statistically the sixth worst team in first grade rugby league in Australia , out of 33 teams .
Of the Rams 13 wins , 7 of them were at home while 5 were away . The Rams final win came in Round 20 of the 1998 NRL season when they defeated the Auckland Warriors 22 – 20 at Hindmarsh Stadium in front of 7 @,@ 445 fans . The clubs final ever home game in Round 23 of 1998 saw them go down 36 – 0 to the North Sydney Bears in front of 7 @,@ 035 fans , the lowest recorded attendance at Hindmarsh .
= = Players = =
= = = Inaugural team = = =
North Queensland Cowboys 24 def . Adelaide Rams 16
Date : 1 March 1997
Venue : Stockland Stadium ( Townsville )
Attendance : 17 @,@ 738
Referee : Brian Grant
= = Supporters = =
Chubby Checker
= Acquisition ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Acquisition " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise that originally aired on March 27 , 2002 , on UPN . The episode was developed into a teleplay by Maria and Andre Jacquemetton from a story by Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , and was directed by James Whitmore , Jr .. Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , a group of interstellar alien thieves knock out the Enterprise crew and begin looting the ship . Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) is the only one left to stop them .
The Ferengi first appeared in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Last Outpost " , and first contact with the race was described in " The Battle " , which meant that " Acquisition " attempted to not alter that . In addition , a Ferengi language was developed by the writers which was based on French . The episode also had a number of guest stars who had previously appeared in Star Trek ; Clint Howard , Ethan Phillips and Jeffrey Combs . It was poorly received by critics , but according to the Nielsen ratings , it received a 5 @.@ 2 / 6 % audience share during broadcast .
= = Plot = =
As Enterprise drifts in space , an unknown alien cruiser scans the ship , then docks with it . As part of an unconventional and criminal first contact , two Ferengi , Muk and Grish , board wearing breathing filters , and the crew appear to have been knocked unconscious . In Engineering , the two locate and deactivate a gas @-@ machine that the Starfleet crew brought up from the surface of a nearby moon . Unknown to the intruders , Commander Tucker is still conscious and makes his way to Engineering and uses the ship 's sensors to monitor the aliens as they plunder the ship .
Captain Archer is confined in Cargobay , and the aliens are unconvinced that Enterprise carries no currency or valuable materials . They set @-@ off to find the vault themselves , leaving Krem and Archer to transfer the loot . Archer sees Tucker and sends him to the launch @-@ bay to retrieve the Ferengi 's hypospray .
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with his young son notably covering his ears due to the volume of noise produced by the crowd in tribute .
= = International career = =
Shearer 's international career began in 1990 when he was handed a callup to the England under @-@ 21 squad under Dave Sexton . During his time with the squad , he scored 13 times in 11 games ; a record return which is still unbeaten . The striker 's goals at this level , coupled with his club form , meant he was soon promoted to the senior squad by coach Graham Taylor . Marking his debut in the 2 – 0 win against France in February 1992 with a goal , he made his only appearance for the England B team a month later . Due to replace Gary Lineker , who retired from international action after UEFA Euro 1992 , in the England attack , Shearer played only intermittently in the qualifying campaign for the 1994 FIFA World Cup due to injury and the team failed to reach the competition finals .
UEFA Euro 1996 was a more positive experience for both Shearer and England . With England not required to qualify as hosts , Shearer had not scored in 12 games in the 21 months prior , and even his overall goalscoring record for England did not look too impressive so far ; five goals in 23 games .
However , he found the net in the 22nd minute of the first game , against Switzerland . Scoring once in the following game against Scotland and twice in a 4 – 1 win over the Netherlands , Shearer helped England to progress to the next stage in front of their own fans in Wembley .
In the quarter @-@ finals , England were outplayed by Spain but got through to a penalty shootout after a goalless draw . Shearer scored the first England penalty , while the Spaniards failed to score from two of theirs , sending England into the semi @-@ final against Germany . Shearer headed England into the lead after three minutes , but the Germans quickly equalised and the match went to penalties again . This time , Germany won from the spot ; although Shearer scored , his team @-@ mate Gareth Southgate missed his kick and England were eliminated . Shearer 's five goals made him the competition 's top scorer , and together with team mates David Seaman and Steve McManaman , was listed in the official UEFA team of the tournament .
The new England manager Glenn Hoddle appointed Shearer captain for the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Moldova on 1 September 1996 , and the player held onto the captaincy after scoring once in that match and twice in the following game against Poland . He scored a total of five goals in England 's successful qualification campaign for the World Cup ; adding strikes against Georgia and away to Poland to his tally . Shearer was sidelined for much of the 1997 – 98 season , but recovered to play in the World Cup finals . With Michael Owen replacing Teddy Sheringham as Shearer 's strike partner , Shearer 's return saw him score England 's first goal of the tournament , in a 2 – 0 win over Tunisia , his only goal in the three group matches . England faced long @-@ time rivals Argentina in the second round . Shearer scored a first @-@ half equaliser from the penalty @-@ spot before David Beckham was sent off early in the second half . In the final minutes of the game Sol Campbell headed in what could have been the winning goal only for the referee to disallow it due to Shearer having elbowed goalkeeper Carlos Roa . The scores tied 2 – 2 , the game went to penalties . Shearer scored again , but England were eliminated after David Batty 's shot was saved by the Argentina goalkeeper . This defeat ended England 's participation in what was to be Shearer 's only World Cup tournament .
In September 1999 , Shearer scored his only England hat @-@ trick in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifier against Luxembourg . This helped England reach a play @-@ off against Scotland ; England won the game over two legs and in doing so qualified for the European Championships . By now , Shearer was approaching his 30th birthday , and he announced that he intended to retire from international football after the Euro 2000 tournament .
Shearer did not score in England 's opening 3 – 2 defeat against Portugal , but did so as England defeated Germany 1 – 0 in Charleroi , ensuring that England beat their European neighbours for the first time since the 1966 World Cup Final . To remain in the tournament , England only required a draw against Romania in the final group match , and Shearer scored a penalty as England went in at half @-@ time 2 – 1 up , but Romania ultimately won 3 – 2 . England 's tournament was over , and so was Shearer 's international career . From his 63 caps , he captained the team 34 times and scored thirty goals ; joint @-@ fifth in the England all @-@ time goalscorers list with Nat Lofthouse and Tom Finney . Shearer remained in international retirement despite speculation of a return during the 2002 World Cup and 2004 European Championship campaigns , and further declined an offer to be assistant manager to Steve McClaren after the 2006 World Cup – a position ultimately filled by Terry Venables .
= = Style of play = =
As a player , Shearer was often styled as a classic English centre @-@ forward , owing to his strength , physical stature , heading ability and strong shot , which enabled him to be highly prolific goalscorer . Of his 206 Newcastle goals , 49 were scored with his head . Earlier in his career , especially at Southampton , Shearer played a more creative role : providing chances for fellow strikers , and making runs into space , owing to his early development as a midfielder . Later on in his career , Shearer played a more forward role ; his age meant that he lost much of the pace which served him on the south coast . Able to hold the ball up well , he also functioned as a target man , providing balls for other players . Although his strength allowed him to hold on to the ball , his playing style sometimes brought him criticism – most commonly that his play was too physical , and that he used his elbows too aggressively . It was this which contributed to both of his sendings off , although one was later rescinded on appeal . As well as the two red cards , Shearer received 59 yellow cards during his career .
Shearer was noted as a proficient penalty taker for both club and country , and he scored 45 times from the spot for Newcastle , where he was the first @-@ choice taker . He also scored five goals from free @-@ kicks for the north @-@ east club .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Early career = = =
On his retirement as a player Shearer responded to speculation of an immediate move into coaching that he would take some personal time off to " enjoy life " for the next couple of years . He was also quoted as saying that he would eventually like to move into management , " when the time was right " however as of March 2009 he was yet to start the UEFA Pro Licence course , which is required to be permitted to manage a team in the Premier League and European competition .
Reflecting his desire for personal time off to " enjoy life " , in July 2006 he turned down a coaching role with England , citing his BBC commitments and desire to be away from the pressure of a job within football . Despite this , Shearer was often linked in the media with managerial or coaching positions at his three former clubs .
Shearer took a brief role in the dugout for his final three games under Glenn Roeder . Shearer had rejected offers of coaching or assistant roles at Newcastle under both the returning Kevin Keegan in February 2008 and Joe Kinnear in November 2008 . Shearer had previously had talks about , but never been offered , a full @-@ time manager 's role at Newcastle until his appointment on 1 April 2009 .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
In a surprise move , late on 1 April 2009 , it was announced that Shearer would become the manager of his former club Newcastle United for the remaining eight games of the season , taking over from head coach Chris Hughton who was in temporary charge while the permanent manager Joe Kinnear recovered from heart surgery , having taken ill on 7 February . Shearer stated " It 's a club I love and I don 't want them to go down . I 'll do everything I can to stop that . "
Shearer was unveiled at a press conference the following day by club managing director Derek Llambias . In explaining his acceptance of a managerial role at Newcastle at this time , Shearer stated that he would not have done this for any other club in this position , including his two other previous Premier League clubs . Amid persistent questioning regarding the permanency of the appointment , Llambias announced that Shearer was to be manager for the remaining eight games , and after his recovery , Joe Kinnear would return as manager after the end of the season . Shearer confirmed that the BBC had agreed to giving him an 8 @-@ week sabbatical from his Match of the Day role . Llambias also confirmed Dennis Wise had left his executive role at the club and the club had no plans to appoint a replacement , with Shearer stating that " the people that have moved , were moving on anyways , that had nothing to do with me " . Wise 's presence had previously been speculated as being a blockage to any possible appointment of a manager . Shearer accepted the surprise offer on the Monday on the condition that he could bring in Iain Dowie as his assistant . Shearer also brought in Paul Ferris to oversee club medical , physio and dietary matters . Ferris had previously worked with Shearer in his playing days , and had been at the club for 13 years prior to an earlier departure under then manager Glenn Roeder .
His first match in charge ended in a 2 – 0 defeat against Chelsea at St. James ' Park . On 11 April , Newcastle earned their first point under Shearer with a 1 – 1 draw with Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium with Andy Carroll scoring a late equalising goal . After a defeat to Tottenham Hotspur and a draw against Portsmouth , his first win for Newcastle came in a 3 – 1 victory over Middlesbrough that lifted Newcastle from the relegation zone .
On the eve of the final day of the season on 24 May , where all fixtures are played simultaneously , Newcastle faced the prospect of being relegated to the Championship , along with Hull City , Middlesbrough and Sunderland , which would end their 16 @-@ year unbroken spell in the Premier League . After losing 1 – 0 at Aston Villa with Damien Duff scoring an own goal , Newcastle were relegated with local rivals Middlesbrough , joining West Bromwich Albion whose relegation had been confirmed in previous weeks , while Sunderland and Hull City survived . Shearer 's eight games yielded only five points out of a possible twenty @-@ four .
Shearer did not get the manager 's job on permanent basis . Chris Hughton stepped up from the coaching staff to take charge of the quest to get Newcastle back into the Premier League , which was achieved at the first attempt as Newcastle finished top of the Championship in 2009 – 10 .
Cardiff City
On 14 June 2011 , BBC Sport Wales reported the Shearer had held talks with Championship club Cardiff City over the vacant manager job . Shearer commented the next day that , " unfortunately , those talks were unsuccessful on this occasion . "
= = Outside football = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Shearer is married to Lainya , whom he met whilst a Southampton player . The couple lived locally with her parents during Shearer 's second year at the south coast club , and were married on 8 June 1991 at St. James ' Church in the city . In contrast to the portrayal of some WAGs ( wives and girlfriends ) of later players by the media , Lainya is described by Shearer as a quiet and reserved person , not comfortable in the spotlight her husband 's fame sometimes brought . The couple have three children . Shearer cited not wanting to uproot his family as a key reason for remaining in England during his career , having had the chance to move to Juventus or Barcelona when leaving Blackburn . Shearer 's family accompanied him onto the pitch following the striker 's testimonial in May 2006 as he performed a lap of honour at St. James ' Park .
= = = Personal honours = = =
On 6 December 2000 , Shearer was given Honorary Freedom of the City of Newcastle upon Tyne , with the citation " in recognition of his role as captain of Newcastle United Football Club and as former captain of England which have enhanced the reputation of the City " .
Shearer was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2001 Queen 's Birthday Honours and Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2016 Birthday Honours for charitable services to the community in North East England .
On 4 December 2006 , Shearer was created a Doctor of Civil Law by Northumbria University , at a ceremony at Newcastle City Hall , where the University vice @-@ chancellor declared that " Throughout his career Alan Shearer has been hard @-@ working , committed , disciplined and focused in his endeavours , fighting back from career @-@ threatening injuries with great determination and courage " .
On 1 October 2009 , Shearer was commissioned as Deputy Lieutenant of Northumberland , having been nominated by the Duchess of Northumberland in her capacity as Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland , and approved for the position by the Queen . In this role , Shearer , along with 21 other deputies , is the stand @-@ in for the Duchess when she cannot fulfill her role as the Queen 's official representative in the region at official engagements . Deputies must live within seven miles of the county boundaries , and retain their appointment until age 75 . The Duchess said of the appointment that " You could not find a more iconic person than Alan , not just for what he has done in football but for all the extra work he tirelessly does for charity and communities . I am delighted he has accepted the role of Deputy Lieutenant because he is a real role model . I have promised him he is not going to have to do too much , but even if it is just one occasion a year he is the perfect choice "
On 7 December 2009 Shearer was made a Doctor of Civil Law by Newcastle University . Chancellor Sir Liam Donaldson stated " Newcastle United are my team . Alan Shearer is more than just a local legend , he 's probably one of the greatest footballers of all time " .
= = = Media = = =
After his retirement and following guest appearances , Shearer became a regular pundit for the BBC 's Match of the Day . He also formed part of the team which covered the 2006 World Cup , Euro 2008 , 2010 World Cup , Euro 2012 and FIFA World Cup 2014 for the BBC .
Former Newcastle chairman Freddy Shepherd announced that , after Shearer finished the 2005 – 06 season as Newcastle 's caretaker assistant manager , he would become the club 's " Sporting Ambassador " for 2006 – 07 . However , in September 2008 it was reported that Shearer was removed from this largely honorary position by the club 's owner Mike Ashley despite protests from players such as Steven Taylor and Damien Duff , due to Shearer 's criticism of the way in which the club was being run in the wake of the departure of Kevin Keegan . These reports were denied by the club .
Shearer features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he was included in the FIFA 15 Ultimate Team Legends .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
During his playing days , Shearer had been involved with the children 's charity the NSPCC , taking part in the organisation 's Full Stop campaign in 1999 . Since retiring from football Shearer has also done work for several charities both nationally and in the Newcastle area .
In his testimonial match , he raised £ 1.64m benefiting fourteen good causes including £ 400 @,@ 000 for the NSPCC and £ 320 @,@ 000 for completion of the " Alan Shearer Centre " , a respite care facility based in West Denton , Newcastle . In October 2006 he became an ambassador for the NSPCC , describing it as " the kick @-@ off to my most important role yet " . He has also worked with the charity the Dream Foundation . In 2006 , Shearer founded the Alan Shearer Academy Scholarship to aid the development of promising young players in the region .
In 2008 , he raised over £ 300 @,@ 000 for Sport Relief in a bike ride with fellow Match of the Day presenter Adrian Chiles , the idea for which emerged in an off the cuff question from cycling fan Chiles to Shearer as to how he kept fit since retirement . Shearer also played and scored twice in Soccer Aid , a game involving celebrities and former players at Wembley Stadium in September 2008 , to raise money for UNICEF .
On 26 July 2009 , Shearer played and scored in the Sir Bobby Robson Trophy match , a charity match held at St James ' Park in tribute of Sir Bobby Robson and in aid of his cancer charity the Sir Bobby Robson Foundation . It proved to be Sir Bobby Robson 's last public appearance , as he died five days later . On 15 October 2009 Shearer became the new patron of Sir Bobby 's Foundation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
As of 28 November 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Southampton
Full Members Cup finalist : 1992
Blackburn Rovers
Premier League winner : 1994 – 95
Newcastle United
Premier League runner @-@ up : 1996 – 97
FA Cup finalist : 1998 , 1999
= = = International = = =
England
Tournoi de France : 1997
= = = Individual = = =
UEFA Euro 1996 Golden Boot ( five goals )
UEFA Euro 1996 Team of the Tournament
EMS Team of the Year : 1994 – 95
UEFA Cup top scorer : 2004 – 05
FIFA World Player of the Year – Bronze award : 1996
Ballon d 'Or – Third place : 1996
Premier League Golden Boot : 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97
PFA Players ' Player of the Year : 1995 , 1997
Football Writers ' Association Player of the Year : 1994
Premier League Player of the Month ( 5 ) : November 1994 , September 1998 , August 2000 , December 2002 , October 2003
Premier League Player of the Season : 1994 – 95
FWA Tribute Award : 2001
English Football Hall of Fame : 2004 .
FIFA 100
Premier League 10 Seasons Awards ( 1992 – 93 to 2001 – 02 ) Domestic and Overall Player of the Decade
Domestic and Overall Team of the Decade
Outstanding Contribution to the FA Premier League
Top Goalscorer ( 204 )
Premier League 20 Seasons Awards ( 1992 – 93 to 2011 – 12 )
Top Goalscorer ( 260 )
PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 – 2007 ) : 2007
= = = Records = = =
England
Top goalscorer in Premier League history : 260 goals
Most Premier League goals in a 42 @-@ game season : 34a
Most Premier League goals in a 38 @-@ game season : 31b
Most Premier League hat @-@ tricks : 11
Newcastle
Top goalscorer in Newcastle United history : 206
Most European goals scored for Newcastle United : 30
^ Held jointly with Andrew Cole . ^ Held jointly with Cristiano Ronaldo and Luis Suárez .
= Nidhogg ( video game ) =
Nidhogg is a side @-@ scrolling two @-@ player fighting video game by Mark " Messhof " Essen . Players duel with swords in a pixelated environment . The game was commissioned for the New York University Game Center 's annual multiplayer show , and was revised and demoed at private events over the next four years before its final release . It won Indiecade 2013 's Game Design award and the 2011 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo award . It was released for Microsoft Windows on January 13 , 2014 , and later ported to OS X , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita . Critics praised the feel of the gameplay and its balance , but considered the single @-@ player mode to be unsatisfying .
= = Gameplay = =
Nidhogg is a fast @-@ paced two @-@ player dueling game where two players sword fight in a side @-@ scrolling environment . Players can run , jump , slide , throw their swords , and fistfight . The player @-@ character 's sword can be held at three different heights : low , medium , and high , and changing the sword 's position to hit the opponent 's sword will disarm the opponent . Players can also dive kick , wall jump , climb ledges , and crawl . The player continually pushes towards one side of the screen , such that they are permitted a few seconds to run towards their opponent 's side while their opponent respawns after dying . The player to reach the end of their opponent 's side first wins and is eaten by the mythological Norse serpent Níðhöggr . Nidhogg has four different levels and single @-@ player , local multiplayer , and online multiplayer two @-@ player modes . The game also has a tournament mode and game variants including " boomerang swords " . It can be played via a shared keyboard , and its art style has a pixelated aesthetic similar to games of the 1980s , with vivid colors and simple graphics .
= = Development = =
The game was made by indie developer Mark " Messhof " Essen over the course of four years . It was commissioned for the New York University Game Center 's first No Quarter annual multiplayer show . It was first exhibited in April 2010 , known as Raging Hadron , and was delayed as Messhof planned a formal release . It was later renamed Nidhogg , after the mythological Norse serpent Níðhöggr , who appears in @-@ game . Messhof worked as the game 's only programmer and his time was divided between development and his other freelance and personal projects , graduate school , and a job teaching at University of Southern California . The game languished until Kristy Norindr made Messhof into an indie studio , joining as a co @-@ founder and working in a business development role . She led the search for the game 's musician . Their list of desired styles always included Daedelus , who they were able to contact through a mutual friend who attended high school with the musician . Daedelus designed some of the procedural elements that trigger the music sequences . Messhof described their process as wanting to " enhance the action " while letting players control the game 's tension . He felt lucky to have Daedelus as his composer . Messhof also asked a former student to help him complete the game 's netcode , which he deemed to be " totally essential " for the game 's future as an eSport . He read about " programming and fighting game structure " over the course of development , which he credited as important towards the game 's progress . It was his first attempt at networked multiplayer .
The core concept did not change over the course of development , though the other content did . Messhof limited the game 's exposure during this time as he wanted the game to be respected in the fighting game genre and wanted to make sure it was ready first . Messhof himself , however , did not have much experience in this genre . He said that he " spent a lot of time " on the gameplay 's feel and designed it to play slowly , where players wait for their opponent to move first , similar to Bushido Blade . He also spent time adding divekicks and cartwheels while improving the melee attacks and spectator experience . Some moves , such as a Yoshi @-@ style " ground pound " and the Karate Kid crane kick , were attempted and removed . In testing , he would observe players and their strategies before attempting to write an artificial intelligence to use similar strategies . Messhof considers the single @-@ player to be training for the online multiplayer , and the online multiplayer training for live matches . He described his process as making " the most fun game " to play with his friends .
Gamasutra 's Mike Rose wrote that the game became " the equivalent of a video game fable " for its appearance at video game shows but lack of public release . It won several awards within a year of its first showing and appeared at " hyper @-@ local indie group " meetups such as the Hand Eye Society of Toronto and Juegos Rancheros . A playable demo of the game was displayed at the 2013 Evolution Championship Series , with upgrades from previous demos of the game . The next year , the game was selected for the July 2014 Evolution Championship Series fighting game tournament 's Indie Showcase . Messhof said that the game works best in live , public settings . Nidhogg was released on January 13 , 2014 , for Microsoft Windows via Steam . The release includes online competition and an eight @-@ person tournament mode . Ports were later released for OS X on May 19 , 2014 , and for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on October 14 , 2014 . The Fencer later went on to appear as a playable character in the indie fighting game Divekick .
= = Reception = =
Nidhogg received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It won Indiecade 2013 's Game Design award and the 2011 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo Award , where it was also nominated for Excellence in Design and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize . It was IGN 's January 2014 Game of the Month , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun awarded the game their first physical trophy . Reviewers praised the feel of the gameplay and its balance , and thought the single @-@ player mode to be unsatisfying . Some critics found technical issues with the online multiplayer code , while others only had issues finding other players .
Brandon Boyer of Venus Patrol marked the game as part of a " multiplayer renaissance " alongside TowerFall and Samurai Gunn . Polygon 's Russ Frushtick described the game as a tug @-@ of @-@ war closer to the National Football League than to Street Fighter . He commended the game 's originality . Kyle Hilliard of Game Informer did not think the pixelated graphics were sufficiently " distinct " from similar games . He praised the soundtrack but wanted more tracks .
Eurogamer 's Quintin Smith praised the game 's balance , writing that " every single fight is hold @-@ your @-@ breath tense " , that even the shortest fights " take on an air of majesty " , and that kills feel fair . He described the game as multiplayer " theatre " for the impact the game has on those watching and playing it . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Alec Meer described the game as a combination of " precision and reckless abandon " . IGN 's Keza MacDonald called it the " most exhilarating competitive game [ she had ] played in years " . Edge put the game alongside Street Fighter II , Super Smash Bros. , and GoldenEye 007 as games " written into history indelibly for their competitive multiplayer " . The game later inspired indie games such as TowerFall and Samurai Gunn . Sean Hollister of The Verge described Nidhogg as " perfect " .
= Joseph Widney =
Joseph Pomeroy Widney , M.D. D.D. LL.D ( December 26 , 1841 – July 4 , 1938 ) was an American doctor , educator , historian , and religious leader .
After the American Civil War led him to medicine , he followed his brothers to California where he received his medical degree . He saw southern California as a " Garden of Eden . " In Los Angeles he was a founder of the Los Angeles Medical Society . He was a strong proponent of the new University of Southern California , and became its second President and the founding Dean of its School of Medicine . The Los Angeles Public Library was one of his major interests .
His real estate interests in California flourished , and he was an early environmentalist as well as promoter of the new metropolis . He believed deeply in Los Angeles becoming a major city with a seaport . The city would use water from across local mountains , and would recreate Lake Cahuilla .
He was a founder of the Church of the Nazarene in Los Angeles , as well as a Methodist pastor . He published many books , mainly on his views about California and its history , but only Race Life of the Aryan Peoples was commercially published .
He died at 96 , having seen Los Angeles become a major city and seaport . One of the " most conspicuous Southern Californians of his generation " , Widney was a cultural leader in Los Angeles for nearly seventy years .
= = Early life = =
Joseph Pomeroy Widney was born December 26 , 1841 in Piqua , Ohio . The third son of John Wilson Widney and Arabella Maclay Widney , Widney was a nephew of Robert Samuel Maclay , and Charles Maclay . His father died of pneumonia at the age of 42 , when Widney was 15 .
After graduating from Piqua High School , he entered Miami University at Oxford , Ohio where , for five months , he studied Latin , Greek , and the classics . In 1907 , he received an honorary Doctor of Laws ( LL.D. ) degree for his Race Life of the Aryan Peoples .
In 1861 he enlisted in the Union Army in the Civil War ( Ohio Volunteers ) . He served as a medical corpsman on ships on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . He was discharged in 1862 due to physical and nervous collapse .
With the encouragement of his two older brothers and his uncle , Charles Maclay , in California , Widney sailed to San Francisco via Panama , arriving in November 1862 . He travelled throughout California , visited missions and lived with the Spanish @-@ speaking inhabitants .
He returned to university in 1865 , receiving a Master of Arts degree from the California Wesleyan College ( later the University of the Pacific ) . In January 1866 , he moved to San Francisco . On June 4 , 1866 , he began the third session of the medical course at the Toland Medical College ( later part of the University of California , San Francisco ) , graduating at the head of his class with a Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) degree on October 2 , 1866 .
Widney married twice . His first wife was Ida DeGraw Tuthill Widney on May 17 , 1869 in San Jose , California . They lived in the Bunker Hill , Los Angeles , California area , next to his brother Judge Robert M. Widney . Ida died in Los Angeles on February 10 , 1879 and is buried in the Los Angeles City Cemetery .
His second wife was Mary Bray , whome he married on December 27 , 1882 in Santa Clara , California . On February 18 , 1884 , a Los Angeles River flood caused the loss of 43 homes , including his own . Dr. and Mrs. Widney moved to 150 W. Adams Boulevard ( formerly S. 26th Street ) , nearer the new University of Southern California . As founder of the Flower Festival Society , she organized flower festivals to raise money for the Woman 's Home , a home for poor working women . Mary Bray Widney died on March 10 , 1903 at their home at 150 W. Adams Boulevard , Los Angeles . Dr Widney never remarried .
= = Medical career = =
He graduated from Toland Medical College , then the only one in California , on October 2 , 1866 . He re @-@ enlisted in the army as a military surgeon . He was posted to Drum Barracks in Wilmington , California for a month in 1867 , and was named Acting Assistant Surgeon for the Arizona Territory during the Apache Wars .
In 1868 , he was discharged and moved to Los Angeles . He began his medical practice on October 8 , 1868 , sharing offices with Dr. John Strother Griffin ( 1816 – 1898 ) . General William Tecumseh Sherman and Mexican bandido Tiburcio Vasquez were among his patients .
Before the " Anti @-@ Quackery Law " enacted in 1876 , doctors were not licensed . Medical practitioners would advertise their medical skills . On January 31 , 1871 , Dr Widney helped found the Los Angeles County Medical Association , the oldest such association in California .
The founders wanted to establish medical schools and publications , and raise medical standards Widney advocated aid to " the sickly poor " as a facet of public health and civic philanthropy . From 1876 to 1901 , medical licensing was done by the State Medical Society . In 1901 , the State Board of Medical Examiners was created . Widney was one of the first licensed by the medical society . He became its president in 1877 . On May 12 , 1937 , a bust of Dr Widney commissioned by the Los Angeles County Medical Association was placed in the lobby of their headquarters .
He believed in scientific medicine , and opposed faith healing or " mind cure " practitioners . In 1886 , Widney , then professor of the principles and practice of medicine in the college of medicine of the University of Southern California , proposed a structure for the study of medicine . He advocated the creation of the Los Angeles and California Boards of Health , and was Los Angeles ' first public health officer .
In 1884 , he helped re @-@ organize the Southern California Medical Society . In 1886 he helped establish the Southern California Practitioner , the society 's monthly journal , and served as an editor for the first few years .
= = Author = =
In 1872 , He helped found the Los Angeles Library Association , and served on its board of governors for the next six years . With Jonathan T. Warner and Judge Benjamin Hayes , Widney wrote and edited the first history of Los Angeles County , the Centennial History of Los Angeles , published in 1876 . In 1888 , he collaborated with Dr. Walter Lindley ( 1852 – 1922 ) , founder of the California Hospital Medical Center , in producing California of the South , one of the first California tourist guides .
Other than his two @-@ volume magnum opus , Race Life of the Aryan Peoples , published in 1907 by Funk and Wagnall , he published his own works .
Widney said in Civilizations and Their Diseases ( 1937 ) ,
I have never written for money . The sole object has been the carving out of broader lines for the human race . For more than fifty years of careful historical study , I have thought , and planned , and worked to this end . This ultimate purpose has run through all my publications .
While at Drum Barracks and in Arizona , Widney became interested in climatology and conservation . He was chairman of the Los Angeles Meteorological committee for several years . Widney credited white settlement with improvements in the Southern California climate , including less variation in temperature , milder winds , and increased rainfall . He was concerned about water conservation , and warned what is now called smog , identifying it as a concern in 1938 , well before it gained official recognition in Los Angeles .
Widney sought the preservation of three great forest areas for future generations .
In January 1873 , Widney suggested the Colorado Desert be flooded to re @-@ establish Lake Cahuilla .
Horace Bell criticized the proposal in Reminiscences of a Ranger .
In his 1935 book , The Three Americas , Widney said that Atlantis was in the area where the Bahamas are located . He thought it was a semi @-@ tropical island , inhabited by peoples from the Americas rather than from Europe . He also believed that there was a submerged lost continent in the South Pacific Ocean .
= = California development = =
Widney saw the potential of Los Angeles on his first visit in January 1867 while posted to Drum Barracks . His brother , Robert Maclay Widney ( 1838 – 1929 ) , had arrived in Los Angeles in 1868 , and was a lawyer , and later judge , as well as the city 's first real estate agent . Robert Widney was also the publisher of The Real Estate Advertiser . Joseph Widney invested in real estate in the Los Angeles area , which made him financially independent , and allowed him to retire from the practice of medicine at 55 . In 1900 , the Los Angeles Times called him " an extensive property owner in this city " . At one time he owned the Widney Block on First Street , another Widney Block at Sixth and Broadway , and a property at the corner of Ninth and Santee streets , where he erected the Nazarene Methodist Episcopal Church . He also owned a building at 445 – 447 Aliso Street , where the first college of medicine for the University of Southern California was located from 1885 to 1896 .
His investment in land started early . Between April 29 , 1869 and August 28 , 1871 , he bought thirty @-@ four lots in Wilmington near the San Pedro harbor area and another 60 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) near the San Gabriel Mission ( Rand 28 ) . He owned the parcel of land where the Los Angeles City Hall now stands , as well as much of Mt . Washington , Los Angeles , California , where his last home ( a Victorian mansion at 3901 Marmion Way ) stood .
During the Los Angeles boom in 1885 , Widney bought 35 @,@ 000 acres ( 142 km2 ) of land ( 75 miles ( 121 km ) northeast of Los Angeles ) comprising the relatively undeveloped township of Hesperia , California . Widney formed the Hesperia Land and Water Company to create a town . Horace Bell , in his On the Old West Coast , a personal reflection on that period , critiqued the boomers , as a " speculative conspiracy against all that was honest . " No houses were built in " Widneyville . "
The Los Angeles Times of June 2 , 1887 said that Widney had purchased a hotel and several bath houses in the town of Iron @-@ Sulphur Springs , once known as Fulton Wells and now as Santa Fe Springs , fifteen miles ( 24 km ) east of downtown Los Angeles . In 1886 the springs were purchased by the Santa Fe Railroad , which renamed the town after itself .
Widney said , " We may look lovingly back on log cabin days , but the looking back must be done over a multi @-@ lane highway , not along a cow track " . He supported the development of Los Angeles even at the age of 95 . In 1937 he wrote " A Plan for the Development of Los Angeles as a Great World Health Center . " To develop Los Angeles , Widney proposed roads and tunnels to cross the Sierra Madre Mountains , linking the city and the interior desert . According to Carl Rand , Widney postulated :
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The game is a turn @-@ based strategy which focuses mainly on tank combat and contains elements of arcade gameplay . In the game , the player controls the Axis powers and must capture and hold various Allied bases in both Italian Libya and British Egypt , with the city of Tobruk being the ultimate goal . The game received mixed reviews upon release ; critics were divided over the gameplay and were largely negative over its interface and tank mechanics .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a top @-@ down turn @-@ based strategy which contains elements of arcade gameplay and focuses mainly on tank combat . It is a simulation of the 1941 Siege of Tobruk , a part of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II . The battle revolves around Australian and British ( collectively referred to Allied forces ) attempts to oust German field marshal Erwin Rommel from the city . If playing alone , the player controls the Axis powers and is not able to play on the side of the Allies unless a second player is involved . The main objective of the game is to capture and hold as many fortifications in Italian Libya as possible , with the city of Tobruk and the defence of Rommel being the ultimate goals .
The main display map of the game is focused on Cyrenaica , a representation of the Allied minefield that was laid in the Gazala Line between Gazala and Bir Hachieim . The Axis troops begin the game on the western side of the line , whilst Allied forces begin the offensive in British Egypt . A command box in the game provides the player with an instant report of a unit or landscape once hovered over ; data given on units includes their strength in terms of supply of infantry , provisions , artillery , and the number of moves that unit can make on one turn . Every two turns lasts one in @-@ game day and units are available to enter combat phases once a day is finished .
In a combat phase , the game shifts to an " arcade sequence " , which allows the player to control a tank in the Sahara Desert . The arcade sequence presents a menu of tank functions ; a gun turret , shell loading , firing and navigational buttons . Only one function can be used at a time ; in order to drive the tank , the player has to use the navigational buttons to manoeuvre . If the tank becomes under attack , the gun turret or shell @-@ firing mode must be activated for self @-@ defence . Both the arcade sequence and tank controlling is optional , however , and is not required to finish the game .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Iwo Jima and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , during a period where Cockayne later admitted that he " took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the game 's playability and value for money , stating that it provides an " interesting challenge " . Philippa Irving of Crash , however , criticised the playability and tank mechanics as " stunningly badly designed " and " unplayable " , whilst also stating that it was " rather unatmospheric " . Gary Rook of Sinclair User summarised that Tobruk was " pretty disappointing " and " nowhere near as successful " as its direct predecessor , Bismarck . Rook criticised the interface of the game as " clumsily " executed and not " half as good " as that of other strategy games at the time of release . Regarding the arcade sequences of the game , Michael Sandford of ZX Computing recommended any player to avoid them , as its difficulty would affect gameplay . However , Sandford praised the overall experience of the game , stating that it was " one of the best " wargames and endorsed it to anybody interested in the genre .
Mark Reed of Computer Gamer asserted that Tobruk was " undoubtedly one of the most enjoyable wargames ever " and heralded its originality and playability . Irving , however , criticised its authenticity ; stating that the game was lacking in both " elusive quality " and atmosphere . Rook found that the developers ' intention of attempting to " marry strategy gaming with arcade gaming " was unsuccessful and produced negative results . A 1993 Computer Gaming World survey of wargames agreed while giving the game one @-@ plus stars out of five , stating that " the simulation and arcade aspects denigrate each other 's appeal " .
= Cyclone Kalunde =
Intense Tropical Cyclone Kalunde was the strongest storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . The eleventh named storm and sixth cyclone of the season , Kalunde formed on March 4 from an area of disturbed weather east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . The storm steadily strengthened and attained severe tropical storm intensity on March 6 . After starting a phase of rapid deepening , Kalunde attained cyclone intensity the next day . Kalunde attained its peak intensity on March 8 , as an intense tropical cyclone . It maintained its peak strength for a day ; shortly thereafter , the system began to weaken . After undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle , the storm brushed Rodrigues . Shortly after doing so , Kalunde weakened into a tropical cyclone and later a severe tropical storm . Two days later , on March 16 , the cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and dissipated the next day .
Cyclone Kalunde brought US $ 3 @.@ 15 million in damage to Rodrigues Island . A total of 1 @,@ 600 homes and 40 boats were damaged . Severe coastal damage took place across the island ; many roads were washed out . Power outages also occurred across the island , delaying residents access to information pertaining to Kalunde . About 80 percent of the drinking water was contaminated and the entire food crop was destroyed . However , no deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of convection developed on March 3 several hundred miles to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . That day , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) issued the first bulletin on Tropical Disturbance 14 while located 580 mi ( 930 km ) east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . In an environment of weak to moderate wind shear , MFR upgraded the system to tropical depression status . Later on March 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the disturbance as shower activity increased , though it initially concentrated west @-@ southwest of the atmospheric circulation . MFR upgraded the depression to moderate tropical storm status at 0600 UTC on March 5 ; subsequently , the Meteorological Service of Mauritius assigned the system the name Kalunde . Moving west @-@ northwest , the JTWC issued their first warning on the system . Initially , Kalunde did not become much better organized even though deep convection was still increasing . Cyclone Kalunde steadily intensified over the next couple of days while performing a small clockwise loop . MFR upgraded Kalunde to severe tropical storm status at 1200 UTC on March 6 . At 1800 UTC , JTWC reported 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On March 7 , Kalunde began to undergo rapid intensification , and at 0600 UTC the MFR upgraded it to a tropical cyclone . At the same time , JTWC also estimated winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) .
After the formation of an eye , Kalunde continued to intensify rapidly and at 1800 UTC March 7 MFR declared the system an intense cyclone . Simultaneously , JTWC estimated that Kalunde had attained winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) while located several hundred miles south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Continuing to trek southwest by a mid @-@ level ridge to the southeast , the rapid intensification trend continued until it leveled off early on March 8 . At this time , the JTWC reported winds of 255 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 intensity on the SSHWS . Subsequently , MFR remarked that the system had reached its peak wind speed of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , as an intense tropical cyclone . After attaining peak intensity , MFR and the JTWC began to lower their intensity estimates as thunderstorms began to erode in the northwestern quadrant of the eyewall .
Moving slowly southwest , Intense Tropical Cyclone Kalunde underwent an eyewall replacement cyclone late on March 9 . The next day , the JTWC notes that Kalunde re @-@ intensified somewhat ; however , this is not supported by MFR ’ s estimates . While slowly approaching the small island of Rodrigues , Kalunde was estimated ( according to MFR ) to have winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On March 12 , Kalunde passed 55 km ( 35 mi ) away from Rodrigues , and around that time the JTWC reported winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . MFR downgraded Kalunde to severe tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on March 14 . Twelve hours later , the center of circulation became exposed from the convection . Kalunde continued trekking south @-@ southeastward on the March 15 as it underwent extratropical transition . The JTWC stopped monitoring the low at 1200 UTC while estimating winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . At 1800 UTC on March 15 , MFR declared the system extratropical , located approximately 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rodrigues . The agency officially stopped tracking the system at 1200 UTC the next day though the storm finally dissipated on March 17 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Prior to the storm 's arrival , a class four cyclone alert was issued for Rodrigues Island . Between March 11 and 13 , flights to and from Rodrigues were canceled due to high winds . In addition , Cyclone Kalunde briefly posed a threat to Mauritius .
Severe coastal damage took place across Rodrigues . Many roads were washed out , isolating many communities . Wind gusts estimated up to 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) destroyed the island 's power and telecommunications grid , leaving the entire populous without power . Communication lines between Rodrigues and nearby Mauritius were also cut . Hospitals were also without electricity ; one operation had to be done using a torch light . Because communication was lost during Kalunde 's passage , residents lacked information about the storm for several hours . About 80 percent of the drinking water was contaminated and food crop on the island was washed away . During the storm 's three @-@ day passage of the island , 329 @.@ 1 mm ( 12 @.@ 96 in ) of rain fell . A total of 1 @,@ 600 homes and 40 boats were damaged and losses across the island amounted to € 3 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 15 million ) .
In the wake of the storm , the French Red Cross supplied 1 @.@ 5 tons of supplies to approximately 10 @,@ 000 people victims of Kalunde . Mauritius Deputy Prime Minister Paul Berenger visited the island Friday to assess the damage while another official called on Mauritius officials to contribute to a cyclone relief fund for the island group . Twenty technicians were also sent to the area in wake of the storm . Officials estimated that it would take five weeks for power to be fully restored across Rodrigues . They also stated that if a similar situation took place and people were in need of emergency services , no one would be able to receive them . Furthermore , they proposed that bridges would to be built in order to forestall roads from being washed out again .
= L 'Orfeo =
L 'Orfeo ( SV 318 ) ( Italian pronunciation : [ lorˈfɛːo ] ) , sometimes called La favola d 'Orfeo [ la ˈfaːvola dorˈfɛːo ] , is a late Renaissance / early Baroque favola in musica , or opera , by Claudio Monteverdi , with a libretto by Alessandro Striggio . It is based on the Greek legend of Orpheus , and tells the story of his descent to Hades and his fruitless attempt to bring his dead bride Eurydice back to the living world . It was written in 1607 for a court performance during the annual Carnival at Mantua . While Jacopo Peri 's Dafne is generally recognised as the first work in the opera genre , and the earliest surviving opera is Peri 's Euridice , L 'Orfeo is the earliest that is still regularly performed .
By the early 17th century the traditional intermedio — a musical sequence between the acts of a straight play — was evolving into the form of a complete musical drama or " opera " . Monteverdi 's L 'Orfeo moved this process out of its experimental era and provided the first fully developed example of the new genre . After its initial performance the work was staged again in Mantua , and possibly in other Italian centres in the next few years . Its score was published by Monteverdi in 1609 and again in 1615 . After the composer 's death in 1643 the opera went unperformed for many years , and was largely forgotten until a revival of interest in the late 19th century led to a spate of modern editions and performances . At first these performances tended to be concert ( unstaged ) versions within institutes and music societies , but following the first modern dramatised performance in Paris , in 1911 , the work began to be seen in theatres . After the Second World War many recordings were issued , and the opera was increasingly staged in opera houses , although some leading venues resisted it . In 2007 the quatercentenary of the premiere was celebrated by performances throughout the world .
In his published score Monteverdi lists around 41 instruments to be deployed , with distinct groups of instruments used to depict particular scenes and characters . Thus strings , harpsichords and recorders represent the pastoral fields of Thrace with their nymphs and shepherds , while heavy brass illustrates the underworld and its denizens . Composed at the point of transition from the Renaissance era to the Baroque , L 'Orfeo employs all the resources then known within the art of music , with particularly daring use of polyphony . The work is not orchestrated as such ; in the Renaissance tradition instrumentalists followed the composer 's general instructions but were given considerable freedom to improvise .
= = Historical background = =
Claudio Monteverdi , born in Cremona in 1567 , was a musical prodigy who studied under Marc 'Antonio Ingegneri , the maestro di cappella ( head of music ) at Cremona Cathedral . After training in singing , strings playing and composition , Monteverdi worked as a musician in Verona and Milan until , in 1590 or 1591 , he secured a post as suonatore di vivuola ( viola player ) at Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga 's court at Mantua . Through ability and hard work Monteverdi rose to become Gonzaga 's maestro della musica ( master of music ) in 1601 .
Vincenzo Gonzaga 's particular passion for musical theatre and spectacle grew from his family connections with the court of Florence . Towards the end of the 16th century innovative Florentine musicians were developing the intermedio — a long @-@ established form of musical interlude inserted between the acts of spoken dramas — into increasingly elaborate forms . Led by Jacopo Corsi , these successors to the renowned Camerata were responsible for the first work generally recognised as belonging to the genre of opera : Dafne , composed by Corsi and Jacopo Peri and performed in Florence in 1598 . This work combined elements of madrigal singing and monody with dancing and instrumental passages to form a dramatic whole . Only fragments of its music still exist , but several other Florentine works of the same period — Rappresentatione di Anima , et di Corpo by Emilio de ' Cavalieri , Peri 's Euridice and Giulio Caccini 's identically titled Euridice — survive complete . These last two works were the first of many musical representations of the Orpheus myth as recounted in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , and as such were direct precursors of Monteverdi 's L 'Orfeo .
The Gonzaga court had a long history of promoting dramatic entertainment . A century before Duke Vincenzo 's time the court had staged Angelo Poliziano 's lyrical drama La favola di Orfeo , at least half of which was sung rather than spoken . More recently , in 1598 Monteverdi had helped the court 's musical establishment produce Giovanni Battista Guarini 's play Il pastor fido , described by theatre historian Mark Ringer as a " watershed theatrical work " which inspired the Italian craze for pastoral drama . On 6 October 1600 , while visiting Florence for the wedding of Maria de ' Medici to King Henry IV of France , Duke Vincenzo attended a production of Peri 's Euridice . It is likely that his principal musicians , including Monteverdi , were also present at this performance . The Duke quickly recognised the novelty of this new form of dramatic entertainment , and its potential for bringing prestige to those prepared to sponsor it .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Among those present at the Euridice performance in October 1600 was a young lawyer and career diplomat from Gonzaga 's court , Alessandro Striggio , son of a well @-@ known composer of the same name . The younger Striggio was himself a talented musician ; as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , he had played the viol at the wedding festivities of Duke Ferdinando of Tuscany in 1589 . Together with Duke Vincent 's two young sons , Francesco and Fernandino , he was a member of Mantua 's exclusive intellectual society , the Accademia degli Invaghiti , which provided the chief outlet for the city 's theatrical works . It is not clear at what point Striggio began his libretto for L 'Orfeo , but work was evidently under way in January 1607 . In a letter written on 5 January , Francesco Gonzago asks his brother , then attached to the Florentine court , to obtain the services of a high quality castrato from the Grand Duke 's establishment , for a " play in music " being prepared for the Mantuan Carnival .
Striggio 's main sources for his libretto were Books 10 and 11 of Ovid 's Metamorphoses and Book Four of Virgil 's Georgics . These provided him with the basic material , but not the structure for a staged drama ; the events of Acts 1 and 2 of the libretto are covered by a mere 13 lines in the Metamorphoses . For help in creating a dramatic form , Striggio drew on other sources — Poliziano 's 1480 play , Guarini 's Il pastor fido , and Ottavio Rinuccini 's libretto for Peri 's Euridice . Musicologist Gary Tomlinson remarks on the many similarities between Striggio 's and Rinuccini 's texts , noting that some of the speeches in L 'Orfeo " correspond closely in content and even in locution to their counterparts in L 'Euridice " . The critic Barbara Russano Hanning writes that Striggio 's verses are less subtle than those of Rinuccini , although the structure of Striggio 's libretto is more interesting . Rinuccini , whose work had been written for the festivities accompanying a Medici wedding , was obliged to alter the myth to provide a " happy ending " suitable for the occasion . By contrast , because Striggio was not writing for a formal court celebration he could be more faithful to the spirit of the myth 's conclusion , in which Orfeo is killed and dismembered by deranged maenads or " Bacchantes " . He chose , in fact , to write a somewhat muted version of this bloody finale , in which the Bacchantes threaten Orfeo 's destruction but his actual fate is left in doubt .
The libretto was published in Mantua in 1607 to coincide with the premiere incorporates Striggio 's ambiguous ending . However , Monteverdi 's score published in Venice in 1609 by Ricciardo Amadino shows an entirely different resolution , with Orpheus transported to the heavens through the intervention of Apollo . According to Ringer , Striggio 's original ending was almost certainly used at the opera 's premiere , but there is no doubt that Monteverdi believed the revised ending was aesthetically correct . The musicologist Nino Pirrotta argues that the Apollo ending was part of the original plan for the work , but was not staged at the premiere because the small room which hosted the event could not contain the theatrical machinery that this ending required . The Bacchantes scene was a substitution ; Monteverdi 's intentions were restored when this constraint was removed .
= = = Composition = = =
When Monteverdi composed L 'Orfeo he had a thorough grounding in theatrical music . He had been employed at the Gonzaga court for 16 years , much of it as a performer or arranger of stage music , and in 1604 he had written the ballo Gli amori di Diane ed Endimone for the 1604 – 05 Mantua Carnival . The elements from which Monteverdi constructed his first opera score — the aria , the strophic song , recitative , choruses , dances , dramatic musical interludes — were , as conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt has pointed out , not created by him , but " he blended the entire stock of newest and older possibilities into a unity that was indeed new " . Musicologist Robert Donington writes similarly : " [ The score ] contains no element which was not based on precedent , but it reaches complete maturity in that recently @-@ developed form ... Here are words as directly expressed in music as [ the pioneers of opera ] wanted them expressed ; here is music expressing them ... with the full inspiration of genius . "
Monteverdi states the orchestral requirements at the beginning of his published score , but in accordance with the practice of the day he does not specify their exact usage . At that time it was usual to allow each interpreter of the work freedom to make local decisions , based on the orchestral forces at their disposal . These could differ sharply from place to place . Furthermore , as Harnoncourt points out , the instrumentalists would all have been composers and would have expected to collaborate creatively at each performance , rather than playing a set text . Another practice of the time was to allow singers to embellish their arias . Monteverdi wrote plain and embellished versions of some arias , such as Orfeo 's " Possente spirto " , but according to Harnoncourt " it is obvious that where he did not write any embellishments he did not want any sung " .
Each act of the opera deals with a single element of the story , and each ends with a chorus . Despite the five @-@ act structure , with two sets of scene changes , it is likely that L 'Orfeo conformed to the standard practice for court entertainments of that time and was played as a continuous entity , without intervals or curtain descents between acts . It was the contemporary custom for scene shifts to take place in sight of the audience , these changes being reflected musically by changes in instrumentation , key and style .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
For the purpose of analysis the music scholar Jane Glover has divided Monteverdi 's list of instruments into three main groups : strings , brass and continuo , with a few further items not easily classifiable . The strings grouping is formed from ten members of the violin family ( viole da brazzo ) , two double basses ( contrabassi de viola ) , and two small violins ( violini piccoli alla francese ) . The viole da brazzo are in two five @-@ part ensembles , each comprising two violins , two violas and a cello . The brass group contains four or five trombones ( sackbuts ) , three trumpets and two cornetts . The continuo forces include two harpsichords ( duoi gravicembani ) , a double harp ( arpa doppia ) , two or three chitarroni , two pipe organs ( organi di legno ) , three bass viola da gamba , and a regal or small reed organ . Outside of these groupings are two recorders ( flautini alla vigesima secunda ) , and possibly one or more citterns — unlisted by Monteverdi , but included in instructions relating to the end of Act 4 .
Instrumentally , the two worlds represented within the opera are distinctively portrayed . The pastoral world of the fields of Thrace is represented by the strings , harpsichords , harp , organs , recorders and chitarroni . The remaining instruments , mainly brass , are associated with the Underworld , though there is not an absolute distinction ; strings appear on several occasions in the Hades scenes . Within this general ordering , specific instruments or combinations are used to accompany some of the main characters — Orpheus by harp and organ , shepherds by harpsichord and chitarrone , the Underworld gods by trombones and regal . All of these musical distinctions and characterisations were in accordance with the longstanding traditions of the Renaissance orchestra , of which the large L 'Orfeo ensemble is typical .
Monteverdi instructs his players generally to " [ play ] the work as simply and correctly as possible , and not with many florid passages or runs " . Those playing ornamentation instruments such as strings and flutes are advised to " play nobly , with much invention and variety " , but are warned against overdoing it , whereby " nothing is heard but chaos and confusion , offensive to the listener . " Since at no time are all the instruments played together , the number of players needed is less than the number of instruments . Harnoncourt indicates that in Monteverdi 's day the numbers of players and singers together , and the small rooms in which performances were held , often meant that the audience barely numbered more than the performers .
= = Roles = =
In his personaggi listed in the 1609 score , Monteverdi unaccountably omits La messaggera ( the Messenger ) , and indicates that the final chorus of shepherds who perform the moresca ( Moorish dance ) at the opera 's end are a separate group ( che fecero la moresca nel fine ) . Little information is available about who sang the various roles in the first performance . A letter published at Mantua in 1612 records that the distinguished tenor and composer Francesco Rasi took part , and it is generally assumed that he sang the title role . Rasi could sing in both the tenor and bass ranges " with exquisite style ... and extraordinary feeling " . The involvement in the premiere of a Florentine castrato , Giovanni Gualberto Magli , is confirmed by correspondence between the Gonzaga princes . Magli sang the prologue , Proserpina and possibly one other role , either La messaggera or Speranza . The musicologist and historian Hans Redlich mistakenly allocates Magli to the role of Orfeo .
A clue about who played Euridice is contained in a 1608 letter to Duke Vincenzo . It refers to " that little priest who performed the role of Euridice in the Most Serene Prince 's Orfeo " . This priest was possibly Padre Girolamo Bacchini , a castrato known to have had connections to the Mantuan court in the early 17th century . The Monteverdi scholar Tim Carter speculates that two prominent Mantuan tenors , Pandolfo Grande and Francesco Campagnola may have sung minor roles in the premiere .
There are solo parts for four shepherds and three spirits . Carter calculates that through the doubling of roles that the text allows , a total of ten singers — three sopranos , two altos , three tenors and two basses — is required for a performance , with the soloists ( except Orfeo ) also forming the chorus . Carter 's suggested role @-@ doublings include La musica with Euridice , Ninfa with Proserpina and La messaggera with Speranza .
= = Synopsis = =
The action takes place in two contrasting locations : the fields of Thrace ( Acts 1 , 2 and 5 ) and the Underworld ( Acts 3 and 4 ) . An instrumental toccata ( English : " tucket " , meaning a flourish on trumpets ) precedes the entrance of La musica , representing the " spirit of music " , who sings a prologue of five stanzas of verse . After a gracious welcome to the audience she announces that she can , through sweet sounds , " calm every troubled heart . " She sings a further paean to the power of music , before introducing the drama 's main protagonist , Orfeo , who " held the wild beasts spellbound with his song " .
= = = Act 1 = = =
After La musica 's final request for silence , the curtain rises on Act 1 to reveal a pastoral scene . Orfeo and Euridice enter together with a chorus of nymphs and shepherds , who act in the manner of a Greek chorus , commenting on the action both as a group and as individuals . A shepherd announces that this is the couple 's wedding day ; the chorus responds , first in a stately invocation ( " Come , Hymen , O come " ) and then in a joyful dance ( " Leave the mountains , leave the fountains " ) . Orfeo and Euridice sing of their love for each other before leaving with most of the group for the wedding ceremony in the temple . Those left on stage sing a brief chorus , commenting on how Orfeo used to be one " for whom sighs were food and weeping was drink " before love brought him to a state of sublime happiness .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Orfeo returns with the main chorus , and sings with them of the beauties of nature . Orfeo then muses on his former unhappiness , but proclaims : " After grief one is more content , after pain one is happier " . The mood of contentment is abruptly ended when La messaggera enters , bringing the news that , while gathering flowers , Euridice has received a fatal snakebite . The chorus expresses its anguish : " Ah , bitter happening , ah , impious and cruel fate ! " , while the Messaggera castigates herself as the bearing of bad tidings ( " For ever I will flee , and in a lonely cavern lead a life in keeping with my sorrow " ) . Orfeo , after venting his grief and incredulity ( " Thou art dead , my life , and I am breathing ? " ) , declares his intention to descend into the Underworld and persuade its ruler to allow Euridice to return to life . Otherwise , he says , " I shall remain with thee in the company of death " . He departs , and the chorus resumes its lament .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Orfeo is guided by Speranza to the gates of Hades . Having pointed out the words inscribed on the gate ( " Abandon hope , all ye who enter here " ) , Speranza leaves . Orfeo is now confronted with the ferryman Caronte , who addresses Orfeo harshly and refuses to take him across the river Styx . Orfeo attempts to persuade Caronte by singing a flattering song to him ( " Mighty spirit and powerful divinity " ) , but the ferryman is unmoved . However , when Orfeo takes up his lyre and plays , Caronte is soothed into sleep . Seizing his chance , Orfeo steals the ferryman 's boat and crosses the river , entering the Underworld while a chorus of spirits reflects that nature cannot defend herself against man : " He has tamed the sea with fragile wood , and disdained the rage of the winds . "
= = = Act 4 = = =
In the Underworld , Proserpina , Queen of Hades , who has been deeply affected by Orfeo 's singing , petitions King Plutone , her husband , for Euridice 's release . Moved by her pleas , Plutone agrees on the condition that , as he leads Euridice towards the world , Orfeo must not look back . If he does , " a single glance will condemn him to eternal loss " . Orfeo enters , leading Euridice and singing confidently that on that day he will rest on his wife 's white bosom . But as he sings a note of doubt creeps in : " Who will assure me that she is following ? " . Perhaps , he thinks , Plutone , driven by envy , has imposed the condition through spite ? Suddenly distracted by an off @-@ stage commotion , Orfeo looks round ; immediately , the image of Euridice begins to fade . She sings , despairingly : " Losest thou me through too much love ? " and disappears . Orfeo attempts to follow her but is drawn away by an unseen force . The chorus of spirits sings that Orfeo , having overcome Hades , was in turn overcome by his passions .
= = = Act 5 = = =
Back in the fields of Thrace , Orfeo has a long soliloquy in which he laments his loss , praises Euridice 's beauty and resolves that his heart will never again be pierced by Cupid 's arrow . An off @-@ stage echo repeats his final phrases . Suddenly , in a cloud , Apollo descends from the heavens and chastises him : " Why dost thou give thyself up as prey to rage and grief ? " He invites Orfeo to leave the world and join him in the heavens , where he will recognise Euridice 's likeness in the stars . Orfeo replies that it would be unworthy not to follow the counsel of such a wise father , and together they ascend . A shepherds ' chorus concludes that " he who sows in suffering shall reap the fruit of every grace " , before the opera ends with a vigorous moresca .
= = = Original libretto ending = = =
In Striggio 's 1607 libretto , Orfeo 's Act 5 soliloquy is interrupted , not by Apollo 's appearance but by a chorus of maenads or Bacchantes — wild , drunken women — who sing of the " divine fury " of their master , the god Bacchus . The cause of their wrath is Orfeo and his renunciation of women ; he will not escape their heavenly anger , and the longer he evades them the more severe his fate will be . Orfeo leaves the scene and his destiny is left uncertain , as the Bacchantes devote themselves for the rest of the opera to wild singing and dancing in praise of Bacchus . The early music authority Claude Palisca believes that the two endings are not incompatible ; Orfeo might evade the fury of the Bacchantes and be rescued by Apollo .
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Premiere and early performances = = =
The date for the first performance of L 'Orfeo , 24 February 1607 , is evidenced by two letters , both dated 23 February . In the first , Francesco Gonzaga informs his brother that the " musical play " will be performed tomorrow ; it is clear from earlier correspondence that this refers to L 'Orfeo . The second letter is from a Gonzaga court official , Carlo Magno , and gives more details : " Tomorrow evening the Most Serene Lord the Prince is to sponsor a [ play ] in a room in the apartments which the Most Serene Lady had the use of ... it should be most unusual , as all the actors are to sing their parts . " The " Serene Lady " is Duke Vincenzo 's widowed sister Margherita Gonzaga d 'Este , who lived within the Ducal Palace . The room of the premiere cannot be identified with certainty ; according to Ringer , it may have been the Galleria dei Fiumi , which has the dimensions to accommodate a stage and orchestra with space for a small audience .
There is no detailed account of the premiere , although Francesco wrote on 1 March that the work had " been to the great satisfaction of all who heard it " , and had particularly pleased the Duke . The Mantuan court theologian and poet , Cherubino Ferrari wrote that : " Both poet and musician have depicted the inclinations of the heart so skilfully that it could not have been done better ... The music , observing due propriety , serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere " . After the premiere Duke Vincenzo ordered a second performance for 1 March ; a third performance was planned to coincide with a proposed state visit to Mantua by the Duke of Savoy . Francesco wrote to the Duke of Tuscany on 8 March , asking if he could retain the services of the castrato Magli for a little longer . However , the visit was cancelled , as was the celebratory performance .
There are suggestions that in the years following the premiere , L 'Orfeo may have been staged in Florence , Cremona , Milan and Turin , though firmer evidence suggests that the work attracted limited interest beyond the Mantuan court . Francesco may have mounted a production in Casale Monferrato , where he was governor , for the 1609 – 10 Carnival , and there are indications that the work was performed on several occasions in Salzburg between 1614 and 1619 , under the direction of Francesco Rasi . Years later , during the first flourish of Venetian opera in 1637 – 43 , Monteverdi chose to revive his second opera , L 'Arianna there , but not L 'Orfeo . There is some evidence of performances shortly after Monteverdi 's death : in Geneva in 1643 , and in Paris , at the Louvre , in 1647 . Although according to Carter the work was still admired across Italy in the 1650s , it was subsequently forgotten , as largely was Monteverdi , until the revival of interest in his works in the late 19th century .
= = = 20th @-@ century revivals = = =
After years of neglect , Monteverdi 's music began to attract the interest of pioneer music historians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , and from the second quarter of the 19th century onwards he is discussed increasingly in scholarly works . In 1881 a truncated version of the L 'Orfeo score , intended for study rather than performance , was published in Berlin by Robert Eitner . In 1904 the composer Vincent d 'Indy produced an edition in French , which comprised only Act 2 , a shortened Act 3 and Act 4 . This edition was the basis of the first public performance of the work in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half centuries , a concert performance at d 'Indy 's Schola Cantorum on 25 February 1904 . The distinguished writer Romain Rolland , who was present , commended d 'Indy for bringing the opera to life and returning it " to the beauty it once had , freeing it from the clumsy restorations which have disfigured it " — presumably a reference to Eitner 's edition . The d 'Indy edition was also the basis of the first modern staged performance of the work , at the Théâtre Réjane , Paris , on 2 May 1911 .
An edition of the score by the minor Italian composer Giovanni Orefice received several concert performances in Italy and elsewhere before and after the First World War . This edition was the basis of the opera 's United States debut , another concert performance at the New York Met in April 1912 . The opera was introduced to London , in d 'Indy 's edition , when it was sung to piano accompaniment at the Institut Français on 8 March 1924 . The first British staged performance , with only small cuts , was given by the Oxford University Operatic Society on 7 December 1925 , using an edition prepared for the event by Jack Westrup . In the London Saturday Review , music critic Dyneley Hussey called the occasion " one of the most important events of recent years " ; the production had " indicated at once Monteverdi 's claim to rank among the great geniuses who have written dramatic music " . Westrup 's edition was revived in London at the Scala Theatre in December 1929 , the same year in which the opera received its first US staged performance , at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts . The three Scala performances resulted in a financial disaster , and the opera was not seen again in Britain for 35 years .
Among a flurry of revivals after 1945 was Paul Hindemith 's edition , a full period reconstruction of the work prepared in 1943 , which was staged and recorded at the Vienna Festival in 1954 . This performance had a great impact on the young Nikolaus Harnoncourt , and was hailed as a masterpiece of scholarship and integrity . The first staged New York performance , by the New York City Opera under Leopold Stokowski on 29 September 1960 , saw the American operatic debut of Gérard Souzay , one of several baritones who have sung the role of Orfeo . The theatre was criticised by New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg because , to accommodate a performance of Luigi Dallapiccola 's contemporary opera Il prigioniero , about a third of L 'Orfeo was cut . Schonberg wrote : " Even the biggest aria in the opera , " Possente spirito " , has a good @-@ sized slash in the middle ... [ L 'Orfeo ] is long enough , and important enough , not to mention beautiful enough , to have been the entire evening 's opera . "
By the latter part of the 20th century the opera was being shown all over the world . In 1965 , Sadler 's Wells , forerunner of English National Opera ( ENO ) , staged the first of many ENO presentations which would continue into the 21st century . Among various celebrations marking the opera 's 400th anniversary in 2007 were a semi @-@ staged performance at the Teatro Bibiena in Mantua , a full @-@ scale production by the English Bach Festival ( EBF ) at the Whitehall Banqueting House in London on 7 February , and an unconventional production by Glimmerglass Opera in Cooperstown , New York , conducted by Antony Walker and directed by Christopher Alden . On 6 May 2010 the BBC broadcast a performance of the opera from La Scala , Milan . Despite the reluctance of some major opera houses to stage L 'Orfeo , it is a popular work with the leading Baroque ensembles . During the period 2008 – 10 the French @-@ based Les Arts Florissants , under its director William Christie , has presented the Monteverdi trilogy of operas ( L 'Orfeo , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse and L 'incoronazione di Poppea ) in a series of performances at the Teatro Real in Madrid .
= = Music = =
L 'Orfeo is , in Redlich 's analysis , the product of two musical epochs . It combines elements of the traditional madrigal style of the 16th century with those of the emerging Florentine mode , in particular the use of recitative and monodic singing as developed by the Camerata and their successors . In this new style , the text dominates the music ; while sinfonias and instrumental ritornelli illustrate the action , the audience 's attention is always drawn primarily to the words . The singers are required to do more than produce pleasant vocal sounds ; they must represent their characters in depth and convey appropriate emotions .
Monterverdi 's recitative style was influenced by Peri 's , in Euridice , although in L 'Orfeo recitative is less preponderant than was usual in dramatic music at this time . It accounts for less than a quarter of the first act 's music , around a third of the second and third acts , and a little under half in the final two acts .
The importance of L 'Orfeo is not that it was the first work of its kind , but that it was the first attempt to apply the full resources of the art of music , as then evolved , to the nascent genre of opera . In particular , Monteverdi made daring innovations in the use of polyphony , of which Palestrina had been the principal exponent . In L 'Orfeo , Monteverdi extends the rules , beyond the conventions which polyphonic composers , faithful to Palestrina , had previously considered as sacrosanct . Monteverdi was not in the generally understood sense an orchestrator ; Ringer finds that it is the element of instrumental improvisation that makes each performance of a Monteverdi opera a " unique experience , and separates his work from the later operatic canon . "
The opera begins with a martial @-@ sounding toccata for trumpets which is repeated twice . When played on period wind instruments the sound can be startling to modern audiences ; Redlich calls it " shattering " . Such flourishes were the standard signal for the commencement of performances at the Mantuan court ; the opening chorus of Monteverdi 's 1610 Vespers , also composed for Gonzaga 's court , employs the same fanfare . The toccata acted as a salute to the Duke ; according to Donington , if it had not been written , precedent would have required it to be improvised . As the brass sound of the toccata fades , it is replaced by the gentler tone of the strings ritornello which introduces La musica 's prologue . The ritornello is repeated in shortened form between each of the prologue 's five verses , and in full after the final verse . Its function within the opera as a whole is to represent the " power of music " ; as such it is heard at the end of Act 2 , and again at the beginning of Act 5 , one of the earliest examples of an operatic leitmotiv . It is temporally structured as a palindrome and its form of strophic variations allows Monteverdi to carefully shape musical time for expressive and structural purposes in the context of seconda prattica .
After the Prologue , Act 1 follows in the form of a pastoral idyll . Two choruses , one solemn and one jovial are repeated in reverse order around the central love @-@ song " Rosa del ciel " ( " Rose of the heavens " ) , followed by the shepherds ' songs of praise . The buoyant mood continues into Act 2 , with song and dance music influenced , according to Harnoncourt , by Monteverdi 's experience of French music . The sudden entrance of La messaggera with the doleful news of Euridice 's death , and the confusion and grief which follow , are musically reflected by harsh dissonances and the juxtaposition of keys . The music remains in this vein until the act ends with La musica 's ritornello , a hint that the " power of music " may yet bring about a triumph over death . Monteverdi 's instructions as the act concludes are that the violins , the organ and harpsichord become silent and that the music is taken up by the trombones , the cornetts and the regal , as the scene changes to the Underworld .
The centrepiece of Act 3 , perhaps of the entire opera , is Orfeo 's extended aria " Possente spirto e formidabil nume " ( " Mighty spirit and powerful divinity " ) , by which he attempts to persuade Caronte to allow him to enter Hades . Monteverdi 's vocal embellishments and virtuoso accompaniment provide what Carter describes as " one of the most compelling visual and aural representations " in early opera . Instrumental colour is provided by a chitarrone , a pipe @-@ organ , two violins , two cornetts and a double @-@ harp . This array , according to music historian and analyst John Whenham , is intended to suggest that Orfeo is harnessing all the available forces of music to support his plea . In Act 4 the impersonal coldness of the Underworld is broken by the warmth of Proserpina 's singing on behalf of Orfeo , a warmth that is retained until the dramatic moment at which Orfeo " looks back " . The cold sounds of the sinfonia from the beginning of Act 3 then remind us that the Underworld is , after all , entirely devoid of human feeling . The brief final act , which sees Orfeo 's rescue and metamorphosis , is framed by the final appearance of La musica 's ritornello and the lively moresca that ends the opera . This dance , says Ringer , recalls the jigs danced at the end of Shakespeare 's tragedies , and provides a means of bringing the audience back to their everyday world , " just as the toccata had led them into another realm some two hours before . The toccata and the moresca unite courtly reality with operatic illusion . "
= = Recording history = =
The first recording of L 'Orfeo was issued in 1939 , a freely adapted version of Monteverdi 's music by Giacomo Benvenuti , given by the orchestra of La Scala Milan conducted by Ferrucio Calusio . In 1949 , for the recording of the complete opera by the Berlin Radio Orchestra under Helmut Koch , the new medium of long @-@ playing records ( LPs ) was used . The advent of LP recordings was , as Harold C. Schonberg later wrote , an important factor in the postwar revival of interest in Renaissance and Baroque music , and from the mid @-@ 1950s recordings of L 'Orfeo have been issued on many labels . The 1969 recording by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and the Vienna Concentus Musicus , using Harnoncourt 's edition based on period instruments , was praised for " making Monteverdi 's music sound something like the way he imagined " . In 1981 Siegfried Heinrich , with the Early Music Studio of the Hesse Chamber Orchestra , recorded a version which re @-@ created the original Striggio libretto ending , adding music from Monteverdi 's 1616 ballet Tirsi e Clori for the Bacchante scenes . Among more recent recordings , that of Emmanuelle Haïm in 2004 has been praised for its dramatic effect .
= = Editions = =
After the publication of the L 'Orfeo score in 1609 , the same publisher ( Ricciardo Amadino of Venice ) brought it out again in 1615 . Facsimiles of these editions were printed in 1927 and 1972 respectively . Since Eitner 's first " modern " edition of L 'Orfeo in 1884 , and d 'Indy 's performing edition 20 years later — both of which were abridged and adapted versions of the 1609 score — there have been many attempts to edit and present the work , not all of them published . Most of the editions that followed d 'Indy up to the time of the Second World War were arrangements , usually heavily truncated , that provided a basis for performances in the modern opera idiom . Many of these were the work of composers , including Carl Orff ( 1923 and 1939 ) and Ottorino Respighi in 1935 . Orff 's 1923 score , using a German text , included some period instrumentation , an experiment he abandoned when producing his later version .
In the post @-@ war period , editions have moved increasingly to reflect the performance conventions of Monteverdi 's day . This tendency was initiated by two earlier editions , that of Jack Westrup used in the 1925 Oxford performances , and Gian Francesco Malipiero 's 1930 complete edition which sticks closely to Monteverdi 's 1609 original . After the war , Hindemith 's attempted period reconstruction of the work was followed in 1955 by an edition from August Wenzinger that remained in use for many years . The next 30 years saw numerous editions , mostly prepared by scholar @-@ performers rather than by composers , generally aiming towards authenticity if not always the complete re @-@ creation of the original instrumentation . These included versions by Raymond Leppard ( 1965 ) , Denis Stevens ( 1967 ) , Nikola
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maker himself within the self @-@ enclosed narcissistic circuit at its center " . The painting shows Donald looking into the reflective water at Lichtenstein 's blue ' rfl ' signature " as a kind of surrogate for the image 's creator " , in a manner that is reminiscent of Caravaggio 's Narcissus , in which the subject gazes at his own reflection on the water . This is viewed as an allegory of Lichtenstein 's position as an artist trained to develop his realist instincts despite the prominence of abstract expressionism . When viewed this way , Mickey serves as the " vanguard modernist " superego towering over Lichtenstein and laughing at his retrograde efforts .
Lichtenstein uses red Ben @-@ Day dots to color Mickey 's face . According to some art critics , this gives the character the appearance of blushing . Other interpretations are that the coloration is merely skin pigmentation or that it is the hue associated with a " healthy glow , " since Mickey has historically been viewed as a creature with skin rather than fur . Another interpretation – supported by the original source in which Mickey says that if Donald can land the fish he can have it for lunch – is that Mickey 's face is red due to the exertion necessary to contain his disbelief and laughter while he experiences his amused superiority . Those adhering to the blushing interpretation are bolstered by the uneven blotchiness of the red dots , but others are quick to point out that Lichtenstein 's Ben @-@ Day dot technique was still in a primitive stage . He did not develop the use of a stencil ( i.e. the technique of pressing the liquid paint onto the surface through a screen of dots ) to present uniformly distributed dots until 1963 .
Graham Bader , describing it as the engine of the painting 's narrative , notes the intrigue created by the juxtaposition of Donald 's heightened sense of visual perception as it relates to his anticipated catch , and his deadened sense of tactile perception as it relates to having a fishing hook in the back of his own shirt . In this sense , Lichtenstein has chosen to depict a source that has as its subject a divide between raised visual awareness and an absent sense of touch :
Donald is an explicitly divided subject , all sensory experience on one end and , literally , numbness on the other ( and , visually , all depth and all flatness – for Donald 's face is by far the painting 's most spatially illusionistic element , while his caught jacket , merged with the schematic waves behind it , emphatically one of its flattest ) . Indeed , Donald is a portrait of precisely the separation of sight and feeling , vision and touch … What divides vision and touch in Look Mickey , what marks this shift between them , is text : the words that Donald ( and Lichtenstein ) introduces to the scene , and which the duck 's pole @-@ cum @-@ brush passes through before snagging his own back end .
Lichtenstein frequently explored vision @-@ related themes after he began to work in the pop art genre ; early examples include I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! and Look Mickey . In this painting , Donald 's large eyes indicate his belief that he has caught something big while Mickey 's small eyes indicate his disbelief that Donald has caught anything significant . Like Lichenstein 's works with subjects looking through a periscope ( Torpedo ... Los ! ) , a mirror ( Girl in Mirror ) or a peephole ( I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! ) , Look Mickey , with a subject looking at his reflection in the water , is a prominent example of the theme of vision . He uses narrative to emphasize this motif , while presenting several visual elements .
= = Legacy = =
The painting was included in Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition at The Leo Castelli Gallery , a show in which all the works had pre @-@ sold before its opening in February 1962 . The exhibition , which ran from February 10 through March 3 , 1962 , included Engagement Ring , Blam and The Refrigerator . He included the painting in his Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey ( 1973 ) , showing it hanging prominently on the wall of the pictorial space intended to depict his studio as the ideal studio , and implying that his popularity with critic and public ratifies his choice of popular culture subject matter . Reflecting on Look Mickey many years later , he said :
The idea of doing [ a cartoon painting ] without apparent alteration just occurred to me ... and I did one really almost half seriously to get an idea of what it might look like . And as I was painting this painting I kind of got interested in organizing it as a painting and brought it to some kind of conclusion as an aesthetic statement , which I hadn 't really intended to do to begin with . And then I really went back to my other kind of painting , which was pretty abstract . Or tried to . But I had this cartoon painting in my studio , and it was a little too formidable . I couldn 't keep my eyes off it , and it sort of prevented me from painting in any other way , and then I decided this stuff was really serious ... I would say I had it on my easel for a week . I would just want to see what it looked like . I tried to make it a work of art . I wasn 't trying just to copy . I realized that this was just so much more compelling .
The painting was bequeathed to the Washington National Gallery of Art after Lichtenstein 's death in 1997 , following a 1990 pledge in honor of the institution 's 50th Anniversary . It remains in the gallery 's collection , where , as of November 2012 , it is on permanent view .
Harold Rosenberg once described Lichtensteins reworking of the comics source as follows : " ... the difference between a comic strip of Mickey Mouse and a Lichtenstein painting of the same was art history , or the fact that Lichtenstein paints with the idea of the museum in mind . "
= 1930 FIFA World Cup =
The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup , the world championship for men 's national association football teams . It took place in Uruguay from 13 July to 30 July 1930 . FIFA , football 's international governing body , selected Uruguay as host nation , as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution , and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics . All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital , Montevideo , the majority at the Estadio Centenario , which was built for the tournament .
Thirteen teams ( seven from South America , four from Europe , and two from North America ) entered the tournament . Few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America . The teams were divided into four groups , with the winner of each group progressing to the semi @-@ finals . The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously , and were won by France and the United States , who defeated Mexico 4 – 1 and Belgium 3 – 0 , respectively . Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history , while American goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official " clean sheet " in the tournament .
Argentina , Uruguay , the United States and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the final , hosts and pre @-@ tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 – 2 in front of a crowd of 93 @,@ 000 people , and became the first nation to win the World Cup .
= = Host selection = =
Italy , Sweden , the Netherlands , Spain , Hungary and Uruguay all lodged applications to host the event . Uruguay 's bid became the clear selection after all the other countries withdrew their bids .
= = Participants = =
The first World Cup was the only one without qualification . Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete , and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept . Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas ; Argentina , Brazil , Bolivia , Chile , Mexico , Paraguay , Peru and the United States all entered . A total of seven South American teams participated , more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals . However , because of the long and costly trip by ship across the Atlantic Ocean , and the length of absence required for players , very few European teams were inclined to take part . Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances , and no European entries were received before the February deadline . In an attempt to gain some European participation , the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to The Football Association , even though the British Home Nations were not members of FIFA at the time . This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929 . Two months before the start of the tournament , no team from Europe had officially entered .
FIFA president Jules Rimet intervened , and eventually four European teams made the trip by sea : Belgium , France , Romania , and Yugoslavia . The Romanians , managed by Constantin Rădulescu and coached by their captain Rudolf Wetzer and Octav Luchide , entered the competition following the intervention of newly crowned King Carol II . He selected the squad personally , and negotiated with employers to ensure that the players would still have jobs upon their return . The French entered at the personal intervention of Rimet , but neither France 's star defender Manuel Anatol nor the team 's regular coach Gaston Barreau could be persuaded to make the trip . The Belgians participated at the instigation of German @-@ Belgian FIFA vice @-@ president Rodolphe Seeldrayers .
The Romanians boarded the SS Conte Verde at Genoa , the French were picked up at Villefranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer on 21 June 1930 ; and the Belgians embarked at Barcelona . The Conte Verde carried Rimet , the trophy and the three designated European referees : the Belgians Jean Langenus and Henri Christophe , along with Thomas Balway , a Parisian who may have been English . The Brazilian team were picked up when the boat docked in Rio de Janeiro on 29 June before arriving in Uruguay on 4 July . Yugoslavia travelled via the mail steamship Florida from Marseille .
In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia there were doubts about their participation at first . Since the Croatians decided to boycott the national team , King Alexander I did not want to finance the whole idea , but in the end they found a solution . Belgrade football association officials decided to round up only domestic ( Serbian ) star players , mainly from two rival Belgrade clubs , BSK and SK Jugoslavija , with an additional three Serbs who played for French clubs ( Ivan Bek among them ) . Therefore , the Yugoslavia team was exclusively made up of Serbian players ; and with the two biggest stars of the team , Blagoje Marjanović ( " Moša " ) and Aleksandar Tirnanić ( " Tirke " ) , both from BSK , they were ready for a trip to South America to represent Yugoslavia in the World Cup . The Yugoslavians were the youngest team in the World Cup ; with an average age of 21 years and 258 days . After their first match , against Brazil , they received a new nickname " The Ich @-@ es " or " Ichachos " ( in Spanish ) by the Uruguayan press ; referring to most of the player 's surnames that ended up with the " -ić " or " -vić " suffix , which is quite common for Serbian last names . They achieved the biggest success in both Yugoslav and Serbian subsequent World Cup footballing history , by earning third place ( according to their sources ) .
= = Venues = =
All matches took place in Montevideo . Three stadiums were used : Estadio Centenario , Estadio Pocitos , and Estadio Parque Central . The Estadio Centenario was built both for the tournament and as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguayan independence . Designed by Juan Scasso , it was the primary stadium for the tournament , referred to by Rimet as a " temple of football " . With a capacity of 90 @,@ 000 , it was the largest football stadium outside the British Isles . The stadium hosted 10 of the 18 matches , including both semi @-@ finals and the final . However , a rushed construction schedule and delays caused by the rainy season meant the Centenario was not ready for use until five days into the tournament . Early matches were played at smaller stadiums usually used by Montevideo football clubs Nacional and Peñarol , the 20 @,@ 000 capacity Parque Central and the Pocitos .
= = Squads = =
For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament , see 1930 FIFA World Cup squads .
= = Match officials = =
Fifteen referees participated in the tournament : four Europeans – two Belgians ( Henri Christophe and John Langenus ) , a Frenchman , and a Romanian ( Constantin Rădulescu being the Romanian coach ) , and eleven from the Americas – among them six Uruguayans . In order to eliminate differences in the application of the Laws of the Game , the referees were invited to one short meeting in which to iron out the most conflicting issues arising from the game .
Of all the refereeing appointments , the two that attracted most attention was that of Gilberto de Almeida Rêgo in the match between Argentina and France , in which the Brazilian referee blew for full @-@ time six minutes early , and that of the Bolivian Ulises Saucedo 's in the Argentina and Mexico encounter , which Argentina won 6 – 3 . During the game Saucedo , who was also the coach of Bolivia , awarded three penalties .
The following is the list of officials to serve as referees and linesmen . Officials in italics were only employed as linesmen during the tournament .
= = Format = =
The 13 teams were drawn into four groups , with Group 1 containing four teams , and the others containing only three . Each group played a round @-@ robin format , with two points awarded for a win and one point for a draw . If two teams had tied on points to win a group , a play @-@ off would have been used to decide the group winner ; however , this was not necessary . The four group winners progressed to the knockout semi @-@ final stage . Extra time was available in the knockout matches if the two teams were level after ninety minutes , but it was not required .
= = Draw = =
Uruguay , Argentina , Brazil , and the United States were seeded , and were kept apart in the draw , which took place in Montevideo once all the teams arrived .
Since there were no qualifying games , the opening two matches of the tournament were the first World Cup games ever played , taking place simultaneously on 13 July 1930 ; France beat Mexico 4 – 1 at the Estadio Pocitos , while the United States defeated Belgium 3 – 0 at the same time at the Estadio Gran Parque Central . France 's Lucien Laurent was the scorer of the first World Cup goal .
= = Tournament summary = =
= = = Group 1 = = =
The first group was the only one to contain four teams : Argentina , Chile , France and Mexico . Two days after France 's victory over Mexico , they faced group favourites Argentina . Injuries hindered France ; goalkeeper Alex Thépot had to leave the field after 20 minutes , and Laurent , after a fierce tackle by Luis Monti , spent most of the match limping . However , they held out for most of the match , only succumbing to an 81st @-@ minute goal scored from a Monti free kick . The game featured an officiating controversy when referee Almeida Rêgo erroneously blew the final whistle six minutes early , with Frenchman Marcel Langiller clear on goal ; play only resumed after protests from the French players . Though France had played twice in 48 hours , Chile had yet to play their first match . They faced Mexico the following day , gaining a comfortable 3 – 0 win .
France 's final match , against Chile , featured the first penalty kick of the tournament and World Cup history . The first goalkeeper to save a penalty was Alex Thépot of France on 19 July 1930 , saving from Chile 's Carlos Vidal in the 30th minute of the match . In Argentina 's second match , against Mexico , three penalty kicks were awarded . During the same match on 19 July 1930 Mexico 's Oscar Bonfiglio Martínez saved another penalty at the 23rd minute of the match against Argentina 's Fernando Paternoster . Guillermo Stábile scored a hat @-@ trick in his international debut as Argentina won 6 – 3 , despite the absence of their captain Manuel Ferreira , who had returned to Buenos Aires to take a law exam . Qualification was decided by the group 's final match , contested by Argentina and Chile , who had beaten France and Mexico , respectively . The game was marred by a brawl sparked by a foul on Arturo Torres by Monti . Argentina won 3 – 1 against their neighbours and advanced to the semi @-@ finals .
= = = Group 2 = = =
The second group contained Brazil , Bolivia and Yugoslavia . Brazil , the group seeds , were expected to progress , but in the group 's opening match , unexpectedly lost 2 – 1 to Yugoslavia . Going into the tournament Bolivia had never previously won an international match . For their opener they paid tribute to the hosts by wearing shirts each emblazoned with a single letter , spelling " Viva Uruguay " as the team lined up . Both of Bolivia 's matches followed a similar pattern , a promising start gradually transforming into heavy defeat . Against Yugoslavia , they held out for an hour before conceding , but were four goals down by the final whistle . Misfortune played its part ; several Bolivian goals were disallowed . Against Brazil , when both teams had only pride to play for , the score was 1 – 0 to Brazil at half @-@ time . Brazil added three more in the second half , two of them scored by the multi @-@ sportsman Preguinho . Yugoslavia qualified for the semi @-@ finals .
= = = Group 3 = = =
Hosts Uruguay were in a group with Peru and Romania . The opening match in this group saw the first player expulsion in the competition , when Plácido Galindo of Peru was dismissed against Romania . The Romanians made their man advantage pay ; their 3 – 1 win included two late goals . This match had the smallest crowd of any in World Cup history . The official attendance was 2 @,@ 459 , but the actual figure is generally accepted to be around 300 .
Because of construction delays at Estadio Centenario , Uruguay 's first match was not played until five days into the tournament . The first to be held at the Centenario , it was preceded by a ceremony in honour of the Uruguayan centenary celebrations . The Uruguayan team spent the four weeks preceding the match in a training camp , at which strict discipline was exercised . Goalkeeper Andrés Mazali was dropped from the squad for breaking a curfew to visit his wife . One hundred years to the day of the creation of Uruguay 's first constitution , the hosts won a tight match against Peru 1 – 0 . Spectators praised Peru 's defense , and this turned out to be the only tournament match in which Uruguay scored only one goal . The result was viewed as a poor performance by the Uruguayan press , but lauded in Peru . Uruguay subsequently defeated Romania with ease , scoring four first half goals to win 4 – 0 .
= = = Group 4 = = =
The United States dominated the fourth group . The American team , which contained a significant number of new caps , were reputedly nicknamed " the shot @-@ putters " by an unnamed source in the French contingent . They beat their first opponents , Belgium , 3 – 0 . The ease of the victory was unexpected ; Uruguayan newspaper Imparcial wrote that " the large score of the American victory has really surprised the experts " . Belgian reports bemoaned the state of the pitch and refereeing decisions , claiming that the second goal was offside . The group 's second match , played in windy conditions , witnessed the first tournament hat @-@ trick , scored by Bert Patenaude of the United States against Paraguay . Until 10 November 2006 , the first hat @-@ trick that FIFA acknowledged had been scored by Guillermo Stábile of Argentina , two days after Patenaude ; however , in 2006 FIFA announced that Patenaude 's claim to being the first hat @-@ trick scorer was valid , as a goal previously assigned to teammate Tom Florie was reattributed to Patenaude . With the United States having secured qualification , the final match in the group was a dead rubber . Paraguay beat Belgium by a 1 – 0 margin .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
The four group winners , Argentina , Yugoslavia , Uruguay and the United States , moved to the semi @-@ finals . The two semi @-@ final matches saw identical scores . The first semi @-@ final was played between the USA and Argentina on a rain @-@ drenched pitch . The United States team , which featured six British @-@ born players , lost midfielder Raphael Tracy after ten minutes to a broken leg as the match became violent . A Monti goal halfway through the first half gave Argentina a 1 – 0 half @-@ time lead . In the second half , the strength of the United States team was overwhelmed by the pace of the Argentinian attacks , the match finishing 6 – 1 to Argentina .
In the second semi @-@ final there were shades of the 1924 Summer Olympics match between Yugoslavia and Uruguay . Here , though , Yugoslavia took a surprise lead through Vujadinović . Uruguay then took a 2 – 1 lead . Then shortly before half @-@ time Yugoslavia had a goal disallowed by a controversial offside decision . The hosts scored three more in the second half to win 6 – 1 , Pedro Cea completing a hat @-@ trick .
= = = Third and fourth place = = =
The now @-@ traditional third place play @-@ off was not established until 1934 , so the format of the 1930 World Cup is unique in not distinguishing between the third and fourth placed teams . Occasional sources , notably a FIFA Bulletin from 1984 , incorrectly imply that a third @-@ place match occurred and was won 3 – 1 by Yugoslavia . Accounts differ as to whether a third @-@ place match was originally scheduled . According to a 2009 book by Hyder Jawad , Yugoslavia refused to play a third @-@ place match because they were upset with the refereeing in their semi @-@ final against Uruguay .
At the end of the championship , the captains of the United States team ( Tom Florie ) and Yugoslavia ( Milutin Ivković ) both received bronze medals . Yet a FIFA technical committee report on the 1986 World Cup included full retrospective rankings of all teams at all previous World Cup finals ; this report ranked the United States third and Yugoslavia fourth , a practice since continued by FIFA . In 2010 , the son of Kosta Hadži , the chief of Yugoslav delegation at the 1930 World Cup and the vice @-@ president of the Football Association of Yugoslavia at the time , claimed that Yugoslavia , as a team , has been awarded one bronze medal , which has been kept by Hadži himself and his family for the following 80 years . According to this source , Yugoslavia was placed third because of the semi @-@ finals loss to the eventual champions , Uruguay .
= = = Final = = =
The resounding wins for Uruguay and Argentina in the semi @-@ finals meant the final was a repeat of the matchup in the 1928 Olympic final , which Uruguay had won 2 – 1 after a replay .
The final was played at the Estadio Centenario on 30 July . Feelings ran high around the La Plata Basin as the Argentine supporters crossed the river with the war cry Victoria o muerte ( " victory or death " ) , dispelling any uncertainty as to whether the tournament had captured the imagination of the public . The ten boats earmarked to carry Argentine fans from Buenos Aires to Montevideo proved inadequate , and any number of assorted craft attempted the crossing . An estimated 10 – 15 @,@ 000 Argentinians made the trip , but the port at Montevideo was so overwhelmed that many did not even make landfall before kick @-@ off , let alone reach the stadium . At the stadium , supporters were searched for weapons . The gates were opened at eight o 'clock , six hours before kick @-@ off , and at noon the ground was full , the official attendance 93 @,@ 000 . A disagreement overshadowed the build @-@ up to the match as the teams failed to agree on who should provide the match ball , forcing FIFA to intervene and decree that the Argentine team would provide the ball for the first half and the Uruguayans would provide their own for the second . Uruguay made one change from their semi @-@ final line @-@ up . Castro replaced Anselmo , who missed out due to illness . Monti played for Argentina despite receiving death threats on the eve of the match . The referee was Belgian John Langenus , who only agreed to officiate a few hours before the game , having sought assurances for his safety . One of his requests was for a boat to be ready at the harbour within one hour of the final whistle , in case he needed to make a quick escape .
The hosts scored the opening goal through Pablo Dorado , a low shot from a position on the right . Argentina , displaying superior passing ability , responded strongly . Within eight minutes they were back on level terms ; Carlos Peucelle received a Ferreira through @-@ ball , beat his marker and equalised . Shortly before half @-@ time leading tournament goalscorer Guillermo Stábile gave Argentina a 2 – 1 lead . Uruguay captain Nasazzi protested , maintaining that Stábile was offside , but to no avail . In the second half Uruguay gradually became ascendant . Shortly after Monti missed a chance to make the score 3 – 1 , Uruguay attacked in numbers , and Pedro Cea scored an equaliser . Ten minutes later a goal by Santos Iriarte gave Uruguay the lead , and just before full @-@ time Castro made it 4 – 2 to seal the win . Langenus ended the match a minute later , and Uruguay thus added the title World Cup winners to their mantle of Olympic champions . Jules Rimet presented the World Cup Trophy , which was later named for him , to the head of the Uruguayan Football Association , Raúl Jude . The following day was declared a national holiday in Uruguay ; in the Argentinian capital , Buenos Aires , a mob threw stones at the Uruguayan consulate . Francisco Varallo ( who played as a forward for Argentina ) was the last player of the final to die , on 30 August 2010 .
France , Yugoslavia and the United States all played friendlies in South America following the competition . Brazil played France on 1 August , Yugoslavia on 10 August and the United States on 17 August , while Argentina hosted Yugoslavia on 3 August .
Uruguay 's aggregate goal difference of + 12 over four games , at an average of + 3 per match , remains the highest average goal difference per match of any World Cup champion , and the second highest of any World Cup Finals participant , after Hungary in 1954 .
= = Results = =
= = = Group stage = = =
= = = = Group 1 = = = =
= = = = Group 2 = = = =
= = = = Group 3 = = = =
= = = = Group 4 = = = =
= = = Knockout stage = = =
= = = = Semi @-@ finals = = = =
= = = = Final = = = =
= = Goalscorers = =
With eight goals , Guillermo Stábile was the top scorer in the tournament . In total , 70 goals were scored by 37 different players , with only one of them credited as own goal .
8 goals
Guillermo Stábile
2 goals
1 goal
Own goals
Manuel Rosas ( against Chile )
= = FIFA retrospective ranking = =
In 1986 , FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986 , based on progress in the competition , overall results and quality of the opposition . The rankings for the 1930 tournament were as follows :
= = Last surviving players = =
The last surviving player from Uruguay 's World Cup @-@ winning side was Ernesto Mascheroni , who died on 3 July 1984 at the age of 76 . He was outlived by reserve defender Emilio Recoba who died on 12 September 1992 ( aged 87 ) , but did not play any matches in the tournament . However , many other players who participated in the tournament were still alive by this stage and the last surviving player from the tournament was Argentina 's Francisco Varallo , who died on 30 August 2010 at the age of 100 – eighty years after the tournament .
= Olympic Games =
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( French : Jeux olympiques ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered to be the world 's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating . The Olympic Games are held every four years , with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart .
Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games , which were held in Olympia , Greece , from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD . Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 1894 . The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement , with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority .
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games . Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports , the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability , and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes . The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic , political , and technological advancements . As a result , the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism , as envisioned by Coubertin , to allowing participation of professional athletes . The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games . World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916 , 1940 , and 1944 Games . Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games .
The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations ( IFs ) , National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games . As the decision @-@ making body , the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games , and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter . The IOC also determines the Olympic program , consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games . There are several Olympic rituals and symbols , such as the Olympic flag and torch , as well as the opening and closing ceremonies . Over 13 @,@ 000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events . The first , second , and third @-@ place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals : gold , silver , and bronze , respectively .
The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented . This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies , including boycotts , doping , bribery , and a terrorist attack in 1972 . Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame . The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world .
= = Ancient Olympics = =
The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia , Greece . Competition was among representatives of several city @-@ states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece . These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration , horse and chariot racing events . It has been widely written that during the Games , all conflicts among the participating city @-@ states were postponed until the Games were finished . This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce . This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars . The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus . The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend ; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games . According to legend , it was Heracles who first called the Games " Olympic " and established the custom of holding them every four years . The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors , he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus . Following its completion , he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a " stadion " ( Greek : στάδιον , Latin : stadium , " stage " ) , which later became a unit of distance . The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC ; this is based on inscriptions , found at Olympia , listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC . The Ancient Games featured running events , a pentathlon ( consisting of a jumping event , discus and javelin throws , a foot race , and wrestling ) , boxing , wrestling , pankration , and equestrian events . Tradition has it that Coroebus , a cook from the city of Elis , was the first Olympic champion .
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance , featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus ( whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia ) and Pelops , divine hero and mythical king of Olympia . Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis . The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues . The Games were held every four years , and this period , known as an Olympiad , was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement . The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games , which included the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games , and the Isthmian Games .
The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece . While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended , the most commonly held date is 393 AD , when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated . Another date commonly cited is 426 AD , when his successor , Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples .
= = Modern Games = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Various uses of the term " Olympic " to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century . The first such event was the Cotswold Games or " Cotswold Olimpick Games " , an annual meeting near Chipping Campden , England , involving various sports . It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642 , with several later celebrations leading up to the present day . The British Olympic Association , in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London , mentioned these games as " the first stirrings of Britain 's Olympic beginnings " .
L 'Olympiade de la République , a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games . The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics . The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport .
In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by Dr. William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock , in Shropshire , England . In 1859 , Dr. Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games . This annual sports festival continues to this day . The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Dr. Brookes on 15 November 1860 .
Between 1862 and 1867 , Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook , although only ' gentlemen amateurs ' could compete . The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics . In 1865 Hulley , Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool , a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter . In 1866 , a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London 's Crystal Palace .
= = = Revival = = =
Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821 . It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem " Dialogue of the Dead " , published in 1833 . Evangelos Zappas , a wealthy Greek @-@ Romanian philanthropist , first wrote to King Otto of Greece , in 1856 , offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games . Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859 , which was held in an Athens city square . Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games .
The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875 . Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870 , though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games . In 1890 , after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society , Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years . He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee . This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894 , at the University of Paris . On the last day of the Congress , it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896 . The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president .
= = = 1896 Games = = =
The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896 . The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events . Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games . This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games . George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games . The Greek government also provided funding , which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set .
Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games . This feeling was shared by many of the athletes , who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city . The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world . The second Olympics was held in Paris .
= = = Changes and adaptations = = =
After the success of the 1896 Games , the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival . The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World 's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows . The Games in Paris did not have a stadium , but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games . When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated , but 580 were from the United States . The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement . The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games ( so @-@ called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad ) were held in Athens . These Games were , but are not now , officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since . The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest . This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics .
= = = = Winter Games = = = =
The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games . Figure skating ( in 1908 and 1920 ) and ice hockey ( in 1920 ) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics . The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities . At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games . A winter sports week ( it was actually 11 days ) was held in 1924 in Chamonix , France , in connection with the Paris Games held three months later ; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games . Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year , this idea was quickly abandoned . The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Olympics were held every four years , two years after each Summer Olympics .
= = = = Paralympics = = = =
In 1948 , Sir Ludwig Guttmann , determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II , organized a multi @-@ sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics . Guttmann 's event , known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games , became an annual sports festival . Over the next twelve years , Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing . For the 1960 Olympic Games , in Rome , Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the " Parallel Olympics " , which became known as the first Paralympics . Since then , the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year . Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics . In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing , and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver . Chairman of the London organising committee , Lord Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that ,
We want to change public attitudes towards disability , celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole .
= = = = Youth Games = = = =
In 2010 , the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games , which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete . The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC . The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 – 26 August 2010 , while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck , Austria , two years later . These Games will be shorter than the senior Games ; the summer version will last twelve days , while the winter version will last nine days . The IOC allows 3 @,@ 500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games , and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games . The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games , however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events .
= = = 21st @-@ century games = = =
From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896 , the Games have grown to about 10 @,@ 500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller . For example , Sochi hosted 2 @,@ 873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics . During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village . This village is intended to be a self @-@ contained home for all the Olympic participants , and is furnished with cafeterias , health clinics , and locations for religious expression .
The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand . As a result , colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games . Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country . The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nation which qualify as " an independent State recognized by the international community " . Therefore , it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010 , although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986 . After 2012 , Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba .
= = = Economic and social impact on host cities and countries = = =
Many economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games , emphasizing that such " mega @-@ events " often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run . Conversely hosting ( or even bidding for ) the Olympics appears to increase the host country 's exports , as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games . Moreover , research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city , which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector . This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards , although not permanently . This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society .
The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities ; for example , the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades , often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups . The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history , costing in excess of US $ 50 billion . According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games , this cost will not boost Russia 's national economy , but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services . But by December 2014 , The Guardian stated that Sochi " now feels like a ghost town " , citing the spread @-@ out nature of the stadiums and arenas , the still @-@ unfinished construction , and the overall effects Russia 's political and economic turmoil . Furthermore , at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics , citing the costs to host the games .
= = International Olympic Committee = =
The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations , recognized media partners , as well as athletes , officials , judges , and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter . As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) is responsible for selecting the host city , overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games , updating and approving the sports program , and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights .
The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements :
International Federations ( IFs ) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level . For example , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) is the IF for association football , and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball . There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement , representing each of the Olympic sports .
National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country . For example , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) is the NOC of the United States . There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC .
Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games ( OCOGs ) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games . OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC .
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement . The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country ( or languages , if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English ) . Every proclamation ( such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony ) is spoken in these three ( or more ) languages , or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country .
= = = Criticism = = =
The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization , with several members on the committee for life . The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial . Brundage was president for over 20 years , and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising . He was accused of both racism , for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation , and antisemitism . Under the Samaranch presidency , the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption . Samaranch 's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism .
In 1998 , it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics . The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others . The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected , to avoid similar cases in the future .
A BBC documentary entitled Panorama : Buying the Games , aired in August 2004 , investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city . After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games , Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee ( headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe ) of breaking the bid rules . He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness ; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement . The allegation was never fully explored . The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy . A prominent IOC member , Marc Hodler , strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion , Switzerland , alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee . These accusations led to a wide @-@ ranging investigation . The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion 's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination .
In July 2012 , the Anti @-@ Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics , " a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes . "
= = Commercialization = =
= = = Under national organizing committees = = =
The Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens , when a number of companies paid for advertizing , including Kodak . In 1908 , Oxo , Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games .
Coca Cola sponsored of the 1928 Summer Olympics , and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time .
Before the IOC took control of sponsorship , national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols .
= = = Under IOC control = = =
The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors . It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage , in 1972 , that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them . Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand .
= = = Budget = = =
During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget . As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest . Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision @-@ making . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols . When Brundage retired the IOC had US $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $ 45 million . This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights . When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent .
The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history . The Los Angeles @-@ based organizing committee , led by Peter Ueberroth , was able to generate a surplus of US $ 225 million , which was an unprecedented amount at that time . The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies . The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights . Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program ( TOP ) in 1985 , in order to create an Olympic brand . Membership in TOP was , and is , very exclusive and expensive . Fees cost US $ 50 million for a four @-@ year membership . Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category , and use of the Olympic symbol , the interlocking rings , in their publications and advertisements .
= = = Effect of television = = =
The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television , though only to local audiences . The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games , and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks — CBS paid US $ 394 @,@ 000 for the American rights , and the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) allocated US $ 660 @,@ 000 . In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War . Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy , and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium . The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games , thereby generating more interest , which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television . This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever @-@ increasing fees for those rights . For example , CBS paid US $ 375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games , while NBC spent US $ 3 @.@ 5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012 .
Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century . This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964 , and the introduction of color television in 1968 . Global audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million , whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984 , the audience numbers had increased to 900 million ; that number swelled to 3 @.@ 5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . However , at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney , NBC drew the lowest ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968 . This was attributed to two factors : one was the increased competition from cable channels , the second was the internet , which was able to display results and video in real time . Television companies were still relying on tape @-@ delayed content , which was becoming outdated in the information era . A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time . With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games , the added pressure of the internet , and increased competition from cable , the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings . The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program . At the Summer Games , the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights , and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest . The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs , both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers . Finally , the American television lobby was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States . The results of these efforts were mixed : ratings for the 2006 Winter Games were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games , while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics , and the 2012 Summer Games became the most watched event in US television history .
The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial . The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialized sporting spectacle . Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games . The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic @-@ related wares . The IOC indicated that they would address this to prevent spectacles of over @-@ marketing at future Games . Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments ; the IOC incurs none of the cost , yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols . The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income . Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games , even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments . Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics .
= = Symbols = =
The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter . The Olympic symbol , better known as the Olympic rings , consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents ( Africa , America , Asia , Oceania , Europe ) . The colored version of the rings — blue , yellow , black , green , and red — over a white field forms the Olympic flag . These colors were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag . The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium . It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games .
The Olympic motto , Citius , Altius , Fortius , a Latin expression meaning " Faster , Higher , Stronger " was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924 . The motto was coined by Coubertin 's friend the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP , for a Paris youth gathering of 1891 .
Coubertin 's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed :
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part , just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle . The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well .
Months before each Games , the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals . A female performer , acting as a priestess , ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun 's rays ; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer , thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city 's Olympic stadium , where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony . Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928 , the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games .
The Olympic mascot , an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country , was introduced in 1968 . It has played an important part on the Games identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics , when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom . The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire . Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games , which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games .
= = Ceremonies = =
= = = Opening = = =
As mandated by the Olympic Charter , various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games . This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred . Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . The host nation then presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theater representative of its culture . The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor 's in terms of memorability . The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $ 100 million , with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment .
After the artistic portion of the ceremony , the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation . Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics . Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language , with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter . During the 2004 Summer Olympics , which was hosted in Athens , Greece , the Greek flag entered the stadium first , while the Greek delegation entered last . Speeches are given , formally opening the Games . Finally , the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier , often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation , who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron .
= = = Closing = = =
The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded . Flag @-@ bearers from each participating country enter the stadium , followed by the athletes who enter together , without any national distinction . Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played : the flag of the current host country ; the flag of Greece , to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games ; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games . The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches , the Games are officially closed , and the Olympic flame is extinguished . In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony , the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC , who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games . The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture .
As is customary , the men 's marathon medals ( at the Summer Olympics ) or the men 's 50 km cross @-@ country skiing freestyle mass start medals ( at the Winter Olympics ) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony , which take place later that day , in the Olympic Stadium , and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games .
= = = Medal presentation = = =
A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded . The winner , second and third @-@ place competitors or teams stand on top of a three @-@ tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals . After the medals are given out by an IOC member , the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist 's country plays . Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies , as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag @-@ bearers .
As is customary , the men 's marathon medals are presented as part of the Summer Closing Ceremony , which take place later that day , in the Olympic Stadium - thus , they are the final medal presentation of the Games .
= = Sports = =
The Olympic Games program consists of 35 sports , 30 disciplines and 408 events . For example , wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport , comprising two disciplines : Greco @-@ Roman and Freestyle . It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women , each representing a different weight class . The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports , while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports . Athletics , swimming , fencing , and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program . Cross @-@ country skiing , figure skating , ice hockey , Nordic combined , ski jumping , and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics program since its inception in 1924 . Current Olympic sports , like badminton , basketball , and volleyball , first appeared on the program as demonstration sports , and were later promoted to full Olympic sports . Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the program .
Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations ( IFs ) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports . There are 35 federations represented at the IOC . There are sports recognized by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program . These sports are not considered Olympic sports , but they can be promoted to this status during a program revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games . During such revisions , sports can be excluded or included in the program on the basis of a two @-@ thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC . There are recognized sports that have never been on an Olympic program in any capacity , including chess and surfing .
In October and November 2004 , the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission , which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic program and all non @
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Curse . It was also ported in 1993 by Brazilian company Tec Toy under the title Turma da Mônica em o Resgate , with the game retooled to include characters from Brazilian comic book series Monica 's Gang ( Turma da Mônica ) . A remake developed by Lizardcube and published by DotEmu is currently in development .
The game takes place immediately after the events of Wonder Boy in Monster Land , which Wonder Boy has been cursed by the Mecha Dragon and must locate the Salamander Cross to lift it . The game is nonlinear and features varying landscapes in which players must navigate . Players find items and clues needed to access different parts of Monster Land , and they can transform into other forms and gain different abilities .
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap received extensive coverage worldwide in gaming magazines upon its release . It was praised for its colorful and cartoon @-@ like graphics , rich sound and diverse sound effects , and varied and addictive gameplay . Criticisms include sprite flickering in the Master System version as well as slippery controls . The game has been compared to the Castlevania and Metroid series , while one review called it " a straightforward and simple ' Metroidvania ' adventure " . It won Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Best Game of the Year " award for the Master System in 1989 . Reviews from gaming magazines have described the game as one of the best Master System and 8 @-@ bit titles of all time .
= = Overview = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap takes place immediately after the events of Wonder Boy in Monster Land , Wonder Boy travels into the Mecha Dragon 's lair in order to slay him . ( Some sources refer to this creature as the " MEKA dragon " . ) However , upon doing so , he is inflicted by a curse that transforms him into " Lizard @-@ Man " . In the game , the player controls Wonder Boy as he tries to undo this curse by journeying across the land , defeating other dragons , and defeating finally the Vampire Dragon to obtain the Salamander Cross – the only object that can remove his curse .
After completing the first level in the game ( a simplified version of the final level from the preceding game Wonder Boy in Monster Land ) , the player begins as Lizard @-@ Man from Alsedo , a town in Monster Land , and the gameplay becomes nonlinear . From there , the player explores and finds items and clues needed for Wonder Boy to access different parts of Monster Land . Gold and additional secondary items can be found by defeating enemies and opening treasure chests . With gold , players can buy additional items and better equipment in shops and restore their life meter in hospitals . Shops are normally designated as doors with windows on them , located in town or in caves . Items with question marks displayed cannot be bought unless the player has " charm " , which can be increased by collecting collect Charm Stones or by equipping certain items . The Status Screen shows how much attack and defense power , and charm Wonder Boy has , all of which depend on what items are currently equipped .
In the game , the player uses the directional pad to move Wonder Boy left or right , crouch down ( only possible as Hu @-@ Man or Lizard @-@ Man ) , or to enter doors . The buttons on the controller are used to attack enemies and to jump . Wonder Boy can attack with his main weapon or with secondary weapons by holding down on the directional pad and pressing the attack button . Pressing the pause button brings up the Status Screen ( and pauses the game if Wonder Boy is fighting a dragon ) . Wonder Boy has a life meter shown on the top of the gameplay area by a series of hearts , which turn from red to black when taking damage from enemy attacks . When all hearts turn black , Wonder Boy dies and the game ends , but if he has a life potion ( " medicine vial " in Dragon 's Curse ) remaining , he will revive with some of the hearts refilled . After the game ends , the player is taken to a " continue screen " ; there the player has an opportunity to win a free life potion before restarting the game at the town . Players can visit the town 's church to receive a password in order to continue the game at a later time . The password saves the current player 's form , equipment , and amount of gold ; but it does not save any secondary weapons or life potions in stock . Dragon 's Curse has a " file cabinet " which allows players to store passwords into the game 's memory ; the player may access these stored passwords and continue the game without needing to manually input them .
Throughout the game , players will go through differently @-@ themed levels : underwater , desert , jungle , cave , and sky . At the end of each level is a different dragon . After defeating a dragon , Wonder Boy changes form , and his abilities change . Wonder Boy begins the game as Hu @-@ Man , equipped with all eight hearts and the strongest equipment . He turns into Lizard @-@ Man after defeating and being cursed by the Mecha Dragon in the first level . At that point , he loses all equipment and all hearts except one . Lizard @-@ Man attacks enemies by breathing fire at them , and he can duck . He can assume other different forms throughout the game : Mouse @-@ Man can walk on walls and ceilings designated by checkered " mouse blocks " , Piranha @-@ Man can swim freely underwater and can access underwater places ( such as the ship ) which the other forms cannot , Lion @-@ Man attacks enemies with his sword by swinging from directly above to directly below him , and Hawk @-@ Man can fly freely in the air but takes damage if he enters water .
= = Development and release = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap was developed by Westone and was published by Sega ; it is the sequel to Wonder Boy in Monster Land . It was first released for the Sega Master System in 1989 in North America and Europe . The game was then ported to the PC Engine in Japan April 19 , 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) under the title Adventure Island ( not to be confused with the Adventure Island series of games for the Nintendo Entertainment System ) ; it was released for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 that same year by NEC under the title Dragon 's Curse . Westone allowed Hudson Soft to publish the game provided they made no reference to the Wonder Boy series . Sega then released the game for the Game Gear in 1992 in Europe under the game 's original title and in Japan under the title Monster World II : Dragon no Wana . In 1993 , Tec Toy released the game in Brazil for the Master System under the title Turma da Mônica em o Resgate . Tec Toy replaced the sprites with characters from Brazilian comic book series Monica 's Gang ( Turma da Mônica ) , so instead of the player character turning into different creatures , he gets turned into different characters from the comics , relaying between them in order to rescue Monica , who disappeared after the previous game . In 2007 , Sega released the game in Japan for the PlayStation 2 as part of a compilation of all the Wonder Boy games titled Sega Ages 2500 Vol . 29 : Monster World Complete Collection . During the same year , Dragon 's Curse / Adventure Island was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service worldwide . The Master System version of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap was released in Europe on September 10 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 09 @-@ 10 ) and in North America on November 9 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 11 @-@ 09 ) .
= = Reception = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap received coverage in the September 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , where they provided a brief overview of the game and a summary of the events in Wonder Boy in Monster Land leading up to the game 's plot . Two months later , in its December 1989 issue in its " Best and Worst of 1989 " , the game won an award for " Best Game of the Year " for the Sega Master System . GamePro gave a brief overview of the game in its September – October 1989 issue , adding that " it 's truly an adventure worthy of Wonder Boy " . It received extensive coverage in both the January and February 1990 issues of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , featuring an overview and a walkthrough of the game . The magazine praised the game for its challenge and overall look , which it says " will have you manipulating your control pad for days on end " .
Various UK @-@ based video gaming magazines gave Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap significant coverage . The Games Machine complimented the game 's colorful backgrounds and sprites with " the [ Wonder ] Boy himself being particularly well @-@ drawn " , while they criticized the weak animation on some of the characters as well as its choppy scrolling . They called it one of the best games by Sega but complained that it was expensive , saying " do you really want to spend 28 quid on it ? " The magazine 's successor , Raze , reviewed the PC Engine version titled Adventure Island . The magazine praised the game 's simplistic and addictive platforming gameplay and its smooth @-@ scrolling graphics , though they said they were " a little blocky " . They noted that the game had excellent music which was " worth listening through some headphones " . Zero , along with praising the game 's graphics and music , called it " enormously addictive " ; the review said the ability to transform into different forms and hence being able to progress into new areas kept the game fresh .
UK magazines Computer and Video Games and its spin @-@ off Mean Machines – in the latter 's premiere issue – gave the game positive reviews . Computer and Video Games praised the animation in particular and called it the best game of its type on that platform , using phrases such as " familiar air of polish and ingenuity " and " piles of addiction guaranteed " . Mean Machines ' Matt Regan said it " ranks as one of the greatest Sega Master System games ever ! " ; he compared the gameplay to the Mario series of video games and praised the game 's depth , saying that " there 's always something new to discover , be it a key to a previously locked door or even a secret room ! " Julian Rignall praised the game 's graphics and the huge world players can explore , which he says contributes to the game 's addictiveness . He said that " the combination of adventuring , shooting and platform action results in one of the best games of its type available on any console " . Collectively , they praised the game overall presentation and graphics , saying that the sprites complement the background . While they additionally praised its playability for being " accessible from the word go " and longevity , they criticized its sound , saying that it " could have been much better " .
German magazine Video Games gave Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap a positive review , saying that the game gave more weight to strategy and tactics , that it " stands out clearly from the two predecessors " , and that its graphics became less childlike but more " spectacular " . The review continued , saying that its gameplay is a good example of what makes action @-@ adventure games addictive to play . It complimented the game 's depth and wide array of equipment , saying that it " provides an additional touch , which makes [ it ] the best thought @-@ out game [ at the time ] " .
Upon the release of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version Dragon 's Curse to the Virtual Console in 2007 , IGN 's Lucas Thomas reviewed the game , comparing the opening sequence of the game to the opening sequence of Castlevania : Symphony of the Night ; he proceeded to add that the game parallels with games in the Castlevania series , calling the game " a straightforward and simple ' Metroidvania ' adventure " but with " several layers of unexpected depth " . Thomas noted the game 's popularity among fans and that it plays almost exactly the same as the Master System version despite graphics and sound improvements ; at the time , there were no Master System games on the Virtual Console . He praised the game 's rich sound , gameplay depth , and " colorful and cartoony " graphics , which " was perfectly suited to the TurboGrafx platform " .
IGN 's Travis Fahs , in discussing the SMS version , offered another opinion , praising the game as " not only the crowning achievement of the series , but perhaps one the best games of the 8 @-@ bit era " , drawing comparisons to both Mario and Zelda . Thomas again reviewed the Master System version of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap when it was released two years later for the Virtual Console . In this review , he compares the gameplay to Metroid – more specifically the need to gather additional equipment and abilities to advance in the game . While he acknowledged that this version from one of the best Master System games as well as for any 8 @-@ bit system , he felt that the Master System 's Virtual Console release had a reduced appeal . He said that the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version Dragon 's Curse had already been out for two years and that there was no difference in gameplay between the two versions , but there were improvements in graphics and sound in the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version because of the system 's superior capabilities . He also noted that the Master System version suffers from sprite flickering – something the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version did not have . Despite the small differences in the two versions , he decided to give the Master System version the same rating as the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version .
Allgame 's review of the Master System version praised the non @-@ linear gameplay and the ability to change into different forms , saying that it " keeps things interesting and fun " and " keeps the game from getting repetitive " . It lauded its visuals and sound effects , saying the " graphics are very colorful and have a cartoon look to them " . Criticisms included slippery controls and the difficulty of getting into doors ; it said the controls kept the game from obtaining a perfect rating , and the gameplay was still not as good as Wonder Boy in Monster Land . The editing staff from magazine Retro Gamer listed Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap as one of the " Perfect Ten Games " for the Master System , calling it " the best in a long and highly convoluted myriad of multi @-@ titled games " and " a great adventure that every Master System fan needs to own " . The review praised the game 's brisk pace and gameplay , despite the length of the game .
= = Remake = =
In June 2016 , indie developer Lizardcube and publisher DotEmu announced a remake of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap , simply titled Wonder Boy : The Dragon 's Trap , for consoles and PC . The game supports a different , modern visual style , but retains the same gameplay , level design and story . Original series creator , Ryuichi Nishizawa , is involved in a consulting role .
This comes 9 years after the release of the wildly popular " Dragon 's Curse " remake by user Vile2013 , who greatly expanded upon the original version by adding significantly larger levels , newer zones , more secret areas , an additional playable character , and " Golden " enemies , which are tougher than the standard hard Blue enemies .
= Pennsylvania Route 222 =
Pennsylvania Route 222 ( PA 222 ) is a 4 @.@ 482 mi ( 7 @.@ 213 km ) -long state highway contained entirely in Allentown , Lehigh County , Pennsylvania and its immediate suburbs mostly along Hamilton Boulevard . The route , in center city Allentown , is aligned along West Hamilton , West Linden , and West Walnut Streets . The southern terminus of the route is at Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) and PA 309 in Dorneyville , where the roadway changes designation from PA 222 to U.S. Route 222 ( US 222 ) . The northern terminus is PA 145 in Allentown .
Hamilton Street has served as the main street in Allentown since the community was founded in the 18th century . Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard became part of the William Penn Highway in 1916 , PA 3 in 1924 , and US 22 in 1926 . In 1931 , US 22 was routed to a new alignment to the north , and Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street west of 15th Street became a part of US 222 . In the 1950s , US 222 was rerouted to bypass Allentown , leaving Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street through the city unnumbered . In 1984 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation proposed extending US 222 from I @-@ 78 / PA 309 to downtown Allentown , where it would end at PA 145 . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) rejected extending US 222 into Allentown , and PA 222 was instead designated to run between I @-@ 78 / PA 309 and US 222 and PA 145 in 1991 .
= = Route description = =
PA 222 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 78 / PA 309 in the community of Dorneyville in South Whitehall Township in Lehigh County , where the road continues southwest as US 222 towards Reading . From this interchange , PA 222 heads northeast on four @-@ lane divided Hamilton Boulevard , passing between Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom to the north and businesses to the south . Direct access to Dorney Park is limited to PA 222 southbound , as northbound traffic must make a left turn onto Lincoln Avenue to access the park . After passing the amusement park , the route splits into two carriageways , with PA 222 north remaining on Hamilton Boulevard and PA 222 south following the newer Hamilton Boulevard Bypass to the north . A short distance to the east , the road intersects Cedar Crest Boulevard , a major north – south arterial in the Allentown metropolitan area .
Northeast of Cedar Crest Boulevard , the two carriageways merge onto Hamilton Boulevard as it passes to the south of Cedar Crest College . At this point , PA 222 leaves South Whitehall Township for the city of Allentown . The route becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road and passes through residential areas . At the intersection with Ott Street , PA 222 curves east onto Hamilton Street and runs along the southern edge of Cedar Creek Park , where it intersects 24th Street . The road continues east through residential and commercial areas , narrowing to three lanes with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane at the 20th Street intersection . The route passes to the north of St. Luke 's Hospital between 18th and 17th streets and comes to an intersection with 15th Street .
PA 222 heads into downtown Allentown , where it splits into a one @-@ way pair at 12th Street . Northbound PA 222 turns south onto 12th Street and east onto Walnut Street while southbound PA 222 runs west along Linden Street to 12th Street , following 12th Street south to Hamilton Street . Walnut Street is two lanes and two @-@ way until 10th Street , where it becomes one @-@ way with two northbound lanes heading east , while Linden Street is one way southbound with two lanes heading west . The one @-@ way paring continues east past homes and businesses in the downtown area . Southbound PA 222 passes to the north of the PPL Center sports arena between 8th and 7th streets . PA 222 intersects 7th Street , which carries southbound PA 145 , before it reaches its northern terminus at 6th Street , which carries northbound PA 145 .
= = History = =
From the establishment of Allentown in the 18th century to the modern age , Hamilton Street has been the main arterial of the municipality . Similar to many other Allentown @-@ area streets at the time ; Hamilton , Linden , and Walnut Streets were used for trolley car and horse transportation . Following an economic depression the city suffered in the late 19th century , it rebounded in the 20th century with the establishment of many shopping stores on Hamilton Street ; the commercial center of the city , that hosted the annual Workhorse Parade , a popular attraction in the 1910s .
When the Sproul Road Bill was signed on May 31 , 1911 , the state began maintenance over state highways . One of those highways was Legislative Route 157 , the modern Hamilton Boulevard section of PA 222 , west of Allentown . Another state highway was Legislative Route 159 , aligned east of Allentown to downtown Bethlehem along Hanover Avenue and Broad Street . No routes had a designation within the city of Allentown .
In 1916 , the William Penn Highway was organized as an alternative to the Lincoln Highway . The roadway traversed downtown Allentown via Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard . The Pennsylvania Department of Highways gave the road the PA 3 numbering in 1924 and when the United States Highway System was formed , US 22 became part of it . The William Penn Highway served New York City ; the road became problematic for motorists in Lebanon along the current US 422 ; Reading via current US 422 and US 222 ; and Allentown on Hamilton Street . PA 43 was aligned as a bypass , north of the Pennsylvania Dutch Country , between Allentown and Harrisburg . On June 8 , 1931 , the American Association of State Highway Officials came to a resolution to the traffic problem , by replacing the PA 43 corridor with US 22 and the William Penn Highway name to match . The state truncated PA 43 to Susquehanna Street from Allentown to Bethlehem . US 222 replaced the former US 22 alignment from Reading to Allentown . Hamilton Street was numbered as US 222 , west of downtown Allentown , where it turned north onto 15th Street . This portion of US 222 was seven @-@ blocks long which ended at Tilghman Street ( then US 22 ) . Signs were changed to reflect the new designations on May 31 , 1932 , with the new route designations officially in place on June 1 , 1932 .
In the late 1950s , US 222 was realigned to a newly constructed bypass carrying US 309 and PA 29 , west of Allentown . From the south , US 222 left Hamilton Boulevard and turned north onto the freeway . US 222 terminated at an interchange with US 22 , US 309 , and PA 29 in South Whitehall Township . By 1970 , what was the US 309 / PA 29 / US 222 freeway had the PA 29 designation removed , US 309 downgraded to PA 309 and US 222 was truncated to end at its current northern terminus . By the 1980s , I @-@ 78 became part of the freeway that occupied PA 309 .
In 1984 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation was planning to extend PA 145 and US 222 . Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown is one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it . After the plan was introduced , he said that motorists might be aided if US 222 is extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor . PennDOT originally planned the road as US 222 but AASHTO denied the extension , stating that the route " is not the shortest or best available route between major control points on the system , and therefore , does not adhere to the policies established under AASHTO 's ' Purpose and Policy Statement for U.S. Numbered Highways ' " . In addition , the route did not meet the criteria for a business route . In 1991 , it was commissioned as PA 222 . PA 145 was extended south of the US 22 freeway to the I @-@ 78 / PA 309 overlap near Lanark .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lehigh County .
= Johannes Rebmann =
Johannes Rebmann ( January 16 , 1820 – October 4 , 1876 ) was a German missionary and explorer credited with feats including being the first European , along with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf , to enter Africa from the Indian Ocean coast . In addition , he was the first European to find Kilimanjaro . News of Rebmann 's discovery was published in the Church Missionary Intelligencer in May 1849 , but disregarded as mere fantasy for the next twelve years . The Geographical Society of London held that snow could not possibly occur let alone persist in such latitudes and considered the report to be the hallucination of a malaria @-@ stricken missionary . It was only in 1861 that researchers began their efforts to measure Kilimanjaro . Expeditions to Tanzania between 1861 and 1865 , led by the German Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken , confirmed Rebmann ’ s report . Together with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf he also discovered Mt . Kenya . Their work there is also thought to have had effects on future African expeditions by Europeans , including the exploits of Sir Richard Burton , John Hanning Speke , and David Livingstone . After losing most of his eyesight and entering into a brief marriage , he died of pneumonia .
= = Early life = =
Rebmann was born to a Swabian farmer and winegrower on January 16 , 1820 in Gerlingen , Württemberg . The village he lived in was very small , with about 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Even at an early age , he aspired to be a " preacher and canvasser of the gospel " .
Later , when Rebmann became a young man , he chose to devote himself to being a missionary , and was trained in Basel . In 1844 he attended the Church Missionary Society College , Islington . The following year he was ordained as a priest by the Bishop of London and he became a member of the Church Missionary Society . Together with fellow missionary Johann Ludwig Krapf , Rebmann traveled in 1846 by a ship called " Arrow " to East Africa , where he worked in what is now Kenya , as well as at various other locations .
Their work was hard , and they had much trouble convincing tribal chiefs to let them speak to the people . Krapf noted ( what he called ) the " surge of Islam " that was going through Africa , and wanted to make some sort of Christian standing against its religious influence on the people of the continent . As the radius of the two missionaries work expanded , plans for Christian missionary outposts in the area began to develop .
During his time in Africa , Rebmann kept a diary from 1848 until the end of his life . In the diary , Rebmann writes of the way his trust in his Christianity kept him stable in the continent of Africa , where only very few Europeans had ventured before him . An extract from the diary , which Rebmann in turn took from the Bible ( Psalm : 51 , 12 ) reflects Rebmann 's belief in his faith : " Restore to me joy of your salvation and grant me a willing spirit , to sustain me . "
= = Stumbling upon Kilimanjaro and Mt . Kenya = =
In 1848 , Rebmann was the first European to see Kilimanjaro . The following year , he saw Mt . Kenya together with his colleague Krapf .
On the October 16 , 1847 , the two men set out for the mountain of Kasigau . With them came eight tribesmen and a local caravan leader named Bwana Kheri . This expedition was designed with the goal of establishing some of the first mission posts in the region . The journey was successful , and the group of tribesmen and the missionaries returned to Mombasa on October 27 .
Sometime during their journey or their stay in the region , Rebmann and Krapf learned of a great mountain referred to as ' Kilimansharo ' , which reached the clouds and which was ' capped in silver ' . The two men , like most Europeans at the time , were under the impression that snow and ice could not exist so close to the equator , and failed to realize the significance of the mountain being ' topped with silver ' .
However , the two missionaries , who had become just as much explorers as they were missionaries , became quite interested in Kilimanjaro , and Krapf sought permission of the Mombasa governor for an expedition to the land of the Jagga , a people now known as the Chaga , who lived and live on the actual slopes of Kilimanjaro . Krapf told the governor that this journey would be work @-@ based . Despite this , Krapf actually did not accompany Rebmann on the journey , so only Bwana Kheri and Rebmann left for Kilimanjaro on April 27 , 1848 .
Within two weeks , Rebmann and his guide were within sight of the mountain . He noted in his journal the strange white on the summit of Kilimanjaro , and he questioned his guide on what he thought it was . According to Rebmann 's log , the guide ' did not know what it was , but supposed it was coldness ' . It was then that Rebmann realised that Kilimanjaro , even though it was located in a region that was thought impossible to bear snow or ' coldness ' , as the guide referred to it , was in fact capped in it . In 1849 , these observations were published , but the findings were not truly accepted by most of the scientific community at the time . On November 10 , 1848 , Rebmann recorded an entry in his log about the mountain :
This morning we discerned the Mountains of Jagga more distinctly than ever ; and about ten o 'clock I fancied I saw a dazzlingly white cloud . My Guide called the white which I saw merely ' Baridi , ' cold ; it was perfectly clear to me , however , that it could be nothing else but snow .
Mt . Kenya was discovered by Krapf in the next year , on December 3 , 1849 . The finding of this mountain was also met with disbelief in Europe , but the effect of these discoveries was enough to trigger further investigation into other areas of Africa , thereby stimulating a growth of scientific ( among other fields ) knowledge of the regions , people , history , and geography of the African continent .
= = Other work in Africa = =
Rebmann stayed in Africa for almost thirty consecutive years . He kept to a policy that , in order to truly affect the African people , and to complete his task as a missionary , much patience was needed . It appears that this policy was the driving force behind his many years of work on the continent .
As well as visiting Kilimanjaro , Rebmann and Krapf visited other areas of Africa , including the African Great Lakes and Mount Meru . He even became married to a fellow missionary , Anna Maria , née Maisch , with whom he spent fifteen years doing missionary work in Africa before her death in 1866 , and with whom he had a child ( who died only days after his birth ) .
Also during his time in Africa , after his expeditions to Kilimanjaro and around the Great lakes , he learned to speak several native languages , and wrote the first dictionary of the ( Chichewa ) ( Kiniassa ) language , as well as completing a dictionary ( started by his colleague Ludwig Krapf ) of the Nika ( Mijikenda ) language , and a dictionary of Swahili ( now lost , but of which some material may have been incorporated into Krapf 's Dictionary of the Suaheli Language ( 1882 ) ) . He also translated the Gospel of Luke into Swahili .
= = = Slug map = = =
During their time in Africa , Krapf and Rebmann worked their way into the interior of the continent . They traveled to several areas in the regions of Central and Eastern Africa , including to what is now known as the African Great Lakes . The finding of one especially large lake ( Uniamési ) is depicted in a map known as the ' Slug ' map . It was known by this name because the layout of the water body suggested a shape similar to that of a slug .
The basis for the map was prepared by the missionary Jakob Erhardt from the reports of his companions Krapf and Rebmann , and from verbal information that he had acquired from local people . Erhardt was struck by the fact that travelers who had gone inland from different points on the coast had all come to an inland sea . In November 1854 , while talking about the problem to Rebmann , " at one and the same moment , the problem flashed on both of us solved by the simple supposition that where geographical hypothesis had hitherto supposed an enormous mountain @-@ land , we must now look for an enormous valley and an inland sea . " On the map that he and Rebmann drew the three lakes of Nyasa , Tanganyika and Victoria are shown as one very large S @-@ shaped lake .
On the map , several subtle but interesting things can be discovered , including , in the northeast section of the cartograph , a reference to a stream flowing through Lake Victoria , then known by the missionaries as " the Ukerewa " . A note is present describing how the waters of the stream were very sweet , but stained the teeth a sickly yellow . This note is probably the first known text referring to the drinking water , found primarily around and of Mount Meru , which has a high content of fluorine and causes a yellow @-@ brown stain to the incisors which cannot be removed . Among other things , another piece of writing on the Slug Map - " From where the Magad [ soda ] is bought " - provides evidence that the soda trade , the soda originating in Lake Natron ( obviously not known by that name then ) , was active at that time in those regions of Africa in which the map depicts .
In 1855 Erhardt was repatriated due to poor health , and took his map with him . It was first published in the Calwer Missionsblatt in 1855 , and then in the Church Missionary intelligencer in 1856 . The Slug Map based on Erhardt 's map has never been published . It is now in the care of the Royal Geographical Society in London . The map is described by the society as :
Sketch of a Map from 1 ° N. to 15 ° S. Latitude and from 23 ° to 43 ° E. Longitude delineating the probably position and extent of the Sea of Uniamesi as being the continuation of the Lake Niasa and exhibiting the numerous heathen @-@ tribes situated to the East and West of that great Inland @-@ sea together with the Caravan routes leading to it and into the interior in general . In true accordance with the information received from natives - Representatives of various inland tribes - and Mahomidan inland traders . By the Revd . Messrs. Erhardt and F. Rebmann Missionaries of the Church Miss . Society in East Africa Kisaludini March 14 , 1855 .
= = Later life and death = =
Having almost lost his eyesight for unknown reasons , Rebmann went back to Europe in September 1875 . He returned to Germany for the first time in 29 years after being persuaded to do so by a fellow missionary who was working in the area . He then proceeded to take up residence in Korntal near Stuttgart , where he was close to his old friend Krapf . In spring 1876 , upon the advice of Krapf , he married the widow of another missionary from India , Louise Rebmann née Däuble . The marriage did not last long , as on October 4 , 1876 , Rebmann died of pneumonia . Engraved on Rebmann 's tombstone in the cemetery of Korntal are the words " Saved in Jesus ' Arms " .
The legacy that he left behind him is preserved by the Johannes Rebmann Foundation , a religious society devoted to Rebmann and his memory . Rebmann 's work in Africa , both as a missionary and as an explorer , allowed other Europeans to follow in his footsteps .
= Sum 41 =
Sum 41 is a Canadian rock band from Ajax , Ontario , Canada . Originally called Kaspir , the band was formed in 1996 and , as of 2015 , the band 's current lineup consists of lead vocalist / rhythm guitarist Deryck Whibley , lead guitarist / backing vocalist Dave Baksh , co @-@ lead guitarist / backing vocalist Tom Thacker , bassist / backing vocalist Jason McCaslin and drummer Frank Zummo .
In 1999 , the band signed an international record deal with Island Records . The band released its EP Half Hour of Power in 2000 . Although often considered to be the group 's debut album , the band members consider their next release , All Killer , No Filler , the group 's debut album . The band released its debut album , All Killer , No Filler in 2001 . The band achieved mainstream success with the first single from the album , " Fat Lip " , which reached number @-@ one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart and remains the band 's most successful single to date . All Killer No Filler was certified platinum in the United States , Canada and in the United Kingdom .
The band later released Does This Look Infected ? in 2002 to a commercial and critical success . The singles " The Hell Song " and " Still Waiting " both charted highly on the modern rock charts . The band released its next album , Chuck , in 2004 , led by singles " We 're All to Blame " and " Pieces " . The album proved successful , peaking at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and sold five million copies worldwide . In 2007 , the band released Underclass Hero , which was released to a mixed reception , but gained some commercial success , becoming the band 's highest charting album to date . It was also the last album on Aquarius Records . The band released Screaming Bloody Murder , the group 's last album on Island Records , in 2011 to a mixed to positive reception , though it fell short of its predecessors ' commercial success . The band 's sixth studio album , titled 13 Voices is set for release on October 7 , 2016 .
The band often performs more than 300 times each year and holds long global tours , most of which last more than a year . The group has been nominated for seven Juno Awards and have won twice ( Group of the Year in 2002 and Rock Album of the Year for Chuck in 2005 ) . Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song " Blood In My Eyes " ; however , the band lost to the Foo Fighters .
= = History = =
= = = 1996 – 98 : Formative years = = =
Sum 41 was formed by lead guitarist and backing vocalist Deryck Whibley and drummer Steve Jocz , under the name Kaspir after Whibley convinced Jocz to join his band . Jocz was a drummer in another band and Whibley was convinced that " he was the best drummer around " . After having several rhythm guitarists and lead vocalists try out for the band , the duo added Dave Baksh as lead guitarist and backing vocalist in order for Whibley to take over as lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist . The group went through several bassists , until ultimately settling on Jason McCaslin , thus completing the band 's mainstay lineup . The group members decided to change the band 's name for a Supernova show on September 28 , 1996 , which happened to be the 41st day of their summer vacation .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Half Hour of Power = = =
In 1998 , the band recorded a demo tape on Compact Cassette which the group sent to record companies in the hope of getting a recording contract . These demo tapes are rare and are the only recordings known that are with the original bassist , Richard Roy and original keyboardist , John Nicosia .
From 1999 to 2000 , the band recorded several new songs . The Introduction to Destruction and later the Cross The T 's and Gouge Your I 's DVDs both contained the self @-@ recorded footage , which saw them band performing a dance to " Makes No Difference " in front of a theater .
Sum 41 's first EP , Half Hour of Power , was released on June 27 , 2000 . The first single released by the band was " Makes No Difference " , which had two different music videos . The first video was put together using the video clips sent to the record label and the second showed the band performing at a house party . The album was certified gold in Canada . Following the success of the EP , the band began working on its first full @-@ length album .
= = = 2001 – 03 : All Killer No Filler and Does This Look Infected ? = = =
Sum 41 's first full @-@ length album , All Killer , No Filler , was released on May 8 , 2001 . " Fat Lip " , the album 's first single , achieved significant chart and commercial success ; it topped the U.S. Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart as well as many other charts around the world . The song remains the band 's most successful song to date . After " Fat Lip " , two more singles were released from the album : " In Too Deep " and " Motivation " . " In Too Deep " peaked at No. 10 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , while " Motivation " peaked at No. 24 on the same chart . The album peaked at No. 13 on the Billboard 200 chart and at No. 9 on the Top Canadian Albums chart . The album was a commercial success , and was certified platinum in the United States , Canada and in the UK .
The success of the album brought the band touring offers with mainstream bands such as Blink @-@ 182 and The Offspring . The band spent much of 2001 touring ; the group played over 300 concerts that year before returning to the studio to record another album .
On November 26 , 2002 , the group released its second album , Does This Look Infected ? . The special edition came with a DVD , Cross The T 's and Gouge Your I 's . Whibley said of the album : " We don 't want to make another record that sounds like the last record , I hate when bands repeat albums . " The album featured a harder and edgier sound , and the lyrics featured a more serious outlook . The album peaked at No. 32 on the Billboard 200 chart and at No. 8 on the Top Canadian Albums chart . The album was certified platinum in Canada and gold in the United States , but was not as successful as its predecessor .
The first single released from the album was " Still Waiting " , which peaked at No. 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . The second single , " The Hell Song " peaked at No. 13 on the chart . " The Hell Song " ' s music video depicted the band members using dolls with their pictures on them and others , such as Ozzy Osbourne and Pamela Anderson . The third single , " Over My Head ( Better Off Dead ) " , had a video released exclusively in Canada and on the band 's website , featuring live shots of the band . The video also appeared on the group 's live DVD , Sake Bombs And Happy Endings ( 2003 ) , as a bonus feature . The band again commenced on a long tour to promote the album before recording the group 's third studio album .
= = = 2004 – 05 : Chuck = = =
In late May 2004 , the band traveled to the Democratic Republic of Congo with War Child Canada , a branch of the British charity organization War Child , to document the civil war in the country . Days after arriving , fighting broke out in Bukavu near the hotel the band was staying at .
The band waited for the fighting to die down , but it did not . During that time , a U.N. peacekeeper , Charles " Chuck " Pelletier , called for armored carriers to take the hotel 's occupants out of the hot zone . After nearly six hours , the carriers arrived , and the band and the forty other civilians were taken to safety .
In honor of Pelletier , Sum 41 named its next album Chuck ; it was released on October 12 , 2004 . The album is the band 's heaviest and most serious album to date , and charted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 chart and on the Top Internet Albums chart . It also peaked at No. 2 on the Canadian Albums chart and was the band 's highest @-@ charting album until it was surpassed by Underclass Hero . The album received positive reviews and was certified platinum in Canada and gold in the United States .
The first single from the album was " We 're All To Blame " , which peaked at No. 10 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . It was followed by " Pieces " , a relatively soft song which reached the top of the charts in Canada . The next single was " Some Say " , released only in Canada and Japan . The last single off the record was " No Reason " , released at the same time as " Some Say " , but with no music video and was only released in Europe and the USA , where it reached No. 16 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart .
A documentary of the band 's experience in Congo was made into a film called Rocked : Sum 41 in Congo and later aired on MTV . War Child released it on DVD on November 29 , 2005 , in the United States and Canada .
Following the album 's release , the band went on a tour with Good Charlotte until 2006 . On December 21 , 2005 , Sum 41 released a live album , Happy Live Surprise , in Japan . The CD contained a full concert recorded live from London , Ontario and was produced by Whibley . The same CD was released March 7 , 2006 , in Canada under the name Go Chuck Yourself .
= = = 2006 – 09 : Underclass Hero , All the Good Shit and Baksh 's departure = = =
On May 10 , 2006 , Dave Baksh announced in a statement through his management company that he was leaving Sum 41 to work with his new band , Brown Brigade , which has a more " classic metal " sound . Baksh cited " creative differences " as the reason for his departure but claimed that he was still on good terms with the band . The next day , Whibley confirmed Baksh 's departure and announced that the band would only replace Dave with a touring guitarist , who would not have any decision @-@ making power in the band or be in videos , photo shoots , or albums .
Recording of the band 's fourth studio album , Underclass Hero , began on November 8 , 2006 and finished on March 14 , 2007 . The album , backed by the first single and title track , " Underclass Hero " , was released on July 24 , 2007 . Despite mixed reviews , the album was a commercial success , debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Rock Albums chart , the band 's highest U.S. chart position to date . The album sold over 1 million copies worldwide . It also peaked at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums chart and on the Alternative Albums chart , a first for the band on both the charts .
On April 17 , 2007 , the band released a song on iTunes , " March of the Dogs " . Although not a single , the band released it early because , according to Whibley , " the record [ wouldn 't ] be out until the summer " . Whibley was threatened with deportation for the song , because he metaphorically " killed the president " in it . Two more singles were released from the album , " Walking Disaster " and " With Me " . " With Me " especially found radio success by 2008 . Underclass Hero was certified platinum in Canada .
In October 2007 , the band began the Strength In Numbers Tour , a tour of Canada with Canadian band Finger Eleven ; Die Mannequin opened each of Sum 41 's shows . During the tour , Whibley sustained a herniated disk . As a result , the group canceled the rest of its shows . After Whibley recovered from his injury , the band recommenced the Underclass Hero tour in March 2008 . The band toured until early July , when the group began preparation for its next album .
On August 7 , 2008 , McCaslin announced in a journal entry on the band 's site that the band was currently taking time off from touring to do other things . Afterward , the group began working on the band 's next studio album . McCaslin worked on the second album by his side @-@ project , The Operation M.D .. Jocz toured as a drummer for The Vandals , and Whibley toured with his ( then ) wife , Avril Lavigne .
On November 26 , 2008 , Sum 41 released a greatest hits album in Japan titled 8 Years of Blood , Sake and Tears . The album included a previously unreleased song , " Always " , and a DVD , which contains each of the band 's music videos . On March 17 , the band released the worldwide version of the album titled All the Good Shit .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Screaming Bloody Murder and Thacker 's arrival = = =
Drummer Steve Jocz confirmed that Gob frontman Tom Thacker will take part in the writing and recording and will also be part of the band . On November 5 , 2009 , Deryck posted a blog on the band 's MySpace page announcing Gil Norton as the producer of the band 's upcoming album , also saying that 20 songs were already written for the album . In an interview with Tom Thacker , some working titles for songs for the new album were confirmed , including " Panic Attack " , " Jessica Kill " and " Like Everyone Else " . Pre @-@ production for the new album took 13 days in December 2009 , with the band officially entering the studio to begin recording at Perfect Sound Studios on January 26 , 2010 . The new studio album , titled Screaming Bloody Murder , was expected for a late 2010 release , until it was delayed again until early 2011 . The band finished recording on June 24 , 2010 , just before joining the 2010 Warped Tour , and while the group was on the tour , the new album entered the post @-@ production stages of mixing and mastering . A new song called " Skumfuk " was leaked online on July 6 , 2010 . The song is not a single of the new album , and was hoped to be included as part of a Warped Tour compilation album . In an interview with Canoe.ca , Steve Jocz stated that while producer Gill Norton was originally hired to engineer the new album , he was only around for a week and Sum 41 self @-@ produced the record .
On January 8 , 2011 , it was announced that the band will release the radio single " Screaming Bloody Murder " on February 7 , 2011 in the United States . The song had its worldwide premiere on January 14 , 2011 , on the Windsor radio station 89X . Universal Japan has confirmed on the official Japanese Sum 41 website , that Screaming Bloody Murder will be released in Japan on March 23 , 2011 , after which it was confirmed on the band 's official website that the album be released on March 29 , 2011 , in the US , though the Japanese release date was since then postponed to April 6 following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . On February 28
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breed the sexual species . Furthermore , contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis , Kathryn A. Hanley et al. found that the prevalence , abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat . In addition , biologist Matthew Parker , after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance , failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in the host .
Alexey Kondrashov 's deterministic mutation hypothesis ( DMH ) assumes that each organism has more than one harmful mutation and the combined effects of these mutations are more harmful than the sum of the harm done by each individual mutation . If so , sexual recombination of genes will reduce the harm that bad mutations do to offspring and at the same time eliminate some bad mutations from the gene pool by isolating them in individuals that perish quickly because they have an above @-@ average number of bad mutations . However , the evidence suggests that the DMH 's assumptions are shaky , because many species have on average less than one harmful mutation per individual and no species that has been investigated shows evidence of synergy between harmful mutations . ( Further criticisms of this hypothesis are discussed in the article Evolution of sexual reproduction # Removal of deleterious genes )
The random nature of recombination causes the relative abundance of alternative traits to vary from one generation to another . This genetic drift is insufficient on its own to make sexual reproduction advantageous , but a combination of genetic drift and natural selection may be sufficient . When chance produces combinations of good traits , natural selection gives a large advantage to lineages in which these traits become genetically linked . On the other hand , the benefits of good traits are neutralized if they appear along with bad traits . Sexual recombination gives good traits the opportunities to become linked with other good traits , and mathematical models suggest this may be more than enough to offset the disadvantages of sexual reproduction . Other combinations of hypotheses that are inadequate on their own are also being examined .
The adaptive function of sex today remains a major unresolved issue in biology . The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by John A. Birdsell and Christopher Wills . The hypotheses discussed above all depend on possible beneficial effects of random genetic variation produced by genetic recombination . An alternative view is that sex arose , and is maintained , as a process for repairing DNA damage , and that the genetic variation produced is an occasionally beneficial byproduct .
= = = Multicellularity = = =
The simplest definitions of " multicellular , " for example " having multiple cells , " could include colonial cyanobacteria like Nostoc . Even a technical definition such as " having the same genome but different types of cell " would still include some genera of the green algae Volvox , which have cells that specialize in reproduction . Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals , fungi , plants , brown algae , cyanobacteria , slime molds and myxobacteria . For the sake of brevity , this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types , although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity could be regarded as " rather anthropocentric . "
The initial advantages of multicellularity may have included : more efficient sharing of nutrients that are digested outside the cell , increased resistance to predators , many of which attacked by engulfing ; the ability to resist currents by attaching to a firm surface ; the ability to reach upwards to filter @-@ feed or to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis ; the ability to create an internal environment that gives protection against the external one ; and even the opportunity for a group of cells to behave " intelligently " by sharing information . These features would also have provided opportunities for other organisms to diversify , by creating more varied environments than flat microbial mats could .
Multicellularity with differentiated cells is beneficial to the organism as a whole but disadvantageous from the point of view of individual cells , most of which lose the opportunity to reproduce themselves . In an asexual multicellular organism , rogue cells which retain the ability to reproduce may take over and reduce the organism to a mass of undifferentiated cells . Sexual reproduction eliminates such rogue cells from the next generation and therefore appears to be a prerequisite for complex multicellularity .
The available evidence indicates that eukaryotes evolved much earlier but remained inconspicuous until a rapid diversification around 1 Ga . The only respect in which eukaryotes clearly surpass bacteria and archaea is their capacity for variety of forms , and sexual reproduction enabled eukaryotes to exploit that advantage by producing organisms with multiple cells that differed in form and function .
By comparing the composition of transcription factor families and regulatory network motifs between unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms , scientists found there are many novel transcription factor families and three novel types of regulatory network motifs in multicellular organisms , and novel family transcription factors are preferentially wired into these novel network motifs which are essential for multicullular development . These results propose a plausible mechanism for the contribution of novel @-@ family transcription factors and novel network motifs to the origin of multicellular organisms at transcriptional regulatory level .
= = = Fossil evidence = = =
The Francevillian biota fossils , dated to 2 @.@ 1 Ga , are the earliest known fossil organisms that are clearly multicellular . They may have had differentiated cells . Another early multicellular fossil , Qingshania , dated to 1 @.@ 7 Ga , appears to consist of virtually identical cells . The red algae called Bangiomorpha , dated at 1 @.@ 2 Ga , is the earliest known organism that certainly has differentiated , specialized cells , and is also the oldest known sexually reproducing organism . The 1 @.@ 43 billion @-@ year @-@ old fossils interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells . The " string of beads " organism Horodyskia , found in rocks dated from 1 @.@ 5 Ga to 900 Ma , may have been an early metazoan ; however , it has also been interpreted as a colonial foraminiferan .
= = Emergence of animals = =
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes , and are distinguished from plants , algae , and fungi by lacking cell walls . All animals are motile , if only at certain life stages . All animals except sponges have bodies differentiated into separate tissues , including muscles , which move parts of the animal by contracting , and nerve tissue , which transmits and processes signals .
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern @-@ looking cnidarians ( the group that includes jellyfish , sea anemones and Hydra ) , possibly from around 580 Ma , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately . Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged .
The Ediacara biota , which flourished for the last 40 million years before the start of the Cambrian , were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long . Many were flat and had a " quilted " appearance , and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom , Vendozoa . Others , however , have been interpreted as early molluscs ( Kimberella ) , echinoderms ( Arkarua ) , and arthropods ( Spriggina , Parvancorina ) . There is still debate about the classification of these specimens , mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms , such as similarities to living organisms , are generally absent in the Ediacarans . However , there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal , in other words , an animal significantly more complex than the cnidarians .
The small shelly fauna are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods . The earliest , Cloudina , shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an evolutionary arms race . Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs , while the owners of some " armor plates , " Halkieria and Microdictyon , were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian lagerstätten that preserved soft @-@ bodied animals .
In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was " explosive " or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils . A re @-@ analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals , such as Opabinia , which did not fit into any known phylum . At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale 's " weird wonders " showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution . Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the " weird wonders " were evolutionary " aunts " or " cousins " of modern groups — for example that Opabinia was a member of the lobopods , a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods , and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades . Nevertheless , there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and , if so , how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals .
= = = Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates = = =
Most of the animals at the heart of the Cambrian explosion debate are protostomes , one of the two main groups of complex animals . The other major group , the deuterostomes , contains invertebrates such as starfish and sea urchins ( echinoderms ) , as well as chordates ( see below ) . Many echinoderms have hard calcite " shells , " which are fairly common from the Early Cambrian small shelly fauna onwards . Other deuterostome groups are soft @-@ bodied , and most of the significant Cambrian deuterostome fossils come from the Chengjiang fauna , a lagerstätte in China . The chordates are another major deuterostome group : animals with a distinct dorsal nerve cord . Chordates include soft @-@ bodied invertebrates such as tunicates as well as vertebrates — animals with a backbone . While tunicate fossils predate the Cambrian explosion , the Chengjiang fossils Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia appear to be true vertebrates , and Haikouichthys had distinct vertebrae , which may have been slightly mineralized . Vertebrates with jaws , such as the acanthodians , first appeared in the Late Ordovician .
= = Colonization of land = =
Adaptation to life on land is a major challenge : all land organisms need to avoid drying @-@ out and all those above microscopic size must create special structures to withstand gravity ; respiration and gas exchange systems have to change ; reproductive systems cannot depend on water to carry eggs and sperm towards each other . Although the earliest good evidence of land plants and animals dates back to the Ordovician period ( 488 to 444 Ma ) , and a number of microorganism lineages made it onto land much earlier , modern land ecosystems only appeared in the Late Devonian , about 385 to 359 Ma .
= = = Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants = = =
Oxygen is a potent oxidant whose accumulation in terrestrial atmosphere resulted from the development of photosynthesis over 3 Ga , in cyanobacteria ( blue @-@ green algae ) , which were the most primitive oxygenic photosynthetic organisms . Brown algae accumulate inorganic mineral antioxidants such as rubidium , vanadium , zinc , iron , copper , molybdenum , selenium and iodine which is concentrated more than 30 @,@ 000 times the concentration of this element in seawater . Protective endogenous antioxidant enzymes and exogenous dietary antioxidants helped to prevent oxidative damage . Most marine mineral antioxidants act in the cells as essential trace elements in redox and antioxidant metalloenzymes .
When plants and animals began to enter rivers and land about 500 Ma , environmental deficiency of these marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life . Terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of “ new ” endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid , polyphenols , flavonoids , tocopherols , etc . A few of these appeared more recently , in last 200 @-@ 50 Ma , in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants .
In fact , angiosperms ( the dominant type of plant today ) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the Late Jurassic period . Plants employ antioxidants to defend their structures against reactive oxygen species produced during photosynthesis . Animals are exposed to the same oxidants , and they have evolved endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems . Iodine is the most primitive and abundant electron @-@ rich essential element in the diet of marine and terrestrial organisms , and as iodide acts as an electron donor and has this ancestral antioxidant function in all iodide @-@ concentrating cells from primitive marine algae to more recent terrestrial vertebrates .
= = = Evolution of soil = = =
Before the colonization of land , soil , a combination of mineral particles and decomposed organic matter , did not exist . Land surfaces would have been either bare rock or unstable sand produced by weathering . Water and any nutrients in it would have drained away very quickly .
Films of cyanobacteria , which are not plants but use the same photosynthesis mechanisms , have been found in modern deserts , and only in areas that are unsuitable for vascular plants . This suggests that microbial mats may have been the first organisms to colonize dry land , possibly in the Precambrian . Mat @-@ forming cyanobacteria could have gradually evolved resistance to desiccation as they spread from the seas to intertidal zones and then to land . Lichens , which are symbiotic combinations of a fungus ( almost always an ascomycete ) and one or more photosynthesizers ( green algae or cyanobacteria ) , are also important colonizers of lifeless environments , and their ability to break down rocks contributes to soil formation in situations where plants cannot survive . The earliest known ascomycete fossils date from 423 to 419 Ma in the Silurian .
Soil formation would have been very slow until the appearance of burrowing animals , which mix the mineral and organic components of soil and whose feces are a major source of the organic components . Burrows have been found in Ordovician sediments , and are attributed to annelids ( " worms " ) or arthropods .
= = = Plants and the Late Devonian wood crisis = = =
In aquatic algae , almost all cells are capable of photosynthesis and are nearly independent . Life on land required plants to become internally more complex and specialized : photosynthesis was most efficient at the top ; roots were required in order to extract water from the ground ; the parts in between became supports and transport systems for water and nutrients .
Spores of land plants , possibly rather like liverworts , have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about 476 Ma . In Middle Silurian rocks 430 Ma , there are fossils of actual plants including clubmosses such as Baragwanathia ; most were under 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) high , and some appear closely related to vascular plants , the group that includes trees .
By the Late Devonian 370 Ma , trees such as Archaeopteris were so abundant that they changed river systems from mostly braided to mostly meandering , because their roots bound the soil firmly . In fact , they caused the " Late Devonian wood crisis " because :
They removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , reducing the greenhouse effect and thus causing an ice age in the Carboniferous period . In later ecosystems the carbon dioxide " locked up " in wood is returned to the atmosphere by decomposition of dead wood . However , the earliest fossil evidence of fungi that can decompose wood also comes from the Late Devonian .
The increasing depth of plants ' roots led to more washing of nutrients into rivers and seas by rain . This caused algal blooms whose high consumption of oxygen caused anoxic events in deeper waters , increasing the extinction rate among deep @-@ water animals .
= = = Land invertebrates = = =
Animals had to change their feeding and excretory systems , and most land animals developed internal fertilization of their eggs . The difference in refractive index between water and air required changes in their eyes . On the other hand , in some ways movement and breathing became easier , and the better transmission of high @-@ frequency sounds in air encouraged the development of hearing .
The oldest known air @-@ breathing animal is Pneumodesmus , an archipolypodan millipede from the Middle Silurian , about 428 Ma . Its air @-@ breathing , terrestrial nature is evidenced by the presence of spiracles , the openings to tracheal systems . However , some earlier trace fossils from the Cambrian @-@ Ordovician boundary about 490 Ma are interpreted as the tracks of large amphibious arthropods on coastal sand dunes , and may have been made by euthycarcinoids , which are thought to be evolutionary " aunts " of myriapods . Other trace fossils from the Late Ordovician a little over 445 Ma probably represent land invertebrates , and there is clear evidence of numerous arthropods on coasts and alluvial plains shortly before the Silurian @-@ Devonian boundary , about 415 Ma , including signs that some arthropods ate plants . Arthropods were well pre @-@ adapted to colonise land , because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation , support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water .
The fossil record of other major invertebrate groups on land is poor : none at all for non @-@ parasitic flatworms , nematodes or nemerteans ; some parasitic nematodes have been fossilized in amber ; annelid worm fossils are known from the Carboniferous , but they may still have been aquatic animals ; the earliest fossils of gastropods on land date from the Late Carboniferous , and this group may have had to wait until leaf litter became abundant enough to provide the moist conditions they need .
The earliest confirmed fossils of flying insects date from the Late Carboniferous , but it is thought that insects developed the ability to fly in the Early Carboniferous or even Late Devonian . This gave them a wider range of ecological niches for feeding and breeding , and a means of escape from predators and from unfavorable changes in the environment . About 99 % of modern insect species fly or are descendants of flying species .
= = = Early land vertebrates = = =
Tetrapods , vertebrates with four limbs , evolved from other rhipidistian fish over a relatively short timespan during the Late Devonian ( 370 to 360 Ma ) . The early groups are grouped together as Labyrinthodontia . They retained aquatic , fry @-@ like tadpoles , a system still seen in modern amphibians .
Iodine and T4 / T3 stimulate the amphibian metamorphosis and the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic , vegetarian tadpole into a “ more evoluted ” terrestrial , carnivorous frog with better neurological , visuospatial , olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting . The new hormonal action of T3 was made possible by the formation of T3 @-@ receptors in the cells of vertebrates . Firstly , about 600 @-@ 500 million years ago , in primitive Chordata appeared the alpha T3 @-@ receptors with a metamorphosing action and then , about 250 @-@ 150 million years ago , in the Birds and Mammalia appeared the beta T3 @-@ receptors with metabolic and thermogenetic actions .
From the 1950s to the early 1980s it was thought that tetrapods evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land , possibly in order to go from a pool that was drying out to one that was deeper . However , in 1987 , nearly complete fossils of Acanthostega from about 363 Ma showed that this Late Devonian transitional animal had legs and both lungs and gills , but could never have survived on land : its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to bear its weight ; its ribs were too short to prevent its lungs from being squeezed flat by its weight ; its fish @-@ like tail fin would have been damaged by dragging on the ground . The current hypothesis is that Acanthostega , which was about 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , was a wholly aquatic predator that hunted in shallow water . Its skeleton differed from that of most fish , in ways that enabled it to raise its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged , including : its jaws show modifications that would have enabled it to gulp air ; the bones at the back of its skull are locked together , providing strong attachment points for muscles that raised its head ; the head is not joined to the shoulder girdle and it has a distinct neck .
The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help to explain why air breathing would have been an advantage : leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation ; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that preyed on them ; they would have been attractive prey but the environment was unsuitable for the big marine predatory fish ; air @-@ breathing would have been necessary because these waters would have been short of oxygen , since warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cooler marine water and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used some of the oxygen .
Later discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between Acanthostega and completely fish @-@ like animals . Unfortunately , there is then a gap ( Romer 's gap ) of about 30 Ma between the fossils of ancestral tetrapods and Middle Carboniferous fossils of vertebrates that look well @-@ adapted for life on land . Some of these look like early relatives of modern amphibians , most of which need to keep their skins moist and to lay their eggs in water , while others are accepted as early relatives of the amniotes , whose waterproof skin enables them to live and breed far from water .
= = Dinosaurs , birds and mammals = =
Amniotes , whose eggs can survive in dry environments , probably evolved in the Late Carboniferous period ( 330 to 298 @.@ 9 Ma ) . The earliest fossils of the two surviving amniote groups , synapsids and sauropsids , date from around 313 Ma . The synapsid pelycosaurs and their descendants the therapsids are the most common land vertebrates in the best @-@ known Permian ( 298 @.@ 9 to 252 @.@ 17 Ma ) fossil beds . However , at the time these were all in temperate zones at middle latitudes , and there is evidence that hotter , drier environments nearer the Equator were dominated by sauropsids and amphibians .
The Permian – Triassic extinction event wiped out almost all land vertebrates , as well as the great majority of other life . During the slow recovery from this catastrophe , estimated to have taken 30 million years , a previously obscure sauropsid group became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates : a few fossils of archosauriformes ( " ruling lizard forms " ) have been found in Late Permian rocks , but , by the Middle Triassic , archosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates . Dinosaurs distinguished themselves from other archosaurs in the Late Triassic , and became the dominant land vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods ( 201 @.@ 3 to 66 Ma ) .
During the Late Jurassic , birds evolved from small , predatory theropod dinosaurs . The first birds inherited teeth and long , bony tails from their dinosaur ancestors , but some had developed horny , toothless beaks by the very Late Jurassic and short pygostyle tails by the Early Cretaceous .
While the archosaurs and dinosaurs were becoming more dominant in the Triassic , the mammaliaform successors of the therapsids evolved into small , mainly nocturnal insectivores . This ecological role may have promoted the evolution of mammals , for example nocturnal life may have accelerated the development of endothermy ( " warm @-@ bloodedness " ) and hair or fur . By 195 Ma in the Early Jurassic there were animals that were very like today 's mammals in a number of respects . Unfortunately , there is a gap in the fossil record throughout the Middle Jurassic . However , fossil teeth discovered in Madagascar indicate that the split between the lineage leading to monotremes and the one leading to other living mammals had occurred by 167 Ma . After dominating land vertebrate niches for about 150 Ma , the dinosaurs perished in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) along with many other groups of organisms . Mammals throughout the time of the dinosaurs had been restricted to a narrow range of taxa , sizes and shapes , but increased rapidly in size and diversity after the extinction , with bats taking to the air within 13 million years , and cetaceans to the sea within 15 million years .
= = Flowering plants = =
The first flowering plants appeared around 130 Ma . The 250 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 species of flowering plants outnumber all other ground plants combined , and are the dominant vegetation in most terrestrial ecosystems . There is fossil evidence that flowering plants diversified rapidly in the Early Cretaceous , from 130 to 90 Ma , and that their rise was associated with that of pollinating insects . Among modern flowering plants Magnolia are thought to be close to the common ancestor of the group . However , paleontologists have not succeeded in identifying the earliest stages in the evolution of flowering plants .
= = Social insects = =
The social insects are remarkable because the great majority of individuals in each colony are sterile . This appears contrary to basic concepts of evolution such as natural selection and the selfish gene . In fact , there are very few eusocial insect species : only 15 out of approximately 2 @,@ 600 living families of insects contain eusocial species , and it seems that eusociality has evolved independently only 12 times among arthropods , although some eusocial lineages have diversified into several families . Nevertheless , social insects have been spectacularly successful ; for example although ants and termites account for only about 2 % of known insect species , they form over 50 % of the total mass of insects . Their ability to control a territory appears to be the foundation of their success .
The sacrifice of breeding opportunities by most individuals has long been explained as a consequence of these species ' unusual haplodiploid method of sex determination , which has the paradoxical consequence that two sterile worker daughters of the same queen share more genes with each other than they would with their offspring if they could breed . However , E. O. Wilson and Bert Hölldobler argue that this explanation is faulty : for example , it is based on kin selection , but there is no evidence of nepotism in colonies that have multiple queens . Instead , they write , eusociality evolves only in species that are under strong pressure from predators and competitors , but in environments where it is possible to build " fortresses " ; after colonies have established this security , they gain other advantages through co @-@ operative foraging . In support of this explanation they cite the appearance of eusociality in bathyergid mole rats , which are not haplodiploid .
The earliest fossils of insects have been found in Early Devonian rocks from about 400 Ma , which preserve only a few varieties of flightless insect . The Mazon Creek lagerstätten from the Late Carboniferous , about 300 Ma , include about 200 species , some gigantic by modern standards , and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores , detritivores and insectivores . Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous , and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic .
= = Humans = =
The idea that , along with other life forms , modern @-@ day humans evolved from an ancient , common ancestor was proposed by Robert Chambers in 1844 and taken up by Charles Darwin in 1871 . Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright @-@ walking apes that has been traced back over 6 Ma to Sahelanthropus . The first known stone tools were made about 2 @.@ 5 Ma , apparently by Australopithecus garhi , and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools . The earliest hominines had chimpanzee @-@ sized brains , but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 Ma ; a statistical analysis suggests that hominine brain sizes depend almost completely on the date of the fossils , while the species to which they are assigned has only slight influence . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether modern humans evolved all over the world simultaneously from existing advanced hominines or are descendants of a single small population in Africa , which then migrated all over the world less than 200 @,@ 000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species . There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual , cultural and technological " Great Leap Forward " under 100 @,@ 000 years ago and , if so , whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils .
= = Mass extinctions = =
Life on Earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 Ma . Although they were disasters at the time , mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth . When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another , it is rarely because the new dominant group is " superior " to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one .
The fossil record appears to show that the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing . Both of these phenomena could be explained in one or more ways :
The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 Ma and less vulnerable to mass extinctions : dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths ; the development of life on land reduced the run @-@ off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events ; and marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted .
Reasonably complete fossils are very rare , most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils , and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks . So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera , which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds — the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this . The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism . Many of the " superfluous " genera are represented by fragments which are not found again and the " superfluous " genera appear to become extinct very quickly .
Biodiversity in the fossil record , which is " ... the number of distinct genera alive at any given time ; that is , those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time " shows a different trend : a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 Ma ; a slight decline from 400 to 200 Ma , in which the devastating Permian – Triassic extinction event is an important factor ; and a swift rise from 200 Ma to the present .
= = = General information = = =
" Evolution " . The Virtual Fossil Museum . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 22 . General information on evolution compiled by Roger Perkins
" Understanding Evolution : your one @-@ stop resource for information on evolution " . University of California , Berkeley . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 22 .
" Evolution Resources " . Washington , D.C. : National Academies . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
" Tree of Life " . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 . Tree of life diagram by Neal Olander
" Evolution " . New Scientist . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
Brain , Marshall . How Evolution Works at HowStuffWorks
" Modern Theories of Evolution : An Introduction to the Concepts and Theories That Led to Our Current Understanding of Evolution " . Palomar College . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 . Tutorial created by Dennis O 'Neil
= = = History of evolutionary thought = = =
van Wyhe , John ( ed . ) . " The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online " . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
Price , R. G. " Understanding Evolution : History , Theory , Evidence , and Implications " . rationalrevolution.net. Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
= Moonbase 3 =
Moonbase 3 is a British science fiction television programme that ran for six episodes in 1973 . It was a co @-@ production between the BBC , 20th Century Fox and the American ABC network . Created by Doctor Who producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks as a realistic alternative strand of TV science @-@ fiction , it was not a commercial or critical success ( Dicks himself has stated in a foreword to a collection of Tom Baker @-@ era Doctor Who scripts that they " overdid the grimness and forgot about the sense of wonder that science fiction is all about " ) .
It starred Donald Houston as Director David Caulder , who is appointed to the position after the previous director was killed while returning to Earth . Ralph Bates was Michel Lebrun , the Deputy Director , who was concerned about keeping to the rules . Fiona Gaunt played Doctor Helen Smith , the base 's psychiatrist , and Barry Lowe played Tom Hill , the head of the base technical section .
The programme was notable for its combination of realistic spaceflight procedures , ensured by hiring BBC technical adviser James Burke , and its strong character @-@ based writing . Although very dated in terms of its looks and assumptions about the future , it remains well regarded in retrospect .
= = Concept and setting = =
Moonbase 3 was set in the year 2003 – some 30 years into the future at time of broadcast – and dramatised life in the enclosed environment of the titular moonbase . Five world powers have colonised the Moon : America ( Moonbase 1 , commanded by Bill Jackson ) , Russia ( Moonbase 2 ) , Europe ( Moonbase 3 ) , China ( Moonbase 4 , commanded by General Cheng ) and Brazil ( Moonbase 5 ) . The European Moonbase 3 has been in existence for 8 years at the time the series starts . With oversight provided by the European Space Assembly and the European Aeronautics and Space Administration , Moonbase 3 is a shoestring operation when compared with the Russian and American efforts and much of base director David Caulder 's job is to stave off budget cuts or a complete shutdown in the face of sceptical bureaucrats .
Alongside technical problems such as stranded astronauts , explosive decompressions and failed experiments , the inhabitants of the moonbase must also deal with psychological problems arising from the cramped , dangerous environment they live in . In " Departure and Arrival " , a mental breakdown suffered by a shuttle pilot has tragic consequences . " Achilles Heel " and " Outsiders " deal with the fallout from crew members ' difficulty with living up to the standards they have set for themselves . " Behemoth " and " View of a Dead Planet " deal with forms of mass hysteria .
= = Principal characters = =
Dr David Caulder ( Donald Houston )
Appointed Director of Moonbase 3 following the death of his predecessor , David Caulder is a scientist , academic and administrator . A lecturer at the University of Oxford , he rose to prominence when he was appointed Chancellor of the University during a period of student unrest and managed to calm the situation down , earning him a reputation as a " Welsh wizard " . The Director @-@ General of the European space effort describes Caulder as a " militant liberal , passionately committed to the middle of the road " . Caulder sees himself as a buffer , who deals with the political aspects of running the moonbase , giving the others the room to perform the vital tasks of keeping Moonbase 3 operations going .
Dr Michel Lebrun ( Ralph Bates )
Deputy Director Michel Lebrun is noted for his rigid adherence to the rules and procedures , making him a somewhat inflexible individual who has difficulty understanding the human dimension involved when dealing with other base personnel . The Frenchman is slightly resentful of Caulder 's appointment to the position of Director , feeling that he has been overlooked for the job though Helen Smith reminds him that he is , perhaps , too young to take up the position at this time . However , when he is ordered to relieve Caulder of command during the attempted rescue of Tom Hill in the episode " Castor and Pollux " , he remains loyal to Caulder and carries out the rescue as planned despite his misgivings about the risks .
Dr Helen Smith ( Fiona Gaunt )
Helen Smith is the base psychologist responsible for preparing regular psychological record reports ( or PSIs ) , assessing the mental state of all personnel . An expert in behavioural studies in an alien environment – her thesis was titled " Human beings adjust " – she acts as a sounding board , enabling individual crew members to adapt to the situation of life on the Moon . However , she develops a trend of engaging in romantic relationships with her most troubled patients as seen in " Achilles Heel " and " Outsiders " .
Tom Hill ( Barry Lowe )
Forty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Tom Hill is director of operations on the moonbase responsible for flight control and base maintenance . An experienced astronaut , he became a minor celebrity six years before the events of the series take place when he rescued an escaped cat from a spacelab . A down @-@ to @-@ earth no @-@ nonsense type , who dislikes having his work interfered with by management , he generally tries to maintain an informal , casual air , calling all female staff as " love " and calling Lebrun " Mickey boy " , a moniker Lebrun hates . However , unhappy about the way Caulder conducted the investigation of his predecessor 's death in " Departure and Arrival " , Hill initially maintains a strictly businesslike relationship with Caulder before their relationship thaws in later episodes .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Terrance Dicks and Barry Letts had been working together , as script editor and producer respectively , on Doctor Who since 1970 . Dicks had begun his television writing career on The Avengers and Crossroads before joining Doctor Who as its script editor in 1968 . Former actor Barry Letts had changed career into television direction in 1967 and had worked on series such as Z @-@ Cars and The Newcomers before being asked to take over as producer of Doctor Who in 1970 , where he first met Dicks . In 1972 , looking to move on from Doctor Who , the pair started considering a number of ideas for other shows they could collaborate on . Their first idea arose from the successful collaboration they had with the Royal Navy on the Doctor Who serial The Sea Devils which led to them considering pitching a serial set on a frigate only to find they were too late – the BBC had just commissioned a series , Warship , with that very premise . In late 1972 , they developed the concept of Moonbase 3 , as an anthology series set on a lunar colony that would " provide intelligent , realistic drama rather than Science Fantasy " , and submitted a pilot script , titled " Departure and Arrival " , to Shaun Sutton , the Head of Drama at the BBC . The series was formally commissioned in December 1972 and would be made , as a co @-@ production between the BBC and 20th Century Fox and the ABC network in America , during the break in production between Seasons 10 and 11 of Doctor Who .
= = = Production = = =
The first Moonbase 3 script to be formally commissioned was " View of a Dead Planet " on 15 December 1972 . This was written by Arden Winch , a respected writer who had written for The Wednesday Play . Two scripts , " Behemoth " and " Outsiders " , were commissioned from John Brason , who had written for Colditz and Special Branch . The final two scripts , " The Dark Side of the Moon " and " The Gentle Rain " ( later renamed " Castor and Pollux " and " Achilles Heel " respectively ) , were commissioned from John Lucarotti , a prolific writer whose credits included The Avengers , Doctor Who and The Troubleshooters . Lastly , Letts and Dicks retrospectively commissioned themselves in late May 1973 for their pilot script " Departure and Arrival " .
In order to achieve a high level of realism , Letts and Dicks hired a technical advisor , James Burke , a science correspondent who was well known to television viewers thanks to his work as anchorman on the television coverage of the Apollo moon landings and for presenting science series such as Tomorrow 's World and The Burke Special . Burke decided that 2003 would be a realistic date for bases to have been established on the Moon , telling the Radio Times that " Men won 't go back to the Moon until the 1990s . Neither the Russians nor the Americans have any plans at present and no @-@ one else can afford it . [ ... ] As for the base itself – it should look exactly as it would if they built one tomorrow . [ ... ] They 'd be small , supporting 30 or 40 men and running on a shoestring . [ ... ] It 'll be like life on a nuclear submarine " .
Cast as David Caulder was Donald Houston , an experienced character actor , who had appeared in 633 Squadron , The Longest Day and The Sea Wolves , and was known for playing authority figures . Ralph Bates , who was cast as Michel Lebrun , had first made a name for himself playing the Emperor Caligula in the Granada Television series The Caesars but was best known as a regular actor in the Hammer horror stable . Fiona Gaunt , playing Helen Smith , had been in a television adaptation of War and Peace while Barry Lowe , playing Tom Hill , had been a regular on the police drama Z @-@ Cars .
Two directors were assigned to the series – Ken Hannam and Christopher Barry . Hannam had previously directed such series as Colditz and Paul Temple while Barry had worked extensively on Doctor Who , having directed some 31 episodes at the time , including the stories The Dæmons and The Mutants for Letts and Dicks , as well as episodes of Out of the Unknown , Paul Temple and The Onedin Line . Hannam and Barry alternated directing the episodes between them with filming on Moonbase 3 beginning on 24 April 1973 at the BBC film studios in Ealing . The Ealing filming mainly centred around the scenes set on the lunar surface which proved a difficult experience for the actors . Star Donald Houston told the Radio Times that the spacesuits got " hot and claustrophobic . In the end they had to have oxygen standing by . [ ... ] the dust rose in clouds and the cameramen all wore surgical masks . The actors just choked " . Recalling his guest appearance on Moonbase 3 , in the episode " Behemoth " , Peter Miles told TV Zone in 1991 that he was " asked to be like a gazelle and leap as I came down the hillock in full astronaut gear . [ ... ] The tech crew wondered why I was steaming up furiously in my astronaut 's head . They 'd forgotten to put air holes into the helmet . [ ... ] I said , ' Help help ! Help help ! I 'm not breathing folks ! ' They took the helmet off before drilling the holes or I wouldn 't be here now " . Filming continued at Ealing until 30 May 1973 before production moved to BBC Television Centre for the remaining scenes , mostly those set inside the moonbase , which would be recorded on videotape beginning on 18 June 1973 . The episodes were recorded in a different order than that in which they were broadcast with " Departure and Arrival " recorded first followed by " Castor and Pollux " , " Behemoth " , " View of a Dead Planet " , " Outsiders " and , lastly , " Achilles Heel " with recording wrapping on 15 August 1973 . Music was provided by Dudley Simpson who , at this time , was the regular composer on Doctor Who . Simpson composed the main title theme that accompanied the opening and closing credits as well as approximately 60 minutes of incidental music .
= = = Transmission and audience reaction = = =
Moonbase 3 was promoted by the Radio Times on the week of broadcast with a two @-@ page article by Mike Bygrave , titled " The Facts of Life on the Moon " , that interviewed James Burke about his ideas of life on the moon and also spoke to star Donald Houston , dresser Leslie Hallam and costume designer Dee Kelly about their experiences making the show . Broadcast on Sunday nights at 7 : 25pm on BBC One , audience reaction to the series was disappointing with the debut episode garnering under 6 million viewers and ratings slipping as low as 2 million in subsequent weeks before stabilising at 4 million . A BBC Audience Research report slated the series as " banal , predictable and slow " . Reviewing " Departure and Arrival " in The Observer , Clive James described the plot as " the Yangtze Incident plus liquid oxygen " .
= = = Archive status = = =
As was normal procedure at the BBC at the time , the original PAL master tapes of the series were wiped some time after broadcast and , for many years , Moonbase 3 was believed to be lost forever . However , in 1993 , NTSC copies of all six episodes were found in co @-@ producer Fox 's archives and returned to the BBC . The series was subsequently released on VHS videotape over three volumes in 1994 by BBC Video and on DVD in 2002 by Second Sight .
= = Legacy = =
Terrance Dicks has felt that Moonbase 3 was ultimately a failure : " The trouble was we built a too restrictive format for ourselves " and that the series " lacked a sense of wonder and outrageousness " . Academic Peter Wright has said about Moonbase 3 that its " appeal to realism resulted in a disquieting sense of claustrophobia and isolation that undermined the optimism of its premise and captured the general mood of insularity felt ( and often desired ) in Britain in the early 1970s " . Moonbase 3 , although not directly influential , can be seen as an antecedent of similar realistic , near @-@ future , British space series such as Star Cops and Space Island One .
= = Episode guide = =
Six episodes of Moonbase 3 were made and broadcast on BBC One on Sunday nights at 7 : 25pm from 9 September 1973 .
= Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge =
The Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge , which stood from 1855 to 1897 across the Niagara River , was the world 's first working railway suspension bridge . It spanned 825 feet ( 251 m ) and stood 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream of Niagara Falls , where it connected Niagara Falls , Ontario , to Niagara Falls , New York . Trains used the upper of its two decks , pedestrians and carriages the lower . The brainchild of Canadian politicians , the bridge was built by one American and one Canadian company . It was most commonly called the Suspension Bridge ; other names included Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge , Niagara Suspension Bridge , and its official American name , the International Suspension Bridge .
The bridge was part of Canadian politician William Hamilton Merritt 's vision to promote trade within his country and with its neighbor the United States . Many , including bridge builders , argued that a suspension bridge could not allow the safe passage of trains . Nonetheless , the bridge companies hired Charles Ellet , Jr . , who laid a line by a kite across the 800 @-@ foot ( 240 m ) chasm and built a temporary suspension bridge in 1848 . Ellet left the project after a financial dispute with the bridge companies , who hired John Augustus Roebling to complete the project . By 1854 , his bridge was nearly complete , and the lower deck was opened for pedestrian and carriage travel . On March 18 , 1855 , a fully laden passenger train officially opened the completed bridge .
A border crossing between Canada and the United States , the Suspension Bridge played significant roles in the histories of the Niagara region and the two countries . Three railway lines crossed over the bridge , connecting cities on both sides of the border . The Great Western Railway , New York Central Railroad , and New York and Erie Rail Road differed in the track gauge ; the bridge used a triple gauge system to conserve space , overlapping two tracks on top of each other and using a rail of each to form the third track . The railroads brought a large influx of trade and tourists into the region around the Niagara Falls . In the time leading to the American Civil War , the Underground Railroad helped slaves in the United States escape across the Suspension Bridge to freedom in Canada . After the war , the bridge became a symbol of inspiration to Americans , encouraging them to rebuild their country and pushing them to quickly industrialize their nation .
The bridge 's success proved that a railway suspension bridge could be safe and operational . Slowly decaying , the bridge 's wooden structures were replaced with stronger steel and iron versions by 1886 . Heavier trains required its replacement by the Steel Arch Bridge , later renamed the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge , on August 27 , 1897 .
= = Conception and construction = =
In the mid @-@ 19th century , the hinterlands of the North American East Coast opened up rapidly . In Canada , entrepreneur and politician William Hamilton Merritt helped establish several trade routes , especially in dredged waterways between the lake cities . He also envisioned a U.S. and Canadian rail network to connect the Atlantic coast with new territories in the West , and this led to a railway suspension bridge across the Niagara River below the falls .
Merritt 's vision for the Niagara Suspension Bridge was conceived at the Niagara River itself . In summer 1844 while taking a picnic on the river shores , near what was then the town of Clifton , Merritt read a letter from his sons to his wife . The younger Merritts were touring Europe and visited the town of Fribourg , Switzerland . Amazed by the Freiburg Suspension Bridge , they wrote to their parents , describing the wonders of the bridge in eloquent terms . Their writing had a profound effect on their parents , and the elder Merritts wondered if such a suspension bridge could be built across the Niagara . Merritt was driven to realize that vision , and he approached the relevant authorities , including the Queen of England , for permission to start the construction of the suspension bridge . His efforts were rewarded in 1846 ; the state of New York and the government of Canada approved the charters to form the Niagara Falls International Bridge Company and the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge Company , respectively .
In the years before the first bridge was built over the Niagara River , the river was crossed entirely by boats . Powered by steam engines , vessels ferried people and carriages across the raging river at calmer points of the water . One of these vessels was the Maid of the Mist , the first tourist boat to ply the waters of the Niagara River . Named after a local legend , the steamer began service in 1846 . Launching from a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the Horseshoe Falls , it chugged up to the base of the falls , offering a close @-@ up view of the natural wonder to its passengers , before moving to the opposite shore . The site for the Suspension Bridge was half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the Maid of the Mist 's landings . The selection of the bridge site was based more on aesthetics than technical ease ; it was the narrowest point of the gorge — 800 feet ( 240 m ) across and 230 feet ( 70 m ) deep — that allowed a full view of the falls from the American side .
After the bridge companies were founded , they invited engineers to submit plans and cost estimates for a suspension bridge that carried a railway . The invitation was met with skepticism among the engineering community . At that time , there was not a suspension bridge that could allow a train to pass over it safely . While the Europeans were erecting suspension bridges by the hundreds , the Americans mostly ignored them out of safety concerns ; in 1831 Sir Samuel Brown 's Broughton Suspension Bridge in Britain had collapsed under the marching feet of a troop of soldiers , sending those on its deck into the River Irwell . Furthermore , many American bridges had collapsed without experiencing weight and pressure equivalent to railroad traffic , and American engineers feared that any railway bridge would likely fail — especially a suspension bridge .
Four engineers responded : Edward Serrell , Samuel Keefer , Charles Ellet , Jr . , and John Augustus Roebling . All submitted designs for a suspension bridge . At the time of the bidding , Ellet and Roebling were acknowledged as masters of suspension bridge building in America . Roebling submitted two designs , a conservative single @-@ deck suspension bridge and a double @-@ decked version , both with meticulous calculations and drawings . Instead of relying solely on submissions , Charles Ellet , Jr. took a proactive approach . When he got wind of the project in 1845 , he wrote to Charles B. Stuart , chief engineer of the Great Western Railway , boldly proclaiming that he could build a bridge for any likely purpose across the Niagara . After the charters had been obtained , Ellet helped Stuart to sell the bridge companies ' stock and offered to buy US $ 30 @,@ 000 worth of stock himself . His efforts earned him the $ 190 @,@ 000 bridge contract on November 9 , 1847 .
= = = Charles Ellet , Jr . ' s temporary bridge = = =
While growing up on a farm in Pennsylvania , Charles Ellet , Jr. scraped through odd jobs , but saved enough money to finance an education at the École nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in France . After attending four months of lectures , he toured Europe before returning to the United States as the only native @-@ born American with European education in engineering . Ellet announced his ambitions to build suspension bridges in his country of birth by proposing to span the Potomac River with one . His proposal was ignored ; few were willing to heed a young , inexperienced and impetuous engineer . To gain experience , Ellet started to work on railroads and canals , and later became the chief engineer on the James River and Kanawha Canal project . He further improved his reputation by contributing articles about suspension bridges to respected engineering journals , such as American Railroad Journal ; eventually , Ellet built his first suspension bridge over the Schuylkill River , Pennsylvania , in 1842 .
Ellet had the looks of an actor , which were complemented by his entertaining oratorical skills . He took advantage of these characteristics , and used showmanship and dramatics to market his proposals . These skills helped to win him attention and raise his profile both in the public and within the industry . However , his imperiousness also ruffled the feathers of people , which caused conflicts . Nonetheless , his capability to promote himself had won him the contracts for the Suspension Bridge and the later Wheeling Suspension Bridge ; the Wheeling contract was won in July 1847 while Ellet 's plan for the Niagara Suspension Bridge was still in its initial stages of construction . Ellet 's initial design for the bridge at Niagara placed all forms of transportation on a single deck . The railway track was in the middle of the deck , sandwiched between carriageways and footpaths on the outer sides . Moreover , trains would not go over the bridge ; their cars would be disconnected from the heavy locomotives and pulled across the bridge by horses , cables , or lighter 6 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) engines . Before the work could begin , Ellet faced the problem of all suspension bridge construction : getting a line across the gap .
Ellet 's brainstorming sessions with his men raised several ideas that could enable a line to be suspended across the gorge ; these included firing cannonballs with the line attached , towing it across the river with a steamer , and tying it to a rocket that would then be launched across the gorge . Ultimately the bridge engineer chose an idea inspired by Benjamin Franklin 's experiment with a kite . It was similar to 15th century inventor Leonardo da Vinci 's plan to span a gap . Ellet also took the opportunity to generate publicity for his project . Organizing a kite @-@ flying contest , he offered $ 5 to any boy who flew a kite across the gorge and secured the kite string to the other side . Youths from nearby towns flocked in to participate . Unlike the other boys who flew their kites from the United States side of the gorge , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Homan Walsh crossed the river by a ferry upstream and walked to the Canadian side of the bridge site to launch his kite . He almost succeeded on his first attempt ; his kite flew across but crashed just short of the shore . After resting several days at a friend 's house , Walsh finally got his kite across the gorge and secured its line to a tree .
Charles Ellet and his team tied a heavier line to the kite string and pulled the joined lines across . They pulled successive heavier and stronger lines across until the final bridge cable — 7 ⁄ 8 inch ( 2 @.@ 2 cm ) thick — was hanging across the gorge . The cable was suspended between two wooden towers 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall , and it was attached to an iron basket . Ellet planned to use this system as a basket ferry to shuttle workers and materials across the gorge , saving time that would otherwise have been spent on land and ferry travel . Through media coverage and word @-@ of @-@ mouth , many people knew of Ellet 's efforts and flocked to the site to watch the construction . On March 13 , 1848 , the system was completed , and the team planned to test it by pulling the empty basket across . They hit a snag when the basket kept getting stuck halfway and could not move ahead . Pulling back the basket , Ellet decided to assure the watching crowd that the system was workable . He stepped into the basket , and it moved towards the opposite shore . When Ellet reached the problematic spot , he spotted the issue ; the basket 's rollers could not pass over a portion of the cable that had been accidentally flattened during the construction . He fixed the problem and proceeded to cross to the Canadian side and back , becoming the first person to cross the gorge . Although the bridge companies had prohibited Ellet from collecting tolls , he charged each person $ 1 @.@ 00 for the chance to " observe first hand the engineering wonder of bridging the Niagara " . On some days , the basket ferry conveyed up to 125 people across the gorge .
Continuing his construction , Ellet built two footbridges and joined them together to form an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide suspension bridge . He intended to use this temporary bridge as a scaffold for the construction of the permanent railway bridge . On July 29 , 1848 , the bridge builder inaugurated the span in his typical manner ; standing in his horse @-@ buggy like a gladiator in his chariot , Ellet sped across the bridge , which had railings for only a third of its length at that time . His stunt garnered further publicity for the bridge , and the toll collected from the span proved lucrative ; $ 5 @,@ 000 was collected in less than a year since its official opening on August 1 , 1848 . Disputes arose between the bridge companies and Ellet over their shares of the money , and their relations turned bitter . The companies charged that Ellet was late in his schedule and withheld payment . Ellet retaliated by mounting cannons at the bridge to claim ownership over it . In the end the matter went to court . The bridge companies paid $ 10 @,@ 000 to Charles
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of the Northwest League . In 46 games , Henderson batted .336 and hit three home runs and two triples . Henderson spent the following season with the Modesto A 's . He batted .345 in 134 games during his record @-@ setting season with Modesto . Henderson , along with Darrell Woodard , nearly broke the league record for team stolen bases . The Modesto A 's finished the season with 357 stolen bases , just shy of the league record of 370 . While Woodard tied the single @-@ season player record with 90 stolen bases , Henderson beat the record by stealing 95 bases , and was awarded the Sundial Trophy , given to the Modesto A 's Most Valuable Player .
Henderson spent the 1978 season with the Jersey City A 's of the Eastern League . After the minor league season ended , he played the 1978 – 1979 winter season for the Navojoa Mayos of the Mexican Pacific League . He played in six games for the team , which won its first championship . In 1979 , Henderson started the season with the Ogden A 's of the Pacific Coast League . In 71 games for Ogden , he had a batting average of .309 and stole 44 bases .
= = Major leagues = =
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 1979 – 1984 ) = = =
Henderson made his major league debut with Oakland on June 24 , 1979 , getting two hits in four at bats , along with a stolen base . He batted .274 with 33 stolen bases in 89 games . In 1980 , Henderson became the 3rd modern @-@ era player to steal 100 bases in a season ( Maury Wills 's 104 in 1962 and Lou Brock 's 118 in 1974 had preceded him ) . His 100 steals broke Eddie Collins ' franchise record of 81 in 1910 with what were then the Philadelphia Athletics and set a new American League ( AL ) record , surpassing Ty Cobb 's 96 set in 1915 . He also batted .303 , had 179 hits ( tied for 9th in AL ) , scored 111 runs ( 4th in AL ) , drew 117 walks ( 2nd in AL ) , had a .420 on base % ( 3rd in AL ) and led the AL by reaching base 301 times .
That winter , Henderson played in the Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League ; his 42 stolen bases broke that league 's record as well .
Henderson was a Most Valuable Player candidate a year later , in a season shortened by a players ' strike . He hit .319 , fourth in the AL , and led the league in hits ( 135 ) , runs ( 89 ) and in steals ( 56 ) . Henderson was also 3rd in on @-@ base percentage ( .408 ) , tied for 2nd in triples ( 7 ) , 4th in walks ( 64 ) , 8th in total bases ( 185 ) and 2nd in times reaching base ( 201 ) . In so doing , he became the emblematic figure of Oakland manager Billy Martin 's aggressive " Billy Ball " philosophy , which received much media attention . Finishing second to the Milwaukee Brewers ' Rollie Fingers in the MVP voting , Henderson 's fielding that season also earned him his only Gold Glove Award . He later became known for his showboating " snatch catches " , in which he would flick his glove out at incoming fly balls , then whip his arm behind his back after making the catch .
In 1982 , Henderson broke Lou Brock 's major league single season record by stealing 130 bases , a total which has not been approached since . He stole 84 bases by the All @-@ Star break ; no player has stolen as many as 84 bases in an entire season since 1988 , when Henderson himself stole 93 . Henderson 's 130 steals outpaced nine of the American League 's 14 teams that season . He also led the AL in walks ( 116 ) , was 4th in runs ( 119 ) and 3rd in on base % ( .398 ) .
Henderson adopted an exaggerated crouch as his batting stance , which reduced his strike zone without sacrificing much power . Sportswriter Jim Murray described Henderson 's strike zone as being " smaller than Hitler 's heart " . In 1982 , he described his approach to Sports Illustrated :
I found that if I squatted down real low at the plate ... I could see the ball better . I also knew it threw the pitcher off . I found that I could put my weight on my back foot and still turn my hips on the swing . I 'm down so low I don 't have much of a strike zone . Sometimes , walking so much even gets me mad . Last year Ed Ott of the Angels got so frustrated because the umpire was calling balls that would 've been strikes on anybody else that he stood up and shouted at me , " Stand up and hit like a man . " I guess I do that to people .
Henderson made MLB history in 1983 with his 3rd 100 runs / 100 stolen bases / 100 bases on balls season ( no modern player , post 1900 has done it once ) , when he led the AL with 108 stolen bases & 103 walks while finishing 4th scoring 103 runs . He was 2nd with .414 on base % , tied for 9th in triples with 7 and 5th times on base , reaching 257 times . In the final season of his first stint in Oakland Henderson started to develop more of a power stroke hitting 16 home runs , leading the league in stolen bases , finishing 2nd in runs scored and 3rd in on base % . After the season he was traded to the New York Yankees .
As his muscular frame developed , Henderson continued to improve as a hitter . His increasing power @-@ hitting ability eventually led to a record for home runs to lead off a game . During his career , he hit over 20 home runs in four different seasons , with a high of 28 in 1986 and again in 1990 .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1985 – 1989 ) = = =
In December 1984 , Henderson was traded to the New York Yankees along with Bert Bradley for five players : Tim Birtsas , Jay Howell , Stan Javier , Eric Plunk , and José Rijo . In his first season with the Yankees he led the league in runs scored ( 146 ) and stolen bases ( 80 ) , was fourth in batting average ( .314 ) , walks ( 99 ) and on @-@ base percentage ( .419 ) , 7th in slugging ( .516 ) , 3rd in OPS ( .934 ) and hit 24 home runs . He also won the Silver Slugger Award , and was third in the voting for the MVP award . His 146 runs scored were the most since Ted Williams had 150 in 1950 , and he became the first player since Jimmie Foxx in 1939 to amass more runs scored than games played . Henderson became the first player in major league history to reach 80 stolen bases and 20 home runs in the 1985 season . He matched the feat in 1986 , as did the Reds ' Eric Davis ; they remain the only players in major league history who are in the " 80 / 20 club " .
In 1986 , he led the AL in runs scored ( 130 ) and stolen bases ( 87 ) for the second year in a row , and was seventh in walks ( 89 ) and extra base hits ( 64 ) while hitting 28 home runs , 9 of which led off games , and had 74 RBIs .
In 1987 he had a below @-@ average season by his standards , fueling criticism from the New York media , which had never covered Henderson or his eccentricities kindly . Yankees owner George Steinbrenner issued a press release claiming that manager Lou Piniella wanted to trade Henderson for " jaking it " ( playing lackadaisically ) . Still , Henderson had his best on @-@ base percentage to that point in his career ( .423 ) , was fifth in the AL in stolen bases ( 41 ) and hit 17 home runs despite playing only 95 games . It was the only season from 1980 to 1991 in which Henderson did not lead the AL in steals . Seattle 's Harold Reynolds led the league with 60 steals ; Reynolds tells the story of getting an impish phone call from Henderson after the season :
" The phone rings . ' Henderson here . ' I say , ' Hey , what 's going on , Rickey ? ' I think he 's calling to congratulate me , but he goes , ' Sixty stolen bases ? You ought to be ashamed . Rickey would have 60 at the break . ' And then click , he hung up . "
In 1988 , Henderson led the AL in steals ( 93 ) , was third in runs scored ( 118 ) , fifth in OBP ( .394 ) and seventh in walks ( 82 ) , while hitting .305 . Though only in New York for four and a half seasons , Henderson set the Yankees ' franchise record with 326 stolen bases ; the previous high ( 248 ) had been held by Hal Chase . On May 28 , 2011 , Henderson 's total was surpassed by Derek Jeter , who 'd played 1 @,@ 700 more games as a Yankee than Henderson .
= = = Second stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1989 – 1993 ) = = =
Following a mid @-@ season trade to Oakland in 1989 , Henderson reasserted himself as one of the game 's greatest players , with a memorable half @-@ season in which his 52 steals and 72 runs scored led the A 's into the postseason ; his 126 walks for the year were the most for any AL hitter since 1970 . With a record eight steals in five games , he was named MVP of the American League Championship Series ; he hit .400 while scoring eight runs and delivering two home runs , five runs batted in ( RBI ) , seven walks and a 1 @.@ 000 slugging percentage . Leading the A 's to a four @-@ game sweep over the San Francisco Giants and the franchise 's first World Series title since 1974 , Henderson hit .474 with an .895 slugging average ( including two triples and a homer ) , while stealing three more bases . On August 22 , 1989 , he became Nolan Ryan 's 5,000th strikeout victim , but Henderson took an odd delight in the occurrence , saying , " If you haven 't been struck out by Nolan Ryan , you 're nobody . "
A year later , Henderson finished second in the league in batting average with a mark of .325 , losing out to the Kansas City Royals ' George Brett on the final day of the season . Henderson had a remarkably consistent season , with his batting average falling below .320 for only one game , the third of the year . Reaching safely by a hit or a walk in 125 of his 136 games , he led the league in runs ( 119 ) , stolen bases ( 65 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .439 ) and OPS ( 1 @.@ 016 ) was 2nd in slugging % ( .577 ) , 4th in walks ( 97 ) and extra base hits ( 66 ) , 6th in home runs ( 28 ) and total bases ( 282 ) and had 61 RBI and Henderson won the AL 's MVP award and helped Oakland to another pennant . He again performed well in the World Series ( .333 batting , .667 slugging , a home run and three steals in four games ) , but the A 's were swept by the underdog Cincinnati Reds .
On May 1 , 1991 , Henderson broke one of baseball 's most noted records when he stole the 939th base of his career , one more than Lou Brock 's total compiled from 1962 to 1979 , mainly with the St. Louis Cardinals .
In 1993 , Henderson was having another outstanding season when he was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays at the trade deadline . In 90 games with Oakland , he was batting .327 ( 2nd in AL ) with 17 home runs and 47 RBIs . He also had scored 77 runs , stolen 31 bases , drew 85 walks , had a .469 on @-@ base percentage and was slugging .553 .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays ( 1993 ) = = =
In July 1993 , the Athletics traded Henderson to the playoff @-@ bound Toronto Blue Jays for Steve Karsay and José Herrera . He performed disappointingly for the Jays , hitting only .215 in 44 games , which was probably due to the fact that he fractured a bone on his hand early on with the team , after being hit by a pitch , although he still contributed 22 stolen bases and 37 runs scored . However , his hitting woes continued in the post @-@ season , batting .120 in the American League Championship Series and .227 in the World Series . Nevertheless , Henderson was involved in the final play of the World Series that year in one fashion for which he was most known , as he and Paul Molitor scored on Joe Carter 's Series @-@ ending home run . After winning his second World Series ring , this one with Toronto , he re @-@ signed as a free agent with Oakland in December 1993 .
= = = Third stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
In 1994 and 1995 , Henderson finished in the top 10 in the league in walks , steals and on @-@ base percentage . His .300 average in 1995 marked his sixth and final season in the AL with a .300 or better average .
= = = San Diego Padres ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = =
Henderson signed with the San Diego Padres in the offseason , where he had another respectable year in 1996 , again finishing in the top ten in the National League ( NL ) in walks , OBP , steals and runs .
= = = Anaheim Angels ( 1997 ) = = =
In August 1997 , Henderson was traded from the Padres to the Anaheim Angels . His brief stint as an Angel was uneventful , with him batting only .183 for the rest of the 1997 baseball year with the Angels .
= = = Fourth stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1998 ) = = =
In January 1998 , Henderson signed as a free agent with the Athletics , the fourth time he played for the franchise . That season he led the AL in stolen bases ( 66 ) and walks ( 118 ) , while scoring 101 runs .
= = = New York Mets ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
A year later , Henderson signed as a free agent with the New York Mets . In 1999 , he batted .315 with 37 steals and was seventh in the NL in on @-@ base percentage — his .423 OBP was his ninth year in a row above .400 . Henderson was voted the 1999 National League comeback player of the year . He wore number 24 , which — although not officially retired — had not been regularly worn by a Mets player since Willie Mays ' retirement in 1973 . Nonetheless , Henderson and the Mets were an uneasy fit . Following the Mets ' loss in the 1999 NLCS , the New York press made much of a card game between Henderson and Bobby Bonilla . Both players had been substituted out of the lineup , and they reportedly left the dugout before the playoff game had concluded .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 2000 ) = = =
In May 2000 , Henderson was released by the Mets , and quickly signed as a free agent with the Seattle Mariners . In only his second game as a Mariner , on May 20 , Henderson hit a leadoff home run , thus becoming the third player to hit a home run in four different decades ( Ted Williams and Willie McCovey were the others , and Omar Vizquel became the fourth in 2010 ) . Despite the late start , Henderson finished fourth in the AL in stolen bases ( 31 ) .
= = = Second stint with the San Diego Padres ( 2001 ) = = =
A free agent in March 2001 , Henderson returned to the Padres . During the 2001 season , he broke three major league career records and reached an additional major career milestone . He broke Babe Ruth 's record of 2 @,@ 062 career walks , Ty Cobb 's record of 2 @,@ 245 career runs , and Zack Wheat 's record of 2 @,@ 328 career games in left field , and on the final day of the season collected his 3,000th career hit , a leadoff double off Rockies pitcher John Thomson . That final game was also Padre legend Tony Gwynn 's last major league game , and Henderson had originally wanted to sit out so as not to detract from the occasion , but Gwynn insisted that Henderson play . After scoring the game 's first run , Henderson was removed from the lineup . With Gwynn having 3 @,@ 141 hits , it was just the second time in Major League history that a pair of teammates each had 3 @,@ 000 career hits ; Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker had previously played many games together for the 1928 A 's .
At the age of 42 , in his last substantial major league season , Henderson finished the year with 25 stolen bases , ninth in the NL ; it also marked his 23rd consecutive season with more than 20 steals . Of the ten top base stealers who were still active as of 2002 , the other nine each stole fewer bases in 2002 than the 42 @-@ year @-@ old Henderson .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2002 ) = = =
In February 2002 , Henderson signed as a free agent with the Boston Red Sox , where at age 43 he became the oldest player to play center field in major league history when he replaced Johnny Damon for three games in April and another in July . Henderson 's arrival was marked by a statistical oddity . During the 22 @-@ 1 / 2 years from his June 1979 debut through the end of the 2001 season , he had stolen more bases by himself than his new team had : 1 @,@ 395 steals for Henderson , 1 @,@ 382 for the Boston franchise . The Red Sox finally " passed " Henderson on April 30 , 2002 . At 43 , Henderson was the oldest player in the American League .
= = = Newark Bears , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2003 ) = = =
As the 2003 season began , Henderson was without a team for the first time in his career . He played in the independent Atlantic League with the Newark Bears , hoping for a chance with another major league organization . After much media attention , the Los Angeles Dodgers signed him over the All @-@ Star break after he was named the league 's All @-@ Star game MVP .
= = = Retirement = = =
Before the 2003 season , his last in the majors , Henderson discussed his reputation for hanging onto his lengthy baseball career :
" Each and every day I set a record , but we never talk about it . We 'll talk about a home run hitter 24 / 7 . Well , they haven 't broken any all @-@ time records , but they hit homers , and that 's what matters nowadays . You continue playing , you accomplish a lot , and you 'd think people would look at it as a fantastic career . Instead , Rickey thinks people want Rickey to quit more than anything . "
Henderson played his last major league game on September 19 , 2003 ; he was hit by a pitch in his only plate appearance , and came around to score his 2,295th run . Though it became increasingly unlikely that he would return to major league action , his status continued to confound , as he publicly debated his own official retirement from professional baseball . After leaving the Dodgers , Henderson started his second consecutive season with the Newark Bears in the spring of 2004 . In 91 games he had a .462 OBP , with more than twice as many walks ( 96 ) as strikeouts ( 41 ) , and stole 37 bases while being caught only twice . On May 9 , 2005 , Henderson signed with the San Diego Surf Dawgs of the Golden Baseball League , an independent league . This was the SurfDawgs ' and the Golden Baseball League 's inaugural season , and Henderson helped the team to the league championship . In 73 games he had a .456 OBP , with 73 walks while striking out 43 times , and 16 steals while being caught only twice . It would be his final professional season .
Henderson would not accept the end of his major league career . In May 2005 , he was still insisting that he was capable of playing in the major leagues . NBC and ESPN reported that Henderson had announced his much @-@ delayed official retirement on December 6 , 2005 , but his agent denied the report the following day . On February 10 , 2006 , he accepted a position as a hitting instructor for the Mets , while leaving the door open to returning as a player . In July 2006 , Henderson discussed an offer he 'd received to rejoin the SurfDawgs for the 2006 season , which would have been his 31st in professional baseball , but suggested he 'd had enough . But six weeks later , on August 11 , he claimed " It 's sort of weird not to be playing , but I decided to take a year off " , adding , " I can 't say I will retire . My heart is still in it ... I still love the game right now , so I 'm going to wait it out and see what happens . "
On May 18 , 2007 , the San Francisco Chronicle reported that Oakland general manager Billy Beane was considering adding Henderson to the roster for one game in September , provided it did not " infringe on the integrity of the roster or of the season " , so that Henderson could retire as an Oakland A 's player . A month later , Henderson appeared to reject the overture , saying , " One day ? I don 't want one day . I want to play again , man . I don 't want nobody 's spot ... I just want to see if I deserve to be out there . If I don 't , just get rid of me , release me . And if I belong , you don 't have to pay me but the minimum — and I 'll donate every penny of that to some charity . So , how 's that hurtin ' anybody ? ... Don 't say goodbye for me ... When I want that one day they want to give me so bad , I 'll let you know . " The Athletics retired Henderson 's # 24 on August 1 , 2009 .
Henderson finally conceded his " official retirement " on July 13 , 2007 : " I haven 't submitted retirement papers to MLB , but I think MLB already had their papers that I was retired . " Characteristically , he added , " If it was a situation where we were going to win the World Series and I was the only player that they had left , I would put on the shoes . "
Contrary to speculation , Henderson 's refusal to officially retire had not been delaying his eligibility for Hall of Fame induction . Since the 1970s , the five @-@ year waiting period has been based on major league service only . Henderson was elected as part of the 2009 Hall of Fame vote , in his first appearance on the ballot . At a press conference two days after his election , the 50 @-@ year @-@ old Henderson told reporters , " I believe today , and people say I ’ m crazy , but if you gave me as many at @-@ bats that you would give the runners out there today , I would outsteal every last one of them ... they can always ring my phone and I 'll come on down and help their ballclub , that 's how much I love the game . "
In 2011 , on the 20th anniversary of his record @-@ breaking stolen base , the Oakland A 's held " Rickey Henderson Bobblehead Day . " At Henderson 's insistence , the giveaway plastic dolls had one atypical modification : " I told them , put a little dirt on mine , make sure that [ it looks ] like I 'm playing the game . " Almost eight years after his final game , Henderson also reiterated his desire to return : " Sometimes when I sit around and look at the game and things ain 't going right , I just think , ' Just let me put on the uniform and go out there and take a chance ' . "
= = = Coaching = = =
The New York Mets hired Henderson as a special instructor in 2006 , primarily to work with hitters and to teach base stealing . Henderson 's impact was noticeable on José Reyes , the Mets ' former leadoff hitter . " I always want to be around the game " , Henderson said in May 2007 . " That 's something that 's in my blood . Helping them have success feels just as good . "
On July 13 , 2007 , the Mets promoted Henderson from special instructor to first base coach , replacing Howard Johnson , who became the hitting coach . Henderson was not retained as a coach for 2008 . Henderson has periodically been a special instructor in the Athletics ' spring training camps . In 2010 , he worked on base stealing ( most notably with Rajai Davis and Coco Crisp ) and outfield drills .
= = Image and personality = =
Sports Illustrated 's Tom Verducci wrote in 2003 , " There are certain figures in American history who have passed into the realm of cultural mythology , as if reality could no longer contain their stories : Johnny Appleseed . Wild Bill Hickok . Davy Crockett . Rickey Henderson . They exist on the sometimes narrow margin between Fact and Fiction . "
Henderson was known for being an illeist , referring to himself in the third person . One unconfirmed story reports seeing him standing naked in front of a mirror before a game , practicing his swing , and declaring , " Rickey 's the best ! Rickey 's the best ! " According to Verducci , during one off @-@ season , Henderson called Padres general manager Kevin Towers and left this message : " Kevin , this is Rickey . Calling on behalf of Rickey . Rickey wants to play baseball . " However , Henderson denied that this happened in a February 26 , 2009 interview on Mike and Mike in the Morning . In 2003 , he discussed his unusual phraseology , saying , " People are always saying , ' Rickey says Rickey . ' But it 's been blown way out of proportion . Rickey says it when Rickey doesn 't do what Rickey needs to be doing . Rickey uses it to remind himself , like , `Rickey , what you doing , you stupid .... ' Rickey 's just scolding himself . " Henderson did use the first person pronoun on occasion , such as when he defended his position during a contract dispute : " All I 'm asking for is what I want . "
Henderson was so proud of a $ 1 million signing bonus that he framed it instead of cashing it , thus losing several months ' interest . In 2002 , following an argument with pitcher Orlando Hernández , Henderson stated , " He needs to grow up a little bit . I ain 't a kid . When I broke into the game , he was crawling on his hands and knees . Unless he 's as old as I am . He probably is . "
There are many unconfirmed stories about Henderson . A Padres teammate ( variously reported as Steve Finley or Tony Gwynn ) once offered him a seat anywhere on the bus , saying that Henderson had tenure . Henderson supposedly replied , " Ten years ? What are you talking about ? Rickey got 16 , 17 years . " One widely reported story was a fabrication that began as a clubhouse joke made by a visiting player . While playing for Seattle in 2000 , Henderson was said to have commented on first baseman John Olerud 's practice of wearing a batting helmet while playing defense , noting that a former teammate in Toronto did the same thing . Olerud was reported to have replied , " That was me . " The two men had been together the previous season with the 1999 Mets , as well as with the 1993 World Champion Blue Jays . Several news outlets originally reported the story as fact .
Verducci wrote , " Rickey is the modern @-@ day Yogi Berra , only faster . " Henderson himself is resigned to his persona : " A lot of stuff they had me doing or something they said I had created , it 's comedy . I guess that 's how they want to judge me , as a character . "
= = Legacy = =
On May 1 , 1991 , Henderson stole his 939th base to pass Lou Brock and became the sport 's all @-@ time stolen base leader . Henderson 's speech ( at right ) after breaking Brock 's record was similar to the standard victory or award speech . He thanked God and his mother , as well as the people that helped him in baseball . Because his idol was Muhammad Ali , Henderson decided to use the words " greatest of all time . " These words have since been taken by many to support the notion that Henderson is selfish and arrogant , although years later , Henderson revealed that he had gone over his planned remarks ahead of time with Brock , and the Cardinals Hall of Famer " had no problem with it . In fact , he helped me write what I was going to say that day . " On the day of the speech , Brock later told reporters amiably , " He spoke from his heart . " Brock and Henderson had had a friendly relationship ever since their first meeting in 1981 . Brock pronounced the young speedster as the heir to his record , saying , " How are we gonna break it ? "
Henderson has mixed feelings about his comments :
" As soon as I said it , it ruined everything . Everybody thought it was the worst thing you could ever say . Those words haunt me to this day , and will continue to haunt me . They overshadow what I 've accomplished in this game . "
At the end of his July 2009 Hall of Fame induction , Henderson alluded to his earlier speech , saying :
" In closing , I would like to say my favorite hero was Muhammad Ali . He said at one time , quote , ' I am the greatest , ' end of quote . That is something I always wanted to be . And now that the Association has voted me into the Baseball Hall of Fame , my journey as a player is complete . I am now in the class of the greatest players of all time . And at this moment , I am ... [ pause ] ... very , very humble . Thank you . "
Asked if he believes the passage of time will improve his reputation , Henderson said :
" If you talk about baseball , you can 't eliminate me , because I 'm all over baseball ... It 's the truth . Telling the truth isn 't being cocky . What do you want me to say , that I didn 't put up the numbers ? That my teams didn 't win a lot of games ? People don 't want me to say anything about what I 've done . Then why don 't you say it ? Because if I don 't say it and you don 't say it , nobody says it . "
Henderson had 468 more stolen bases in his career than Brock , one short of 50 % more than the game 's second @-@ most prolific basestealer . In 1993 , Henderson stole his 1,066th base , surpassing the record established ten years earlier by Yutaka Fukumoto for the Hankyu Braves in Japan 's Pacific League . In his prime , Henderson had a virtual monopoly on the stolen base title in the American League . Between 1980 and 1991 , he led the league in steals every season except 1987 , when he missed part of the season due to a nagging hamstring injury , allowing Mariners second baseman Harold Reynolds to win the title . Henderson had one more league @-@ leading season after that stretch , when his 66 steals in 1998 made him the oldest steals leader in baseball history . Perhaps unsurprisingly , Henderson also owns the record for times caught stealing ( 335 ) . Due to incomplete historical recordkeeping for that statistic , though , it is unknown whether he is the actual career leader . However , Henderson 's overall 81 % success rate on the basepaths is among the highest percentages in history . ( Tim Raines ranks first among players with at least 300 career attempts , at 84 % . ) On July 29 , 1989 , Henderson stole five bases against the Mariners ' left @-@ handed Randy Johnson , his career high , and one shy of the single @-@ game major league record . Unusually , Henderson was hitless in the game ( he had four walks ) . Henderson had 18 four @-@ steal games during his career . In August 1983 , in a three @-@ game series against the Brewers and a 2 @-@ game series versus the Yankees , Henderson had 13 stolen bases in five games . Baltimore Orioles third baseman Floyd Rayford described the confusion he felt during a particular game , when Henderson was leading off first base and signalling him with two fingers . Henderson quickly stole second base , then third , and Rayford understood the gesture .
Longtime scout Charlie Metro remembered the havoc caused by Henderson : ' " I did a lot of study and I found that it 's impossible to throw Rickey Henderson out . I started using stopwatches and everything . I found it was impossible to throw some other guys out also . They can go from first to second in 2 @.@ 9 seconds ; and no pitcher catcher combination in baseball could throw from here to there to tag second in 2 @.@ 9 seconds , it was always 3 , 3 @.@ 1 , 3 @.@ 2 . So actually , the runner that can make the continuous , regular move like Rickey 's can 't be thrown out , and he 's proven it . "
Joe Posnanski of the Kansas City Star and Sports Illustrated wrote :
" I ’ m about to give you one of my all @-@ time favorite statistics : Rickey Henderson walked 796 times in his career LEADING OFF AN INNING . Think about this again . There would be nothing , absolutely nothing , a pitcher would want to avoid more than walking Rickey Henderson to lead off an inning . And yet he walked SEVEN HUNDRED NINETY SIX times to lead off an inning .
He walked more times just leading off in an inning than Lou Brock , Roberto Clemente , Luis Aparicio , Ernie Banks , Kirby Puckett , Ryne Sandberg and more than 50 other Hall of Famers walked in their entire careers ... I simply cannot imagine a baseball statistic more staggering . "
Henderson was a headfirst slider . In September 2008 , Henderson discussed his base stealing technique at length with Sports Illustrated :
" I wanted to know how to dive into the base because I was getting strawberries on my knees and strawberries on my ass ... I was thinking about head @-@ first versus feet @-@ first , and wondering which would save my body . With head @-@ first I worried about pounding my shoulders and my hands , and with feet @-@ first I would worry about my knees and my legs . I felt that running was more important to me , with my legs , so I started going head @-@ first . I got my [ low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground ] technique from airplanes ... I was on a plane and asleep and the plane bounced and when we landed we bounced and it woke me up . Then the next flight I had the same pilot and the plane went down so smooth . So I asked the pilot why , and he said when you land a plane smooth , you get the plane elevated to the lowest position you can and then you smooth it in . Same with sliding ... If you dive when you 're running straight up then you have a long distance to get to the ground . But the closer you get to the ground the less time it will take ... I was hitting the dirt so smooth , so fast , when I hit the dirt , there wasn 't no hesitation . It was like a skid mark , like you throw a rock on the water and skid off it . So when I hit the ground , if you didn 't have the tag down , I was by you . No matter if the ball beat me , I was by you . That was what made the close plays go my way , I think . "
Padres closer Trevor Hoffman said , " I don 't know how to put into words how fortunate I was to spend time around one of the icons of the game . I can 't comprehend that yet . Years from now , though , I 'll be able to say I played with Rickey Henderson , and I imagine it will be like saying I played with Babe Ruth . " Padres general manager Kevin Towers said , " I get e @-@ mails daily from fans saying , ' Sign Rickey . ' ... I get more calls and e @-@ mails about him than anybody ... We 've had some special players come through San Diego . But there 's an aura about him nobody else has . "
Tony La Russa , Henderson 's manager in the late 1980s in Oakland , said , " He rises to the occasion — the big moment — better than anybody I 've ever seen . " Coach Rene Lachemann said , " If you 're one run down , there 's nobody you 'd ever rather have up at the plate than Rickey . " Teammate Mitchell Page said , " It wasn 't until I saw Rickey that I understood what baseball was about . Rickey Henderson is a run , man . That 's it . When you see Rickey Henderson , I don 't care when , the score 's already 1 – 0 . If he 's with you , that 's great . If he 's not , you won 't like it . "
A 's pitching coach Dave Duncan said of Henderson , " You have to be careful because he can knock one out . But you don 't want to be too careful because he 's got a small strike zone and you can 't afford to walk him . And that 's only half the problem . When he gets on base he 's more trouble still . " Sportswriter Tom Verducci wrote , " Baseball is designed to be an egalitarian sort of game in which one player among the 18 is not supposed to dominate ... Yet in the past quarter century Henderson and Barry Bonds have come closest to dominating a baseball game the way Michael Jordan could a basketball game . " In July 2007 , New York Sun sportswriter Tim Marchman wrote about Henderson 's accomplishments :
He stole all those bases and scored all those runs and played all those years not because of his body , but because of his brain . Rickey could tell from the faintest , most undetectable twitch of a pitcher 's muscles whether he was going home or throwing over to first . He understood that conditioning isn 't about strength , but about flexibility . And more than anyone else in the history of the game , he understood that baseball is entirely a game of discipline — the discipline to work endless 1 – 1 counts your way , the discipline to understand that your job is to get on base , and the discipline to understand that the season is more important than the game , and a career more important than the season . Maybe he 'd get a bit more credit for all this if he were some boring drip like Cal Ripken Jr . , blathering on endlessly about humility and apple pie and tradition and whatever else , but we 're all better off with things the way they are ... Everyone had their fun when he broke Lou Brock 's stolen base record and proclaimed , ' I am the greatest ' , but he was , of course , just saying what was plainly true .
= = = Career milestones = = =
As of 2014 , Henderson ranks fourth all @-@ time in career games played ( 3 @,@ 081 ) , tenth in at bats ( 10 @,@ 961 ) , twenty @-@ second in hits ( 3 @,@ 055 ) , and first in runs scored ( 2 @,@ 295 ) and stolen bases ( 1 @,@ 406 ) . His record for most career walks ( 2 @,@ 190 ) has since been broken by Barry Bonds ; Henderson is now second . He also holds the record for most home runs to lead off a game , with 81 ; Alfonso Soriano of the New York Yankees is tied for the second @-@ most ever with Craig Biggio , with 53 . During the 2003 season , Henderson surpassed Babe Ruth for the career record in secondary bases ( total bases compiled from extra base hits , walks , stolen bases , and times hit by pitch ) . In 1993 , he led off both games of a doubleheader with homers . At the time of his last major league game , Henderson was still in the all @-@ time top 100 home run hitters , with 297 . Bill James wrote in 2000 , " Without exaggerating one inch , you could find fifty Hall of Famers who , all taken together , don 't own as many records , and as many important records , as Rickey Henderson . "
Henderson 's eight steals during the 1989 ALCS broke Lou Brock 's postseason record for a single series . His record for the most postseason stolen bases was broken by Kenny Lofton 's 34th career steal during the 2007 ALCS ; however , Lofton accomplished his total in 95 postseason games compared to Henderson 's 60 . Henderson is the only American League player to steal more than 100 bases in a single season , and he is the all @-@ time stolen base leader for the Oakland A 's .
In 1999 , before breaking the career records for runs scored and walks , Henderson was ranked number 51 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . In 2005 , The Sporting News updated their 100 Greatest Players list , and Henderson had inched up to number 50 . On January 12 , 2009 , Henderson was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year on the ballot , receiving 94 @.@ 8 % of the vote . This was the 13th highest percentage in major league history .
Asked to choose the best player in history , Henderson declined , saying , " There are guys who have done different things very well , but I don 't know of anyone who mastered everything . " Offered the chance to assess his own placement
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